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id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prehistory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Prehistory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperial_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Imperial China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperial_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th–20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th–20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 19th–20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th–20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Core_concepts_of_theology_and_cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Core_concepts_of_theology_and_cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Core concepts of theology and cosmology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Core_concepts_of_theology_and_cosmology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Core concepts of theology and cosmology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Core_concepts_of_theology_and_cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tian,_its_li_and_qi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tian,_its_li_and_qi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Tian, its li and qi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tian,_its_li_and_qi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yin,_yang,_gui,_and_shen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yin,_yang,_gui,_and_shen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Yin, yang, gui, and shen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yin,_yang,_gui,_and_shen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hun_and_po,_and_zu_and_xian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hun_and_po,_and_zu_and_xian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Hun and po, and zu and xian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hun_and_po,_and_zu_and_xian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bao_ying_and_ming_yun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bao_ying_and_ming_yun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Bao ying and ming yun </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bao_ying_and_ming_yun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ling_and_xianling—holy_and_numen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ling_and_xianling—holy_and_numen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Ling and xianling—holy and numen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ling_and_xianling—holy_and_numen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociological_typology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociological_typology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Sociological typology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sociological_typology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sociological typology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sociological_typology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Types_of_indigenous—ethnic_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_indigenous—ethnic_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Types of indigenous—ethnic religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_indigenous—ethnic_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Worship_of_local_and_national_deities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worship_of_local_and_national_deities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Worship of local and national deities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Worship_of_local_and_national_deities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lineage_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lineage_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 Lineage religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lineage_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophical_and_ritual_modalities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophical_and_ritual_modalities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Philosophical and ritual modalities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophical_and_ritual_modalities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wuism_and_shamanic_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wuism_and_shamanic_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Wuism and shamanic traditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wuism_and_shamanic_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confucianism,_Taoism_and_orders_of_ritual_masters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confucianism,_Taoism_and_orders_of_ritual_masters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.2 Confucianism, Taoism and orders of ritual masters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confucianism,_Taoism_and_orders_of_ritual_masters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organised_folk_religious_sects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organised_folk_religious_sects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Organised folk religious sects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organised_folk_religious_sects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tiandi_teachings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tiandi_teachings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.1 Tiandi teachings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tiandi_teachings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weixinism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weixinism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.2 Weixinism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weixinism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_and_ethnic_variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_and_ethnic_variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Geographic and ethnic variations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographic_and_ethnic_variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-North_and_south_divides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_and_south_divides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.1 North and south divides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_and_south_divides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Taoised"_indigenous_religions_of_ethnic_minorities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Taoised"_indigenous_religions_of_ethnic_minorities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.2 "Taoised" indigenous religions of ethnic minorities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Taoised"_indigenous_religions_of_ethnic_minorities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Features </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Features-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Features subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theory_of_hierarchy_and_divinity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_of_hierarchy_and_divinity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Theory of hierarchy and divinity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_of_hierarchy_and_divinity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deities_and_immortals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deities_and_immortals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.1 Deities and immortals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deities_and_immortals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mother_goddess_worship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mother_goddess_worship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.2 Mother goddess worship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mother_goddess_worship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Worship_and_modalities_of_religious_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worship_and_modalities_of_religious_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Worship and modalities of religious practice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Worship_and_modalities_of_religious_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sacrifices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sacrifices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 Sacrifices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sacrifices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thanksgiving_and_redeeming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thanksgiving_and_redeeming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.2 Thanksgiving and redeeming </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thanksgiving_and_redeeming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rites_of_passage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rites_of_passage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.3 Rites of passage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rites_of_passage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Places_of_worship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Places_of_worship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Places of worship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Places_of_worship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Temple_networks_and_gatherings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temple_networks_and_gatherings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.1 Temple networks and gatherings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temple_networks_and_gatherings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Demographics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Demographics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mainland_China_and_Taiwan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mainland_China_and_Taiwan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Mainland China and Taiwan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mainland_China_and_Taiwan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economy_of_temples_and_rituals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy_of_temples_and_rituals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.1 Economy of temples and rituals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy_of_temples_and_rituals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Overseas_Chinese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overseas_Chinese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Overseas Chinese </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overseas_Chinese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle See also subsection </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-By_place" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_place"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 By place </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_place-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_similar_national_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_similar_national_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Other similar national traditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_similar_national_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Sino-Tibetan_ethnic_religions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Sino-Tibetan_ethnic_religions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Other Sino-Tibetan ethnic religions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_Sino-Tibetan_ethnic_religions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_non-Sino-Tibetan_ethnic_religions_present_in_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_non-Sino-Tibetan_ethnic_religions_present_in_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Other non-Sino-Tibetan ethnic religions present in China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_non-Sino-Tibetan_ethnic_religions_present_in_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Other articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Chinese folk religion</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" > 47 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="ديانة شعبية صينية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ديانة شعبية صينية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relix%C3%B3n_tradicional_china" title="Relixón tradicional china – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Relixón tradicional china" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9C_%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE" title="চীনা লোকজ ধর্ম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চীনা লোকজ ধর্ম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%A1_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Ҡытай халыҡ дине – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡытай халыҡ дине" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religi%C3%B3_tradicional_xinesa" title="Religió tradicional xinesa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Religió tradicional xinesa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8C%C3%ADnsk%C3%A9_lidov%C3%A9_n%C3%A1bo%C5%BEenstv%C3%AD" title="Čínské lidové náboženství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Čínské lidové náboženství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinesischer_Volksglaube" title="Chinesischer Volksglaube – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chinesischer Volksglaube" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religi%C3%B3n_tradicional_china" title="Religión tradicional china – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Religión tradicional china" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradicia_%C4%89ina_religio" title="Tradicia ĉina religio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tradicia ĉina religio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Txinatar_erlijio_tradizional" title="Txinatar erlijio tradizional – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Txinatar erlijio tradizional" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="دین‌های سنتی چینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دین‌های سنتی چینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_traditionnelle_chinoise" title="Religion traditionnelle chinoise – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Religion traditionnelle chinoise" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religjon_tradizion%C3%A2l_cinese" title="Religjon tradizionâl cinese – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Religjon tradizionâl cinese" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relixi%C3%B3n_tradicional_chinesa" title="Relixión tradicional chinesa – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Relixión tradicional chinesa" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%EB%AF%BC%EA%B0%84%EC%8B%A0%EC%95%99" title="중국의 민간신앙 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중국의 민간신앙" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="चीनी लोक धर्म – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चीनी लोक धर्म" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Chinese folk religion" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepercayaan_tradisional_Tionghoa" title="Kepercayaan tradisional Tionghoa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kepercayaan tradisional Tionghoa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religione_tradizionale_cinese" title="Religione tradizionale cinese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Religione tradizionale cinese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%93%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA" title="הדת הסינית העממית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הדת הסינית העממית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siini_s%C9%94nz%C9%A9" title="Siini sɔnzɩ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Siini sɔnzɩ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religio_vulgaris_Sinica" title="Religio vulgaris Sinica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Religio vulgaris Sinica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kin%C5%B3_liaudies_religija" title="Kinų liaudies religija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kinų liaudies religija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADnai_vall%C3%A1s" title="Kínai vallás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kínai vallás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fivavahan-drazana_sinoa" title="Fivavahan-drazana sinoa – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fivavahan-drazana sinoa" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="ديانه شعبيه صينيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ديانه شعبيه صينيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agama_rakyat_Cina" title="Agama rakyat Cina – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Agama rakyat Cina" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%90%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AC%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC" title="တရုတ်ရိုးရာဘာသာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="တရုတ်ရိုးရာဘာသာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinees_volksgeloof" title="Chinees volksgeloof – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Chinees volksgeloof" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E3%81%AE%E6%B0%91%E4%BF%97%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99" title="中国の民俗宗教 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中国の民俗宗教" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesisk_folkereligion" title="Kinesisk folkereligion – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kinesisk folkereligion" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_tradicionala_chinesa" title="Religion tradicionala chinesa – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Religion tradicionala chinesa" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xitoy_xalq_dini" title="Xitoy xalq dini – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Xitoy xalq dini" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%84%D9%88%DA%A9_%D9%85%D8%B0%DB%81%D8%A8" title="چینی لوک مذہب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چینی لوک مذہب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%93" title="សាសនាអ្នកស្រុកចិន – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សាសនាអ្នកស្រុកចិន" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religi%C3%A3o_tradicional_chinesa" title="Religião tradicional chinesa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Religião tradicional chinesa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religia_tradi%C8%9Bional%C4%83_chinez%C4%83" title="Religia tradițională chineză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Religia tradițională chineză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Китайская народная религия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Китайская народная религия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Chinese folk religion" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kineska_narodna_religija" title="Kineska narodna religija – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Kineska narodna religija" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiinalainen_kansanusko" title="Kiinalainen kansanusko – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kiinalainen kansanusko" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesisk_folkreligion" title="Kinesisk folkreligion – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kinesisk folkreligion" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%99" title="ศาสนาชาวบ้านจีน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ศาสนาชาวบ้านจีน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in_geleneksel_dini" title="Çin geleneksel dini – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çin geleneksel dini" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Китайська традиційна релігія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Китайська традиційна релігія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%84%D9%88%DA%A9_%D9%85%D8%B0%DB%81%D8%A8" title="چینی لوک مذہب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="چینی لوک مذہب" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%B0%91%E9%97%B4%E4%BF%A1%E4%BB%B0" title="中国民间信仰 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Indigenous Han religion</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/%E4%BC%97%E7%A5%9E%E5%9B%BEhunan.jpg/330px-%E4%BC%97%E7%A5%9E%E5%9B%BEhunan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/%E4%BC%97%E7%A5%9E%E5%9B%BEhunan.jpg/440px-%E4%BC%97%E7%A5%9E%E5%9B%BEhunan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1709" /></a><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> painting of the Chinese pantheon</div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">中國民間信仰</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">中国民间信仰</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Zhōngguó mínjiān xìnyǎng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄓㄨㄥㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄇㄧㄣˊ ㄐㄧㄢㄒㄧㄣˋ ㄧㄤˇ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Chung1-kuo2 min2-chien1 hsin4-yang3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Jhongguó mín-jian sìn-yǎng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[ʈʂʊ́ŋ.kwǒ mǐn.tɕjɛ́n ɕîn.jàŋ]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Jūng gwok màhn gāan seun yéuhng</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Zung1 gwok3 man4 gaan1 seon3 joeng5</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[tsʊŋ˥ kʷɔk̚˧ mɐn˩ kan˥ sɵn˧ jœŋ˩˧]</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:16.0em;border: 4px single #A12F25;border-spacing:0.2em 0;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background: #B1151D;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_folk_religion" title="Category:Chinese folk religion"> a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: #B1151D;;font-size:150%; color:#FFFFF"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese folk religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%A6%84_l%C3%B9_or_%E5%AD%90_zi_symbol---red.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stylisation of the 禄 lù or 子 zi grapheme, respectively meaning "prosperity", "furthering", "welfare" and "son", "offspring". 字 zì, meaning "word" and "symbol", is a cognate of 子 zi and represents a "son" enshrined under a "roof". The symbol is ultimately a representation of the north celestial pole (Běijí 北极) and its spinning constellations, and as such it is equivalent to the Eurasian symbol of the swastika, 卍 wàn."><img alt="Stylisation of the 禄 lù or 子 zi grapheme, respectively meaning "prosperity", "furthering", "welfare" and "son", "offspring". 字 zì, meaning "word" and "symbol", is a cognate of 子 zi and represents a "son" enshrined under a "roof". The symbol is ultimately a representation of the north celestial pole (Běijí 北极) and its spinning constellations, and as such it is equivalent to the Eurasian symbol of the swastika, 卍 wàn." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/%E7%A6%84_l%C3%B9_or_%E5%AD%90_zi_symbol---red.svg/75px-%E7%A6%84_l%C3%B9_or_%E5%AD%90_zi_symbol---red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/%E7%A6%84_l%C3%B9_or_%E5%AD%90_zi_symbol---red.svg/113px-%E7%A6%84_l%C3%B9_or_%E5%AD%90_zi_symbol---red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/%E7%A6%84_l%C3%B9_or_%E5%AD%90_zi_symbol---red.svg/150px-%E7%A6%84_l%C3%B9_or_%E5%AD%90_zi_symbol---red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="194" data-file-height="194" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #B1151D;;background-color:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a>—<a href="/wiki/Shangdi" title="Shangdi">Shangdi</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">Shen</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ling_(Chinese_religion)" title="Ling (Chinese religion)">Ling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xian_ling_(religion)" title="Xian ling (religion)">Xian ling</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">Yinyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundun" title="Hundun">Hundun</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_yun" title="Ming yun">Mingyun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuanfen" title="Yuanfen">Yuanfen</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bao_ying" title="Bao ying">Baoying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_(Chinese_religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu (Chinese religion)">Wu</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #B1151D;;background-color:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)">Theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_theology" title="Chinese theology">Chinese theology</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_gods_and_immortals" title="Chinese gods and immortals">Chinese gods and immortals</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">Chinese mythology</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_creation_myth" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese creation myth">Chinese creation myth</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_spiritual_world_concepts" title="Chinese spiritual world concepts">Chinese spiritual world concepts</a></li></ul> Model humanity: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhenren" title="Zhenren">Zhenren</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wen_and_wu" title="Wen and wu">Wen and wu</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #B1151D;;background-color:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fenxiang" title="Fenxiang">Fenxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingxiang" title="Jingxiang">Jingxiang</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">Feng shui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miaohui" title="Miaohui">Miaohui</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wu_(shaman)" title="Wu (shaman)">Wu shamanism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tongji_(spirit_medium)" title="Tongji (spirit medium)">Jitong mediumship</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baojuan" title="Baojuan">Precious scrolls</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #B1151D;;background-color:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)">Institutions and temples</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Associations_of_good-doing" title="Associations of good-doing">Associations of good-doing</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_lineage_associations" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese lineage associations">Lineage associations or churches</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese temple">Chinese temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_shrine" title="Ancestral shrine">Ancestral shrine</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Folk_Temples%27_Management_Association" title="Chinese Folk Temples' Management Association">Chinese Folk Temples' Association</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #B1151D;;background-color:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)">Festivals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qingming_Festival" title="Qingming Festival">Qingming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Festival" title="Ghost Festival">Zhongyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Autumn_Festival" title="Mid-Autumn Festival">Zhongqiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Emperor_Gods_Festival" title="Nine Emperor Gods Festival">Jiuhuangye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qixi_Festival" title="Qixi Festival">Qixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duanwu_Festival" class="mw-redirect" title="Duanwu Festival">Duanwu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Year" title="Chinese New Year">Nian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #B1151D;;background-color:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)">Internal traditions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;">Major cultural forms <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ancestral_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese ancestral religion">Chinese ancestral religion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_communal_deity_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese communal deity religion">Chinese communal deity religion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_food_therapy" title="Chinese food therapy">Chinese food therapy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">Chinese geomancy</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_mother_goddess_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese mother goddess worship">Chinese mother goddess worship</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China_folk_religion" title="Northeast China folk religion">Northeast China folk religion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional Chinese Medicine">Traditional Chinese Medicine</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qigong" title="Qigong">Qigong</a></li></ul> Main philosophical traditions: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Confucian_ritual_religion" title="Confucian ritual religion">state rites</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Other schools</a></li></ul> Ritual traditions: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk ritual masters' orders</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tongji_(spirit_medium)" title="Tongji (spirit medium)">Jitong mediumship</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion" title="Nuo folk religion">Nuo folk religion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_shamanism" title="Chinese shamanism">Chinese shamanism</a></li></ul> Devotional traditions: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazuism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazuism">Mazuism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ong_Yah" title="Ong Yah">Ong Yah</a> worship</li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhenkong-Wusheng_Laomu_red.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Zhenkong, "Void of Truth"."><img alt="Zhenkong, "Void of Truth"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Zhenkong-Wusheng_Laomu_red.svg/50px-Zhenkong-Wusheng_Laomu_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Zhenkong-Wusheng_Laomu_red.svg/75px-Zhenkong-Wusheng_Laomu_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Zhenkong-Wusheng_Laomu_red.svg/100px-Zhenkong-Wusheng_Laomu_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="145" data-file-height="143" /></a><figcaption>Zhenkong, "Void of Truth".</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Salvation churches and sects</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_teaching" title="De teaching">De teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiugongdao" title="Jiugongdao">Jiugongdao</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luo_teaching" title="Luo teaching">Luo teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya_teachings" title="Maitreya teachings">Maitreya teachings</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tiandi_teachings" title="Tiandi teachings">Tiandi teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianxian_miaodao" title="Tianxian miaodao">Tianxian miaodao</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanyi_teaching" title="Sanyi teaching">Xia teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaili_teaching" title="Zaili teaching">Zaili teaching</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Confucian_church" title="Confucian church">Confucian churches</a> and sects: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Confucian_Church" title="Holy Confucian Church">Holy Confucian Church</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Council_for_the_Confucian_Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia">Indonesian Confucian Church</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Church_of_the_Way_and_its_Virtue" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue">Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Gods_according_to_the_Confucian_Tradition" title="Way of the Gods according to the Confucian Tradition">Phoenix churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanyuan_teaching" title="Xuanyuan teaching">Xuanyuanism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taigu_school" title="Taigu school">Taigu school</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #B1151D;;background-color:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)">Related religions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongbaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dongbaism">Dongbaism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Han Buddhism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Miao folk religion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang folk religion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao folk religion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_folk_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang folk religion">Zhuang folk religion</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/16px-P_religion_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/24px-P_religion_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/P_religion_world.svg/32px-P_religion_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Religion portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_folk_religion" title="Template:Chinese folk religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_folk_religion" title="Template talk:Chinese folk religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_folk_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese folk religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xuanyuan_Temple_in_Yan%27an,_Shaanxi_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Xuanyuan_Temple_in_Yan%27an%2C_Shaanxi_%281%29.jpg/220px-Xuanyuan_Temple_in_Yan%27an%2C_Shaanxi_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Xuanyuan_Temple_in_Yan%27an%2C_Shaanxi_%281%29.jpg/330px-Xuanyuan_Temple_in_Yan%27an%2C_Shaanxi_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Xuanyuan_Temple_in_Yan%27an%2C_Shaanxi_%281%29.jpg/440px-Xuanyuan_Temple_in_Yan%27an%2C_Shaanxi_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1525" data-file-height="1017" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Xuanyuan_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Xuanyuan Temple">Xuanyuan Temple</a>, dedicated to the worship of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a>, located in <a href="/wiki/Huangling_County" title="Huangling County">Huangling County</a>, Shaanxi</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%96%87%E6%BE%B3_%E5%9F%8E%E9%9A%8D%E5%BB%9F.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/%E6%96%87%E6%BE%B3_%E5%9F%8E%E9%9A%8D%E5%BB%9F.jpg/220px-%E6%96%87%E6%BE%B3_%E5%9F%8E%E9%9A%8D%E5%BB%9F.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/%E6%96%87%E6%BE%B3_%E5%9F%8E%E9%9A%8D%E5%BB%9F.jpg/330px-%E6%96%87%E6%BE%B3_%E5%9F%8E%E9%9A%8D%E5%BB%9F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/%E6%96%87%E6%BE%B3_%E5%9F%8E%E9%9A%8D%E5%BB%9F.jpg/440px-%E6%96%87%E6%BE%B3_%E5%9F%8E%E9%9A%8D%E5%BB%9F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3467" data-file-height="2513" /></a><figcaption>The Temple of the <a href="/wiki/City_God_(China)" title="City God (China)">City God</a> in Wen'ao, <a href="/wiki/Magong" title="Magong">Magong</a>, Taiwan</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Five_officials_haikou_2010_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Five_officials_haikou_2010_01.jpg/220px-Five_officials_haikou_2010_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Five_officials_haikou_2010_01.jpg/330px-Five_officials_haikou_2010_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Five_officials_haikou_2010_01.jpg/440px-Five_officials_haikou_2010_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Altar inside the Temple of the Five Lords in <a href="/wiki/Haikou" title="Haikou">Haikou</a>, Hainan</figcaption></figure> Chinese folk religion comprises a range of traditional religious practices of <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese diaspora">Chinese diaspora</a>. This includes the veneration of <a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">shen</a> ('spirits') and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ancestor_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese ancestor worship">ancestors</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser1995378-1">[1]</a> and worship devoted to <a href="/wiki/Chinese_deities_and_immortals" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese deities and immortals">deities and immortals</a>, who can be deities of places or natural phenomena, of human behaviour, or <a href="/wiki/Progenitor" title="Progenitor">progenitors</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_kin" title="Chinese kin">family lineages</a>. Stories surrounding these gods form a loose canon of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">Chinese mythology</a>. By the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279), these practices had been <a href="/wiki/Religious_syncretism" title="Religious syncretism">blended</a> with <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian">Confucian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist">Taoist</a> teachings to form the popular religious system which has lasted in many ways until the present day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer198651-2">[2]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Government_of_China" title="Government of China">government of China</a> generally tolerates popular religious organizations, but has suppressed or persecuted those that they fear would undermine social stability.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> After the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> in 1911, governments and modernizing elites condemned 'feudal superstition' and opposed traditional religious practices which they believed conflicted with modern values. By the late 20th century, these attitudes began to change in both mainland China and Taiwan, and many scholars now view folk religion in a positive light.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaenssbauer201528-37-4">[4]</a> In recent times traditional religion is experiencing a revival in both China and Taiwan. Some forms have received official understanding or recognition as a preservation of traditional culture, such as <a href="/wiki/Mazu_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazu (goddess)">Mazuism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sanyi_teaching" title="Sanyi teaching">Sanyi teaching</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-RCTC2014-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a> worship,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and other forms of local worship, such as that of the <a href="/wiki/Dragon_King" title="Dragon King">Dragon King</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pangu" title="Pangu">Pangu</a> or <a href="/wiki/Caishen" title="Caishen">Caishen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">Feng shui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">acupuncture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">traditional Chinese medicine</a> reflect this world view, since features of the landscape as well as organs of the body are in correlation with the <a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">five powers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnYkbAAAAQBAJqmedicine_86]-8">[8]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diversity">Diversity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Diversity">edit</a>]</div> Chinese religions have a variety of sources, local forms, founder backgrounds, and ritual and philosophical traditions. Despite this diversity, there is a common core that can be summarised as four theological, cosmological, and moral concepts:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20135–6-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">transcendent source</a> of moral meaning; <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a>, the breath or energy that animates the universe; <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_veneration_in_China" title="Ancestor veneration in China">ancestor veneration</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Bao_ying" title="Bao ying">bao ying</a> 'moral reciprocity'. With these, there are two traditional concepts of fate and meaning:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201321-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ming_yun" title="Ming yun">ming yun</a>, the personal destiny or burgeoning; and <a href="/wiki/Yuanfen" title="Yuanfen">yuanfen</a> 'fateful <a href="/wiki/Coincidence" title="Coincidence">coincidence</a>',<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201323-11">[11]</a> good and bad chances and potential relationships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201323-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">Yin and yang</a> is the polarity that describes the order of the universe,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdler2011[httpwww2kenyoneduDeptsReligionFacAdlerWritingsNon-theisticpdf_13]-12">[12]</a> held in balance by the interaction of principles of extension (神; shén; 'spirit') and returning (鬼; guǐ; 'ghost'),<a href="#cite_note-Teiser,_1996-13">[13]</a> with yang ('act') usually preferred over yin ('receptiveness') in common religion.<a href="#cite_note-Thien_Do,_2003,_pp._10-11-14">[14]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Taijitu" title="Taijitu">taijitu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bagua" title="Bagua">bagua</a> are common diagrams representing the forces of nature, and the power that deities like <a href="/wiki/Zhong_Kui" title="Zhong Kui">Zhong Kui</a> wield.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ling_(Chinese_religion)" title="Ling (Chinese religion)">Ling</a> is the medium of the two states and the inchoate order of creation.<a href="#cite_note-Thien_Do,_2003,_pp._10-11-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dongmen_City_God_Temple,_2014-10-07_17.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Dongmen_City_God_Temple%2C_2014-10-07_17.JPG/220px-Dongmen_City_God_Temple%2C_2014-10-07_17.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Dongmen_City_God_Temple%2C_2014-10-07_17.JPG/330px-Dongmen_City_God_Temple%2C_2014-10-07_17.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Dongmen_City_God_Temple%2C_2014-10-07_17.JPG/440px-Dongmen_City_God_Temple%2C_2014-10-07_17.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Temple of the City God of Dongmen, in <a href="/wiki/Xiangshan_County,_Zhejiang" title="Xiangshan County, Zhejiang">Xiangshan County, Zhejiang</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B5%9E%E6%99%AF%E5%AF%BA_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/%E6%B5%9E%E6%99%AF%E5%AF%BA_01.jpg/220px-%E6%B5%9E%E6%99%AF%E5%AF%BA_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/%E6%B5%9E%E6%99%AF%E5%AF%BA_01.jpg/330px-%E6%B5%9E%E6%99%AF%E5%AF%BA_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/%E6%B5%9E%E6%99%AF%E5%AF%BA_01.jpg/440px-%E6%B5%9E%E6%99%AF%E5%AF%BA_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3609" data-file-height="2537" /></a><figcaption>A sign in a temple in <a href="/wiki/Weifang" title="Weifang">Weifang</a>, Shandong, that reads "This is a place of folk belief. No religious donation or religious activities are allowed." </figcaption></figure> The Chinese language historically has not had a concept or overarching term for "religion". In English, the terms 'popular religion' or 'folk religion' have long been used to mean local religious life. In Chinese academic literature and common usage 'folk religion' (民間宗教; mínjiān zōngjiào) refers to specific <a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">organised folk religious sects</a>.<span_lang="zh-Latn">mínjiān_zōngjiào_(<span_lang="zh-Hant">[[Category:Articles_containing_traditional_Chinese-language_text]]民間宗教&rpar;._The_immediate_association_this_term_caused_in_the_minds_of_many_Taiwanese_and_practically_all_mainland_Chinese_participants_in_the_conference_was_of_popular_sects_<span_lang="zh-Latn">mínjiān_jiàopài_(<span_lang="zh-Hant">[[Category:Articles_containing_traditional_Chinese-language_text]]民間教派&rpar;,_rather_than_the_local_and_communal_religious_life_that_was_the_main_focus_of_my_paper._16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014393"The_problem_started_when_the_Taiwanese_translator_of_my_paper_chose_to_render_'popular_religion'_literally_as_<span_lang="zh-Latn">mínjiān_zōngjiào_(<span_lang="zh-Hant">[[Category:Articles_containing_traditional_Chinese-language_text]]民間宗教&rpar;._The_immediate_association_this_term_caused_in_the_minds_of_many_Taiwanese_and_practically_all_mainland_Chinese_participants_in_the_conference_was_of_popular_sects_<span_lang="zh-Latn">mínjiān_jiàopài_(<span_lang="zh-Hant">[[Category:Articles_containing_traditional_Chinese-language_text]]民間教派&rpar;,_rather_than_the_local_and_communal_religious_life_that_was_the_main_focus_of_my_paper.-16">[16]</a> Contemporary academic study of traditional cults and the creation of a government agency that gave legal status to this religion <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014399–401-17">[17]</a> have created proposals to formalise names and deal more clearly with folk religious sects and help conceptualise research and administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014402-18">[18]</a> Terms that have been proposed include 'Chinese native religion' (民俗宗教; mínsú zōngjiào), 'Chinese ethnic religion' (民族宗教; mínzú zōngjiào),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014402–406-19">[19]</a> or 'Chinese religion' (中華教; zhōnghuájiào) viewed as comparable to the usage of the term "<a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>" for Indian religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014409-20">[20]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>, reports the scholar Tan Chee-Beng, Chinese do not have a definite term for their traditional religion, which is not surprising because "the religion is diffused into various aspects of Chinese culture". They refer to their religion as 'Buddha worship' (拜佛; bàifó) or 'spirit worship' (拜神; bàishén), which prompted Alan J. A. Elliott to suggest the term 神教 (shénjiào; 'shenism'). Tan however, comments that is not the way the Chinese refer to their religion, which in any case includes worship of ancestors, not shen, and suggests it is logical to use "Chinese Religion".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETan1983219-21">[21]</a> Shenxianism 神仙教 (shénxiān jiào), literally 'religion of <a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">deities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">immortals</a>',<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShi2008-22">[22]</a> is a term partly inspired by Elliott's "shenism" neologism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014409,_note_35-23">[23]</a> During the late <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, scholars Yao Wendong and Chen Jialin used the term shenjiao not referring to <a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> as a definite religious system, but to local <a href="/wiki/Kami" title="Kami">shin</a> beliefs in Japan.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Other terms are 'folk cults' (民間崇拜; mínjiān chóngbài), 'spontaneous religion' (自發宗教; zìfā zōngjiào), 'lived religion' (生活宗教; shēnghuó zōngjiào), 'local religion' (地方宗教; dìfāng zōngjiào), and 'diffused religion' (分散性宗教; fēnsàn xìng zōngjiào).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShi2008158–159-25">[25]</a> 'Folk beliefs' (民間信仰; mínjiān xìnyǎng),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014397-26">[26]</a> is a seldom used term taken by scholars in colonial Taiwan from Japanese during <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule" title="Taiwan under Japanese rule">Japan's occupation</a> (1895–1945). It was used between the 1990s and the early 21st century among mainland Chinese scholars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang20113-27">[27]</a> Shendao (神道; shéndào; 'the Way of the Gods') is a term already used in the <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a> referring to the divine order of nature.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Around the time of the spread of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (202 BCE – 220 CE), it was used to distinguish the indigenous ancient religion from the imported religion. <a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a> used it in his <a href="/wiki/Baopuzi" title="Baopuzi">Baopuzi</a> as a synonym for <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The term was subsequently adopted in Japan in the 6th century as Shindo, later Shinto, with the same purpose of identification of the Japanese indigenous religion.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In the 14th century, the <a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Hongwu Emperor</a> (Taizu of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>, 1328–1398) used the term "Shendao" clearly identifying the indigenous cults, which he strengthened and systematised.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> "Chinese Universism"—not in the sense of "<a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">universalism</a>" as in "a system of universal application", as that is <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a> in Chinese thought—is a coinage of <a href="/wiki/Jan_Jakob_Maria_de_Groot" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Jakob Maria de Groot">Jan Jakob Maria de Groot</a> that refers to the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">metaphysical</a> perspective that lies behind the Chinese religious tradition. De Groot calls Chinese Universism "the ancient metaphysical view that serves as the basis of all classical Chinese thought. ... In Universism, the three components of integrated universe—understood epistemologically, 'heaven, earth and man', and understood ontologically, '<a href="/wiki/Taiji_(philosophy)" title="Taiji (philosophy)">Taiji</a> (the great beginning, the highest ultimate), yin and yang'—are formed".<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> In 1931, <a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a> argued that: "Two great religions have played tremendously important roles throughout Chinese history. One is Buddhism which came to China probably before the Christian era but which began to exert nation-wide influence only after the third century A.D. The other great religion has had no generic name, but I propose to call it Siniticism. It is the native ancient religion of the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> people: it dates back to time immemorial, over 10,000 years old, and includes all such later phases of its development as Moism, Confucianism (as a state religion), and all the various stages of the Taoist religion."<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attributes">Attributes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Attributes">edit</a>]</div> Contemporary Chinese scholars have identified what they consider the essential features of the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion" title="Indigenous religion">indigenous religion</a>: according to Chen Xiaoyi (陳曉毅) local indigenous religion is the crucial factor for a harmonious 'religious ecology' (宗教生態), that is the balance of forces in a given community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014405-35">[35]</a> Han Bingfang (韓秉芳) has called for a <a href="/wiki/Rectification_of_names" title="Rectification of names">rectification of names</a>: distorted names are 'superstitious activities' (迷信活動) or 'feudal superstition' (封建迷信), that were derogatorily applied to the indigenous religion by leftist policies.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] Christian missionaries also used the label 'feudal superstition' as propaganda to undermine what they saw as religious competitition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014408-36">[36]</a> Han calls for the acknowledgment of the ancient Chinese religion for what it really is, the 'core and soul of popular culture' (俗文化的核心與靈魂).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014407-37">[37]</a> According to Chen Jinguo (陳進國), the ancient Chinese religion is a core element of Chinese 'cultural and religious self-awareness' (文化自覺，信仰自覺).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014408-36">[36]</a> He has proposed a theoretical definition of Chinese indigenous religion in a 'trinity' (三位一體), apparently inspired to <a href="/wiki/Tang_Chun-i" title="Tang Chun-i">Tang Chun-i</a>'s thought:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014408–409-38">[38]</a> <ul><li>Substance (體; tǐ): religiousness (宗教性; zōngjiào xìng);</li> <li>Function (用; yòng): folkloricity (民俗性; mínsú xìng);</li> <li>Quality (相; xiàng): Chineseness (中華性; zhōnghuá xìng).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Characteristics">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_creation_myths" title="Chinese creation myths">Chinese creation myths</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_spiritual_world_concepts" title="Chinese spiritual world concepts">Chinese spiritual world concepts</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhist,_Daoist,_and_Folk_Deities_from_the_Water-Land_Ritual.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Buddhist%2C_Daoist%2C_and_Folk_Deities_from_the_Water-Land_Ritual.jpg/220px-Buddhist%2C_Daoist%2C_and_Folk_Deities_from_the_Water-Land_Ritual.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="405" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Buddhist%2C_Daoist%2C_and_Folk_Deities_from_the_Water-Land_Ritual.jpg/330px-Buddhist%2C_Daoist%2C_and_Folk_Deities_from_the_Water-Land_Ritual.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Buddhist%2C_Daoist%2C_and_Folk_Deities_from_the_Water-Land_Ritual.jpg/440px-Buddhist%2C_Daoist%2C_and_Folk_Deities_from_the_Water-Land_Ritual.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2124" data-file-height="3906" /></a><figcaption>Qing-era illustration from <a href="/wiki/Water_and_Land_Ritual_paintings" title="Water and Land Ritual paintings">Water and Land Ritual paintings</a> depicting Buddhist, Daoist, and folk deities.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diversity_and_unity">Diversity and unity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Diversity and unity">edit</a>]</div> Ancient Chinese religious practices are diverse, varying from province to province and even from one village to another, for religious behaviour is bound to local communities, kinship, and environments. In each setting, institution and ritual behaviour assumes highly organised forms. Temples and the gods in them acquire symbolic character and perform specific functions involved in the everyday life of the local community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20135-39">[39]</a> Local religion preserves aspects of naturalistic beliefs such as <a href="/wiki/Totem" title="Totem">totemism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Wang,_2004._pp._60-61-40">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">shamanism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Ancient Chinese religion pervades all aspects of social life. Many scholars, following the lead of sociologist <a href="/wiki/C._K._Yang_(sociologist)" title="C. K. Yang (sociologist)">C. K. Yang</a>, see the ancient Chinese religion deeply embedded in family and civic life, rather than expressed in a separate organizational structure like a "church", as in the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20134-42">[42]</a> Deity or temple associations and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_lineage_associations" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese lineage associations">lineage associations</a>, pilgrimage associations and formalized prayers, rituals and expressions of virtues, are the common forms of organization of Chinese religion on the local level.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20135-39">[39]</a> Neither initiation rituals nor official membership into a church organization separate from one person's native identity are mandatory in order to be involved in religious activities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20135-39">[39]</a> Contrary to institutional religions, Chinese religion does not require "conversion" for participation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20134-42">[42]</a> The prime criterion for participation in the ancient Chinese religion is not "to believe" in an official doctrine or <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogma</a>, but "to belong" to the local unit of an ancient Chinese religion, that is the "association", the "village" or the "kinship", with their gods and rituals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20135-39">[39]</a> Sociologist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Madsen_(sociologist)" title="Richard Madsen (sociologist)">Richard Madsen</a> describes the ancient Chinese religion, adopting the definition of <a href="/wiki/Tu_Weiming" title="Tu Weiming">Tu Weiming</a>,<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> as characterized by "immanent transcendence" grounded in a devotion to "concrete humanity", focused on building moral community within concrete humanity.<a href="#cite_note-Madsen,_2013-44">[44]</a> Inextricably linked to the aforementioned question to find an appropriate "name" for the ancient Chinese religion, is the difficulty to define it or clearly outline its boundaries. Old <a href="/wiki/Sinology" title="Sinology">sinology</a>, especially Western, tried to distinguish "popular" and "élite" traditions (the latter being Confucianism and Taoism conceived as independent systems). Chinese sinology later adopted another dichotomy which continues in contemporary studies, distinguishing "folk beliefs" (minjian xinyang) and "folk religion" (minjian zongjiao), the latter referring to the doctrinal sects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYangHu2012507-45">[45]</a> Many studies have pointed out that it is impossible to draw clear distinctions, and, since the 1970s, several sinologists[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] swung to the idea of a unified "ancient Chinese religion" that would define the Chinese national identity, similarly to Hindu Dharma for <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and Shinto for <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>. Other sinologists who have not espoused the idea of a unified "national religion" have studied Chinese religion as a system of meaning, or have brought further development in C. K. Yang's distinction between "institutional religion" and "diffused religion", the former functioning as a separate body from other social institutions, and the latter intimately part of secular social institutions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYangHu2012507–508-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Prehistory">edit</a>]</div> In the beginning of Chinese civilization, "[t]he most honored members of the family were...the ancestors", who lived in a spiritual world between <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">heaven</a> and <a href="/wiki/Di_(Chinese_concept)" title="Di (Chinese concept)">earth</a> and beseeched the gods of heaven and earth to influence the world to benefit their family.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperial_China">Imperial China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Imperial China">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%BC%97%E7%A5%9E%E5%9B%BEchangsha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/%E4%BC%97%E7%A5%9E%E5%9B%BEchangsha.jpg/220px-%E4%BC%97%E7%A5%9E%E5%9B%BEchangsha.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="362" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/%E4%BC%97%E7%A5%9E%E5%9B%BEchangsha.jpg/330px-%E4%BC%97%E7%A5%9E%E5%9B%BEchangsha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/%E4%BC%97%E7%A5%9E%E5%9B%BEchangsha.jpg/440px-%E4%BC%97%E7%A5%9E%E5%9B%BEchangsha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1644" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming-era</a> painting of deities, housed in <a href="/wiki/Hunan_Museum" title="Hunan Museum">Hunan Museum</a></figcaption></figure> By the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, the ancient Chinese religion mostly consisted of people organising into shè (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 社 ["group", "body", local community altars]) who worshipped their godly principle.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In many cases the "lord of the she" was the god of the earth, and in others a deified virtuous person (<a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">xiān</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 仙, "immortal"). Some cults such as that of Liu Zhang, a king in what is today <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>, date back to this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200936-37-48">[48]</a> From the 3rd century on by the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Wei" title="Northern Wei">Northern Wei</a>, accompanying the spread of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> in China, strong influences from the Indian subcontinent penetrated the ancient Chinese indigenous religion. A cult of <a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 象頭神 Xiàngtóushén, "Elephant-Head God") is attested in the year 531.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Pollination from <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a> included processions of carts with images of gods or floats borne on shoulders, with musicians and chanting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200936-37-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th–20th_century">19th–20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 19th–20th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quanshan_Tudi_Gong_Gong_-_statues_-_DSCF8317.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Quanshan_Tudi_Gong_Gong_-_statues_-_DSCF8317.JPG/220px-Quanshan_Tudi_Gong_Gong_-_statues_-_DSCF8317.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Quanshan_Tudi_Gong_Gong_-_statues_-_DSCF8317.JPG/330px-Quanshan_Tudi_Gong_Gong_-_statues_-_DSCF8317.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Quanshan_Tudi_Gong_Gong_-_statues_-_DSCF8317.JPG/440px-Quanshan_Tudi_Gong_Gong_-_statues_-_DSCF8317.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Zitong altar in a temple of <a href="/wiki/Quanzhou" title="Quanzhou">Quanzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>. To his left there is a statue of <a href="/wiki/Kuixing" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuixing">Kuixing</a>.</figcaption></figure> The ancient Chinese religion was subject to persecution in the 19th and 20th centuries. Many ancient temples were destroyed during the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Rebellion" title="Taiping Rebellion">Taiping Rebellion</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Rebellion" title="Boxer Rebellion">Boxer Rebellion</a> in the late 1800s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20139-50">[50]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Xinhai_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhai Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a> of 1911 "most temples were turned to other uses or were destroyed, with a few changed into schools".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200943-51">[51]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Japanese invasion of China between 1937 and 1945</a> many temples were used as barracks by soldiers and destroyed in warfare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20139-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200945-52">[52]</a> In the 19th century in the <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a> region, <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a>, likely of a <a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">henotheistic</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Monolatry" title="Monolatry">monolatrous</a> character in at least some contexts and locations, was well-known and popular in Chinese folk religion.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> In the past, popular cults were regulated by imperial government policies, promoting certain deities while suppressing others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200946-54">[54]</a> In the 20th century, with the decline of the Qing dynasty, increasing urbanisation and Western influence, the issue for the new intellectuals who looked to the West was no longer controlling unauthorised worship of unregistered gods but the ancient Chinese religion itself, which they perceived as an issue halting modernisation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200950-55">[55]</a> By 1899, 400 syncretic temples that combined folk religion elements and <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">gods</a> with Buddhist, Taoist, and/or Confucianist gods existed on the <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">American West Coast</a> alone.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%AA%BD%E7%A5%96%E5%A8%98%E5%A8%98002.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/%E5%AA%BD%E7%A5%96%E5%A8%98%E5%A8%98002.JPG/220px-%E5%AA%BD%E7%A5%96%E5%A8%98%E5%A8%98002.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/%E5%AA%BD%E7%A5%96%E5%A8%98%E5%A8%98002.JPG/330px-%E5%AA%BD%E7%A5%96%E5%A8%98%E5%A8%98002.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/%E5%AA%BD%E7%A5%96%E5%A8%98%E5%A8%98002.JPG/440px-%E5%AA%BD%E7%A5%96%E5%A8%98%E5%A8%98002.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2376" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Statue of <a href="/wiki/Mazu_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazu (goddess)">Mazu</a> at a temple in <a href="/wiki/Chiayi_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiayi City">Chiayi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>.</figcaption></figure> In 1904, a <a href="/wiki/New_Policies" class="mw-redirect" title="New Policies">reform policy</a> of the late <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> provided that schools would be built through the confiscation of temple property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200950-55">[55]</a> "Anti-superstition" campaigns followed. The <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Nationalist</a> government of the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> intensified the suppression of the ancient Chinese religion with the 1928 "Standards for retaining or abolishing gods and shrines"; the policy attempted to abolish the cults of all gods with the exception of ancient great human heroes and sages such as the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yu_the_Great" title="Yu the Great">Yu the Great</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guan_Yu" title="Guan Yu">Guan Yu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mazu" title="Mazu">Mazu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a>, <a href="/wiki/K%C5%ABkai" title="Kūkai">Kūkai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Budai" title="Budai">Budai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lao_Tzu" class="mw-redirect" title="Lao Tzu">Lao Tzu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200951-57">[57]</a> These policies were the background for those implemented by <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Party of China">Communist Party</a> after winning the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> and taking power in 1949.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200951-57">[57]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>, between 1966 and 1976 of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China_(1949%E2%80%9376)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the People's Republic of China (1949–76)">Chairman Mao period</a> in the PRC, was the most serious and last systematic effort to destroy the ancient Chinese religion, while in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> the ancient Chinese religion was very well-preserved but controlled by <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="President of the Republic of China">Republic of China (Taiwan) president</a> <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-Shek" class="mw-redirect" title="Chiang Kai-Shek">Chiang Kai-Shek</a> during his <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Cultural_Renaissance" title="Chinese Cultural Renaissance">Chinese Cultural Renaissance</a> to counter the Cultural Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20139-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200951-57">[57]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/2021%E5%B9%B44%E6%9C%885%E6%97%A5_%E6%B5%B7%E5%B3%A1%E4%B8%A4%E5%B2%B8%E5%90%8C%E6%AD%A5%E4%B8%BE%E8%A1%8C%E7%A5%AD%E8%BD%A9%E8%BE%95%E9%BB%84%E5%B8%9D%E5%85%B8%E7%A4%BC.webm/220px--2021%E5%B9%B44%E6%9C%885%E6%97%A5_%E6%B5%B7%E5%B3%A1%E4%B8%A4%E5%B2%B8%E5%90%8C%E6%AD%A5%E4%B8%BE%E8%A1%8C%E7%A5%AD%E8%BD%A9%E8%BE%95%E9%BB%84%E5%B8%9D%E5%85%B8%E7%A4%BC.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="175" data-mwtitle="2021年4月5日_海峡两岸同步举行祭轩辕黄帝典礼.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:2021%E5%B9%B44%E6%9C%885%E6%97%A5_%E6%B5%B7%E5%B3%A1%E4%B8%A4%E5%B2%B8%E5%90%8C%E6%AD%A5%E4%B8%BE%E8%A1%8C%E7%A5%AD%E8%BD%A9%E8%BE%95%E9%BB%84%E5%B8%9D%E5%85%B8%E7%A4%BC.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/2021%E5%B9%B44%E6%9C%885%E6%97%A5_%E6%B5%B7%E5%B3%A1%E4%B8%A4%E5%B2%B8%E5%90%8C%E6%AD%A5%E4%B8%BE%E8%A1%8C%E7%A5%AD%E8%BD%A9%E8%BE%95%E9%BB%84%E5%B8%9D%E5%85%B8%E7%A4%BC.webm/2021%E5%B9%B44%E6%9C%885%E6%97%A5_%E6%B5%B7%E5%B3%A1%E4%B8%A4%E5%B2%B8%E5%90%8C%E6%AD%A5%E4%B8%BE%E8%A1%8C%E7%A5%AD%E8%BD%A9%E8%BE%95%E9%BB%84%E5%B8%9D%E5%85%B8%E7%A4%BC.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; 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codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/2021%E5%B9%B44%E6%9C%885%E6%97%A5_%E6%B5%B7%E5%B3%A1%E4%B8%A4%E5%B2%B8%E5%90%8C%E6%AD%A5%E4%B8%BE%E8%A1%8C%E7%A5%AD%E8%BD%A9%E8%BE%95%E9%BB%84%E5%B8%9D%E5%85%B8%E7%A4%BC.webm/2021%E5%B9%B44%E6%9C%885%E6%97%A5_%E6%B5%B7%E5%B3%A1%E4%B8%A4%E5%B2%B8%E5%90%8C%E6%AD%A5%E4%B8%BE%E8%A1%8C%E7%A5%AD%E8%BD%A9%E8%BE%95%E9%BB%84%E5%B8%9D%E5%85%B8%E7%A4%BC.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/2021%E5%B9%B44%E6%9C%885%E6%97%A5_%E6%B5%B7%E5%B3%A1%E4%B8%A4%E5%B2%B8%E5%90%8C%E6%AD%A5%E4%B8%BE%E8%A1%8C%E7%A5%AD%E8%BD%A9%E8%BE%95%E9%BB%84%E5%B8%9D%E5%85%B8%E7%A4%BC.webm/2021%E5%B9%B44%E6%9C%885%E6%97%A5_%E6%B5%B7%E5%B3%A1%E4%B8%A4%E5%B2%B8%E5%90%8C%E6%AD%A5%E4%B8%BE%E8%A1%8C%E7%A5%AD%E8%BD%A9%E8%BE%95%E9%BB%84%E5%B8%9D%E5%85%B8%E7%A4%BC.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>Chinese government holds ceremony in honor of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a> on the 2021 <a href="/wiki/Qingming_Festival" title="Qingming Festival">Qingming Festival</a>, reported by <a href="/wiki/China_News_Service" title="China News Service">CNS</a>.</figcaption></figure> After 1978 the ancient Chinese religion started to rapidly revive in China,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20131-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138-59">[59]</a> with millions of temples being rebuilt or built from scratch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138-59">[59]</a> Since the 1980s the central government moved to a policy of benign neglect or <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 無為) in regard to rural community life, and the local government's new regulatory relationship with local society is characterised by practical mutual dependence; these factors have given much space for popular religion to develop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138-59">[59]</a> In recent years, in some cases, local governments have taken an even positive and supportive attitude towards indigenous religion in the name of promoting cultural heritage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200952-60">[60]</a> Instead of signaling the demise of traditional ancient religion, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>'s economic and technological industrialization and development has brought a spiritual renewal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201328-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Texts">Texts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Texts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">Chinese classics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg/220px-%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg/330px-%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg/440px-%E5%BF%A0%E7%B8%A3%E4%B8%81%E6%88%BF%E9%9B%99%E9%97%9502.jpg 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="541" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Han">Eastern Han</a> (25–220 AD) Chinese stone-carved <a href="/wiki/Que_(tower)" title="Que (tower)">que pillar gates</a> of Dingfang, <a href="/wiki/Zhong_County" title="Zhong County">Zhong County</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chongqing" title="Chongqing">Chongqing</a> that once belonged to a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese temple">temple</a> dedicated to the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Warring States">Warring States</a> era general <a href="/wiki/Ba_Manzi" title="Ba Manzi">Ba Manzi</a></figcaption></figure> Ancient Chinese religion draws from a vast heritage of sacred books, which according to the general worldview treat <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>, history and mythology, mysticism and philosophy, as aspects of the same thing. Historically, the revolutionary shift toward a preference for textual transmission and text-based knowledge over long-standing oral traditions first becomes detectable in the 1st century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJansen2012288-62">[62]</a> The spoken word, however, never lost its power. Rather than writing replacing the power of the spoken word, both existed side by side. Scriptures had to be recited and heard in order to be efficacious, and the limitations of written texts were acknowledged particularly in <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> and folk religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJansen2012289-63">[63]</a> There are the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">classic books</a> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 經; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: jīng; <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> '<a href="/wiki/Warp_(weaving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Warp (weaving)">warp</a>') such as the <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> canon including the "<a href="/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics" title="Four Books and Five Classics">Four Books and Five Classics</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 《四書五經》; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: sìshū wǔjīng) and the "<a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Filial_Piety" title="Classic of Filial Piety">Classic of Filial Piety</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 《孝經》; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: xiàojīng), then there are the <a href="/wiki/Mozi_(book)" title="Mozi (book)">Mozi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Shizi_(book)" title="Shizi (book)">Shizi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(book)" title="Xunzi (book)">Xunzi</a>. The "<a href="/wiki/Interactions_Between_Heaven_and_Mankind" title="Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind">Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 《天人感應》; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: tiānrén gǎnyìng) is a set of Confucianised doctrines compiled in the Han dynasty by <a href="/wiki/Dong_Zhongshu" title="Dong Zhongshu">Dong Zhongshu</a>, discussing politics in accordance with a personal <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a> of whom mankind is viewed as the incarnation. Taoism has a separate body of philosophical, theological and ritual literature, including the fundamental <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 《道德經》; <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Book of the Way and its Virtue'), the <a href="/wiki/Daozang" title="Daozang">Daozang</a> (Taoist Canon), the <a href="/wiki/Liezi" title="Liezi">Liezi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a>, and a great number of other texts either included or not within the Taoist Canon. Vernacular literature and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">folk religious sects</a> have produced a great body of popular mythological and theological literature, the <a href="/wiki/Baojuan" title="Baojuan">baojuan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 寶卷; <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'precious scrolls'). Recent discovery of ancient books, such as the "<a href="/wiki/Guodian_Chu_Slips" title="Guodian Chu Slips">Guodian texts</a>" in the 1990s and the <a href="/wiki/Huangdi_sijing" class="mw-redirect" title="Huangdi sijing">Huangdi sijing</a> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 《黃帝四經》; <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Four Books of the Yellow Emperor') in the 1970s, has given rise to new interpretations of the ancient Chinese religion and new directions in its post-Maoist renewal. Many of these books overcome the dichotomy between Confucian and Taoist traditions.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The Guodian texts include, among others, the <a href="/wiki/Taiyi_Shengshui" title="Taiyi Shengshui">Taiyi Shengshui</a> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 《太一生水》; <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'The Great One Gives Birth to Water'). Another book attributed to the Yellow Emperor is the <a href="/wiki/Huangdi_yinfujing" class="mw-redirect" title="Huangdi yinfujing">Huangdi yinfujing</a> (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 《黃帝陰符經》; <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Yellow Emperor's Book of the Hidden Symbol'). Classical books of mythology include the "<a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Mountains_and_Seas" title="Classic of Mountains and Seas">Classic of Mountains and Seas</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 《山海經》; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: shānhǎijīng), the "<a href="/wiki/Record_of_Heretofore_Lost_Works" class="mw-redirect" title="Record of Heretofore Lost Works">Record of Heretofore Lost Works</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 《拾遺記; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: shíyíjì), "<a href="/wiki/The_Peach_Blossom_Spring" title="The Peach Blossom Spring">The Peach Blossom Spring</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 《桃花源記》; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: táohuāyuánjì), the "<a href="/wiki/Investiture_of_the_Gods" title="Investiture of the Gods">Investiture of the Gods</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 《封神演義》; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: fēngshén yǎnyì), and the "<a href="/wiki/Journey_to_the_West" title="Journey to the West">Journey to the West</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: 《西遊記》; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: xīyóujì) among others. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Core_concepts_of_theology_and_cosmology">Core concepts of theology and cosmology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Core concepts of theology and cosmology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_theology" title="Chinese theology">Chinese theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a></div> Fan and Chen summarise four spiritual, cosmological, and moral concepts:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20135–6-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 天), Heaven, the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">source</a> of moral meaning; <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 氣), the breath or substance of which all things are made; the practice of <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_veneration_in_China" title="Ancestor veneration in China">jingzu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 敬祖), the veneration of ancestors; <a href="/wiki/Bao_ying" title="Bao ying">bao ying</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 報應), moral reciprocity. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tian,_its_li_and_qi">Tian, its li and qi</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Tian, its li and qi">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tian,_god_of_the_square_of_the_north_astral_pole.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Tian%2C_god_of_the_square_of_the_north_astral_pole.svg/220px-Tian%2C_god_of_the_square_of_the_north_astral_pole.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Tian%2C_god_of_the_square_of_the_north_astral_pole.svg/330px-Tian%2C_god_of_the_square_of_the_north_astral_pole.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Tian%2C_god_of_the_square_of_the_north_astral_pole.svg/440px-Tian%2C_god_of_the_square_of_the_north_astral_pole.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="486" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption>Tian or Di as the square of the <a href="/wiki/Circumpolar_star" title="Circumpolar star">north astral pole</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> "Tian is dian <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 顛 ('top'), the highest and unexceeded. It derives from the characters yi <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 一, 'one', and da <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 大, 'big'."<a href="#cite_note-73">[note 1]</a></figcaption></figure> Confucians, Taoists, and other schools of thought share basic concepts of Tian. Tian is both the physical heavens, the home of the sun, moon, and stars, and also the home of the gods and ancestors. Tian by extension is source of moral meaning, as seen in the political principle, the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a>, which holds that Tian, responding to human virtue, grants the imperial family the right to rule and withdraws it when the dynasty declines in virtue.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> This creativity or virtue (<a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">de</a>) in humans is the potentiality to transcend the given conditions and act wisely and morally.<a href="#cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._5-75">[74]</a> Tian is therefore both <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">transcendent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immanence" title="Immanence">immanent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._5-75">[74]</a> Tian is defined in many ways, with many names, the most widely known being Tàidì <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 太帝 (the "Great Deity") and <a href="/wiki/Shangdi" title="Shangdi">Shàngdì</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 上帝 (the "Primordial Deity").<a href="#cite_note-names_of_Heaven-82">[note 2]</a> The concept of Shangdi is especially rooted in the tradition of the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a>, which gave prominence to the worship of <a href="/wiki/Ancestor" title="Ancestor">ancestral gods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_hero" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural hero">cultural heroes</a>. The "Primordial Deity" or "Primordial Emperor" was considered to be embodied in the human realm as the lineage of imperial power.<a href="#cite_note-Libbrecht_2007._p._43-83">[81]</a> Di (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 帝) is a term meaning "deity" or "emperor" (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperator</a>, verb im-perare; "making from within"), used either as a name of the primordial god or as a title of natural gods,<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> describing a principle that exerts a fatherly dominance over what it produces.<a href="#cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._64-85">[83]</a> With the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a>, which preferred a religion focused on <a href="/wiki/Nature_god" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature god">gods of nature</a>, Tian became a more abstract and impersonal idea of God.<a href="#cite_note-Libbrecht_2007._p._43-83">[81]</a> A popular representation is the <a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Jade Deity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 玉帝 Yùdì) or Jade Emperor (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 玉皇 Yùhuáng)<a href="#cite_note-king-emperor-shaman-axis-89">[note 3]</a> originally formulated by Taoists.<a href="#cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._71-90">[87]</a> According to classical theology he manifests in <a href="/wiki/Wufang_Shangdi" title="Wufang Shangdi">five primary forms</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 五方上帝 Wǔfāng Shàngdì, "Five Forms of the Highest Deity"). The qi <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 气 is the breath or substance of which all things are made, including inanimate matter, the living beings, thought and gods.<a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199629-92">[89]</a> It is the continuum energy—matter.<a href="#cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._21-93">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_F._Teiser" title="Stephen F. Teiser">Stephen F. Teiser</a> (1996) translates it as "stuff" of "psychophysical stuff".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199629-92">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucian</a> thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> developed the idea of <a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">li</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 理, the "reason", "order" of Heaven, that is to say the pattern through which the qi develops, that is the polarity of yin and yang.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199630-94">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._13-95">[92]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> the <a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 道 ("Way") denotes in one concept both the impersonal absolute Tian and its order of manifestation (li). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yin,_yang,_gui,_and_shen">Yin, yang, gui, and shen</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Yin, yang, gui, and shen">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">Yin and yang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">Shen (Chinese religion)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Quanjunxi_Linggong_-_DSCF8614.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Quanjunxi_Linggong_-_DSCF8614.JPG/220px-Quanjunxi_Linggong_-_DSCF8614.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Quanjunxi_Linggong_-_DSCF8614.JPG/330px-Quanjunxi_Linggong_-_DSCF8614.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Quanjunxi_Linggong_-_DSCF8614.JPG/440px-Quanjunxi_Linggong_-_DSCF8614.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The "Numinous Palace by the Brook in the Land of Springs" (泉郡溪靈宮; Quánjùnxī línggōng) in <a href="/wiki/Quanzhou" title="Quanzhou">Quanzhou</a>, Fujian.<a href="#cite_note-96">[note 4]</a></figcaption></figure> Yin (陰; yīn) and yang (陽; yáng), whose root meanings respectively are 'shady' and 'sunny', or 'dark' and 'light', are modes of manifestation of the qi, not material things in themselves. Yin is the qi in its dense, dark, sinking, wet, condensing mode; yang denotes the light, and the bright, rising, dry, expanding modality. Described as <a href="/wiki/Taiji_(philosophy)" title="Taiji (philosophy)">Taiji</a> (the 'Great Pole'), they represent the polarity and complementarity that enlivens the <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._13-95">[92]</a> They can also be conceived as 'disorder' and 'order', 'activity' or 'passivity', with action (yang) usually preferred over receptiveness (yin).<a href="#cite_note-Thien_Do,_2003,_pp._10-11-14">[14]</a> The concept of shen (神; shén; cognate of 申; shēn 'extending', 'expanding'<a href="#cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._16-97">[93]</a>) is translated as 'gods' or 'spirits'. There are shen of nature; gods who were once people, such as the warrior <a href="/wiki/Guan_Yu" title="Guan Yu">Guan Yu</a>; household gods, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kitchen_God" title="Kitchen God">Stove God</a>; as well as ancestral gods (zu or zuxian).<a href="#cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._14-98">[94]</a> In the domain of humanity the shen is the psyche, or the power or agency within humans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199631-99">[95]</a> They are intimately involved in the life of this world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199631-99">[95]</a> As spirits of stars, mountains and streams, shen exert a direct influence on things, making phenomena appear and things grow or extend themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199631-99">[95]</a> An early Chinese dictionary, the <a href="/wiki/Shuowen_Jiezi" title="Shuowen Jiezi">Shuowen Jiezi</a> by <a href="/wiki/Xu_Shen" title="Xu Shen">Xu Shen</a>, explains that they "are the spirits of Heaven" and they "draw out the ten thousand things".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199631-99">[95]</a> As forces of growth the gods are regarded as yang, opposed to a yin class of entities called gui (鬼; guǐ; cognate of 歸; guī 'return', 'contraction'),<a href="#cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._16-97">[93]</a> chaotic beings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199632-100">[96]</a> A disciple of <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a> noted that "between Heaven and Earth there is no thing that does not consist of yin and yang, and there is no place where yin and yang are not found. Therefore, there is no place where gods and spirits do not exist".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199632-100">[96]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">dragon</a> is a symbol of yang, the principle of generation.<a href="#cite_note-Libbrecht_2007._p._43-83">[81]</a> In Taoist and Confucian thought, the supreme God and its order and the multiplicity of shen are identified as one and the same.<a href="#cite_note-Zongqi_Cai,_2004._p._314-101">[97]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Wings" title="Ten Wings">Ten Wings</a>, a commentary to the I Ching, it is written that "one yin and one yang are called the Tao ... the unfathomable change of yin and yang is called shen".<a href="#cite_note-Zongqi_Cai,_2004._p._314-101">[97]</a> In other texts, with a tradition going back to the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, the gods and spirits are explained to be names of yin and yang, forces of contraction and forces of growth.<a href="#cite_note-Zongqi_Cai,_2004._p._314-101">[97]</a> While in popular thought they have conscience and personality,<a href="#cite_note-102">[98]</a> Neo-Confucian scholars tended to rationalise them.<a href="#cite_note-103">[99]</a> Zhu Xi wrote that they act according to the li.<a href="#cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._16-97">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zai" title="Zhang Zai">Zhang Zai</a> wrote that they are "the inherent potential (liang neng) of the two ways of qi".<a href="#cite_note-104">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cheng_Yi_(philosopher)" title="Cheng Yi (philosopher)">Cheng Yi</a> said that they are "traces of the creative process".<a href="#cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._16-97">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chen_Chun" title="Chen Chun">Chen Chun</a> wrote that shen and gui are expansions and contractions, going and coming, of yin and yang—qi.<a href="#cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._16-97">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hun_and_po,_and_zu_and_xian">Hun and po, and zu and xian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Hun and po, and zu and xian">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_of_the_Filial_Blessing_in_Ouhai,_Wenzhou,_Zhejiang,_China_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Temple_of_the_Filial_Blessing_in_Ouhai%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%282%29.jpg/220px-Temple_of_the_Filial_Blessing_in_Ouhai%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Temple_of_the_Filial_Blessing_in_Ouhai%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%282%29.jpg/330px-Temple_of_the_Filial_Blessing_in_Ouhai%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Temple_of_the_Filial_Blessing_in_Ouhai%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%282%29.jpg/440px-Temple_of_the_Filial_Blessing_in_Ouhai%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Temple of the Filial Blessing (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 孝佑宮 Xiàoyòugōng) in <a href="/wiki/Ouhai_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Ouhai District">Ouhai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou" title="Wenzhou">Wenzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>. It is a place for the worship of ancestors.</figcaption></figure> Like all things in matter, the human soul is characterised by a <a href="/wiki/Dialectics" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectics">dialectic</a> of yang and yin. These correspond to the <a href="/wiki/Hun_and_po" title="Hun and po">hun and po</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 魂魄) respectively. The hun is the traditionally "masculine", yang, rational soul or mind, and the po is the traditionally "feminine", yin, animal soul that is associated with the body.<a href="#cite_note-105">[101]</a> Hun (mind) is the soul (shen) that gives a form to the vital breath (qi) of humans, and it develops through the po, stretching and moving intelligently in order to grasp things.<a href="#cite_note-106">[102]</a> The po is the soul (shen) which controls the physiological and psychological activities of humans,<a href="#cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._69-107">[103]</a> while the hun, the shen attached to the vital breath (qi), is the soul (shen) that is totally independent of corporeal substance.<a href="#cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._69-107">[103]</a> The hun is independent and perpetual, and as such it never allows itself to be limited in matter.<a href="#cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._69-107">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[note 5]</a> Otherwise said, the po is the <a href="/wiki/Di_(Chinese_concept)" title="Di (Chinese concept)">"earthly" (di)</a> soul that goes downward, while the hun is the "heavenly" (tian) soul that moves upward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199631-99">[95]</a> To extend life to its full potential the human shen must be cultivated, resulting in ever clearer, more luminous states of being.<a href="#cite_note-Teiser,_1996-13">[13]</a> It can transform in the pure intelligent breath of deities.<a href="#cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._69-107">[103]</a> In the human psyche there's no distinction between rationality and intuition, thinking and feeling: the human being is xin (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 心), mind-heart.<a href="#cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._21-93">[90]</a> With death, while the po returns to the earth and disappears, the hun is thought to be pure awareness or qi, and is the shen to whom ancestral sacrifices are dedicated.<a href="#cite_note-109">[104]</a> The shen of men who are properly cultivated and honoured after their death are upheld <a href="/wiki/Ancestor" title="Ancestor">ancestors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Progenitor" title="Progenitor">progenitors</a> (zuxian <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 祖先 or zu <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 祖).<a href="#cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._14-98">[94]</a> When ancestries aren't properly cultivated the world falls into disruption, and they become gui.<a href="#cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._14-98">[94]</a> Ancestral worship is intertwined with <a href="/wiki/Totemism" class="mw-redirect" title="Totemism">totemism</a>, as the earliest ancestors of an ethnic lineage are often represented as animals or associated to them.<a href="#cite_note-Wang,_2004._pp._60-61-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[105]</a> Ancestors are means of connection with the <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a>, the primordial god which does not have form.<a href="#cite_note-Wang,_2004._pp._60-61-40">[40]</a> As ancestors have form, they shape the destiny of humans.<a href="#cite_note-Wang,_2004._pp._60-61-40">[40]</a> Ancestors who have had a significant impact in shaping the destiny of large groups of people, creators of genetic lineages or spiritual traditions, and historical leaders who have invented crafts and institutions for the wealth of the Chinese nation (<a href="/wiki/Culture_hero" title="Culture hero">culture heroes</a>), are exalted among the highest divine manifestations or immortal beings (<a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">xian</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 仙).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010162,_165-111">[106]</a> In fact, in the Chinese tradition there is no distinction between gods (shen) and immortal beings (xian), transcendental principles and their bodily manifestations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010158–161-112">[107]</a> Gods can incarnate with a human form and human beings can reach higher spiritual states by the right way of action, that is to say by emulating the order of Heaven.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010159-113">[108]</a> Humans are considered one of the three aspects of a trinity (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 三才 Sāncái, "Three Powers"),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010162–164-114">[109]</a> the three foundations of all being; specifically, men are the medium between Heaven that engenders order and forms and Earth which receives and nourishes them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010162–164-114">[109]</a> Men are endowed with the role of completing creation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010162–164-114">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sancai-116">[note 6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bao_ying_and_ming_yun">Bao ying and ming yun</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bao ying and ming yun">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bao_ying" title="Bao ying">Bao ying</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ming_yun" title="Ming yun">Ming yun</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%AE%89%E5%B9%B3%E5%A4%A9%E5%90%8E%E5%AE%AE%E7%9F%B3%E5%B0%87%E8%BB%8D.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%E5%AE%89%E5%B9%B3%E5%A4%A9%E5%90%8E%E5%AE%AE%E7%9F%B3%E5%B0%87%E8%BB%8D.JPG/220px-%E5%AE%89%E5%B9%B3%E5%A4%A9%E5%90%8E%E5%AE%AE%E7%9F%B3%E5%B0%87%E8%BB%8D.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%E5%AE%89%E5%B9%B3%E5%A4%A9%E5%90%8E%E5%AE%AE%E7%9F%B3%E5%B0%87%E8%BB%8D.JPG/330px-%E5%AE%89%E5%B9%B3%E5%A4%A9%E5%90%8E%E5%AE%AE%E7%9F%B3%E5%B0%87%E8%BB%8D.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/%E5%AE%89%E5%B9%B3%E5%A4%A9%E5%90%8E%E5%AE%AE%E7%9F%B3%E5%B0%87%E8%BB%8D.JPG/440px-%E5%AE%89%E5%B9%B3%E5%A4%A9%E5%90%8E%E5%AE%AE%E7%9F%B3%E5%B0%87%E8%BB%8D.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Altar to the Stone Generals, protective deities, at the Kantai Tianhou Temple in <a href="/wiki/Anping_District" title="Anping District">Anping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tainan" title="Tainan">Tainan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Chinese traditional concept of bao ying ("reciprocity", "retribution" or "judgement"), is inscribed in the cosmological view of an ordered world, in which all manifestations of being have an allotted span (shu) and <a href="/wiki/Destiny" title="Destiny">destiny</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010166-117">[111]</a> and are rewarded according to the moral-cosmic quality of their actions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201325-118">[112]</a> It determines <a href="/wiki/Fate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fate">fate</a>, as written in <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> texts: "on the doer of good, heaven sends down all blessings, and on the doer of evil, he sends down all calamities" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 書經•湯誥).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201326-119">[113]</a> The cosmic significance of bao ying is better understood by exploring other two traditional concepts of fate and meaning:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201321-10">[10]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_yun" title="Ming yun">Ming yun</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 命運), the personal destiny or given condition of a being in his world, in which ming is "life" or "right", the given status of life, and yun defines both "circumstance" and "individual choice"; ming is given and influenced by the transcendent force Tian (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 天), that is the same as the "divine right" (tianming) of ancient rulers as identified by <a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201321-10">[10]</a> Personal destiny (ming yun) is thus perceived as both fixed (as life itself) and flexible, open-ended (since the individual can choose how to behave in bao ying).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201321-10">[10]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_fen" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuan fen">Yuan fen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 緣分), "fateful <a href="/wiki/Coincidence" title="Coincidence">coincidence</a>",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201323-11">[11]</a> describing good and bad chances and potential relationships.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201323-11">[11]</a> Scholars K. S. Yang and D. Ho have analysed the psychological advantages of this belief: assigning causality of both negative and positive events to yuan fen reduces the conflictual potential of guilt and pride, and preserves social harmony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201324-120">[114]</a></li></ul> Ming yun and yuan fen are linked, because what appears on the surface to be chance (either positive or negative), is part of the deeper rhythm that shapes personal life based on how destiny is directed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201325-118">[112]</a> Recognising this connection has the result of making a person responsible for his or her actions:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201326-119">[113]</a> doing good for others spiritually improves oneself and contributes to the harmony between men and environmental gods and thus to the wealth of a human community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201326–27-121">[115]</a> These three themes of the Chinese tradition—moral reciprocity, personal destiny, fateful coincidence—are completed by a fourth notion:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201327-122">[116]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wu_(Chinese_religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wu (Chinese religion)">Wu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 悟), "awareness" of bao ying. The awareness of one's own given condition inscribed in the ordered world produces responsibility towards oneself and others; awareness of yuan fen stirs to respond to events rather than resigning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201327-122">[116]</a> Awareness may arrive as a gift, often unbidden, and then it evolves into a practice that the person intentionally follows.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201327-122">[116]</a></li></ul> As part of the trinity of being (the Three Powers), humans are not totally submissive to spiritual force.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010164-115">[110]</a> While under the sway of spiritual forces, humans can actively engage with them, striving to change their own fate to prove the worth of their earthly life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010164-115">[110]</a> In the Chinese traditional view of human destiny, the dichotomy between "fatalism" and "optimism" is overcome; human beings can shape their personal destiny to grasp their real worth in the transformation of the universe, seeing their place in the alliance with the gods and with Heaven to surpass the constraints of the physical body and mind.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010164-115">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ling_and_xianling—holy_and_numen">Ling and xianling—holy and numen</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ling and xianling—holy and numen">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ling_(Chinese_religion)" title="Ling (Chinese religion)">Ling (Chinese religion)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xian_ling_(religion)" title="Xian ling (religion)">Xian ling (religion)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ch-brahma-temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Ch-brahma-temple.jpg/220px-Ch-brahma-temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Ch-brahma-temple.jpg/330px-Ch-brahma-temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Ch-brahma-temple.jpg/440px-Ch-brahma-temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>Temple of <a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Simianshen" class="mw-redirect" title="Simianshen">Simianshen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 四面神 "Four-Faced God") in Chinese, in <a href="/wiki/Changhua" title="Changhua">Changhua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thai</a>-style worship of Simianshen has its origins among <a href="/wiki/Thai_Chinese" title="Thai Chinese">Thai Chinese</a>, and has spread over the last few decades among mainland Chinese and <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Chinese" title="Overseas Chinese">Overseas Chinese</a> populations.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhen-Wu_Temple_in_Wuci_Township.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Zhen-Wu_Temple_in_Wuci_Township.JPG/220px-Zhen-Wu_Temple_in_Wuci_Township.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Zhen-Wu_Temple_in_Wuci_Township.JPG/330px-Zhen-Wu_Temple_in_Wuci_Township.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Zhen-Wu_Temple_in_Wuci_Township.JPG/440px-Zhen-Wu_Temple_in_Wuci_Township.JPG 2x" data-file-width="851" data-file-height="1134" /></a><figcaption>A shrine dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Xuanwu_(god)" title="Xuanwu (god)">Zhenwu</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wuqi_District" title="Wuqi District">Wuqi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taichung" title="Taichung">Taichung</a>, Taiwan.</figcaption></figure> In Chinese religion the concept of <a href="/wiki/Ling_(Chinese_religion)" title="Ling (Chinese religion)">ling</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 靈) is the equivalent of <a href="/wiki/Sacred" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred">holy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Numen" title="Numen">numen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[117]</a> Shen in the meaning of "spiritual" is a synonym.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199632-100">[96]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Yijing" class="mw-redirect" title="Yijing">Yijing</a> states that "spiritual means not measured by yin and yang".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199632-100">[96]</a> Ling is the state of the "medium" of the bivalency (yin-yang), and thus it is identical with the inchoate order of creation.<a href="#cite_note-Thien_Do,_2003,_pp._10-11-14">[14]</a> Things inspiring awe or wonder because they cannot be understood as either yin or yang, because they cross or disrupt the polarity and therefore cannot be conceptualised, are regarded as numinous.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199632-100">[96]</a> Entities possessing unusual spiritual characteristics, such as <a href="/wiki/Albino" class="mw-redirect" title="Albino">albino</a> members of a species, beings that are part animal part human, or people who die in unusual ways such as suicide or on battlefields, are considered numinous.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199632-100">[96]</a> The notion of xian ling (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 顯靈), variously translated as "divine efficacy, virtue" or the "numen", is important for the relationship between people and gods.<a href="#cite_note-124">[118]</a> It describes the manifestation, activity, of the power of a god (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 靈氣 ling qi, "divine energy" or "effervescence"), the evidence of the holy.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183-184-125">[119]</a> The term xian ling may be interpreted as the god revealing their <a href="/wiki/Divine_presence" title="Divine presence">presence</a> in a particular area and temple,<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184-126">[120]</a> through events that are perceived as extraordinary, <a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">miraculous</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184-126">[120]</a> Divine power usually manifests in the presence of a wide public.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184-126">[120]</a> The "value" of human deities (xian) is judged according to their efficacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010168-127">[121]</a> The perceived effectiveness of a deity to protect or bless also determines how much they should be worshipped, how big a temple should be built in their honour, and what position in the broader pantheon they would attain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010168-127">[121]</a> Zavidovskaya (2012) has studied how the incentive of temple restorations since the 1980s in <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_southern_China" title="Northern and southern China">northern China</a> was triggered by numerous alleged instances of gods becoming "active" and "returning", reclaiming their temples and place in society.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184-126">[120]</a> She mentions the example of a Chenghuang Temple in <a href="/wiki/Yulin,_Shaanxi" title="Yulin, Shaanxi">Yulin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, that was turned into a <a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">granary</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>; it was restored to its original function in the 1980s after seeds stored within were always found to have rotted. This phenomenon, which locals attributed to the god Chenghuang, was taken a sign to empty his residence of grain and allow him back in.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184-126">[120]</a> The ling qi, divine energy, is believed to accumulate in certain places, temples, making them <a href="/wiki/Holy" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy">holy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184-126">[120]</a> Temples with a longer history are considered holier than newly built ones, which still need to be filled by divine energy.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184-126">[120]</a> Another example Zavidovskaya cites is the cult of the god Zhenwu in Congluo Yu, <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._185-128">[122]</a> the god's temples were in ruins and the cult inactive until the mid-1990s, when a man with terminal cancer, in his last hope prayed (bai <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 拜) to Zhenwu. The man began to miraculously recover each passing day, and after a year he was completely healed.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._185-128">[122]</a> As thanksgiving, he organised an opera performance in the god's honour.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._185-128">[122]</a> A temporary altar with a statue of Zhenwu and a stage for the performance were set up in an open space at the foot of a mountain.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._185-128">[122]</a> During the course of the opera, large white snakes appeared, passive and unafraid of the people, seemingly watching the opera; the snakes were considered by locals to be incarnations of Zhenwu, come to watch the opera held in his honour.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._185-128">[122]</a> Within temples, it is common to see banners bearing the phrase "if the heart is sincere, the god will reveal their power" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 心誠神靈 xin cheng shen ling).<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183-129">[123]</a> The relationship between people and gods is an exchange of favour.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183-129">[123]</a> This implies the belief that gods respond to the entreaties of the believer if their religious fervour is sincere (cheng xin <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 誠心).<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183-129">[123]</a> If a person believes in the god's power with all their heart and expresses piety, the gods are confident in their faith and reveal their efficacious power.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183-129">[123]</a> At the same time, for faith to strengthen in the devotee's heart, the deity has to prove their efficacy.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183-129">[123]</a> In exchange for divine favours, a faithful honours the deity with vows (huan yuan <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 還願 or xu yuan <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 許願), through individual worship, reverence and respect (jing shen <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 敬神).<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183-129">[123]</a> The most common display of divine power is the cure of diseases after a believer piously requests aid.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184-126">[120]</a> Another manifestation is granting a request of children.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184-126">[120]</a> The deity may also manifest through mediumship, entering the body of a shaman-medium and speaking through them.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184-126">[120]</a> There have been cases of people curing illnesses "on behalf of a god" (ti shen zhi bing <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 替神治病).<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._185-128">[122]</a> Gods may also speak to people when they are asleep (tuomeng <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 託夢).<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184-126">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sociological_typology">Sociological typology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sociological typology">edit</a>]</div> Wu Hsin-Chao (2014) distinguishes four kinds of Chinese traditional religious organisation:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWu201411,_and_note_1-130">[124]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ancestral_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese ancestral religion">ancestry worship</a>; <a href="/wiki/Chinese_communal_deity_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese communal deity religion">deity worship</a>; <a href="/wiki/Chinese_secret_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese secret societies">secret societies</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">folk religious sects</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_indigenous—ethnic_religion">Types of indigenous—ethnic religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Types of indigenous—ethnic religion">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Worship_of_local_and_national_deities">Worship of local and national deities</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Worship of local and national deities">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhangzhou_Putou_Damiao_20120225-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Zhangzhou_Putou_Damiao_20120225-2.jpg/220px-Zhangzhou_Putou_Damiao_20120225-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Zhangzhou_Putou_Damiao_20120225-2.jpg/330px-Zhangzhou_Putou_Damiao_20120225-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Zhangzhou_Putou_Damiao_20120225-2.jpg/440px-Zhangzhou_Putou_Damiao_20120225-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 浦頭大廟 Pǔtóu dàmiào, the "First Great Temple by the Riverside", in <a href="/wiki/Zhangzhou" title="Zhangzhou">Zhangzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>.</figcaption></figure> Chinese religion in its communal expression involves the worship of gods that are the generative power and tutelary spirit (<a href="/wiki/Genius_loci" title="Genius loci">genius loci</a>) of a locality or a certain aspect of nature (for example <a href="/wiki/Water_gods" class="mw-redirect" title="Water gods">water gods</a>, <a href="/wiki/River_gods" class="mw-redirect" title="River gods">river gods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fire_gods" class="mw-redirect" title="Fire gods">fire gods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mountain_gods" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountain gods">mountain gods</a>), or of gods that are common ancestors of a village, a larger identity, or the Chinese nation (<a href="/wiki/Shennong" title="Shennong">Shennong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Huangdi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pangu" title="Pangu">Pangu</a>). The social structure of this religion is the shénshè <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神社 (literally "society of a god"), synonymous with shehui <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 社會, in which shè <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 社 originally meant the altar of a community's earth god,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer2009xii-131">[125]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 會 huì means "association", "assembly", "church" or "gathering". This type of religious trusts can be dedicated to a god which is bound to a single village or temple or to a god which has a wider following, in multiple villages, provinces or even a national importance. <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> distinguished "god associations", "village communities" and "temple associations" in his analysis of religious trusts.<a href="#cite_note-Mao-hui-132">[126]</a> In his words: "every kind and type of god [shen] can have an association [hui]", for example the Zhaogong Association, the Guanyin Association, the Guangong Association, the Dashen Association, the Bogong Association, the Wenchang Association, and the like.<a href="#cite_note-Mao-hui-132">[126]</a> Within the category of hui Mao also distinguished the sacrifice associations (jiàohuì <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 醮會) which make sacrifices in honour of gods.<a href="#cite_note-Mao-hui-132">[126]</a> These societies organise gatherings and festivals (<a href="/wiki/Miaohui" title="Miaohui">miaohui</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 廟會) participated by members of the whole village or larger community on the occasions of what are believed to be the birthdays of the gods or other events,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138-59">[59]</a> or to seek protection from droughts, epidemics, and other disasters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138-59">[59]</a> Such festivals invoke the power of the gods for practical goals to "summon blessings and drive away harm".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138-59">[59]</a> Special devotional currents within this framework can be identified by specific names such as <a href="/wiki/Mazuism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazuism">Mazuism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 媽祖教 Māzǔjiào),<a href="#cite_note-133">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wang_Ye_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Wang Ye worship">Wang Ye worship</a>, or the cult of the Silkworm Mother.<a href="#cite_note-134">[128]</a> This type of religion is prevalent in north China, where lineage religion is absent, private, or historically present only within families of southern origin, and patrilineal ties are based on <a href="/wiki/Agnatic_seniority" title="Agnatic seniority">seniority</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChau2005a50-135">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wu20-136">[130]</a> and villages are composed of people with different surnames. In this context, the deity societies or temple societies function as poles of the civil organism.<a href="#cite_note-Overmyer,_2009._pp._12-13-137">[131]</a> Often deity societies incorporate entire villages; this is the reason why in north China there can be found many villages which are named after deities and their temples, for example Léishénmiào village (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 雷神廟 "[Village of the] Temple of the Thunder God") or Mǎshénmiàocūn (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 馬神廟村 "Village of the Temple of the Horse God"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lineage_religion">Lineage religion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Lineage religion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ancestral_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese ancestral religion">Chinese ancestral religion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guanji_temple_and_Huang_shrine_in_Lucheng,_Wenzhou,_Zhejiang,_China_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Guanji_temple_and_Huang_shrine_in_Lucheng%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%281%29.jpg/220px-Guanji_temple_and_Huang_shrine_in_Lucheng%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Guanji_temple_and_Huang_shrine_in_Lucheng%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%281%29.jpg/330px-Guanji_temple_and_Huang_shrine_in_Lucheng%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Guanji_temple_and_Huang_shrine_in_Lucheng%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%281%29.jpg/440px-Guanji_temple_and_Huang_shrine_in_Lucheng%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="824" data-file-height="666" /></a><figcaption>Guanji <a href="/wiki/Chinese_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese temple">temple</a> (left) and Huang <a href="/wiki/Ancestral_shrine" title="Ancestral shrine">ancestral shrine</a> (right) in <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou" title="Wenzhou">Wenzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Worship_at_an_ancestral_temple_in_Hong%27an,_Hubei,_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Worship_at_an_ancestral_temple_in_Hong%27an%2C_Hubei%2C_China.jpg/220px-Worship_at_an_ancestral_temple_in_Hong%27an%2C_Hubei%2C_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Worship_at_an_ancestral_temple_in_Hong%27an%2C_Hubei%2C_China.jpg/330px-Worship_at_an_ancestral_temple_in_Hong%27an%2C_Hubei%2C_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Worship_at_an_ancestral_temple_in_Hong%27an%2C_Hubei%2C_China.jpg/440px-Worship_at_an_ancestral_temple_in_Hong%27an%2C_Hubei%2C_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="389" /></a><figcaption>People gather for a worship ceremony at an ancestral shrine in <a href="/wiki/Hong%27an_County" title="Hong'an County">Hong'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a>.</figcaption></figure> Another dimension of the Chinese folk religion is based on family or genealogical worship of deities and ancestors in family altars or private temples (simiao <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 私廟 or jiamiao <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 家廟), or <a href="/wiki/Ancestral_shrine" title="Ancestral shrine">ancestral shrines</a> (citang <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 祠堂 or zongci <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 宗祠, or also zumiao <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 祖廟).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201313-138">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_lineage_associations" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese lineage associations">Kinship associations or churches</a> (zōngzú xiéhuì <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 宗族協會), congregating people with the same <a href="/wiki/Chinese_surname" title="Chinese surname">surname</a> and belonging to the same <a href="/wiki/Chinese_kin" title="Chinese kin">kin</a>, are the social expression of this religion: these lineage societies build temples where the deified ancestors of a certain group (for example the <a href="/wiki/Chen_(surname)" title="Chen (surname)">Chens</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Lin_(surname)" title="Lin (surname)">Lins</a>) are enshrined and worshiped.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201314–15-139">[133]</a> These temples serve as centres of aggregation for people belonging to the same lineage, and the lineage body may provide a context of identification and mutual assistance for individual persons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201314–15-139">[133]</a> The construction of large and elaborate ancestral temples traditionally represents a kin's wealth, influence and achievement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201315-140">[134]</a> Scholar K. S. Yang has explored the ethno-political dynamism of this form of religion, through which people who become distinguished for their value and virtue are considered immortal and receive posthumous divine titles, and are believed to protect their descendants, inspiring a mythological lore for the collective memory of a family or kin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201316-141">[135]</a> If their temples and their deities enshrined acquire popularity they are considered worthy of the virtue of ling, "efficacy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201316-141">[135]</a> Worship of ancestors (<a href="/wiki/Ancestor_veneration_in_China" title="Ancestor veneration in China">jingzu</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 敬祖) is observed nationally with large-scale rituals on <a href="/wiki/Qingming_Festival" title="Qingming Festival">Qingming Festival</a> and other holidays. This type of religion prevails in south China, where lineage bonds are stronger and the patrilineal hierarchy is not based upon seniority, and access to corporate resources held by a lineage is based upon the equality of all the lines of descent.<a href="#cite_note-Wu20-136">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophical_and_ritual_modalities">Philosophical and ritual modalities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Philosophical and ritual modalities">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wuism_and_shamanic_traditions">Wuism and shamanic traditions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Wuism and shamanic traditions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_shamanism" title="Chinese shamanism">Chinese shamanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion" title="Nuo folk religion">Nuo folk religion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yard_leading_to_the_Temple_of_the_White_Sulde_of_Genghis_Khan,_in_Uxin,_Inner_Mongolia,_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Yard_leading_to_the_Temple_of_the_White_Sulde_of_Genghis_Khan%2C_in_Uxin%2C_Inner_Mongolia%2C_China.jpg/220px-Yard_leading_to_the_Temple_of_the_White_Sulde_of_Genghis_Khan%2C_in_Uxin%2C_Inner_Mongolia%2C_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Yard_leading_to_the_Temple_of_the_White_Sulde_of_Genghis_Khan%2C_in_Uxin%2C_Inner_Mongolia%2C_China.jpg/330px-Yard_leading_to_the_Temple_of_the_White_Sulde_of_Genghis_Khan%2C_in_Uxin%2C_Inner_Mongolia%2C_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Yard_leading_to_the_Temple_of_the_White_Sulde_of_Genghis_Khan%2C_in_Uxin%2C_Inner_Mongolia%2C_China.jpg/440px-Yard_leading_to_the_Temple_of_the_White_Sulde_of_Genghis_Khan%2C_in_Uxin%2C_Inner_Mongolia%2C_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Temple of the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BClde_Tngri" title="Sülde Tngri">White Sulde</a> of <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> in the town of <a href="/wiki/Uxin_Banner" title="Uxin Banner">Uxin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Ordos_Desert" title="Ordos Desert">Mu Us Desert</a>. The worship of Genghis is shared by Chinese and <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_folk_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolian folk religion">Mongolian folk religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[note 7]</a></figcaption></figure> "The extent to which shamanism pervaded ancient Chinese society", says Paul R. Goldin (2005), "is a matter of scholarly dispute, but there can be no doubt that many communities relied upon the unique talents of shamans for their quotidian spiritual needs".<a href="#cite_note-143">[136]</a> The Chinese usage distinguishes the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_shamanism" title="Chinese shamanism">Chinese wu tradition</a> or "Wuism" as it was called by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Jakob_Maria_de_Groot" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Jakob Maria de Groot">Jan Jakob Maria de Groot</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Groot1892''passim''_vol._6-144">[137]</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 巫教 wūjiào; properly shamanic, with control over the gods) from the <a href="/wiki/Tongji_(spirit_medium)" title="Tongji (spirit medium)">tongji tradition</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 童乩; mediumship, without control of the godly movement), and from non-Han Chinese Altaic shamanisms (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 薩滿教 sàmǎnjiào) that are practised in northern provinces. According to Andreea Chirita (2014), Confucianism itself, with its emphasis on hierarchy and ancestral rituals, derived from the shamanic discourse of the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a>. What Confucianism did was to marginalise the "dysfunctional" features of old shamanism. However, shamanic traditions continued uninterrupted within the folk religion and found precise and functional forms within Taoism.<a href="#cite_note-Chirita2014-145">[138]</a> In the Shang and <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a>, shamans had a role in the political hierarchy, and were represented institutionally by the Ministry of Rites (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 大宗伯). The emperor was considered the supreme shaman, intermediating between the three realms of heaven, earth and man. The mission of a shaman (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 巫 <a href="/wiki/Wu_(shaman)" title="Wu (shaman)">wu</a>) is "to repair the dis-functionalities occurred in nature and generated after the sky had been separated from earth":<a href="#cite_note-Chirita2014-145">[138]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The female shamans called wu as well as the male shamans called xi represent the voice of spirits, repair the natural dis-functions, foretell the future based on dreams and the art of divination ... "a historical science of the future", whereas shamans are able to observe the yin and the yang ...</blockquote> Since the 1980s the practice and study of shamanism has undergone a massive revival in Chinese religion as a means to repair the world to a harmonious whole after industrialisation.<a href="#cite_note-Chirita2014-145">[138]</a> Shamanism is viewed by many scholars as the foundation for the emergence of civilisation, and the shaman as "teacher and spirit" of peoples. The Chinese Society for Shamanic Studies was founded in <a href="/wiki/Jilin_City" title="Jilin City">Jilin City</a> in 1988.<a href="#cite_note-KunShi2006-146">[139]</a> Nuo folk religion is a system of the Chinese folk religion with distinct institutions and cosmology present especially in central-southern China. It arose as an <a href="/wiki/Exorcism" title="Exorcism">exorcistic</a> religious movement, and it is interethnic but also intimately connected to the <a href="/wiki/Tujia_people" title="Tujia people">Tujia people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2016-147">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Confucianism,_Taoism_and_orders_of_ritual_masters">Confucianism, Taoism and orders of ritual masters</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Confucianism, Taoism and orders of ritual masters">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Chinese ritual mastery traditions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fushou_(Fortune_and_Longevity)_Taoist_Temple_at_Tianchi_(Heavenly_Lake)_in_Fukang,_Changji,_Xinjiang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Fushou_%28Fortune_and_Longevity%29_Taoist_Temple_at_Tianchi_%28Heavenly_Lake%29_in_Fukang%2C_Changji%2C_Xinjiang.jpg/220px-Fushou_%28Fortune_and_Longevity%29_Taoist_Temple_at_Tianchi_%28Heavenly_Lake%29_in_Fukang%2C_Changji%2C_Xinjiang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Fushou_%28Fortune_and_Longevity%29_Taoist_Temple_at_Tianchi_%28Heavenly_Lake%29_in_Fukang%2C_Changji%2C_Xinjiang.jpg/330px-Fushou_%28Fortune_and_Longevity%29_Taoist_Temple_at_Tianchi_%28Heavenly_Lake%29_in_Fukang%2C_Changji%2C_Xinjiang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Fushou_%28Fortune_and_Longevity%29_Taoist_Temple_at_Tianchi_%28Heavenly_Lake%29_in_Fukang%2C_Changji%2C_Xinjiang.jpg/440px-Fushou_%28Fortune_and_Longevity%29_Taoist_Temple_at_Tianchi_%28Heavenly_Lake%29_in_Fukang%2C_Changji%2C_Xinjiang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Temple of Fortune and Longevity, at the <a href="/wiki/Heavenly_Lake_of_Tianshan" title="Heavenly Lake of Tianshan">Heavenly Lake of Tianshan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fukang" title="Fukang">Fukang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Changji_Hui_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture">Changji</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>. It is an example of Taoist temple which hosts various chapels dedicated to popular gods.<a href="#cite_note-148">[note 8]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%9D%88%E5%AE%89%E5%A3%87%E5%A4%A7%E6%B3%95%E5%B8%AB.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/%E9%9D%88%E5%AE%89%E5%A3%87%E5%A4%A7%E6%B3%95%E5%B8%AB.JPG/220px-%E9%9D%88%E5%AE%89%E5%A3%87%E5%A4%A7%E6%B3%95%E5%B8%AB.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/%E9%9D%88%E5%AE%89%E5%A3%87%E5%A4%A7%E6%B3%95%E5%B8%AB.JPG/330px-%E9%9D%88%E5%AE%89%E5%A3%87%E5%A4%A7%E6%B3%95%E5%B8%AB.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/%E9%9D%88%E5%AE%89%E5%A3%87%E5%A4%A7%E6%B3%95%E5%B8%AB.JPG/440px-%E9%9D%88%E5%AE%89%E5%A3%87%E5%A4%A7%E6%B3%95%E5%B8%AB.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Folk ritual masters conducting a ceremony.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jiangyin_wenmiao_dachengdian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Jiangyin_wenmiao_dachengdian.jpg/220px-Jiangyin_wenmiao_dachengdian.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Jiangyin_wenmiao_dachengdian.jpg/330px-Jiangyin_wenmiao_dachengdian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Jiangyin_wenmiao_dachengdian.jpg/440px-Jiangyin_wenmiao_dachengdian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The Temple of the God of Culture (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 文廟 wénmiào) of <a href="/wiki/Jiangyin" title="Jiangyin">Jiangyin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wuxi" title="Wuxi">Wuxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a>. In this temple the Wéndì (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 文帝, "God of Culture") enshrined is <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>.</figcaption></figure> Confucianism and Taoism—which are formalised, ritual, doctrinal or philosophical traditions—can be considered both as embedded within the larger category of Chinese religion, or as separate religions. In fact, one can practise certain folk cults and espouse the tenets of Confucianism as a philosophical framework, Confucian theology instructing to uphold the moral order through the worship of gods and ancestors<a href="#cite_note-149">[141]</a> that is the way of connecting to the <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a> and awakening to its harmony (<a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li (Confucian)">li</a>, "<a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%9Ata" title="Ṛta">rite</a>").<a href="#cite_note-150">[142]</a> Folk temples and ancestral shrines on special occasions may choose Confucian liturgy (that is called <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 儒 rú, or sometimes <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 正統 zhèngtǒng, meaning "<a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">orthoprax</a>" ritual style) led by Confucian "sages of rites" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 禮生 lǐshēng) who in many cases are the elders of a local community. Confucian liturgies are alternated with Taoist liturgies and popular ritual styles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart20033–5-151">[143]</a> There are many organised groups of the folk religion that adopt Confucian liturgy and identity, for example the <a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Gods_according_to_the_Confucian_Tradition" title="Way of the Gods according to the Confucian Tradition">Way of the Gods according to the Confucian Tradition</a> or phoenix churches (Luanism), or the <a href="/wiki/Confucian_churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian churches">Confucian churches</a>, schools and fellowships such as the Yīdān xuétáng (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 一耽學堂) of <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>,<a href="#cite_note-152">[144]</a> the Mèngmǔtáng (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 孟母堂) of <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Fan,_Chen._2015._p._29-153">[145]</a> the Confucian Fellowship (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 儒教道壇 Rújiào Dàotán) in northern Fujian, and ancestral temples of the Kong (Confucius) lineage operating as well as Confucian-teaching churches.<a href="#cite_note-Fan,_Chen._2015._p._29-153">[145]</a> In November 2015 a national <a href="/wiki/Kongshenghui" class="mw-redirect" title="Kongshenghui">Church of Confucius</a> was established with the contribution of many Confucian leaders. Scholar and Taoist priest <a href="/wiki/Kristofer_Schipper" title="Kristofer Schipper">Kristofer Schipper</a> defines Taoism as a "liturgical framework" for the development of local religion.<a href="#cite_note-Wu2014-154">[146]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Taoist_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist schools">currents</a> of Taoism are deeply interwoven with the Chinese folk religion, especially the <a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Taoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhengyi Taoism">Zhengyi</a> school, developing aspects of local cults within their doctrines;<a href="#cite_note-Wu2014-154">[146]</a> however Taoists always highlight the distinction between their traditions and those which are not Taoist. Priests of Taoism are called daoshi (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 道士), literally meaning "masters of the <a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a>", otherwise commonly translated as the "Taoists", as common followers and folk believers who are not part of Taoist orders are not identified as such. Taoists of the Zhengyi school, who are called sǎnjū dàoshi (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 散居道士) or huǒjū dàoshi (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 火居道士), respectively meaning "scattered daoshi" and "daoshi living at home (hearth)", because they can get married and perform the profession of priests as a part-time occupation, may perform rituals of offering (jiao), thanks-giving, propitiation, exorcism and rites of passage for local communities' temples and private homes.<a href="#cite_note-Davis-Daoists-155">[147]</a> Local gods of local cultures are often incorporated into their altars.<a href="#cite_note-Davis-Daoists-155">[147]</a> The Zhengyi Taoists are trained by other priests of the same sect, and historically received formal ordination by the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_Master" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial Master">Celestial Master</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Pas,_2014._p._259-156">[148]</a> although the 63rd Celestial Master Zhang Enpu fled to Taiwan in the 1940s during the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Lineages of ritual masters</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 法師 fashi), also referred to as practitioners of "Faism", also called "Folk Taoism" or (in southeast China) "Red Taoism", operate within the Chinese folk religion but outside any institution of official Taoism.<a href="#cite_note-Pas,_2014._p._259-156">[148]</a> The ritual masters, who have the same role of the sanju daoshi within the fabric of society, are not considered Taoist priests by the daoshi of Taoism who trace their lineage to the Celestial Masters and by Taoists officially registered with the state Taoist Church. Fashi are defined as of "<a href="/wiki/Kataphatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Kataphatic">kataphatic</a>" (filling) character in opposition to professional Taoists who are "<a href="/wiki/Kenotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenotic">kenotic</a>" (of emptying, or <a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">apophatic</a>, character).<a href="#cite_note-157">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organised_folk_religious_sects">Organised folk religious sects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Organised folk religious sects">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Chinese salvationist religions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Main_temple_of_the_City_of_the_Eight_Symbols_(%E5%85%AB%E5%8D%A6%E5%9F%8E),_the_holy_see_of_Weixinism_(%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E6%95%99)_in_Hebi_(%E9%B9%A4%E5%A3%81%E5%B8%82),_Henan,_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Main_temple_of_the_City_of_the_Eight_Symbols_%28%E5%85%AB%E5%8D%A6%E5%9F%8E%29%2C_the_holy_see_of_Weixinism_%28%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E6%95%99%29_in_Hebi_%28%E9%B9%A4%E5%A3%81%E5%B8%82%29%2C_Henan%2C_China.jpg/220px-Main_temple_of_the_City_of_the_Eight_Symbols_%28%E5%85%AB%E5%8D%A6%E5%9F%8E%29%2C_the_holy_see_of_Weixinism_%28%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E6%95%99%29_in_Hebi_%28%E9%B9%A4%E5%A3%81%E5%B8%82%29%2C_Henan%2C_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Main_temple_of_the_City_of_the_Eight_Symbols_%28%E5%85%AB%E5%8D%A6%E5%9F%8E%29%2C_the_holy_see_of_Weixinism_%28%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E6%95%99%29_in_Hebi_%28%E9%B9%A4%E5%A3%81%E5%B8%82%29%2C_Henan%2C_China.jpg/330px-Main_temple_of_the_City_of_the_Eight_Symbols_%28%E5%85%AB%E5%8D%A6%E5%9F%8E%29%2C_the_holy_see_of_Weixinism_%28%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E6%95%99%29_in_Hebi_%28%E9%B9%A4%E5%A3%81%E5%B8%82%29%2C_Henan%2C_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Main_temple_of_the_City_of_the_Eight_Symbols_%28%E5%85%AB%E5%8D%A6%E5%9F%8E%29%2C_the_holy_see_of_Weixinism_%28%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E6%95%99%29_in_Hebi_%28%E9%B9%A4%E5%A3%81%E5%B8%82%29%2C_Henan%2C_China.jpg/440px-Main_temple_of_the_City_of_the_Eight_Symbols_%28%E5%85%AB%E5%8D%A6%E5%9F%8E%29%2C_the_holy_see_of_Weixinism_%28%E5%94%AF%E5%BF%83%E6%95%99%29_in_Hebi_%28%E9%B9%A4%E5%A3%81%E5%B8%82%29%2C_Henan%2C_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The City of the Eight Symbols in <a href="/wiki/Qi_County,_Hebi" title="Qi County, Hebi">Qi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebi" title="Hebi">Hebi</a>, is the headquarters of the Weixinist Church in <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a>.</figcaption></figure> China has a long history of sect traditions characterised by a <a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">soteriological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">eschatological</a> character, often called "salvationist religions" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 救度宗教 jiùdù zōngjiào).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201119-158">[150]</a> They emerged from the common religion but are not part of the lineage cult of <a href="/wiki/Ancestor" title="Ancestor">ancestors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Progenitor" title="Progenitor">progenitors</a>, nor the communal deity religion of village temples, neighbourhood, corporations, or national temples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201119–20-159">[151]</a> <a href="/wiki/Prasenjit_Duara" title="Prasenjit Duara">Prasenjit Duara</a> has termed them "redemptive societies" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 救世團體 jiùshì tuántǐ),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201117-160">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014395-161">[153]</a> while modern Chinese scholarship describes them as "folk religious sects" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 民間宗教 mínjiān zōngjiào, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 民間教門 mínjiān jiàomén or <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 民间教派 mínjiān jiàopài),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201112-162">[154]</a> abandoning the derogatory term used by imperial officials, xiéjiào (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 邪教), "evil religion".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201123-163">[155]</a> They are characterised by several elements, including <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a>; foundation by a charismatic figure; direct divine revelation; a <a href="/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">millenarian</a> eschatology and voluntary path of <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">salvation</a>; an embodied experience of the numinous through healing and cultivation; and an expansive orientation through good deeds, <a href="/wiki/Evangelism" title="Evangelism">evangelism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">philanthropy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201119-158">[150]</a> Their practices are focused on improving morality, body cultivation, and recitation of scriptures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201119-158">[150]</a> Many of the redemptive religions of the 20th and 21st century aspire to become the repository of the entirety of the Chinese tradition in the face of Western modernism and materialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201129-164">[156]</a> This group of religions includes<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer20114–6-165">[157]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a> and other sects belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 先天道 "Way of Former Heaven"), Jiugongdao (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 九宮道 "Way of the Nine Palaces"), various proliferations of the <a href="/wiki/Luo_teaching" title="Luo teaching">Luo teaching</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Zaili_teaching" title="Zaili teaching">Zaili teaching</a>, and the more recent <a href="/wiki/De_teaching" title="De teaching">De teaching</a>, Weixinist, <a href="/wiki/Xuanyuan_teaching" title="Xuanyuan teaching">Xuanyuan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tiandi_teachings" title="Tiandi teachings">Tiandi teachings</a>, the latter two focused respectively on the worship of <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Huangdi</a> and the universal God. Also, the <a href="/wiki/Qigong" title="Qigong">qigong</a> schools are developments of the same religious context.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201111-166">[158]</a> These folk sectarian offer different world views and compete for influence. To take one example, <a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a> focuses on personal salvation through inner work and considers itself the most valid "Way of Heaven" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 天道 Tiāndào). Yiguandao offers its own "<a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Way of Former Heaven</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 先天道 Xiāntiāndào), that is, a cosmological definition of the state of things prior to creation, in unity with God. It regards the other <a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Gods_according_to_the_Confucian_Tradition" title="Way of the Gods according to the Confucian Tradition">Luanism</a>, a cluster of churches which focus on social morality through refined Confucian ritual to worship the gods, as the "Way of Later Heaven" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 後天道 Hòutiāndào), that is the cosmological state of created things.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart199712–13_&_''passim''-167">[159]</a> These movements were banned in the early <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republican China</a> and later Communist China. Many of them still remain illegal, underground or unrecognised in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, while others—specifically the De teaching, Tiandi teachings, Xuanyuan teaching, Weixinism and Yiguandao—have developed cooperation with mainland China's academic and non-governmental organisations.<a href="#cite_note-RCTC2014-5">[5]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sanyi_teaching" title="Sanyi teaching">Sanyi teaching</a> is an organised folk religion founded in the 16th century, present in the <a href="/wiki/Putian" title="Putian">Putian</a> region (<a href="/wiki/Putian_people" title="Putian people">Xinghua</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a> where it is legally recognised.<a href="#cite_note-RCTC2014-5">[5]</a> Some of these sects began to register as branches of the state Taoist Association since the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-Goossaert,_Palmer._2011._p._347-168">[160]</a> A further distinctive type of sects of the folk religion, that are possibly the same as the positive "secret sects", are the martial sects. They combine two aspects: the wénchǎng (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 文場 "cultural field"), that is the doctrinal aspect characterised by elaborate cosmologies, theologies, initiatory and ritual patterns, and that is usually kept secretive; and the wǔchǎng (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 武場 "martial field"), that is the body cultivation practice and that is usually the "public face" of the sect.<a href="#cite_note-Ambrosi2013-169">[161]</a> They were outlawed by Ming imperial edicts that continued to be enforced until the fall of the Qing dynasty in the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-Ambrosi2013-169">[161]</a> An example of martial sect is <a href="/wiki/Meihuaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Meihuaism">Meihuaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 梅花教 Méihuājiào, "Plum Flowers"), that has become very popular throughout northern China.<a href="#cite_note-Ambrosi2013-169">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[162]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, virtually all of the "redemptive societies" operate freely since the late 1980s. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tiandi_teachings">Tiandi teachings</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Tiandi teachings">edit</a>]</div> The Tiandi teachings are a religion that encompasses two branches, the Holy Church of the Heavenly Virtue (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 天德聖教 Tiāndé shèngjiào) and the Church of the Heavenly Deity (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 天帝教 Tiāndìjiào), both emerged from the teachings of Xiao Changming and Li Yujie, disseminated in the early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-Vermander-171">[163]</a> The latter is actually an outgrowth of the former established in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-Vermander-171">[163]</a> The religions focus on the worship of Tiandi (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 天帝), the "Heavenly Deity" or "Heavenly Emperor",<a href="#cite_note-Vermander-171">[163]</a> on health through the proper cultivation of <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Vermander-171">[163]</a> and teach a style of qigong named Tianren qigong.<a href="#cite_note-172">[164]</a> According to scholars, Tiandi teachings derive from the <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoist</a> tradition of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Hua" title="Mount Hua">Huashan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-173">[165]</a> where Li Yujie studied for eight years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201127-174">[166]</a> The Church of the Heavenly Deity is very active both in Taiwan and mainland China, where it has high-level links.<a href="#cite_note-Vermander-171">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Weixinism">Weixinism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Weixinism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Weixinism" title="Weixinism">Weixinism</a></div> Weixinism (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 唯心聖教; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Wéixīn shèngjiào; <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Holy Religion of the Only Heart' or 唯心教; Wéixīnjiào) is a religion primarily focused on the "orthodox lineages of <a href="/wiki/Yijing" class="mw-redirect" title="Yijing">Yijing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">feng shui</a>",<a href="#cite_note-175">[167]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a>,<a href="#cite_note-worldpeace-176">[168]</a> and worship of the "three great ancestors" (<a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Huangdi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yan_Emperor" title="Yan Emperor">Yandi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chi_You" class="mw-redirect" title="Chi You">Chiyou</a>).<a href="#cite_note-177">[169]</a> The movement promotes the restoration of the authentic roots of the Chinese civilization and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_unification" title="Chinese unification">Chinese unification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-worldpeace-176">[168]</a> The Weixinist Church, whose headquarters are in Taiwan, is also active in <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">Mainland China</a> in the key birthplaces of the Chinese culture. It has links with the government of <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> where it has established the "City of Eight Trigrams" templar complex on Yunmeng Mountain (of the <a href="/wiki/Yan_Mountains" title="Yan Mountains">Yan Mountains</a>),<a href="#cite_note-178">[170]</a> and it has also built temples in <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>.<a href="#cite_note-179">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geographic_and_ethnic_variations">Geographic and ethnic variations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Geographic and ethnic variations">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_and_south_divides">North and south divides</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: North and south divides">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baoshengdadi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Baoshengdadi.jpg/220px-Baoshengdadi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Baoshengdadi.jpg/330px-Baoshengdadi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Baoshengdadi.jpg/440px-Baoshengdadi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Altar to <a href="/wiki/Baoshengdadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Baoshengdadi">Baoshengdadi</a>, whose cult is mostly <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujianese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwanese</a>.</figcaption></figure> Recent scholarly works have found basic differences between north and south folk religion.<a href="#cite_note-GoossaertNCR-180">[172]</a> Folk religion of southern and southeastern provinces is focused on the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_kin" title="Chinese kin">lineages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_lineage_associations" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese lineage associations">their churches</a> (zōngzú xiéhuì <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 宗族協會) focusing on ancestral gods, while the folk religion of central-northern China (<a href="/wiki/North_China_Plain" title="North China Plain">North China Plain</a>) hinges on the communal worship of <a href="/wiki/Tutelary_deity" title="Tutelary deity">tutelary deities</a> of creation and nature as identity symbols by villages populated by families of different surnames.<a href="#cite_note-Overmyer,_2009._pp._12-13-137">[131]</a> They are structured into "communities of the god(s)" (shénshè <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神社, or huì <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 會, "association"),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer2009xii-131">[125]</a> which organise temple ceremonies (<a href="/wiki/Miaohui" title="Miaohui">miaohui</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 廟會), involving processions and pilgrimages,<a href="#cite_note-181">[173]</a> and led by indigenous ritual masters (fashi) who are often hereditary and linked to secular authority.<a href="#cite_note-182">[note 9]</a> Northern and southern folk religions also have a different <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_(gods)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantheon (gods)">pantheon</a>, of which the northern one is composed of more ancient gods of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">Chinese mythology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[174]</a> Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">folk religious sects</a> have historically been more successful in the central plains and in the northeastern provinces than in southern China, and central-northern folk religion shares characteristics of some of the sects, such as the heavy importance of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mother_goddess_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese mother goddess worship">mother goddess worship</a> and shamanism,<a href="#cite_note-184">[175]</a> as well as their scriptural transmission.<a href="#cite_note-GoossaertNCR-180">[172]</a>: 92  <a href="/wiki/Confucian_churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian churches">Confucian churches</a> as well have historically found much resonance among the population of the northeast; in the 1930s the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Church_of_the_Way_and_its_Virtue" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue">Universal Church of the Way and its Virtue</a> alone aggregated at least 25% of the population of the state of <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchuria</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwnby2008-185">[176]</a> and contemporary <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> has been analysed as an area of rapid growth of folk Confucian groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayette2016-186">[177]</a> Along the southeastern coast, ritual functions of the folk religion are reportedly dominated by Taoism, both in registered and unregistered forms (<a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Dao" title="Zhengyi Dao">Zhengyi Taoism</a> and unrecognised fashi orders), which since the 1990s has developed quickly in the area.<a href="#cite_note-Chan,_2005._p._93-187">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-Overmyer-2009-southeast-Daoism-188">[179]</a> Goossaert talks of this distinction, although recognising it as an oversimplification, of a "Taoist south" and a "village-religion/Confucian centre-north",<a href="#cite_note-GoossaertNCR-180">[172]</a>: 47  with the northern context also characterised by important orders of "folk Taoist" ritual masters, one of which are the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 陰陽生 yīnyángshēng ("sages of yin and yang"),<a href="#cite_note-Jones2011-189">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-GoossaertNCR-180">[172]</a>: 86  and sectarian traditions,<a href="#cite_note-GoossaertNCR-180">[172]</a>: 92  and also by a low influence of Buddhism and official Taoism.<a href="#cite_note-GoossaertNCR-180">[172]</a>: 90  The <a href="/wiki/Northeast_China_folk_religion" title="Northeast China folk religion">folk religion of northeast China</a> has unique characteristics deriving from the interaction of Han religion with <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_peoples" title="Tungusic peoples">Tungus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu shamanisms</a>; these include chūmǎxiān (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 出馬仙 "riding for the immortals") shamanism, the worship of foxes and other <a href="/wiki/Animal_worship" title="Animal worship">zoomorphic deities</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Huxian" title="Huxian">Fox Gods</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 狐神 Húshén)—Great Lord of the Three Foxes (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 胡三太爺 Húsān Tàiyé) and the Great Lady of the Three Foxes (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 胡三太奶 Húsān Tàinǎi)—at the head of pantheons.<a href="#cite_note-Deng-chumaxian-190">[181]</a> Otherwise, in the <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Inner_Mongolia" title="Religion in Inner Mongolia">religious context of Inner Mongolia</a> there has been a significant integration of Han Chinese into the traditional folk religion of the region. In recent years[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] there has also been an assimilation of deities from <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_folk_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibetan folk religion">Tibetan folk religion</a>, especially wealth gods.<a href="#cite_note-191">[182]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region" title="Tibet Autonomous Region">Tibet</a>, across broader <a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">western China</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>, there has been a growth of the cult of <a href="/wiki/Gesar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gesar">Gesar</a> with the explicit support of the Chinese government, a cross-ethnic Han-Tibetan, Mongol and Manchu deity (the Han identify him as an aspect of the god of war analogically with <a href="/wiki/Guan_Yu" title="Guan Yu">Guandi</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Culture_hero" title="Culture hero">culture hero</a> whose mythology is embodied as a culturally important <a href="/wiki/Epic_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic poem">epic poem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-192">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Taoised"_indigenous_religions_of_ethnic_minorities">"Taoised" indigenous religions of ethnic minorities</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: "Taoised" indigenous religions of ethnic minorities">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benzhu_Sanxing,_Dali,_Yunnan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Benzhu_Sanxing%2C_Dali%2C_Yunnan.jpg/220px-Benzhu_Sanxing%2C_Dali%2C_Yunnan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Benzhu_Sanxing%2C_Dali%2C_Yunnan.jpg/330px-Benzhu_Sanxing%2C_Dali%2C_Yunnan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Benzhu_Sanxing%2C_Dali%2C_Yunnan.jpg/440px-Benzhu_Sanxing%2C_Dali%2C_Yunnan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2104" data-file-height="1232" /></a><figcaption>The pan-Chinese <a href="/wiki/Sanxing_(deities)" title="Sanxing (deities)">Sanxing</a> (Three Star Gods) represented in <a href="/wiki/Bai_people" title="Bai people">Bai</a> iconographic style at a <a href="/wiki/Benzhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Benzhu">Benzhu</a> temple on Jinsuo Island, in <a href="/wiki/Dali_Bai_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture">Dali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>.</figcaption></figure> Chinese religion has both influenced, and in turn has been influenced by, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religions">indigenous religions</a> of ethnic groups that the Han Chinese have encountered along their ethnogenetic history. Seiwert (1987) finds evidence of pre-Chinese religions in the folk religion of certain southeastern provinces such as Fujian and Taiwan, especially in the local wu and lineages of ordained ritual masters.<a href="#cite_note-Seiwert1987-193">[184]</a>: 44  A process of <a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">sinicization</a>, or more appropriately a "Taoisation", is also the more recent experience of the indigenous religions of some distinct <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic minorities of China">ethnic minorities of China</a>, especially southwestern people. Chinese Taoists gradually penetrate within the indigenous religions of such peoples, in some cases working side by side with indigenous priests, in other cases taking over the latter's function and integrating them by requiring their ordination as Taoists.<a href="#cite_note-Seiwert1987-193">[184]</a>: 45  Usually, indigenous ritual practices remain unaffected and are adopted into Taoist liturgy, while indigenous gods are identified with Chinese gods.<a href="#cite_note-Seiwert1987-193">[184]</a>: 47  Seiwert discusses this phenomenon of "merger into Chinese folk religion" not as a mere elimination of non-Chinese indigenous religions, but rather as a cultural re-orientation. Local priests of southwestern ethnic minorities often acquire prestige by identifying themselves as Taoists and adopting Taoist holy texts.<a href="#cite_note-Seiwert1987-193">[184]</a>: 47  Mou (2012) writes that "Taoism has formed an indissoluble bond" with indigenous religions of southwestern ethnic minorities, especially the Tujia, <a href="/wiki/Yi_people" title="Yi people">Yi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yao_people" title="Yao people">Yao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMou201257-194">[185]</a> Seiwert mentions the <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Seiwert1987-193">[184]</a>: 45  "Daogongism" is Taoism among the <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_people" title="Zhuang people">Zhuang</a>, directed by the dàogōng (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 道公 "lords of the Tao") and it forms an established important aspect of the broader <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_folk_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang folk religion">Zhuang folk religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-195">[186]</a> On the other hand, it is also true that in more recent years there has been a general revival of indigenous lineages of ritual masters without identification of these as Taoists and support from the state Chinese Taoist Church. An example is the revival of lineages of bimo ("scripture sages") priests among the Yi peoples. <a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a> has a tradition of theological literature and though clergy ordination, and this is among the reasons why it is taken in high consideration by the Chinese government.<a href="#cite_note-196">[187]</a> Bamo Ayi (2001) attests that "since the early 1980s ... minority policy turned away from promoting assimilation of Han ways".<a href="#cite_note-Bamo_Ayi-197">[188]</a>: 118  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Features">Features</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Features">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width:16em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">"Chief Star pointing the Dipper" <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 魁星點斗 Kuíxīng diǎn Dòu</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Kui_Xing_pointing_the_Big_Dipper.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Kui_Xing_pointing_the_Big_Dipper.svg/90px-Kui_Xing_pointing_the_Big_Dipper.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Kui_Xing_pointing_the_Big_Dipper.svg/135px-Kui_Xing_pointing_the_Big_Dipper.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Kui_Xing_pointing_the_Big_Dipper.svg/180px-Kui_Xing_pointing_the_Big_Dipper.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="216" data-file-height="514" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Kuixing" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuixing">Kuixing</a> ("Chief Star"), the god of exams, composed of the characters describing the four <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> virtues (Sìde <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 四德), standing on the head of the ao (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 鰲) turtle (an expression for coming first in the examinations), and pointing at the <a href="/wiki/Big_Dipper" title="Big Dipper">Big Dipper</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 斗)".<a href="#cite_note-199">[note 10]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory_of_hierarchy_and_divinity">Theory of hierarchy and divinity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Theory of hierarchy and divinity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_gods_and_immortals" title="Chinese gods and immortals">Chinese gods and immortals</a></div> Chinese religions are <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheistic</a>, meaning that many deities are worshipped as part of what has been defined as yǔzhòu shénlùn (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 宇宙神論), translated as "<a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">cosmotheism</a>", a worldview in which divinity is inherent to the world itself.<a href="#cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._71-90">[87]</a> The gods (<a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">shen</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神; "growth", "beings that give birth"<a href="#cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._63-200">[190]</a>) are interwoven energies or principles that generate phenomena which reveal or reproduce the way of Heaven, that is to say the order (<a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">li</a>) of the Greatnine(<a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a>).<a href="#cite_note-names_of_Heaven-82">[note 2]</a> In Chinese tradition, there is not a clear distinction between the gods and their physical body or bodies (from stars to trees and animals);<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010158-201">[191]</a> the qualitative difference between the two seems not to have ever been emphasised.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010158-201">[191]</a> Rather, the disparity is said to be more quantitative than qualitative.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010158-201">[191]</a> In doctrinal terms, the Chinese view of gods is related to the understanding of <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a>, the life force,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010158-201">[191]</a> as the gods and their phenomenal productions are manifestations of it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010158-201">[191]</a> In this way, all natural bodies are believed to be able to attain supernatural attributes by acting according to the universal oneness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010158-201">[191]</a> Meanwhile, acting wickedly (that is to say against the Tian and its order) brings to disgrace and disaster.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010165-202">[192]</a> In folk religions, gods (shen) and immortals (<a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">xian</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 仙) are not specifically distinguished from each other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010161-203">[193]</a> Gods can incarnate in human form and human beings can reach immortality, which means to attain higher spirituality, since all the spiritual principles (gods) are begotten of the primordial qi before any physical manifestation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010159-113">[108]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_the_Mean" title="Doctrine of the Mean">Doctrine of the Mean</a>, one of the Confucian four books, the <a href="/wiki/Zhenren" title="Zhenren">zhenren</a> (wise) is the man who has achieved a spiritual status developing his true sincere nature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010162-204">[194]</a> This status, in turn, enables him to fully develop the true nature of others and of all things.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010162-204">[194]</a> The sage is able to "assist the transforming and nourishing process of Heaven and Earth", forming a trinity (三才 Sāncái, the "Three Powers") with them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010162-204">[194]</a> In other words, in the Chinese tradition humans are or can be the medium between Heaven and Earth, and have the role of completing what had been initiated.<a href="#cite_note-Sancai-116">[note 6]</a> Taoist schools in particular espouse an explicit spiritual pathway which pushes the earthly beings to the edge of eternity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010164-115">[110]</a> Since the human body is a microcosm, enlivened by the universal order of yin and yang like the whole cosmos, the means of immortality can be found within oneself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010164-115">[110]</a> Among those worshipped as immortal heroes (xian, exalted beings) are historical individuals distinguished for their worth or bravery, those who taught crafts to others and formed societies establishing the order of Heaven, ancestors or progenitors (zu <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 祖), and the creators of a spiritual tradition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010162,_165-111">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[195]</a> The concept of "human divinity" is not self-contradictory, as there is no unbridgeable gap between the two realms; rather, the divine and the human are mutually contained.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010162-204">[194]</a> In comparison with gods of an environmental nature, who tend to remain stable throughout human experience and history, individual human deities change in time. Some endure for centuries, while others remain localised cults, or vanish after a short time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010158-201">[191]</a> Immortal beings are conceived as "constellations of <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a>", which is so vibrant in certain historical individuals that, upon the person's death, this qi nexus does not dissipate but persists, and is reinforced by living people's worship.<a href="#cite_note-Barnett-206">[196]</a> The energetic power of a god is thought to reverberate on the worshipers influencing their fortune.<a href="#cite_note-Barnett-206">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deities_and_immortals">Deities and immortals</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Deities and immortals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Yellow_God_incarnation_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow God incarnation theology">Yellow God incarnation theology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Doumu_altar_and_statue_at_the_Doumugong_of_Butterworth,_Penang.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Doumu_altar_and_statue_at_the_Doumugong_of_Butterworth%2C_Penang.jpg/220px-Doumu_altar_and_statue_at_the_Doumugong_of_Butterworth%2C_Penang.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Doumu_altar_and_statue_at_the_Doumugong_of_Butterworth%2C_Penang.jpg/330px-Doumu_altar_and_statue_at_the_Doumugong_of_Butterworth%2C_Penang.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Doumu_altar_and_statue_at_the_Doumugong_of_Butterworth%2C_Penang.jpg/440px-Doumu_altar_and_statue_at_the_Doumugong_of_Butterworth%2C_Penang.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1836" data-file-height="1424" /></a><figcaption>Main altar and statue of <a href="/wiki/Doumu" title="Doumu">Doumu</a> inside the Temple of Doumu in <a href="/wiki/Butterworth,_Penang" class="mw-redirect" title="Butterworth, Penang">Butterworth, Penang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%82%8E%E9%BB%84%E4%BA%8C%E5%B8%9D%E5%B7%A8%E5%9E%8B%E5%A1%91%E5%83%8F%E6%AD%A3%E9%9D%A2%E8%A7%86%E8%A7%92.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/%E7%82%8E%E9%BB%84%E4%BA%8C%E5%B8%9D%E5%B7%A8%E5%9E%8B%E5%A1%91%E5%83%8F%E6%AD%A3%E9%9D%A2%E8%A7%86%E8%A7%92.JPG/220px-%E7%82%8E%E9%BB%84%E4%BA%8C%E5%B8%9D%E5%B7%A8%E5%9E%8B%E5%A1%91%E5%83%8F%E6%AD%A3%E9%9D%A2%E8%A7%86%E8%A7%92.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/%E7%82%8E%E9%BB%84%E4%BA%8C%E5%B8%9D%E5%B7%A8%E5%9E%8B%E5%A1%91%E5%83%8F%E6%AD%A3%E9%9D%A2%E8%A7%86%E8%A7%92.JPG/330px-%E7%82%8E%E9%BB%84%E4%BA%8C%E5%B8%9D%E5%B7%A8%E5%9E%8B%E5%A1%91%E5%83%8F%E6%AD%A3%E9%9D%A2%E8%A7%86%E8%A7%92.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/%E7%82%8E%E9%BB%84%E4%BA%8C%E5%B8%9D%E5%B7%A8%E5%9E%8B%E5%A1%91%E5%83%8F%E6%AD%A3%E9%9D%A2%E8%A7%86%E8%A7%92.JPG/440px-%E7%82%8E%E9%BB%84%E4%BA%8C%E5%B8%9D%E5%B7%A8%E5%9E%8B%E5%A1%91%E5%83%8F%E6%AD%A3%E9%9D%A2%E8%A7%86%E8%A7%92.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="2904" /></a><figcaption>Statue and ceremonial complex of the Yellow and Red Gods, from whom the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> are <a href="/wiki/Yan_Huang_Zisun" title="Yan Huang Zisun">said to be the descendants</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Zhengzhou" title="Zhengzhou">Zhengzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a>.</figcaption></figure> Gods and immortals (collectively <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神仙 shénxiān) in the Chinese cultural tradition reflect a hierarchical, <a href="/wiki/Multiperspectivity" title="Multiperspectivity">multiperspective</a> experience of divinity.<a href="#cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._63-200">[190]</a> In Chinese language there is a terminological distinction between <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神 shén, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 帝 dì and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 仙 xiān. Although the usage of the former two is sometimes blurred, it corresponds to the distinction in Western cultures between "god" and "deity", Latin <a href="/wiki/Genius_(mythology)" title="Genius (mythology)">genius</a> (meaning a generative principle, "spirit") and <a href="/wiki/Deus" title="Deus">deus</a> or divus; dì, sometimes translated as "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thearch" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:thearch">thearch</a>", implies a manifested or incarnate "godly" power.<a href="#cite_note-208">[note 11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedhurst1847[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkw1gAAAAcAAJpgPA260_260]-209">[198]</a> It is etymologically and figuratively analogous to the concept of di as the base of a fruit, which falls and produces other fruits. This analogy is attested in the <a href="/wiki/Shuowen_jiezi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuowen jiezi">Shuowen jiezi</a> explaining "deity" as "what faces the base of a melon fruit".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhao201251-210">[199]</a> Many classical books have lists and hierarchies of gods and immortals, among which the "Completed Record of Deities and Immortals" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神仙通鑒 Shénxiān tōngjiàn) of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010159-113">[108]</a> and the "<a href="/wiki/Biographies_of_Deities_and_Immortals" class="mw-redirect" title="Biographies of Deities and Immortals">Biographies of Deities and Immortals</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神仙傳 Shénxiān zhuán) by <a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a> (284–343).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010161-203">[193]</a> There's also the older <a href="/wiki/Liexian_zhuan" class="mw-redirect" title="Liexian zhuan">Liexian zhuan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 列仙傳 "Collected Biographies of Immortals"). There are the great cosmic gods representing the first principle in its unmanifested state or its creative order—<a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Yudi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 玉帝 "Jade Deity")<a href="#cite_note-king-emperor-shaman-axis-89">[note 3]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Doumu" title="Doumu">Doumu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 斗母 "Mother of the Meaning" or "Great Chariot"), <a href="/wiki/Pangu" title="Pangu">Pangu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 盤古, the <a href="/wiki/Macranthropy" title="Macranthropy">macranthropic</a> metaphor of the cosmos), <a href="/wiki/Xiwangmu" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiwangmu">Xiwangmu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 西王母 "Queen Mother of the West") and <a href="/wiki/Dongwanggong" class="mw-redirect" title="Dongwanggong">Dongwanggong</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 東王公 "King Duke of the East") who personify respectively the yin and the yang,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9wi-ZDdmaqECqXiwangmu_206–207]-211">[200]</a> as well as the dimensional Three Patrons and the <a href="/wiki/Wufang_Shangdi" title="Wufang Shangdi">Five Deities</a>; then there are the sky and weather gods, the scenery gods, the vegetal and animal gods, and gods of human virtues and crafts.<a href="#cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._71-90">[87]</a> These are interpreted in different ways in Taoism and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">folk sects</a>, the former conferring them long <a href="/wiki/Kataphatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Kataphatic">kataphatic</a> names.<a href="#cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._71-90">[87]</a> Below the great deities, there is the unquantifiable number of gods of nature, as every phenomena have or are gods. The Three Patrons (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 三皇 Sānhuáng)—<a href="/wiki/Fuxi" title="Fuxi">Fuxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCwa" title="Nüwa">Nüwa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shennong" title="Shennong">Shennong</a>—are the "vertical" manifestation of the primordial God corresponding to the Three Realms (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 三界 Sānjiè), representing the yin and yang and the medium between them, that is the human being.<a href="#cite_note-212">[201]</a> The Five Deities (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 五帝 Wǔdì) or "Five Forms of the Highest Deity" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 五方上帝 Wǔfāng Shàngdì)—the Yellow, Green or Blue, <a href="/wiki/Heidi_(god)" title="Heidi (god)">Black</a>, Red and White Deities<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedhurst1847[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkw1gAAAAcAAJpgPA260_260]-209">[198]</a>—are the five "horizontal" manifestations of the primordial God and according with the Three Realms they have a celestial, a terrestrial and a chthonic form.<a href="#cite_note-214">[note 12]</a> They correspond to the <a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">five phases of creation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Four_Symbols_(China)" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Symbols (China)">five constellations rotating around the celestial pole</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_Mountains_of_China" title="Sacred Mountains of China">five sacred mountains</a> and the five directions of space (the four <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_direction" title="Cardinal direction">cardinal directions</a> and the centre), and the five Dragon Gods (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 龍神 Lóngshén) which represent their mounts, that is to say the chthonic forces they preside over.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittleEichman2000250-215">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESunKistemaker1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid87lvBoFi8A0CqHuangdi_120–123]-216">[204]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Yellow_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow God">Yellow God</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 黃神 Huángshén) or "Yellow God of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Dipper" title="Big Dipper">Northern Dipper</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 黃神北斗 Huángshén Běidǒu<a href="#cite_note-217">[note 13]</a>) is of peculiar importance, as he is a form of the universal God (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_theology" title="Chinese theology">Tian or Shangdi</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELagerweyKalinowski20081080-218">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPregadio2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidR3Sp6TfzhpICqHuangdi_504–505],_vol._2_A-L-219">[206]</a> symbolising the <a href="/wiki/Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">axis mundi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kunlun_Mountain_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kunlun Mountain (mythology)">Kunlun</a>), or the intersection between the Three Patrons and the Five Deities, that is the center of the cosmos.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9wi-ZDdmaqECqHuangdi_200–201]-220">[207]</a> He is therefore described in the <a href="/wiki/Shizi_(book)" title="Shizi (book)">Shizi</a> as the "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 黃帝四面 Huángdì Sìmiàn).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESunKistemaker1997120-221">[208]</a> His human incarnation, the "Yellow Emperor (or Deity) of the Mysterious Origin" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 軒轅黃帝 Xuānyuán Huángdì), is said to be the creator of the <a href="/wiki/Huaxia" title="Huaxia">Huaxia</a> civility, of marriage and morality, language and lineage, and <a href="/wiki/Yan_Huang_Zisun" title="Yan Huang Zisun">patriarch of all the Chinese</a> together with the Red Deity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChamberlain2009222-222">[209]</a> Xuanyuan was the fruit of virginal birth, as his mother Fubao conceived him as she was aroused, while walking in the country, by a lightning from the Big Dipper.<a href="#cite_note-223">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mother_goddess_worship">Mother goddess worship</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Mother goddess worship">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%A2%A7%E9%9C%9E%E7%A5%A0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/%E7%A2%A7%E9%9C%9E%E7%A5%A0.jpg/220px-%E7%A2%A7%E9%9C%9E%E7%A5%A0.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/%E7%A2%A7%E9%9C%9E%E7%A5%A0.jpg/330px-%E7%A2%A7%E9%9C%9E%E7%A5%A0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/%E7%A2%A7%E9%9C%9E%E7%A5%A0.jpg/440px-%E7%A2%A7%E9%9C%9E%E7%A5%A0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Shrine of Bixia at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Tai" title="Mount Tai">Mount Tai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>.</figcaption></figure> The worship of <a href="/wiki/Mother_goddess" title="Mother goddess">mother goddesses</a> for the cultivation of offspring is present all over China, but predominantly in northern provinces. There are nine main goddesses, and all of them tend to be considered as manifestations or attendant forces of a singular goddess identified variously as Bixia (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 碧霞 "Blue Dawn"), the daughter or female consort of the Green God of Mount Tai, or <a href="/wiki/Houtu" title="Houtu">Houtu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 后土 the "Queen of the Earth").<a href="#cite_note-Jones,_2013._pp._166-167-224">[211]</a> Bixia herself is identified by Taoists as the more ancient goddess <a href="/wiki/Xiwangmu" class="mw-redirect" title="Xiwangmu">Xiwangmu</a>,<a href="#cite_note-225">[212]</a> Goddesses are commonly entitled mǔ (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 母 "mother"), lǎomǔ (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 老母 "old mother"), shèngmǔ (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 聖母 "holy mother"), niángniáng (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 娘娘 "lady"), nǎinai (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 奶奶 "granny"). Altars of goddess worship are usually arranged with Bixia at the center and two goddesses at her sides, most frequently the Lady of Eyesight and the Lady of Offspring.<a href="#cite_note-Wicks-226">[213]</a> A different figure but with the same astral connections as Bixia is the Qixing Niangniang (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 七星娘娘 "Goddess of the Seven Stars"). There is also the cluster of the Holy Mothers of the Three Skies (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 三霄聖母 Sanxiao Shengmu; or "Ladies of the Three Skies", <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 三霄娘娘 Sanxiao Niangniang), composed of <a href="/wiki/Yunxiao_Niangniang" title="Yunxiao Niangniang">Yunxiao Guniang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qiongxiao_Niangniang" title="Qiongxiao Niangniang">Qiongxiao Guniang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bixiao_Niangniang" title="Bixiao Niangniang">Bixiao Guniang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer2009135-227">[214]</a> In southeastern provinces the cult of <a href="/wiki/Chen_Jinggu" title="Chen Jinggu">Chen Jinggu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 陳靖姑) is identified by some scholars as an emanation of the northern cult of Bixia.<a href="#cite_note-228">[215]</a> There are other local goddesses with motherly features, including the northern Canmu (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 蠶母 "Silkworm Mother") and <a href="/wiki/Mazu_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazu (goddess)">Mazu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 媽祖 "Ancestral Mother"), popular in provinces along the eastern coast and in Taiwan. The title of "Queen of Heaven" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 天后 Tiānhòu) is most frequently attributed to Mazu and Doumu (the cosmic goddess). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Worship_and_modalities_of_religious_practice">Worship and modalities of religious practice</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Worship and modalities of religious practice">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Procession_with_xingshen_(traveling_image_of_the_god)_in_central_Taiwan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Procession_with_xingshen_%28traveling_image_of_the_god%29_in_central_Taiwan.jpg/220px-Procession_with_xingshen_%28traveling_image_of_the_god%29_in_central_Taiwan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Procession_with_xingshen_%28traveling_image_of_the_god%29_in_central_Taiwan.jpg/330px-Procession_with_xingshen_%28traveling_image_of_the_god%29_in_central_Taiwan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Procession_with_xingshen_%28traveling_image_of_the_god%29_in_central_Taiwan.jpg/440px-Procession_with_xingshen_%28traveling_image_of_the_god%29_in_central_Taiwan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="511" /></a><figcaption>Procession with a traveling image of a god (xíngshén <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 行神) in central <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_temple%27s_vows_to_the_deity.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Chinese_temple%27s_vows_to_the_deity.jpg/220px-Chinese_temple%27s_vows_to_the_deity.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Chinese_temple%27s_vows_to_the_deity.jpg/330px-Chinese_temple%27s_vows_to_the_deity.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Chinese_temple%27s_vows_to_the_deity.jpg/440px-Chinese_temple%27s_vows_to_the_deity.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Vows to a deity at a Chinese temple in <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taoist_ceremony_at_Xiao_ancestral_temple_in_Chaoyang,_Shantou,_Guangdong_(inside)_(4).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Taoist_ceremony_at_Xiao_ancestral_temple_in_Chaoyang%2C_Shantou%2C_Guangdong_%28inside%29_%284%29.jpg/220px-Taoist_ceremony_at_Xiao_ancestral_temple_in_Chaoyang%2C_Shantou%2C_Guangdong_%28inside%29_%284%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Taoist_ceremony_at_Xiao_ancestral_temple_in_Chaoyang%2C_Shantou%2C_Guangdong_%28inside%29_%284%29.jpg/330px-Taoist_ceremony_at_Xiao_ancestral_temple_in_Chaoyang%2C_Shantou%2C_Guangdong_%28inside%29_%284%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Taoist_ceremony_at_Xiao_ancestral_temple_in_Chaoyang%2C_Shantou%2C_Guangdong_%28inside%29_%284%29.jpg/440px-Taoist_ceremony_at_Xiao_ancestral_temple_in_Chaoyang%2C_Shantou%2C_Guangdong_%28inside%29_%284%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>A Taoist rite for ancestor worship at the <a href="/wiki/Xiao_(surname)" title="Xiao (surname)">Xiao</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancestral_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestral temple">ancestral temple</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chaoyang_District,_Shantou" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaoyang District, Shantou">Chaoyang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shantou" title="Shantou">Shantou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>.</figcaption></figure> Adam Yuet Chau identifies five styles or modalities of "doing" Chinese religion:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChau2011-229">[216]</a> <ul><li>Discursive-scriptural: involving the composition, preaching, and recitation of texts (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">classics</a>, Taoist scriptures and morality books);</li> <li>Personal cultivation mode, involving a long-term cultivation and transformation of oneself with the goal of becoming a <a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">xian</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 仙 (immortal), <a href="/wiki/Zhenren" title="Zhenren">zhenren</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 真人 ("true person"), or shengren (wise), through the practice of different "technologies of the self" (<a href="/wiki/Qigong" title="Qigong">qigong</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 氣功, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_alchemy" title="Chinese alchemy">Taoist inner and outer alchemy</a>, charitable acts for merit, memorisation and recitation of texts);</li> <li>Liturgical: involving elaborate ritual procedures conducted by specialists of rites (Taoist rites, Confucian rites, Nuo rites, <a href="/wiki/Fengshui" class="mw-redirect" title="Fengshui">fengshui</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 風水);</li> <li>Immediate practical: aiming at quick efficacious (ling <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 靈) results through simple ritual and magical techniques (<a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Talisman" title="Talisman">talismans</a>, divine medicine, consulting media and shamans);</li> <li>Relational: emphasising the devotional relationship between men and deities and among men themselves (organising elaborate <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">sacrifices</a>, making vows, organising temple festivals, <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">pilgrimages</a>, processions, and religious communities) in "social comings and goings" (laiwang <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 來往) and "interconnectedness" (<a href="/wiki/Guanxi" title="Guanxi">guanxi</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 關係).</li></ul> Generally speaking, the Chinese believe that spiritual and material well-being ensues from the harmony of humanity and gods in their participation in the same cosmic power, and also believe that by taking the right path and practice anybody is able to reach the absolute reality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010173-230">[217]</a> Religious practice is therefore regarded as the bridge to link the human world to the spiritual source,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010173-230">[217]</a> maintaining the harmony of the micro and macrocosmos, protecting the individual and the world from disruption.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183-129">[123]</a> In this sense, the Chinese view of human life is not deterministic, but one is a master of his own life and can choose to collaborate with the deities for a harmonious world.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183-129">[123]</a> Chinese culture being a <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holistic</a> system, in which every aspect is a part of a whole, Chinese folk religious practice is often intermingled with political, educational and economic concerns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010172-231">[218]</a> A gathering or event may be encompassed with all of these aspects; in general, the commitment (belief) and the process or rite (practice) together form the internal and external dimensions of Chinese religious life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010172-231">[218]</a> In village communities, religious services are often organised and led by local people themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20139-50">[50]</a> Leaders are usually selected among male heads of families or lineages, or village heads.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20139-50">[50]</a> A simple form of individual practice is to show respect for the gods (jing shen <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 敬神) through <a href="/wiki/Jingxiang" title="Jingxiang">jingxiang</a> (incense offering), and the exchange of vows (huan yuan <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 還願).<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183-129">[123]</a> Sacrifice can consist of incense, oil, and candles, as well as money.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201310-232">[219]</a> Religious devotion may also express in the form of performance troupes (huahui), involving many types of professionals such as stilt walkers, lion dancers, musicians, martial arts masters, <a href="/wiki/Yangge" title="Yangge">yangge</a> dancers, and story-tellers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201310-232">[219]</a> Deities can also be respected through moral deeds in their name (shanshi <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 善事), and self-cultivation (xiuxing <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 修行).<a href="#cite_note-233">[220]</a> Some forms of folk religion develop clear prescriptions for believers, such as detailed lists of meritorious and sinful deeds in the form of "morality books" (shanshu <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 善書) and ledgers of merit and demerit.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._182-234">[221]</a> Involvement in the affairs of communal or intra-village temples are perceived by believers as ways for accumulating merit (gongde <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 功德).<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._182-234">[221]</a> Virtue is believed to accumulate in one's heart, which is seen as energetic centre of the human body (zai jun xin zuo tian fu <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 在君心作福田).<a href="#cite_note-235">[222]</a> Practices of communication with the gods comprehend different forms of Chinese shamanism, such as <a href="/wiki/Wu_(shaman)" title="Wu (shaman)">wu shamanism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tongji_(spirit_medium)" title="Tongji (spirit medium)">tongji mediumship</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Fuji_(planchette_writing)" title="Fuji (planchette writing)">fuji</a> practice. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sacrifices">Sacrifices</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Sacrifices">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%A9%AC%E9%99%8D%E9%BE%99_04_-_%E7%8C%AA%E8%82%89%E7%9B%98.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/%E9%A9%AC%E9%99%8D%E9%BE%99_04_-_%E7%8C%AA%E8%82%89%E7%9B%98.jpg/220px-%E9%A9%AC%E9%99%8D%E9%BE%99_04_-_%E7%8C%AA%E8%82%89%E7%9B%98.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/%E9%A9%AC%E9%99%8D%E9%BE%99_04_-_%E7%8C%AA%E8%82%89%E7%9B%98.jpg/330px-%E9%A9%AC%E9%99%8D%E9%BE%99_04_-_%E7%8C%AA%E8%82%89%E7%9B%98.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/%E9%A9%AC%E9%99%8D%E9%BE%99_04_-_%E7%8C%AA%E8%82%89%E7%9B%98.jpg/440px-%E9%A9%AC%E9%99%8D%E9%BE%99_04_-_%E7%8C%AA%E8%82%89%E7%9B%98.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="4096" /></a><figcaption>Tray for offering sacrifices, on display in <a href="/wiki/Kaiping" title="Kaiping">Kaiping</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a> has characters for different types of <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">sacrifice</a>, probably the oldest way to communicate with divine forces, today generally encompassed by the definition jìsì (祭祀).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010173-230">[217]</a> However different in scale and quantity, all types of sacrifice would normally involve food, wine, meat and later incense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010176-236">[223]</a> Sacrifices usually differ according to the kind of deity they are devoted to.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010176-236">[223]</a> Traditionally, cosmic and nature gods are offered uncooked (or whole) food, while ancestors are offered cooked food.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010176-236">[223]</a> Moreover, sacrifices for gods are made inside the temples that enshrine them, while sacrifices for ancestors are made outside temples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010176-236">[223]</a> Yearly sacrifices (ji) are made to Confucius, the Red and Yellow Emperors, and other cultural heroes and ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010176-236">[223]</a> Both in past history and at the present, all sacrifices are assigned with both religious and political purposes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010177-237">[224]</a> Some gods are considered carnivorous, for example the River God (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 河神 Héshén) and Dragon Gods, and offering to them requires animal sacrifice.<a href="#cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._189-238">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thanksgiving_and_redeeming">Thanksgiving and redeeming</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Thanksgiving and redeeming">edit</a>]</div> The aims of rituals and sacrifices may be of thanksgiving and redeeming, usually involving both.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010177-237">[224]</a> Various sacrifices are intended to express gratitude toward the gods in the hope that spiritual blessing and protection will continue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010177-237">[224]</a> The jiào (醮), an elaborate Taoist sacrifice or "rite of universal salvation", is intended to be a cosmic community renewal, that is to say a reconciliation of a community around its spiritual centre.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010178-239">[226]</a> The jiao ritual usually starts with zhai, "fasting and purification", that is meant as an atonement for evil-doing, then followed by sacrificial offerings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010178-239">[226]</a> This rite, of great political importance, can be intended for the whole nation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010178-239">[226]</a> In fact, as early as the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>, emperors asked renowned Taoists to perform such rituals on their behalf or for the entire nation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010178-239">[226]</a> The modern Chinese republic has given approval for Taoists to conduct such rituals since the 1990s, with the aim of protecting the country and the nation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010178-239">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rites_of_passage">Rites of passage</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Rites of passage">edit</a>]</div> A variety of practices are concerned with personal well-being and spiritual growth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010180-240">[227]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rites_of_passage" class="mw-redirect" title="Rites of passage">Rites of passage</a> are intended to narrate the holy significance of each crucial change throughout a life course.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010180-240">[227]</a> These changes, which are physical and social and at the same time spiritual, are marked by elaborate customs and religious rituals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010180-240">[227]</a> In the holistic view about nature and the human body and life, as macro and microcosmos, the life process of a human being is equated with the rhythm of seasons and cosmic changes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010180-240">[227]</a> Hence, birth is likened to spring, youth to summer, maturity to autumn and old age to winter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010180-240">[227]</a> There are ritual passages for those who belong to a religious order of priests or monks, and there are the rituals of the stages in a life, the main four being birth, adulthood, marriage and death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010181-241">[228]</a> Chinese folk religion sometimes incorporated Daoist elements about personal growth. A <a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a> realm inconceivable and incomprehensible by normal humans and even Confucius and <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianists</a> was sometimes called "the <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Heavens</a>" and thought to exist by many ancient folk religion practitioners.<a href="#cite_note-:132-242">[229]</a> Higher, spiritual versions of Daoists such as Laozi were thought to exist in there when they were alive and absorb "the purest Yin and Yang",<a href="#cite_note-:132-242">[229]</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">xian</a> who were reborn into it after their human selves' spirits were sent there. These spiritual versions were thought to be abstract beings that can manifest in that world as mythical beings such as xian <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">dragons</a> who eat yin and yang energy and ride <a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">clouds</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:132-242">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Places_of_worship">Places of worship</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Places of worship">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese temple">Chinese temple</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:348px;max-width:348px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%8E%89%E7%9A%87%E5%BA%99%E6%B8%85%E6%B0%B4%E5%8E%BF%E7%94%98%E8%82%83.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%E7%8E%89%E7%9A%87%E5%BA%99%E6%B8%85%E6%B0%B4%E5%8E%BF%E7%94%98%E8%82%83.jpg/190px-%E7%8E%89%E7%9A%87%E5%BA%99%E6%B8%85%E6%B0%B4%E5%8E%BF%E7%94%98%E8%82%83.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%E7%8E%89%E7%9A%87%E5%BA%99%E6%B8%85%E6%B0%B4%E5%8E%BF%E7%94%98%E8%82%83.jpg/285px-%E7%8E%89%E7%9A%87%E5%BA%99%E6%B8%85%E6%B0%B4%E5%8E%BF%E7%94%98%E8%82%83.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/%E7%8E%89%E7%9A%87%E5%BA%99%E6%B8%85%E6%B0%B4%E5%8E%BF%E7%94%98%E8%82%83.jpg/380px-%E7%8E%89%E7%9A%87%E5%BA%99%E6%B8%85%E6%B0%B4%E5%8E%BF%E7%94%98%E8%82%83.jpg 2x" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="562" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 玉皇廟 Yùhuángmiào<a href="#cite_note-243">[note 14]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_of_the_Highest_Goddess_in_Fuding,_Ningde,_Fujian,_China_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Temple_of_the_Highest_Goddess_in_Fuding%2C_Ningde%2C_Fujian%2C_China_%281%29.jpg/150px-Temple_of_the_Highest_Goddess_in_Fuding%2C_Ningde%2C_Fujian%2C_China_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Temple_of_the_Highest_Goddess_in_Fuding%2C_Ningde%2C_Fujian%2C_China_%281%29.jpg/225px-Temple_of_the_Highest_Goddess_in_Fuding%2C_Ningde%2C_Fujian%2C_China_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Temple_of_the_Highest_Goddess_in_Fuding%2C_Ningde%2C_Fujian%2C_China_%281%29.jpg/300px-Temple_of_the_Highest_Goddess_in_Fuding%2C_Ningde%2C_Fujian%2C_China_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 太母聖殿 Tàimǔ shèngdiàn</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Examples of temples from two different parts of China: the Temple of the <a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Jade King</a> in <a href="/wiki/Qingshui_County" title="Qingshui County">Qingshui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tianshui" title="Tianshui">Tianshui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>; and the Holy Temple of the Highest Mother in <a href="/wiki/Fuding" title="Fuding">Fuding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ningde" title="Ningde">Ningde</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fujian" title="Fujian">Fujian</a>.</div></div></div></div> Chinese language has a variety of words defining the temples of the Chinese religion. Some of these terms have a precise functional use, although with time some confusion has arisen and some of them have been used interchangeably in some contexts. Collective names defining "temples" or places of worship are <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 寺廟 sìmiào and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 廟宇 miàoyǔ.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2009-244">[230]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 寺 sì, which originally meant a type of residence for imperial officials, with the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism in China</a> became associated with Buddhist monasteries as many officials donated their residences to the monks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2009-244">[230]</a> Today sì and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 寺院 sìyuàn ("monastery") are used almost exclusively for Buddhist monasteries, with sporadic exceptions, and sì is a component character of names for <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mosques" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese mosques">Chinese mosques</a>. Another term now mostly associated with Buddhism is <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 庵 ān, "thatched hut", originally a form of dwelling of monks later extended to mean monasteries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2009-244">[230]</a> Temples can be public, private (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 私廟 sìmiào) and household temples (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 家廟 jiāmiào). The jing <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 境 is a broader "territory of a god", a geographic region or a village or city with its surroundings, marked by multiple temples or complexes of temples and delineated by the processions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoossaertPalmer201125-245">[231]</a> Pertaining to Chinese religion the most common term is <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 廟 miào graphically meaning a "shrine" or "<a href="/wiki/Sacred_enclosure" title="Sacred enclosure">sacred enclosure</a>"; it is the general Chinese term that is translated with the general Western "<a href="/wiki/Temple" title="Temple">temple</a>", and is used for temples of any of the deities of polytheism. Other terms include <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 殿 diàn which indicates the "house" of a god, enshrining one specific god, usually a chapel within a larger temple or sacred enclosure; and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 壇 tán which means "<a href="/wiki/Altar" title="Altar">altar</a>" and refers to any indoor or outdoor altars, majestic outdoor altars being those for the worship of Heaven and Earth and other gods of the environment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2009-244">[230]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 宮 Gōng, originally referring to imperial palaces, became associated to temples of representations of the universal God or the highest gods and consorts, such as the Queen of Heaven.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2009-244">[230]</a> Another group of words is used for the <a href="/wiki/Ancestral_shrine" title="Ancestral shrine">temples of ancestral religion</a>: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 祠 cí (either "temple" or "shrine", meaning a sacred enclosure) or <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 宗祠 zōngcí ("ancestor shrine"). These terms are also used for temples dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">immortal beings</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2009-244">[230]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 祖廟 Zǔmiào ("original temple") instead refers to a temple which is believed to be the original temple of a deity, the most legitimate and powerful.<a href="#cite_note-246">[232]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 堂 Táng, meaning "hall" or "church hall", originally referred to the central hall of secular buildings but it entered religious usage as a place of worship of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">folk religious sects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2009-244">[230]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity in China</a> has borrowed this term from the sects. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 觀 Guàn is the appropriate Chinese translation of the Western term "temple", as both refer to "<a href="/wiki/Contemplation" title="Contemplation">contemplation</a>" (of the divine, according to the astral patterns in the sky or the icon of a deity). Together with its extension <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 道觀 dàoguàn ("to contemplate or observe the Dao"), it is used exclusively for <a href="/wiki/Taoist_temple" title="Taoist temple">Taoist temples</a> and monasteries of the state <a href="/wiki/Taoist_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist Church">Taoist Church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2009-244">[230]</a> Generic terms include <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 院 yuàn meaning "sanctuary", from the secular usage for a courtyard, college or hospital institution; <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 岩 yán ("rock") and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 洞 dòng ("hole", "cave") referring to temples set up in caves or on cliffs. Other generic terms are <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 府 fǔ ("house"), originally of imperial officials, which is a rarely used term; and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 亭 tíng ("pavilion") which refers to the areas of a temple where laypeople can stay.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2009-244">[230]</a> There is also <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神祠 shéncí, "shrine of a god". Ancestral shrines are sacred places in which lineages of related families, identified by shared <a href="/wiki/Chinese_surname" title="Chinese surname">surnames</a>, worship their common progenitors. These temples are the "collective representation" of a group, and function as centers where religious, social and economic activities intersect.<a href="#cite_note-247">[233]</a> Chinese temples are traditionally built according to the styles and materials (wood and bricks) of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_architecture" title="Chinese architecture">Chinese architecture</a>, and this continues to be the rule for most of the new temples. However, in the early 20th century and especially in the mainland religious revival of the early 21st century, there has been a proliferation of new styles in temple construction. These include the use of new materials (stones and concrete, stainless steel and glass) and the combination of Chinese traditional shapes with styles of the West or of transnational modernity. Examples can be found in the large ceremonial complexes of mainland China. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Temple_networks_and_gatherings">Temple networks and gatherings</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Temple networks and gatherings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fenxiang" title="Fenxiang">Fenxiang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miaohui" title="Miaohui">Miaohui</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GwongFuMiuWui_(SingWongMiu).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/GwongFuMiuWui_%28SingWongMiu%29.jpg/220px-GwongFuMiuWui_%28SingWongMiu%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/GwongFuMiuWui_%28SingWongMiu%29.jpg/330px-GwongFuMiuWui_%28SingWongMiu%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/GwongFuMiuWui_%28SingWongMiu%29.jpg/440px-GwongFuMiuWui_%28SingWongMiu%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1836" /></a><figcaption>Gathering at a Temple of the City God of <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, Guangdong.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 分香 Fēnxiāng, meaning an "incense division", is a term that defines both hierarchical networks of temples dedicated to a god, and the ritual process by which these networks form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaharWeller199624-248">[234]</a> These temple networks are economic and social bodies, and in certain moments of history have even taken military functions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaharWeller199624-248">[234]</a> They also represent routes of <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">pilgrimage</a>, with communities of devotees from the affiliated temples going up in the hierarchy to the senior temple (zumiao).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaharWeller199624-248">[234]</a> When a new temple dedicated to the same god is founded, it enters the network through the ritual of division of incense. This consists in filling the incense burner of the new temple with ashes brought from the incense burner of an existing temple.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaharWeller199624-248">[234]</a> The new temple is therefore spiritually affiliated to the older temple where the ashes were taken, and directly below it in the hierarchy of temples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaharWeller199624-248">[234]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 廟會 Miàohuì, literally "gatherings at the temple", are "collective rituals to greet the gods" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 迎神賽會 yíngshén sàihuì) that are held at the temples on various occasions such as the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_New_Year" title="Chinese New Year">Chinese New Year</a> or the birthday or holiday of the god enshrined in the temple.<a href="#cite_note-Davis-249">[235]</a> In North China they are also called <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 賽會 sàihuì ("communal ritual gatherings") or <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 香會 xiānghuì ("incense gatherings"), while a <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 賽社 sàishè ("communal ritual body") is the association which organises such events and by extension it has become another name of the event itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200994-250">[236]</a> Activities include rituals, theatrical performances, processions of the gods' images throughout villages and cities, and offerings to the temples.<a href="#cite_note-Davis-249">[235]</a> In north China temple gatherings are generally week-long and large events attracting tens of thousands of people, while in south China they tend to be smaller and village-based events.<a href="#cite_note-Davis-249">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Demographics">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mainland_China_and_Taiwan">Mainland China and Taiwan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Mainland China and Taiwan">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B2%B3%E5%8C%97%E6%A2%85%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%A3%E5%9C%B0%E5%B8%88%E7%A5%96%E6%AE%BF.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/%E6%B2%B3%E5%8C%97%E6%A2%85%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%A3%E5%9C%B0%E5%B8%88%E7%A5%96%E6%AE%BF.jpg/220px-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8C%97%E6%A2%85%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%A3%E5%9C%B0%E5%B8%88%E7%A5%96%E6%AE%BF.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/%E6%B2%B3%E5%8C%97%E6%A2%85%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%A3%E5%9C%B0%E5%B8%88%E7%A5%96%E6%AE%BF.jpg/330px-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8C%97%E6%A2%85%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%A3%E5%9C%B0%E5%B8%88%E7%A5%96%E6%AE%BF.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/%E6%B2%B3%E5%8C%97%E6%A2%85%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%A3%E5%9C%B0%E5%B8%88%E7%A5%96%E6%AE%BF.jpg/440px-%E6%B2%B3%E5%8C%97%E6%A2%85%E8%8A%B1%E5%9C%A3%E5%9C%B0%E5%B8%88%E7%A5%96%E6%AE%BF.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="297" /></a><figcaption>Temple of the Founding Father (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 師祖殿 Shīzǔdiàn) of the principal holy see (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 聖地 shèngdì) of the <a href="/wiki/Meihuaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Meihuaism">Plum Flower</a> folk religious sect in <a href="/wiki/Xingtai" title="Xingtai">Xingtai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>.</figcaption></figure> According to Yang and Hu (2012): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Chinese folk religion deserves serious research and better understanding in the social scientific study of religion. This is not only because of the sheer number of adherents—several times more adherents than Christians and Buddhists combined, but also because folk religion may have significant social and political functions in China's transition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYangHu2012505-251">[237]</a></blockquote> According to their research, 55.5% of the adult population (15+) of China, or 578 million people in absolute numbers, believe and practise folk religions, including a 20% who practice ancestor religion or communal worship of deities, and the rest who practise what Yang and Hu define "individual" folk religions like devotion to specific gods such as <a href="/wiki/Caishen" title="Caishen">Caishen</a>. Members of folk religious sects are not taken into account.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYangHu2012514-252">[238]</a> Around the same year, Kenneth Dean estimates 680 million people involved in folk religion, or 51% of the total population.<a href="#cite_note-254">[note 15]</a> At the same time, self-identified folk religion believers in Taiwan are 42.7% of the adult (20+) population, or 16 million people in absolute numbers, although devotion to ancestors and gods can be found even among other religions' believers or 88% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYangHu2012514-252">[238]</a> According to the 2005 census of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, Taoism is the statistical religion of 33% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-255">[240]</a> The Chinese Spiritual Life Survey conducted by the Center on Religion and Chinese Society of <a href="/wiki/Purdue_University" title="Purdue University">Purdue University</a>, published in 2010, found that 754 million people (56.2%) practise ancestor religion, but only 216 million people (16%) "believe in the existence" of the ancestor.<a href="#cite_note-256">[note 16]</a> The same survey says that 173 million (13%) practise Chinese folk religion in a Taoist framework.<a href="#cite_note-CSLS2010-257">[241]</a> The <a href="/wiki/China_Family_Panel_Studies" title="China Family Panel Studies">China Family Panel Studies</a>' survey of 2012,<a href="#cite_note-CFPS2012-013CGSS-b-258">[242]</a> published in 2014, based on the Chinese General Social Surveys which are held on robust samples of tens of thousands of people, found that only 12.6% of the population of China belongs to its <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">five state-sanctioned religious groups</a>, while among the rest of the population only 6.3% are <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheists</a>, and the remaining 81% (1 billion people) pray to or worship gods and ancestors in the manner of the traditional popular religion. The same survey has found that 2.2% (≈30 million) of the total population declares to be affiliated to one or another of the many <a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">folk religious sects</a>. At the same time, reports of the Chinese government claim that the sects have about the same number of followers of the five state-sanctioned religions counted together (≈13% ≈180 million).<a href="#cite_note-Phoenix_Weekly-259">[243]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Economy_of_temples_and_rituals">Economy of temples and rituals</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Economy of temples and rituals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_on_the_rooftop_of_a_commercial_building_in_Lucheng,_Wenzhou,_Zhejiang,_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Temple_on_the_rooftop_of_a_commercial_building_in_Lucheng%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China.jpg/220px-Temple_on_the_rooftop_of_a_commercial_building_in_Lucheng%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Temple_on_the_rooftop_of_a_commercial_building_in_Lucheng%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China.jpg/330px-Temple_on_the_rooftop_of_a_commercial_building_in_Lucheng%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Temple_on_the_rooftop_of_a_commercial_building_in_Lucheng%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China.jpg/440px-Temple_on_the_rooftop_of_a_commercial_building_in_Lucheng%2C_Wenzhou%2C_Zhejiang%2C_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Folk temple on the rooftop of a commercial building in the city of <a href="/wiki/Wenzhou" title="Wenzhou">Wenzhou</a>.</figcaption></figure> Scholars have studied the <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economic</a> dimension of Chinese folk religion,<a href="#cite_note-260">[244]</a> whose rituals and temples interweave a form of <a href="/wiki/Grassroots" title="Grassroots">grassroots</a> socio-economic capital for the well-being of local communities, fostering the circulation of wealth and its investment in the "sacred capital" of temples, gods and ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang2007226-261">[245]</a> This religious economy already played a role in periods of imperial China, plays a significant role in modern <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, and is seen as a driving force in the rapid economic development in parts of rural <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, especially the southern and eastern coasts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang2007226–230-262">[246]</a> According to Law (2005), in his study about the relationship between the revival of folk religion and the reconstruction of patriarchal civilisation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Similar to the case in Taiwan, the practice of folk religion in rural southern China, particularly in the Pearl River Delta, has thrived as the economy has developed. ... In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weberian</a> predictions, these phenomena suggest that drastic economic development in the Pearl River Delta may not lead to total disenchantment with beliefs concerning magic in the cosmos. On the contrary, the revival of folk religions in the Delta region is serving as a countervailing re-embedding force from the local cultural context, leading to the coexistence of the world of enchantments and the modern world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaw200590-263">[247]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Mayfair_Yang" title="Mayfair Yang">Mayfair Yang</a> (2007) defines it as an "embedded capitalism", which preserves local identity and autonomy, and an "ethical capitalism" in which the drive for individual accumulation of money is tempered by religious and kinship ethics of generosity which foster the sharing and investment of wealth in the construction of civil society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYang2007223-264">[248]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overseas_Chinese">Overseas Chinese</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Overseas Chinese">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia">Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yokohama_Masobyo_2013-05-05.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Yokohama_Masobyo_2013-05-05.JPG/220px-Yokohama_Masobyo_2013-05-05.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Yokohama_Masobyo_2013-05-05.JPG/330px-Yokohama_Masobyo_2013-05-05.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Yokohama_Masobyo_2013-05-05.JPG/440px-Yokohama_Masobyo_2013-05-05.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1088" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Mazu,_Yokohama" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple of Mazu, Yokohama">Temple of Mazu</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yokohama" title="Yokohama">Yokohama</a>, serving the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_people_in_Japan" title="Chinese people in Japan">Chinese of Japan</a>.</figcaption></figure> Most of the <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Chinese" title="Overseas Chinese">overseas Chinese</a> populations have maintained Chinese folk religions, often adapting to the new environment by developing new cults and incorporating elements of local traditions. In <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, Chinese deities are subject to a "re-territorialisation" and maintain their relation to the ethnic associations (i.e. the Hainanese Association or the Fujianese Association, each of them has a patron deity and manages one or more temples of such a deity).<a href="#cite_note-Tan-265">[249]</a> The most important deity among Southeast Asian Chinese is <a href="/wiki/Mazu_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazu (goddess)">Mazu</a>, the Queen of Heaven and goddess of the sea. This is related to the fact that most of these Chinese populations are from southeastern provinces of China, where the goddess is very popular.<a href="#cite_note-Tan-265">[249]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">folk religious sects</a> have spread successfully among Southeast Asian Chinese. They include especially <a href="/wiki/De_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="De religion">Church of Virtue</a> (Deism),<a href="#cite_note-266">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[252]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhenkongdao" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhenkongdao">Zhenkongdao</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoossaertPalmer2011108-269">[253]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoossaertPalmer2011108-269">[253]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:China" title="Portal:China">China portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ancestral_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese ancestral worship">Chinese ancestral worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_gods_and_immortals" title="Chinese gods and immortals">Chinese gods and immortals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Chinese ritual mastery traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_religions_of_fasting" title="Chinese religions of fasting">Chinese religions of fasting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Chinese salvationist religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_shamanism" title="Chinese shamanism">Chinese shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_spiritual_world_concepts" title="Chinese spiritual world concepts">Chinese spiritual world concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>—<a href="/wiki/Confucian_church" title="Confucian church">Confucian church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture" title="Ghosts in Chinese culture">Ghosts in Chinese culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_Taoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Quanzhen Taoism">Quanzhen Taoism</a> & <a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Dao" title="Zhengyi Dao">Zhengyi Taoism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>—<a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazu" title="Mazu">Mazu worship</a> & <a href="/wiki/List_of_Mazu_temples" title="List of Mazu temples">List of Mazu temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_theology" title="Chinese theology">Chinese theology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_place">By place</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: By place">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia">Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China_folk_religion" title="Northeast China folk religion">Northeast China folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Great_Mountains_(Taiwan)" title="Four Great Mountains (Taiwan)">Four Great Mountains (Taiwan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temples_of_Taichung" class="mw-redirect" title="Temples of Taichung">Temples of Taichung in Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_Hau_temples_in_Hong_Kong" title="Tin Hau temples in Hong Kong">Tin Hau temples in Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwan_Tai_temples_in_Hong_Kong" title="Kwan Tai temples in Hong Kong">Kwan Tai temples in Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hip_Tin_temples_in_Hong_Kong" title="Hip Tin temples in Hong Kong">Hip Tin temples in Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Council_for_the_Confucian_Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia">Confucian Religion in Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_City_God_Temples_in_China" title="List of City God Temples in China">List of City God Temples in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baishatun_Mazu_Pilgrimage" title="Baishatun Mazu Pilgrimage">Baishatun Mazu Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_Shan_King_Sacrificial_Ceremony" title="Qing Shan King Sacrificial Ceremony">Qing Shan King Sacrificial Ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_temples_in_Kolkata" title="Chinese temples in Kolkata">Chinese temples in Kolkata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_chicken-beheading_rituals" title="Taiwanese chicken-beheading rituals">Taiwanese chicken-beheading rituals</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_similar_national_traditions">Other similar national traditions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Other similar national traditions">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Shintoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Shintoism">Japanese Shintoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Shamanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean Shamanism">Korean Shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Tai folk religion</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_Sino-Tibetan_ethnic_religions">Other Sino-Tibetan ethnic religions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Other Sino-Tibetan ethnic religions">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongbaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dongbaism">Dongbaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion" title="Nuo folk religion">Nuo folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang folk religion</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_non-Sino-Tibetan_ethnic_religions_present_in_China">Other non-Sino-Tibetan ethnic religions present in China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Other non-Sino-Tibetan ethnic religions present in China">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Mongolian shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Miao folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_folk_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhuang folk religion">Zhuang folk religion</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_articles">Other articles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Other articles">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Ye_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Wang Ye worship">Wang Ye worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Emperor_Gods_Festival" title="Nine Emperor Gods Festival">Nine Emperor Gods Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birthday_of_the_Monkey_God" title="Birthday of the Monkey God">Birthday of the Monkey God</a> & <a href="/wiki/Monkey_King_Festival" title="Monkey King Festival">Monkey King Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dajiao" title="Dajiao">Dajiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kau_chim" title="Kau chim">Kau chim</a> & <a href="/wiki/Jiaobei" title="Jiaobei">Jiaobei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancestor_veneration_in_China" title="Ancestor veneration in China">Ancestor worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_halls" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestral halls">Ancestral halls</a> & <a href="/wiki/Ancestral_tablet" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestral tablet">Ancestral tablet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_lineage_associations" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese lineage associations">Chinese lineage associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Government_Lunar_New_Year_kau_chim_tradition" title="Hong Kong Government Lunar New Year kau chim tradition">Hong Kong Government Lunar New Year kau chim tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_goods_store" title="Religious goods store">Religious goods store</a> & <a href="/wiki/Papier-mache_offering_shops_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Papier-mache offering shops in Hong Kong">Papier-mache offering shops in Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Church" title="Bell Church">Bell Church</a> & <a href="/wiki/Bell_Church_(temple)" title="Bell Church (temple)">Bell Church (temple)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">Feng shui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_creation_myths" title="Chinese creation myths">Chinese creation myths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">Chinese mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ti%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiān">Tiān</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> The graphical <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> of Tian <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 天 as "Great One" (Dà yī <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 大一), and the phonetical etymology as diān <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 顛, were first recorded by <a href="/wiki/Xu_Shen" title="Xu Shen">Xu Shen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> John C. Didier in In and Outside the Square (2009) for the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Platonic_Papers" title="Sino-Platonic Papers">Sino-Platonic Papers</a> discusses different etymologies which trace the character Tian <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 天 to the astral square or its ellipted forms, dīng <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 口, representing the <a href="/wiki/Circumpolar_star" title="Circumpolar star">north celestial pole</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">pole star</a> and <a href="/wiki/Big_Dipper" title="Big Dipper">Big Dipper</a> revolving around it; historically a symbol of the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">absolute source of the universal reality</a> in many cultures), which is the archaic (<a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a>) form of dīng <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 丁 ("square").<a href="#cite_note-Didier,_2009._Vol._III,_pp._3-6-67">[67]</a> Gao Hongjin and other scholars trace the modern word Tian to the Shang pronunciation of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 口 dīng (that is *teeŋ).<a href="#cite_note-Didier,_2009._Vol._III,_pp._3-6-67">[67]</a> This was also the origin of Shang's Dì <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 帝 ("Deity"), and later words meaning something "on high" or "top", including <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 頂 dǐng.<a href="#cite_note-Didier,_2009._Vol._III,_pp._3-6-67">[67]</a> The modern graph for Tian <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 天 would derive from a <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> version of the Shang archaic form of Dì <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 帝 (from Shang <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">oracle bone script</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> → <a href="/wiki/File:Shang_archaic_form_of_Di.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Shang_archaic_form_of_Di.svg/20px-Shang_archaic_form_of_Di.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Shang_archaic_form_of_Di.svg/30px-Shang_archaic_form_of_Di.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Shang_archaic_form_of_Di.svg/40px-Shang_archaic_form_of_Di.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="631" data-file-height="631" /></a>, which represents a fish entering the astral square); this Zhou version represents a being with a human-like body and a head-mind informed by the astral pole (→ <a href="/wiki/File:Zhou_archaic_form_of_Tian.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Zhou_archaic_form_of_Tian.svg/20px-Zhou_archaic_form_of_Tian.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Zhou_archaic_form_of_Tian.svg/30px-Zhou_archaic_form_of_Tian.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Zhou_archaic_form_of_Tian.svg/40px-Zhou_archaic_form_of_Tian.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="149" data-file-height="149" /></a>).<a href="#cite_note-Didier,_2009._Vol._III,_pp._3-6-67">[67]</a> Didier further links the Chinese astral square and Tian or Di characters to other well-known symbols of God or divinity as the northern pole in key ancient cultural centres: the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Harappan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic</a>–<a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryan</a> <a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">spoked wheels</a>,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cross" title="Cross">crosses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">hooked crosses</a> (Chinese wàn <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 卍/卐),<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a> <a href="/wiki/Dingir" title="Dingir">Dingir</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Cuneiform_sumer_dingir.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Cuneiform_sumer_dingir.svg/20px-Cuneiform_sumer_dingir.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Cuneiform_sumer_dingir.svg/30px-Cuneiform_sumer_dingir.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Cuneiform_sumer_dingir.svg/40px-Cuneiform_sumer_dingir.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Jixu Zhou (2005), also in the Sino-Platonic Papers, connects the etymology of Dì <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 帝, <a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a> *Tees, to the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <a href="/wiki/Deus" title="Deus">Deus</a>, <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-names_of_Heaven-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-names_of_Heaven_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-names_of_Heaven_82-1">b</a> Tian, besides Taidi ("Great Deity") and <a href="/wiki/Shangdi" title="Shangdi">Shangdi</a> ("Highest Deity"), <a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Yudi</a> ("Jade Deity"), Shen <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神 ("God"), and Taiyi ("Great Oneness") as identified as the ladle of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Dipper" title="Big Dipper">Tiānmén</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 天門 ("Gate of Heaven", the Big Dipper),<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a> is defined by many other names attested in the Chinese literary, philosophical and religious tradition:<a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a> <ul><li>Tiānshén <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 天神, the "God of Heaven", interpreted in the <a href="/wiki/Shuowen_jiezi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuowen jiezi">Shuowen jiezi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 說文解字) as "the being that gives birth to all things";</li> <li>Shénhuáng <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神皇, "God the King", attested in Taihong ("The Origin of Vital Breath");</li> <li>Tiāndì <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 天帝, the "Deity of Heaven" or "Emperor of Heaven".</li> <li>A popular Chinese term is Lǎotiānyé (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 老天爺), "Old Heavenly Father".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianzhu_(Chinese_name_of_God)" title="Tianzhu (Chinese name of God)">Tiānzhǔ</a> 天主—the "Lord of Heaven": In "The Document of Offering Sacrifices to Heaven and Earth on the Mountain Tai" (Fengshan shu) of the <a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a> it is used as the title of the first God from whom all the other gods derive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELüGong201465-78">[77]</a></li> <li>Tiānhuáng 天皇—the "August Personage of Heaven": In the "Poem of Fathoming Profundity" (Si'xuan fu), transcribed in "The History of the Later Han Dynasty" (Hou Han shu), Zhang Heng ornately writes: «I ask the superintendent of the Heavenly Gate to open the door and let me visit the King of Heaven at the Jade Palace»;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELüGong201466-79">[78]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavenly_King" title="Heavenly King">Tiānwáng</a> 天王—the "King of Heaven" or "Monarch of Heaven".</li> <li>Tiāngōng 天公—the "Duke of Heaven" or "General of Heaven";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELagerweyKalinowski2008981-80">[79]</a></li> <li>Tiānjūn 天君—the "Prince of Heaven" or "Lord of Heaven";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELagerweyKalinowski2008981-80">[79]</a></li> <li>Tiānzūn 天尊—the "Heavenly Venerable", also a title for high gods in Taoist theologies;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELüGong201466-79">[78]</a></li></ul> Tian is both <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">transcendent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immanence" title="Immanence">immanent</a>, manifesting in the three forms of dominance, destiny and nature. In the Wujing yiyi (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 五經異義, "Different Meanings in the <a href="/wiki/Five_Classics" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Classics">Five Classics</a>"), <a href="/wiki/Xu_Shen" title="Xu Shen">Xu Shen</a> explains that the designation of Heaven is quintuple:<a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a> <ul><li>Huáng Tiān <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 皇天 —"Yellow Heaven" or "Shining Heaven", when it is venerated as the lord of creation;</li> <li>Hào Tiān <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 昊天—"Vast Heaven", with regard to the vastness of its vital breath (qi);</li> <li>Mín Tiān <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 昊天—"Compassionate Heaven" for it hears and corresponds with justice to the all-under-heaven;</li> <li>Shàng Tiān <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 上天—"Highest Heaven" or "First Heaven", for it is the primordial being supervising all-under-heaven;</li> <li>Cāng Tiān <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 蒼天—"Deep-Green Heaven", for it being unfathomably deep.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-king-emperor-shaman-axis-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-king-emperor-shaman-axis_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-king-emperor-shaman-axis_89-1">b</a> The characters yu <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8E%89#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:玉">玉</a> (jade), huang <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%9A%87#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:皇">皇</a> (emperor, sovereign, august), wang <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%8E%8B#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:王">王</a> (king), as well as others pertaining to the same semantic field, have a common denominator in the concept of gong <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B7%A5#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:工">工</a> (work, art, craft, artisan, bladed weapon, square and compass; <a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">gnomon</a>, "interpreter") and <a href="/wiki/Wu_(shaman)" title="Wu (shaman)">wu</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 巫 (shaman, medium)<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> in its archaic form <a href="/wiki/File:%E5%B7%AB-bronze.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/%E5%B7%AB-bronze.svg/15px-%E5%B7%AB-bronze.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/%E5%B7%AB-bronze.svg/23px-%E5%B7%AB-bronze.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/%E5%B7%AB-bronze.svg/30px-%E5%B7%AB-bronze.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a>, with the same meaning of wan <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8D%8D#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:卍">卍</a> (<a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">swastika</a>, ten thousand things, all being, universe).<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> The character dì <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 帝 is rendered as "deity" or "emperor" and describes a divine principle that exerts a fatherly dominance over what it produces.<a href="#cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._64-85">[83]</a> A king is a man or an entity who is able to merge himself with the <a href="/wiki/Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">axis mundi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">centre of the universe</a>, bringing its order into reality. The ancient kings or emperors of the Chinese civilisation were shamans or priests, that is to say mediators of the divine rule.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> The same Western terms "king" and "emperor" traditionally meant an entity capable to embody the divine rule: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/king" class="extiw" title="wikt:king">king</a> etymologically means "gnomon", "generator", while <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/emperor" class="extiw" title="wikt:emperor">emperor</a> means "interpreter", "one who makes from within". </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Temples are usually built in accordance with <a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">feng shui</a> methods, which hold that any thing needs to be arranged in equilibrium with the surrounding world in order to thrive. Names of holy spaces often poetically describe their collocation within the world. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> The po can be compared with the <a href="/wiki/Psyche_(psychology)" title="Psyche (psychology)">psyche</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thymos" class="mw-redirect" title="Thymos">thymos</a> of the Greek philosophy and tradition, while the hun with the <a href="/wiki/Pneuma" title="Pneuma">pneuma</a> or "immortal soul".<a href="#cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._69-107">[103]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sancai-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sancai_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sancai_116-1">b</a> By the words of the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> scholar Dong Zhongshu: "Heaven, Earth and humankind are the foundations of all living things. Heaven engenders all living things, Earth nourishes them, and humankind completes them." In the <a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a>: "Tao is great. Heaven is great. Earth is great. And the king [humankind] is also great." The concept of the Three Powers / Agents / Ultimates is furtherly discussed in Confucian commentaries of the <a href="/wiki/Yijing" class="mw-redirect" title="Yijing">Yijing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010164-115">[110]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> The White Sulde (White Spirit) is one of the two spirits of Genghis Khan (the other being the Black Sulde), represented either as his white or yellow horse or as a fierce warrior riding this horse. In its interior, the temple enshrines a statue of Genghis Khan (at the center) and four of his men on each side (the total making nine, a symbolic number in Mongolian culture), there is an altar where offerings to the godly men are made, and three white suldes made with white horse hair. From the central sulde there are strings which hold tied light blue pieces of cloth with a few white ones. The wall is covered with all the names of the Mongol kins. The Chinese worship Genghis as the ancestral god of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> The main axis of the Taoist Temple of Fortune and Longevity (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 福壽觀 Fúshòuguān) has a Temple of the Three Patrons (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 三皇殿 Sānhuángdiàn) and a Temple of the Three Purities (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 三清殿 Sānqīngdiàn, the orthodox gods of Taoist theology). Side chapels include a Temple of the God of Wealth (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 財神殿 Cáishéndiàn), a Temple of the Lady (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 娘娘殿 Niángniángdiàn), a Temple of the Eight Immortals (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 八仙殿 Bāxiāndiàn), and a Temple of the (God of) Thriving Culture (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 文昌殿 Wénchāngdiàn). The Fushou Temple belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Taoist_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist Church">Taoist Church</a> and was built in 2005 on the site of a former Buddhist temple, the Iron Tiles Temple, which stood there until it was destituted and destroyed in 1950. Part of the roof tiles of the new temples are from the ruins of the former temple excavated in 2002. </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Overmyer (2009, p. 73), says that from the late 19th to the 20th century few professional priests (i.e. licensed Taoists) were involved in local religion in the central and northern provinces of China, and discusses various types of folk ritual specialists including: the yuehu <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 樂戶, the zhuli <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 主禮 (p. 74), the shenjia <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神家 ("godly families", hereditary specialists of gods and their rites; p. 77), then (p. 179) the yinyang or fengshui masters (as "... folk Zhengyi Daoists of the Lingbao scriptural tradition, living as ordinary peasants. They earn their living both as a group from performing public rituals, and individually [...] by doing geomancy and calendrical consultations for fengshui and auspicious days"; quoting: S. Jones (2007), Ritual and Music of North China: Shawm Bands in Shanxi). He also describes shamans or media known by different names: mapi <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 馬裨, wupo <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 巫婆, shen momo <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神嬤嬤 or shen han <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神漢 (p. 87); xingdao de <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 香道的 ("practitioners of the incense way"; p. 85); village xiangtou <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 香頭 ("incense heads"; p. 86); matong <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 馬童 (the same as southern <a href="/wiki/Tongji_(spirit_medium)" title="Tongji (spirit medium)">jitong</a>), either wushen <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 巫神 (possessed by gods) or shenguan <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神官 (possessed by immortals; pp. 88–89); or "godly sages" (shensheng <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 神聖; p. 91). Further (p. 76), he discusses for example the sai <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 賽, ceremonies of thanksgiving to the gods in <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a> with roots in the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song era</a>, whose leaders very often corresponded to local political authorities. This pattern continues today with former village Communist Party secretaries elected as temple association bosses (p. 83). He concludes (p. 92): "In sum, since at least the early twentieth century the majority of local ritual leaders in north China have been products of their own or nearby communities. They have special skills in organization, ritual performance or interaction with the gods, but none are full-time ritual specialists; they have all 'kept their day jobs'! As such they are exemplars of ordinary people organizing and carrying out their own cultural traditions, persistent traditions with their own structure, functions and logic that deserve to be understood as such." </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> The image is a good synthesis of the basic virtues of Chinese religion and Confucian ethics, that is to say "to move and act according to the harmony of Heaven". The Big Dipper or Great Chariot in Chinese culture (as in other traditional cultures) is a symbol of the <a href="/wiki/Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">axis mundi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">source of the universe</a> (God, Tian) in its way of manifestation, order of creation (li or Tao). The symbol, also called the Gate of Heaven (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 天門 Tiānmén), is widely used in esoteric and mystical literature. For example, an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Shangqing_Taoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shangqing Taoism">Shangqing Taoism</a>'s texts: <dl><dd>"Life and death, separation and convergence, all derive from the seven stars. Thus when the Big Dipper impinges on someone, he dies, and when it moves, he lives. That is why the seven stars are Heaven's chancellor, the yamen where the gate is opened to give life."<a href="#cite_note-198">[189]</a></dd></dl> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> The term "thearch" is from Greek theos ("deity"), with <a href="/wiki/Arche" class="mw-redirect" title="Arche">arche</a> ("principle", "origin"), thus meaning "divine principle", "divine origin". In sinology it has been used to designate the incarnated gods who, according to Chinese tradition, sustain the world order and originated China. It is one of the alternating translations of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 帝 dì, together with "emperor" and "god".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPregadio2013504,_vol._2_A-L-207">[197]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> The natural order emanating from the primordial God (Tian-Shangdi) inscribing and designing worlds as tán <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 壇, "altar", the Chinese concept equivalent of the Indian <a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">mandala</a>. The traditional Chinese religious cosmology shows Huangdi, embodiment of Shangdi, as the hub of the universe and the Wudi (four gods of the directions and the seasons) as his emanations. The diagram illustrated above is based on the <a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESunKistemaker1997121-213">[202]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> A <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 斗 dǒu in Chinese is an entire semantic field meaning the shape of a "dipper", as the <a href="/wiki/Big_Dipper" title="Big Dipper">Big Dipper</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 北斗 Běidǒu), or a "cup", signifying a "whirl", and also has martial connotations meaning "fight", "struggle", "battle". </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> Temples of the Jade Deity, a representation of the universal God in popular religion, are usually built on raised artificial platforms. </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> Scholar Kenneth Dean estimates 680 million people involved in folk temples and rituals. Quote: "According to Dean, 'in the rural sector... if one takes a rough figure of 1000 people per village living in 680,000 administrative villages and assume an average of two or three temples per village, one arrives at a figure of over 680 million villagers involved in some way with well over a million temples and their rituals'."<a href="#cite_note-253">[239]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> However, there is considerable discrepancy between what Chinese and Western cultures intend with the concepts of "belief", "existence" and "practice". The Chinese folk religion is often considered one of "belonging" rather than "believing" (see: <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 5) </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser1995378-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser1995378_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeiser1995">Teiser (1995)</a>, p. 378. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer198651-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvermyer198651_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOvermyer1986">Overmyer (1986)</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMadsen2010" class="citation journal cs1">Madsen, Richard (October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131101113151/http://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/gratis/Madsen-21-4.pdf">"The Upsurge of Religion in China"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Democracy" title="Journal of Democracy">Journal of Democracy</a>. 21 (4). <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a> for the <a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_Democracy" title="National Endowment for Democracy">National Endowment for Democracy</a>: 64–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjod.2010.0013">10.1353/jod.2010.0013</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145160849">145160849</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/gratis/Madsen-21-4.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 1 November 2013. Retrieved 20 November 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Democracy&rft.atitle=The+Upsurge+of+Religion+in+China&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=64-65&rft.date=2010-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjod.2010.0013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145160849%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Madsen&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.journalofdemocracy.org%2Farticles%2Fgratis%2FMadsen-21-4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaenssbauer201528-37-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaenssbauer201528-37_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGaenssbauer2015">Gaenssbauer (2015)</a>, p. 28-37. </li> <li id="cite_note-RCTC2014-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RCTC2014_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RCTC2014_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RCTC2014_5-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhuo2014" class="citation book cs1">Zhuo, Xinping (2014). "Civil Society and the Multiple Existence of Religions". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/PDF-Dateien/E-Journal_RCTC/RCTC_2014-1_Complete_Issue.pdf">Relationship between Religion and State in the People's Republic of China</a> (PDF). Vol. 4. pp. 22–23. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140502142724if_/http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/redaktion/RCTC_2014-1_Complete_Issue.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2 May 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Civil+Society+and+the+Multiple+Existence+of+Religions&rft.btitle=Relationship+between+Religion+and+State+in+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China&rft.pages=22-23&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Zhuo&rft.aufirst=Xinping&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.china-zentrum.de%2Ffileadmin%2FPDF-Dateien%2FE-Journal_RCTC%2FRCTC_2014-1_Complete_Issue.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Sautman, 1997. pp. 80–81 </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChau2005" class="citation journal cs1">Chau, Adam Yuet (2005). "The Politics of Legitimation and the Revival of Popular Religion in Shaanbei, North-Central China". Modern China. 31 (2). Sage: 236–278. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0097700404274038">10.1177/0097700404274038</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0097-7004">0097-7004</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20062608">20062608</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=The+Politics+of+Legitimation+and+the+Revival+of+Popular+Religion+in+Shaanbei%2C+North-Central+China&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=236-278&rft.date=2005&rft.issn=0097-7004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20062608%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0097700404274038&rft.aulast=Chau&rft.aufirst=Adam+Yuet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnYkbAAAAQBAJqmedicine_86]-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvermyer1986[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidnYkbAAAAQBAJqmedicine_86]_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOvermyer1986">Overmyer (1986)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nYkbAAAAQBAJ&q=medicine">86</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20135–6-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20135–6_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20135–6_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, pp. 5–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201321-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201321_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201321_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201321_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201321_10-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201323-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201323_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201323_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201323_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201323_11-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdler2011[httpwww2kenyoneduDeptsReligionFacAdlerWritingsNon-theisticpdf_13]-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdler2011[httpwww2kenyoneduDeptsReligionFacAdlerWritingsNon-theisticpdf_13]_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAdler2011">Adler (2011)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Non-theistic.pdf">13</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Teiser,_1996-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Teiser,_1996_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Teiser,_1996_13-1">b</a> Teiser, 1996. </li> <li id="cite_note-Thien_Do,_2003,_pp._10-11-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thien_Do,_2003,_pp._10-11_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thien_Do,_2003,_pp._10-11_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thien_Do,_2003,_pp._10-11_14-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thien_Do,_2003,_pp._10-11_14-3">d</a> Thien Do, 2003, pp. 10–11 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowker2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Bowker_(theologian)" title="John Bowker (theologian)">Bowker, John</a> (2021). World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained. New York: DK. p. 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7440-3475-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7440-3475-2"><bdi>978-0-7440-3475-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Religions%3A+The+Great+Faiths+Explored+%26+Explained&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=167&rft.pub=DK&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-7440-3475-2&rft.aulast=Bowker&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014393"The_problem_started_when_the_Taiwanese_translator_of_my_paper_chose_to_render_'popular_religion'_literally_as_<span_lang="zh-Latn">mínjiān_zōngjiào_(<span_lang="zh-Hant">[[Category:Articles_containing_traditional_Chinese-language_text]]民間宗教&rpar;._The_immediate_association_this_term_caused_in_the_minds_of_many_Taiwanese_and_practically_all_mainland_Chinese_participants_in_the_conference_was_of_popular_sects_<span_lang="zh-Latn">mínjiān_jiàopài_(<span_lang="zh-Hant">[[Category:Articles_containing_traditional_Chinese-language_text]]民間教派&rpar;,_rather_than_the_local_and_communal_religious_life_that_was_the_main_focus_of_my_paper.-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart2014393"The_problem_started_when_the_Taiwanese_translator_of_my_paper_chose_to_render_'popular_religion'_literally_as_<span_lang="zh-Latn">mínjiān_zōngjiào_(<span_lang="zh-Hant">[[Category:Articles_containing_traditional_Chinese-language_text]]民間宗教&rpar;._The_immediate_association_this_term_caused_in_the_minds_of_many_Taiwanese_and_practically_all_mainland_Chinese_participants_in_the_conference_was_of_popular_sects_<span_lang="zh-Latn">mínjiān_jiàopài_(<span_lang="zh-Hant">[[Category:Articles_containing_traditional_Chinese-language_text]]民間教派&rpar;,_rather_than_the_local_and_communal_religious_life_that_was_the_main_focus_of_my_paper._16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClart2014">Clart (2014)</a>, p. 393, "The problem started when the Taiwanese translator of my paper chose to render 'popular religion' literally as mínjiān zōngjiào (民間宗教). The immediate association this term caused in the minds of many Taiwanese and practically all mainland Chinese participants in the conference was of popular sects mínjiān jiàopài (民間教派), rather than the local and communal religious life that was the main focus of my paper.. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014399–401-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart2014399–401_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClart2014">Clart (2014)</a>, pp. 399–401. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014402-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart2014402_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClart2014">Clart (2014)</a>, p. 402. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014402–406-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart2014402–406_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClart2014">Clart (2014)</a>, pp. 402–406. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014409-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart2014409_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClart2014">Clart (2014)</a>, p. 409. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETan1983219-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETan1983219_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTan1983">Tan (1983)</a>, p. 219. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShi2008-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShi2008_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShi2008">Shi (2008)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014409,_note_35-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart2014409,_note_35_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClart2014">Clart (2014)</a>, p. 409, note 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Douglas Howland. Borders of Chinese Civilization: Geography and History at Empire's End. 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Religion in China: Universism a Key to the Study of Taoism and Confucianism. 1912. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHu2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu, Shih</a> (2013) [1931]. English Writings of Hu Shih: Chinese Philosophy and Intellectual History. China Academic Library. Vol. 2. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3642311819" title="Special:BookSources/978-3642311819"><bdi>978-3642311819</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Writings+of+Hu+Shih%3A+Chinese+Philosophy+and+Intellectual+History&rft.series=China+Academic+Library&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3642311819&rft.aulast=Hu&rft.aufirst=Shih&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014405-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart2014405_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClart2014">Clart (2014)</a>, p. 405. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014408-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart2014408_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart2014408_36-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFClart2014">Clart (2014)</a>, p. 408. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014407-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart2014407_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClart2014">Clart (2014)</a>, p. 407. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014408–409-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart2014408–409_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClart2014">Clart (2014)</a>, pp. 408–409. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20135-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20135_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20135_39-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20135_39-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20135_39-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-Wang,_2004._pp._60-61-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wang,_2004._pp._60-61_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wang,_2004._pp._60-61_40-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wang,_2004._pp._60-61_40-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wang,_2004._pp._60-61_40-3">d</a> Wang, 2004. pp. 60–61 </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Fenggang Yang, Social Scientific Studies of Religion in China: Methodologies, Theories, and Findings . 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World History: Our Human Story. Versailles, Kentucky: Sheridan Kentucky. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60153-123-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60153-123-0"><bdi>978-1-60153-123-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+History%3A+Our+Human+Story&rft.place=Versailles%2C+Kentucky&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Sheridan+Kentucky&rft.date=2021-05&rft.isbn=978-1-60153-123-0&rft.aulast=Pearson&rft.aufirst=Patricia+O%27Connell&rft.au=Holdren%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200936-37-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200936-37_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200936-37_48-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFOvermyer2009">Overmyer (2009)</a>, p. 36-37. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin-Dubost1997" class="citation cs2">Martin-Dubost, Paul (1997), Gaņeśa: The Enchanter of the Three Worlds, Mumbai: Project for Indian Cultural Studies, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8190018432" title="Special:BookSources/978-8190018432"><bdi>978-8190018432</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ga%C5%86e%C5%9Ba%3A+The+Enchanter+of+the+Three+Worlds&rft.place=Mumbai&rft.pub=Project+for+Indian+Cultural+Studies&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-8190018432&rft.aulast=Martin-Dubost&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988">. p. 311 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20139-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20139_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20139_50-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20139_50-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20139_50-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20139_50-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200943-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200943_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOvermyer2009">Overmyer (2009)</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200945-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200945_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOvermyer2009">Overmyer (2009)</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Iris_Chang" title="Iris Chang">Chang, Iris</a> (2003). 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New York: Proseworks. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-3545-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-3545-8"><bdi>0-8160-3545-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+American+Religious+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Proseworks&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8160-3545-8&rft.aulast=Queen+II&rft.aufirst=Edward+L.&rft.au=Prothero%2C+Stephen+R.&rft.au=Shattuck+Jr.%2C+Gardiner+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200951-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200951_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200951_57-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200951_57-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFOvermyer2009">Overmyer (2009)</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20131-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20131_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138_59-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138_59-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138_59-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138_59-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138_59-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen20138_59-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200952-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvermyer200952_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOvermyer2009">Overmyer (2009)</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201328-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201328_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJansen2012288-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJansen2012288_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJansen2012">Jansen (2012)</a>, p. 288. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJansen2012289-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJansen2012289_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJansen2012">Jansen (2012)</a>, p. 289. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Holloway, Kenneth. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jhMwvmolRn8C">Guodian: The Newly Discovered Seeds of Chinese Religious and Political Philosophy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240215111715/https://books.google.com/books?id=jhMwvmolRn8C">Archived</a> 15 February 2024 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Oxford University Press, 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199707685" title="Special:BookSources/0199707685">0199707685</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Didier, 2009. Represented in vol. III, discussed throughout vols. I, II, and III. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Didier, 2009. Vol. III, p. 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-Didier,_2009._Vol._III,_pp._3-6-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Didier,_2009._Vol._III,_pp._3-6_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Didier,_2009._Vol._III,_pp._3-6_67-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Didier,_2009._Vol._III,_pp._3-6_67-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Didier,_2009._Vol._III,_pp._3-6_67-3">d</a> Didier, 2009. Vol. III, pp. 3–6 </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Didier, 2009. Vol. II, p. 100 </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Didier, 2009. Vol. III, p. 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Didier, 2009. Vol. III, p. 256 </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Didier, 2009. Vol. III, p. 261 </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Zhou, 2005. passim </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Adler, 2011. p. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._5-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adler,_2011._p._5_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adler,_2011._p._5_75-1">b</a> Adler, 2011. p. 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> John Lagerwey, Marc Kalinowski. Early Chinese Religion I: Shang Through Han (1250 BC – 220 AD). Two volumes. Brill, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004168354" title="Special:BookSources/9004168354">9004168354</a>. p. 240 </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Lu, Gong. 2014. pp. 63–66 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELüGong201465-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELüGong201465_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLüGong2014">Lü & Gong (2014)</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELüGong201466-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELüGong201466_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELüGong201466_79-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLüGong2014">Lü & Gong (2014)</a>, p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELagerweyKalinowski2008981-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELagerweyKalinowski2008981_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELagerweyKalinowski2008981_80-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLagerweyKalinowski2008">Lagerwey & Kalinowski (2008)</a>, p. 981. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 65 </li> <li id="cite_note-Libbrecht_2007._p._43-83">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Libbrecht_2007._p._43_83-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Libbrecht_2007._p._43_83-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Libbrecht_2007._p._43_83-2">c</a> Libbrecht, 2007. p. 43 </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Chang, 2000. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._64-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._64_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._64_85-1">b</a> Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 64 </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Mark Lewis. Writing and Authority in Early China. SUNY Press, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0791441148" title="Special:BookSources/0791441148">0791441148</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8k4xn8CyHAQC&q=gong">pp. 205–206</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164802/https://books.google.com/books?id=8k4xn8CyHAQC&q=gong">Archived</a> 26 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Didier, 2009. Vol. III, p. 268 </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Joseph Needham. <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" title="Science and Civilisation in China">Science and Civilisation in China</a>. Vol. III. p. 23 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._71-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._71_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._71_90-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._71_90-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._71_90-3">d</a> Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 71 </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Adler, 2011. pp. 12–13 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199629-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser199629_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser199629_92-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeiser1996">Teiser (1996)</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._21-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adler,_2011._p._21_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adler,_2011._p._21_93-1">b</a> Adler, 2011. p. 21 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199630-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser199630_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeiser1996">Teiser (1996)</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._13-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adler,_2011._p._13_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adler,_2011._p._13_95-1">b</a> Adler, 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Non-theistic.pdf">p. 13</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Non-theistic.pdf">Archived</a> 9 October 2022 at Ghost Archive </li> <li id="cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._16-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adler,_2011._p._16_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adler,_2011._p._16_97-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adler,_2011._p._16_97-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adler,_2011._p._16_97-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adler,_2011._p._16_97-4">e</a> Adler, 2011. p. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-Adler,_2011._p._14-98">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adler,_2011._p._14_98-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adler,_2011._p._14_98-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adler,_2011._p._14_98-2">c</a> Adler, 2011. p. 14 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199631-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser199631_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser199631_99-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser199631_99-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser199631_99-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser199631_99-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeiser1996">Teiser (1996)</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETeiser199632-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser199632_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser199632_100-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser199632_100-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser199632_100-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser199632_100-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETeiser199632_100-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFTeiser1996">Teiser (1996)</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-Zongqi_Cai,_2004._p._314-101">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zongqi_Cai,_2004._p._314_101-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zongqi_Cai,_2004._p._314_101-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zongqi_Cai,_2004._p._314_101-2">c</a> Zongqi Cai, 2004. p. 314 </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Adler, 2011. p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Adler, 2011. p. 15 </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Adler, 2011. pp. 15–16 </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Adler, 2011. p. 19 </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 68 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._69-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._69_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._69_107-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._69_107-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._69_107-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._69_107-4">e</a> Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 69 </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Adler, 2011. pp. 19–20 </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Sautman, 1997. p. 78 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010162,_165-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010162,_165_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010162,_165_111-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, pp. 162, 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010158–161-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010158–161_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, pp. 158–161. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010159-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010159_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010159_113-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010159_113-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010162–164-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010162–164_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010162–164_114-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010162–164_114-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, pp. 162–164. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010164-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010164_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010164_115-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010164_115-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010164_115-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010164_115-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010164_115-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010166-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010166_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 166. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201325-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201325_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201325_118-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201326-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201326_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201326_119-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201324-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201324_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201326–27-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201326–27_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, pp. 26–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201327-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201327_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201327_122-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201327_122-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Thien Do, 2003, p. 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Zavidovskaya, 2012. pp. 179–183 </li> <li id="cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183-184-125"><a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183-184_125-0">^</a> Zavidovskaya, 2012. pp. 183–184 </li> <li id="cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184_126-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184_126-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184_126-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184_126-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184_126-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184_126-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184_126-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184_126-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184_126-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._184_126-10">k</a> Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 184 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010168-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010168_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010168_127-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._185-128">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._185_128-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._185_128-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._185_128-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._185_128-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._185_128-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._185_128-5">f</a> Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 185 </li> <li id="cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183_129-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183_129-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183_129-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183_129-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183_129-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183_129-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183_129-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._183_129-8">i</a> Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 183 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWu201411,_and_note_1-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWu201411,_and_note_1_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWu2014">Wu (2014)</a>, p. 11, and note 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer2009xii-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvermyer2009xii_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvermyer2009xii_131-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFOvermyer2009">Overmyer (2009)</a>, p. xii. </li> <li id="cite_note-Mao-hui-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mao-hui_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mao-hui_132-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mao-hui_132-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaoReynolds_SchramHodes1992" class="citation book cs1">Mao, Zedong; Reynolds Schram, Stuart; Hodes, Nancy Jane (1992). Mao's Road to Power: From the Jinggangshan to the establishment of the Jiangxi Soviets, July 1927 – December 1930. M. E. Sharpe. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1563244391" title="Special:BookSources/978-1563244391"><bdi>978-1563244391</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mao%27s+Road+to+Power%3A+From+the+Jinggangshan+to+the+establishment+of+the+Jiangxi+Soviets%2C+July+1927+%E2%80%93+December+1930&rft.pub=M.+E.+Sharpe&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-1563244391&rft.aulast=Mao&rft.aufirst=Zedong&rft.au=Reynolds+Schram%2C+Stuart&rft.au=Hodes%2C+Nancy+Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> p. 353-354 </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Fujian Government's website: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stats-fj.gov.cn/tongjinianjian/dz07/html/0100e.htm">Fujian's General Information</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20140107052910/http://www.stats-fj.gov.cn/tongjinianjian/dz07/html/0100e.htm">Archived</a> 7 January 2014 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>. Quote: "At present, major religions practiced in Fujian include Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. In addition, Fujian has its folk belief with deeply local characteristic, such as Mazuism, the belief in Mazu, (which) is very influential". </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Fan Lizhu. The Cult of the Silkworm Mother as a Core of a Local Community Religion in a North China Village: Field Study in Zhiwuying, Baoding, Hebei. The China Quarterly No. 174 (Jun. 2003), 360. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChau2005a50-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChau2005a50_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChau2005a">Chau (2005a)</a>, p. 50. Discussing folk religion in <a href="/wiki/Shanbei" class="mw-redirect" title="Shanbei">Shanbei</a>: "There were very few ancestral halls in the past in Shaanbei and none have been revived in the reform era, although there are isolated instances of the rewriting of lineage genealogies. Shaanbei people have never had domestic ancestral altars (except perhaps a few gentry families who might have brought this tradition from the South), even though in the past, as was common in North China, they kept collective ancestral tablets (shenzhu) or large cloth scrolls with drawings of ancestral tablets that they used during special occasions such as during the Lunar New Year's ancestral worship ceremony. There are visits to the graves of the immediate ancestors a few times a year on prescribed occasions such as the Cold Food (hanshi) / Clear and Bright (qingming) (Third Month Ninth) but Shaanbei people do not believe that their ancestors' souls are active forces capable of protecting, benefiting or troubling the living." </li> <li id="cite_note-Wu20-136">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wu20_136-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wu20_136-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWu2014">Wu (2014)</a>, p. 20. Quote: "... southern China refers to Fujian and Guangdong province and in some cases is expanded to include Guangxi, Zhejiang and Jiangxi provinces. Historically speaking, these areas had the strong lineage organizations and the territorial cult, compared to the rest of China in the late imperial period. These areas not only were the first to revive lineage and the territorial cult in the reform era, but also have the intensity and scale of revivals that cannot be matched by the other part of China. This phenomenon is furthered referred as the southern model, based on the south-vs.-north model. The north model refers to the absence of landholding cooperative lineages that exist in the south." Note 16: The south-vs.-north model comparison has been the thrust of historical and anthropological research. Cohen's article on "Lineage organization in North China (1990)" offers the best summary on the contrast between the north model and the south model. He calls the north China model "the fixed genealogical mode of agnatic kinship". By which, he means "patrilineal ties are figured on the basis of the relative seniority of descent lines so that the unity of the lineage as a whole is based upon a ritual focus on the senior descent line trace back to the founding ancestor, his eldest son, and the succession of eldest sons." (ibid: 510) In contrast, the south China model is called "the associational mode of patrilineal kinship". In this mode, all lines of descent are equal. "Access to corporate resources held by a lineage or lineage segment is based upon the equality of kinship ties asserted in the associational mode." However, the distinction between the north and the south model is somewhat arbitrary. Some practices of the south model are found in north China. Meanwhile, the so-call north model is not exclusive to north China. The set of characteristics of the north model (a distinctive arrangement of cemeteries, graves, ancestral scrolls, ancestral tablets, and corporate groups linked to a characteristic annual ritual cycle) is not a system. In reality, lineage organizations display a mixture between the south and the north model."[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verify</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-Overmyer,_2009._pp._12-13-137">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Overmyer,_2009._pp._12-13_137-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Overmyer,_2009._pp._12-13_137-1">b</a> Overmyer, 2009. pp. 12–13: "As for the physical and social structure of villages on this vast flat expanse; they consist of close groups of houses built on a raised area, surrounded by their fields, with a multi-surnamed population of families who own and cultivate their own land, though usually not much more than twenty mou or about three acres. ... Families of different surnames living in one small community meant that lineages were not strong enough to maintain lineage shrines and cross-village organizations, so, at best, they owned small burial plots and took part only in intra-village activities. The old imperial government encouraged villages to manage themselves and collect and hand over their own taxes. ... leaders were responsible for settling disputes, dealing with local government, organizing crop protection and planning for collective ceremonies. All these factors tended to strengthen the local protective deities and their temples as focal points of village identity and activity. This social context defines North China local religion, and keeps us from wandering off into vague discussions of 'popular' and 'elite' and relationships with Daoism and Buddhism." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201313-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201313_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201314–15-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201314–15_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201314–15_139-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, pp. 14–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201315-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201315_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201316-141">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201316_141-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201316_141-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Mair, Victor H.; Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman; Goldin, Paul Rakita (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XdouAQAAIAAJ&q=China+shamanic+tradition">Hawai'i Reader in Traditional Chinese Culture</a>. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0824827854" title="Special:BookSources/978-0824827854"><bdi>978-0824827854</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240215111722/https://books.google.com/books?id=XdouAQAAIAAJ&q=China+shamanic+tradition">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 9 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hawai%27i+Reader+in+Traditional+Chinese+Culture&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%27i+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0824827854&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H.&rft.au=Steinhardt%2C+Nancy+Shatzman&rft.au=Goldin%2C+Paul+Rakita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXdouAQAAIAAJ%26q%3DChina%2Bshamanic%2Btradition&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988">, p. 99 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Groot1892''passim''_vol._6-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Groot1892''passim''_vol._6_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDe_Groot1892">De Groot (1892)</a>, pp. passim vol. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-Chirita2014-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chirita2014_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chirita2014_145-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chirita2014_145-2">c</a> Andreea Chirita. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aflls.ucdc.ro/I_2014/2Ant.pdf">Antagonistic Discourses on Shamanic Folklore in Modern China</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150527231650/http://aflls.ucdc.ro/I_2014/2Ant.pdf">Archived</a> 27 May 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. On: Annals of Dimitrie Cantemir Christian University, issue 1, 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-KunShi2006-146"><a href="#cite_ref-KunShi2006_146-0">^</a> Kun Shi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://buddhabookclub.weebly.com/uploads/4/2/6/4/4264863/survey_of_shamanic_studies_in_china-1993-updated_2007.pdf">"Shamanistic Studies in China: A Preliminary Survey of the Last Decade"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170926115658/http://buddhabookclub.weebly.com/uploads/4/2/6/4/4264863/survey_of_shamanic_studies_in_china-1993-updated_2007.pdf">Archived</a> 26 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. On: Shaman, vol. 1, nos. 1–2. Ohio State University, 1993, updated in 2006. pp. 104–106 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2016-147"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2016_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLi2016">Li (2016)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Littlejohn, 2010. pp. 35–37 </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Tay, 2010. p. 100 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart20033–5-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart20033–5_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClart2003">Clart (2003)</a>, pp. 3–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Sébastien Billioud. Confucian Revival and the Emergence of "Jiaohua Organizations": A Case Study of the Yidan Xuetang. On: Modern China, vol. 37, no. 3, 2011, pp. 286–314. DOI: 10.1177/0097700411398574 </li> <li id="cite_note-Fan,_Chen._2015._p._29-153">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fan,_Chen._2015._p._29_153-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fan,_Chen._2015._p._29_153-1">b</a> Fan, Chen. 2015. p. 29 </li> <li id="cite_note-Wu2014-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wu2014_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wu2014_154-1">b</a> Nengchang Wu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/6919287/2014_Religion_and_Society._A_Summary_of_French_Studies_on_Chinese_Religion">Religion and Society. A Summary of French Studies on Chinese Religion</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170827012653/http://www.academia.edu/6919287/2014_Religion_and_Society._A_Summary_of_French_Studies_on_Chinese_Religion">Archived</a> 27 August 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. On: Review of Religion and Chinese Society 1 (2014), 104–127. pp. 105–106 </li> <li id="cite_note-Davis-Daoists-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davis-Daoists_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davis-Daoists_155-1">b</a> Edward L. Davis. Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture. ¶ <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://contemporary_chinese_culture.academic.ru/179/Daoist_priests">Daoist priests</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140303164605/http://contemporary_chinese_culture.academic.ru/179/Daoist_priests">Archived</a> 3 March 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://contemporary_chinese_culture.academic.ru/808/vernacular_priests_(Daoist_Buddhist)">vernacular priests</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140303164603/http://contemporary_chinese_culture.academic.ru/808/vernacular_priests_(Daoist_Buddhist)">Archived</a> 3 March 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pas,_2014._p._259-156">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pas,_2014._p._259_156-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pas,_2014._p._259_156-1">b</a> Pas, 2014. p. 259 </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Sarah Coakley. Religion and the Body. Book 8 of Cambridge Studies in Religious Traditions. Cambridge University Press, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521783860" title="Special:BookSources/0521783860">0521783860</a>. p. 246 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201119-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer201119_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer201119_158-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer201119_158-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer2011">Palmer (2011)</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201119–20-159"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer201119–20_159-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer2011">Palmer (2011)</a>, pp. 19–20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201117-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer201117_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer2011">Palmer (2011)</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart2014395-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart2014395_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClart2014">Clart (2014)</a>, p. 395. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201112-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer201112_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer2011">Palmer (2011)</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201123-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer201123_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer2011">Palmer (2011)</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201129-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer201129_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer2011">Palmer (2011)</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer20114–6-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer20114–6_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer2011">Palmer (2011)</a>, pp. 4–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201111-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer201111_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer2011">Palmer (2011)</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClart199712–13_&_''passim''-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClart199712–13_&_''passim''_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFClart1997">Clart (1997)</a>, pp. 12–13 & passim. </li> <li id="cite_note-Goossaert,_Palmer._2011._p._347-168"><a href="#cite_ref-Goossaert,_Palmer._2011._p._347_168-0">^</a> Goossaert, Palmer. 2011. p. 347, quote: "[Since the 1990s] ... a number of ... <a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">lay salvationist groups</a> (such as Xiantiandao in southern China and Hongyangism [[[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 弘陽教 Hóngyáng jiào] in Hebei) also successfully registered with the Taoist association, thus gaining legitimacy". </li> <li id="cite_note-Ambrosi2013-169">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ambrosi2013_169-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ambrosi2013_169-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ambrosi2013_169-2">c</a> Raymond Ambrosi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150104152959/http://www.goethe.de/ins/cn/en/lp/kul/mag/dis/swl/11980640.html">Towards the City! Towards the Country! Old Martial Art Strengthens Social Cohesion in Chinese Rural Areas</a>. Goethe-Institut China, 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmbrosi2015" class="citation journal cs1">Ambrosi, Raymond P. (2015). "Interconnections amongst Folk Religions, Civil Society and Community Development: Meihua Boxers as Constructors of Social Trust and the Agrarian Public Sphere". Modern China.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=Interconnections+amongst+Folk+Religions%2C+Civil+Society+and+Community+Development%3A+Meihua+Boxers+as+Constructors+of+Social+Trust+and+the+Agrarian+Public+Sphere&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Ambrosi&rft.aufirst=Raymond+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vermander-171">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vermander_171-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vermander_171-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vermander_171-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vermander_171-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vermander_171-4">e</a> Benoit Vermander. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theway.org.uk/Back/39Vermander.pdf">Christianity and the Taiwanese Religious Landscape</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140502223949/http://www.theway.org.uk/Back/39Vermander.pdf">Archived</a> 2 May 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. On: The Way, 39, 1999. London Society of Jesus. pp. 129–139 </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Evelyne Micollier. Realignments in Religion and Health Practices: An Approach to the "New Religions" in Taiwanese Society. On: China Perspectives, 16, 1998. pp. 34–40 </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Ju Keyi, Lu Xianlong. Tiandi jiao: The Daoist Connection. On: Journal of Daoist Studies. Vol. 7, 2014. p. 195 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer201127-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPalmer201127_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPalmer2011">Palmer (2011)</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hunyuan.tw/m/?disp=pwpeace&language=ENG&page=5">Weixinism propagates Chinese culture and Yi-Ching</a>". Hun Yuan's website. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171231234558/http://hunyuan.tw/m/?disp=pwpeace&language=ENG&page=5">Archived on 31 December 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-worldpeace-176">^ <a href="#cite_ref-worldpeace_176-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-worldpeace_176-1">b</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hunyuan.tw/?disp=pwpeace&language=ENG&page=10">Grand Master Hun Yuan leads Weixinism for world peace</a>". Hun Yuan's website. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171214203559/http://hunyuan.tw/?disp=pwpeace&language=ENG&page=10">Archived on 14 December 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_2.aspx">Honoring the contribution of the Three-Great-Chinese-Ancestor Culture to develop world peace</a>". Hun Yuan's website. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171214203516/http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_2.aspx">Archived on 14 December 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_5.aspx">Build the City of the Eight Trigrams on Yunmeng Mountain, integrate the differences within Chinese culture, and support the union of the Chinese people</a>". Hun Yuan's website. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170620172656/http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_5.aspx">Archived on 20 June 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_3.aspx">Build temples for the Three Great Chinese Ancestors, solidify the national union, and pray together for Cross-Strait and worldwide peace</a>". Hun Yuan's website. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170620160927/http://www.cjs.org.tw/news2011/right_m_en/right_ch4_1_3.aspx">Archived on 20 June 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-GoossaertNCR-180">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GoossaertNCR_180-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoossaertNCR_180-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoossaertNCR_180-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoossaertNCR_180-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoossaertNCR_180-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GoossaertNCR_180-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoossaert2011" class="citation journal cs1">Goossaert, Vincent (2011). "Is There a North China Religion? A Review Essay". Journal of Chinese Religions. 39 (1): 83–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2F073776911806153907">10.1179/073776911806153907</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0737-769X">0737-769X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170749557">170749557</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Religions&rft.atitle=Is+There+a+North+China+Religion%3F+A+Review+Essay&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=83-93&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170749557%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0737-769X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2F073776911806153907&rft.aulast=Goossaert&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Overmyer, 2009. p. 10: "There were and are many such pilgrimages to regional and national temples in China, and of course such pilgrimages cannot always be clearly distinguished from festivals for the gods or saints of local communities, because such festivals can involve participants from surrounding villages and home communities celebrating the birthdays or death days of their patron gods or saints, whatever their appeal to those from other areas. People worship and petition at both pilgrimages and local festivals for similar reasons. The chief differences between the two are the central role of a journey in pilgrimages, the size of the area from which participants are attracted, and the role of pilgrimage societies in organizing the long trips that may be involved. ... pilgrimage in China is also characterized by extensive planning and organization both by the host temples and those visiting them." </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Overmyer, 2009. p. 3: "... there are significant differences between aspects of local religion in the south and north, one of which is the gods who are worshiped."; p. 33: "... the veneration in the north of ancient deities attested to in pre-Han sources, deities such as Nüwa, Fuxi and Shennong, the legendary founder of agriculture and herbal medicine. In some instances these gods were worshiped at places believed to be where they originated, with indications of grottoes, temples and festivals for them, some of which continue to exist or have been revived. Of course, these gods were worshiped elsewhere in China as well, though perhaps not with the same sense of original geographical location." </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Overmyer, 2009. p. 15: "Popular religious sects with their own forms of organization, leaders, deities, rituals, beliefs and scripture texts were active throughout the Ming and Qing periods, particularly in north China. Individuals and families who joined them were promised special divine protection in this life and the next by leaders who functioned both as ritual masters and missionaries. These sects were more active in some communities than in others, but in principle were open to all who responded to these leaders and believed in their efficacy and teachings, so some of these groups spread to wide areas of the country. ... significant for us here though is evidence for the residual influence of sectarian beliefs and practices on non-sectarian community religion where the sects no longer exist, particularly the feminization of deities by adding to their names the characters mu or Laomu, Mother or Venerable Mother, as in Guanyin Laomu, Puxianmu, Dizangmu, etc., based on the name of the chief sectarian deity, Wusheng Laomu, the Eternal Venerable Mother. Puxian and Dizang are bodhisattvas normally considered 'male', though in Buddhist theory such gender categories do not really apply. This practice of adding mu to the names of deities, found already in Ming period sectarian scriptures called baojuan 'precious volumes' from the north, does not occur in the names of southern deities." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwnby2008-185"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwnby2008_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOwnby2008">Ownby (2008)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPayette2016-186"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPayette2016_186-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPayette2016">Payette (2016)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Chan,_2005._p._93-187"><a href="#cite_ref-Chan,_2005._p._93_187-0">^</a> Chan, 2005. p. 93. Quote: "By the early 1990s Daoist activities had become popular especially in rural areas, and began to get out of control as the line between legitimate Daoist activities and popular folk religious activities – officially regarded as feudal superstition – became blurred. ... Unregulated activities can range from orthodox Daoist liturgy to shamanistic rites. The popularity of these Daoist activities underscores the fact that Chinese rural society has a long tradition of religiosity and has preserved and perpetuated Daoism regardless of official policy and religious institutions. With the growth of economic prosperity in rural areas, especially in the coastal provinces where Daoist activities are concentrated, with a more liberal policy on religion, and with the revival of local cultural identity, Daoism – be it the officially sanctioned variety or Daoist activities which are beyond the edge of the official Daoist body – seems to be enjoying a strong comeback, at least for the time being." </li> <li id="cite_note-Overmyer-2009-southeast-Daoism-188"><a href="#cite_ref-Overmyer-2009-southeast-Daoism_188-0">^</a> Overmyer, 2009. p. 185 about Taoism in southeastern China: "Ethnographic research into the temple festivals and communal rituals celebrated within these god cults has revealed the widespread distribution of Daoist ritual traditions in this area, including especially Zhengyi (Celestial Master Daoism) and variants of Lushan Daoist ritual traditions. Various Buddhist ritual traditions (Pu’anjiao, Xianghua married monks and so on) are practiced throughout this region, particularly for requiem services". (quoting K. Dean (2003) Local Communal Religion in Contemporary Southeast China, in D. L. Overmyer (ed.) Religion in China Today. China Quarterly Special Issues, New Series, No. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 32–34.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones2011-189"><a href="#cite_ref-Jones2011_189-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2011" class="citation journal cs1">Jones, Stephen (2011). "Yinyang: Household Daoists of North China and Their Rituals". Daoism: Religion, History & Society. 3 (1): 83–114.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Daoism%3A+Religion%2C+History+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Yinyang%3A+Household+Daoists+of+North+China+and+Their+Rituals&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=83-114&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Deng-chumaxian-190"><a href="#cite_ref-Deng-chumaxian_190-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeng2014" class="citation thesis cs1">Deng, Claire Qiuju (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca/webclient/StreamGate?folder_id=0&dvs=1514765798473~395">Action-Taking Gods: Animal Spirit Shamanism in Liaoning, China</a> (Master in East Asian Studies). Montreal: McGill University, Department of East Asian Studies. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180101001735/http://digitool.library.mcgill.ca/webclient/StreamGate?folder_id=0&dvs=1514765798473~395">Archived</a> from the original on 1 January 2018. Retrieved 1 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Action-Taking+Gods%3A+Animal+Spirit+Shamanism+in+Liaoning%2C+China&rft.inst=McGill+University%2C+Department+of+East+Asian+Studies&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Deng&rft.aufirst=Claire+Qiuju&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitool.library.mcgill.ca%2Fwebclient%2FStreamGate%3Ffolder_id%3D0%26dvs%3D1514765798473~395&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Mark Juergensmeyer, Wade Clark Roof. Encyclopedia of Global Religion. SAGE Publications, 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1452266565" title="Special:BookSources/1452266565">1452266565</a>. p. 202 </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> Benjamin Penny. Religion and Biography in China and Tibet. Routledge, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1136113940" title="Special:BookSources/1136113940">1136113940</a>. pp. 185–187 </li> <li id="cite_note-Seiwert1987-193">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seiwert1987_193-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seiwert1987_193-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seiwert1987_193-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seiwert1987_193-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seiwert1987_193-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeiwert1987" class="citation cs2">Seiwert, Hubert (1987), "On the religions of national minorities in the context of China's religious history", in <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Heberer" title="Thomas Heberer">Heberer, Thomas</a> (ed.), Ethnic Minorities in China: Tradition and Transform. Papers of the 2nd Interdisciplinary Congress of Sinology/Ethnology, St. Augustin, Aachen: Herodot, pp. 41–51, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3922868682" title="Special:BookSources/978-3922868682"><bdi>978-3922868682</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+religions+of+national+minorities+in+the+context+of+China%27s+religious+history&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Minorities+in+China%3A+Tradition+and+Transform.+Papers+of+the+2nd+Interdisciplinary+Congress+of+Sinology%2FEthnology%2C+St.+Augustin&rft.place=Aachen&rft.pages=41-51&rft.pub=Herodot&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-3922868682&rft.aulast=Seiwert&rft.aufirst=Hubert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gko.uni-leipzig.de/fileadmin/user_upload/religionswissenschaft/Pdf/Publikationen_Seiwert/Seiwert__-__On_the_Religions_of_National_Minorities_in_the_Context_of_China_s_Religious_History.pdf">Available online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160806230928/https://www.gko.uni-leipzig.de/fileadmin/user_upload/religionswissenschaft/Pdf/Publikationen_Seiwert/Seiwert__-__On_the_Religions_of_National_Minorities_in_the_Context_of_China_s_Religious_History.pdf">Archived</a> 6 August 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMou201257-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMou201257_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMou2012">Mou (2012)</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> Ya-ning Kao, Religious Revival among the Zhuang People in China: Practising "Superstition" and Standardizing a Zhuang Religion Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 43, 2, 107–144. 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1868-4874">1868-4874</a> (online), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1868-1026">1868-1026</a> (print). p. 117 </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Olivia Kraef. Of Canons and Commodities: The Cultural Predicaments of Nuosu-Yi "Bimo Culture". On: Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 43, 2, 145–179. 2014. pp. 146–147 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bamo_Ayi-197"><a href="#cite_ref-Bamo_Ayi_197-0">^</a> Bamo Ayi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=kt896nd0h7&chunk.id=ch08&toc.id=ch08&brand=ucpress">"On the Nature and Transmission of Bimo Knowledge in Liangshan"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161011202235/http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=kt896nd0h7&chunk.id=ch08&toc.id=ch08&brand=ucpress">Archived</a> 11 October 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. In: Harrell, Stevan, ed. Perspectives on the Yi of Southwest China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Bai Bin, "Daoism in Graves". In Pierre Marsone, John Lagerwey, eds., Modern Chinese Religion I: Song-Liao-Jin-Yuan (960–1368 AD), Brill, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004271643" title="Special:BookSources/9004271643">9004271643</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y2DiBQAAQBAJ&q=separation+convergence">p. 579</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231015014204/https://books.google.com/books?id=y2DiBQAAQBAJ&q=separation+convergence">Archived</a> 15 October 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._63-200">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._63_200-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lu,_Gong._2014._p._63_200-1">b</a> Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 63 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010158-201">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010158_201-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010158_201-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010158_201-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010158_201-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010158_201-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010158_201-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010158_201-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 158. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010165-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010165_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010161-203">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010161_203-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010161_203-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 161. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010162-204">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010162_204-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010162_204-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010162_204-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010162_204-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> Lu, Gong. 2014. p. 38: Xian are described as individuals who achieve mastery of the way of Heaven and emulate it. </li> <li id="cite_note-Barnett-206">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barnett_206-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barnett_206-1">b</a> Raymond Barnett. Relax, You're Already Home: Everyday Taoist Habits For A Richer Life. J. P. Tarcher, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1585423661" title="Special:BookSources/1585423661">1585423661</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPregadio2013504,_vol._2_A-L-207"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPregadio2013504,_vol._2_A-L_207-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPregadio2013">Pregadio (2013)</a>, p. 504, vol. 2 A-L: Each sector of heaven (the four points of the compass and the center) was personified by a di <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 帝 (a term which indicates not only an emperor but also an ancestral "thearch" and "god"). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMedhurst1847[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkw1gAAAAcAAJpgPA260_260]-209">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMedhurst1847[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkw1gAAAAcAAJpgPA260_260]_209-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMedhurst1847[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidkw1gAAAAcAAJpgPA260_260]_209-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMedhurst1847">Medhurst (1847)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kw1gAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA260">260</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhao201251-210"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhao201251_210-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZhao2012">Zhao (2012)</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9wi-ZDdmaqECqXiwangmu_206–207]-211"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowler2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9wi-ZDdmaqECqXiwangmu_206–207]_211-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowler2005">Fowler (2005)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9wi-ZDdmaqEC&q=Xiwangmu">206–207</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> Journal of Chinese Religions, 24–25, 1996. p. 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESunKistemaker1997121-213"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESunKistemaker1997121_213-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSunKistemaker1997">Sun & Kistemaker (1997)</a>, p. 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELittleEichman2000250-215"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittleEichman2000250_215-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLittleEichman2000">Little & Eichman (2000)</a>, p. 250. It describes a <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> painting representing (among other figures) the Wudi: "In the foreground are the gods of the Five Directions, dressed as emperors of high antiquity, holding tablets of rank in front of them. ... These gods are significant because they reflect the cosmic structure of the world, in which yin, yang and the Five Phases (Elements) are in balance. They predate religious Taoism, and may have originated as chthonic gods of the Neolithic period. Governing all directions (east, south, west, north and center), they correspond not only to the Five Elements, but to the seasons, the Five Sacred Peaks, the Five Planets, and zodiac symbols as well." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESunKistemaker1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid87lvBoFi8A0CqHuangdi_120–123]-216"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESunKistemaker1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid87lvBoFi8A0CqHuangdi_120–123]_216-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSunKistemaker1997">Sun & Kistemaker (1997)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=87lvBoFi8A0C&q=Huangdi">120–123</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELagerweyKalinowski20081080-218"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELagerweyKalinowski20081080_218-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLagerweyKalinowski2008">Lagerwey & Kalinowski (2008)</a>, p. 1080. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPregadio2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidR3Sp6TfzhpICqHuangdi_504–505],_vol._2_A-L-219"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPregadio2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidR3Sp6TfzhpICqHuangdi_504–505],_vol._2_A-L_219-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPregadio2013">Pregadio (2013)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R3Sp6TfzhpIC&q=Huangdi">504–505</a>, vol. 2 A-L. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9wi-ZDdmaqECqHuangdi_200–201]-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowler2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid9wi-ZDdmaqECqHuangdi_200–201]_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowler2005">Fowler (2005)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9wi-ZDdmaqEC&q=Huangdi">200–201</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESunKistemaker1997120-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESunKistemaker1997120_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSunKistemaker1997">Sun & Kistemaker (1997)</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChamberlain2009222-222"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChamberlain2009222_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChamberlain2009">Chamberlain (2009)</a>, p. 222. </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> Yves Bonnefoy, Asian Mythologies. University of Chicago Press, 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226064565" title="Special:BookSources/0226064565">0226064565</a>. p. 246 </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones,_2013._pp._166-167-224"><a href="#cite_ref-Jones,_2013._pp._166-167_224-0">^</a> Jones, 2013. pp. 166–167 </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> Louis Komjathy. The Daoist Tradition: An Introduction. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1441196455" title="Special:BookSources/1441196455">1441196455</a>. Chapter: Daoist deities and pantheons. </li> <li id="cite_note-Wicks-226"><a href="#cite_ref-Wicks_226-0">^</a> Ann Elizabeth Barrott Wicks. Children in Chinese Art. University of Hawaii Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0824823591" title="Special:BookSources/0824823591">0824823591</a>. pp. 149–150; some goddesses are enlisted in the note 18 at p. 191 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOvermyer2009135-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOvermyer2009135_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOvermyer2009">Overmyer (2009)</a>, p. 135. </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> J. Hackin. Asiatic Mythology: A Detailed Description and Explanation of the Mythologies of All the Great Nations of Asia. Asian Educational Services, 1932. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8120609204" title="Special:BookSources/8120609204">8120609204</a>. pp. 349.350 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChau2011-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChau2011_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChau2011">Chau (2011)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010173-230">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010173_230-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010173_230-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010173_230-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 173. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010172-231">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010172_231-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010172_231-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 172. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFanChen201310-232">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201310_232-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFanChen201310_232-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFanChen2013">Fan & Chen (2013)</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 191 </li> <li id="cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._182-234">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._182_234-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._182_234-1">b</a> Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 182 </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 187 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010176-236">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010176_236-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010176_236-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010176_236-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010176_236-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010176_236-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 176. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010177-237">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010177_237-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010177_237-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010177_237-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 177. </li> <li id="cite_note-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._189-238"><a href="#cite_ref-Zavidovskaya,_2012._p._189_238-0">^</a> Zavidovskaya, 2012. p. 189 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010178-239">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010178_239-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010178_239-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010178_239-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010178_239-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010178_239-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 178. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010180-240">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010180_240-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010180_240-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010180_240-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010180_240-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010180_240-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 180. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYao2010181-241"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYao2010181_241-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYao2010">Yao (2010)</a>, p. 181. </li> <li id="cite_note-:132-242">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:132_242-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:132_242-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:132_242-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinford2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Minford" title="John Minford">Minford, John</a> (2018). Tao Te Ching: The Essential Translation of the Ancient Chinese Book of the Tao. 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Hong Kong: Blacksmith Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789881774217" title="Special:BookSources/9789881774217"><bdi>9789881774217</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Gods+%3A+An+Introduction+to+Chinese+Folk+Religion&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pub=Blacksmith+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9789881774217&rft.aulast=Chamberlain&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2005" class="citation journal cs1">Chan, Kim-Kwong (2005). "Religion in China in the Twenty-first Century: Some Scenarios". Religion, State & Society. 33 (2): 87–119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09637490500118570">10.1080/09637490500118570</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73530576">73530576</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religion%2C+State+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Religion+in+China+in+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+Some+Scenarios&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=87-119&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09637490500118570&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73530576%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Kim-Kwong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang2000" class="citation journal cs1">Chang, Ruth H. (2000). "Understanding Di and Tian: Deity and Heaven from Shang to Tang Dynasties". <a href="/wiki/Sino-Platonic_Papers" title="Sino-Platonic Papers">Sino-Platonic Papers</a> (108). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2157-9679">2157-9679</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=Understanding+Di+and+Tian%3A+Deity+and+Heaven+from+Shang+to+Tang+Dynasties&rft.issue=108&rft.date=2000&rft.issn=2157-9679&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Ruth+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChau2005a" class="citation book cs1">Chau, Adam Yuet (2005a). Miraculous Response: Doing Popular Religion in Contemporary China. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804751605" title="Special:BookSources/9780804751605"><bdi>9780804751605</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Miraculous+Response%3A+Doing+Popular+Religion+in+Contemporary+China&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780804751605&rft.aulast=Chau&rft.aufirst=Adam+Yuet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChau2005" class="citation journal cs1">—— (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131230234625/http://www.ames.cam.ac.uk/general_info/biographies/chinese/chau-publications/Chau%20The%20politics%20of%20legitimation%20and%20the%20revival%20of%20popular%20religion.pdf">"The Politics of Legitimation and the Revival of Popular Religion in Shaanbei, North-Central China"</a> (PDF). Modern China. 31 (2): 236–278. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0097700404274038">10.1177/0097700404274038</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144130739">144130739</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ames.cam.ac.uk/general_info/biographies/chinese/chau-publications/Chau%20The%20politics%20of%20legitimation%20and%20the%20revival%20of%20popular%20religion.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 30 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=The+Politics+of+Legitimation+and+the+Revival+of+Popular+Religion+in+Shaanbei%2C+North-Central+China&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=236-278&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0097700404274038&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144130739%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chau&rft.aufirst=Adam+Yuet&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ames.cam.ac.uk%2Fgeneral_info%2Fbiographies%2Fchinese%2Fchau-publications%2FChau%2520The%2520politics%2520of%2520legitimation%2520and%2520the%2520revival%2520of%2520popular%2520religion.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChau2011" class="citation journal cs1">—— (2011). "Modalities of Doing Religion and Ritual Polytropy: Evaluating the Religious Market Model from the Perspective of Chinese Religious History". Religion. 41 (4): 457–568. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0048721X.2011.624691">10.1080/0048721X.2011.624691</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146463577">146463577</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religion&rft.atitle=Modalities+of+Doing+Religion+and+Ritual+Polytropy%3A+Evaluating+the+Religious+Market+Model+from+the+Perspective+of+Chinese+Religious+History&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=457-568&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0048721X.2011.624691&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146463577%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chau&rft.aufirst=Adam+Yuet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChau2013" class="citation cs2">—— (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VePQAQAAQBAJ">"A Different Kind of Religious Diversity: Ritual Service Providers and Consumers in China"</a>, in Schmidt-Leukel, Perry; Joachim Gentz (eds.), Religious Diversity in Chinese Thought, New York: Palgrave-MacMillan, pp. 141–156, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137333193" title="Special:BookSources/9781137333193"><bdi>9781137333193</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240215111716/https://books.google.com/books?id=VePQAQAAQBAJ">archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2024, retrieved 25 August 2015</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Different+Kind+of+Religious+Diversity%3A+Ritual+Service+Providers+and+Consumers+in+China&rft.btitle=Religious+Diversity+in+Chinese+Thought&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=141-156&rft.pub=Palgrave-MacMillan&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781137333193&rft.aulast=Chau&rft.aufirst=Adam+Yuet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVePQAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCheng1995" class="citation book cs1">Cheng, Manchao (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originofchinesed00chen">The Origin of Chinese Deities</a>. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7119000305" title="Special:BookSources/978-7119000305"><bdi>978-7119000305</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+Chinese+Deities&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pub=Foreign+Languages+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-7119000305&rft.aulast=Cheng&rft.aufirst=Manchao&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginofchinesed00chen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClart2014" class="citation conference cs1">Clart, Philip (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.uni-leipzig.de/clartp/Yanjiu%20xin%20shijie%202014.pdf">Conceptualizations of "Popular Religion" in Recent Research in the People's Republic of China</a> (PDF). International Symposium on Mazu and Chinese folk religion (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 媽祖與華人民間信仰」國際研討會論文集). Boyang, Taipei. pp. 391–412. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150523055017/http://home.uni-leipzig.de/clartp/Yanjiu%20xin%20shijie%202014.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 23 May 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Conceptualizations+of+%22Popular+Religion%22+in+Recent+Research+in+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China&rft.place=Boyang%2C+Taipei&rft.pages=391-412&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Clart&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.uni-leipzig.de%2Fclartp%2FYanjiu%2520xin%2520shijie%25202014.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClart2003" class="citation journal cs1">Clart, Philip (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~clartp/Clart%202003.pdf">"Confucius and the Mediums: Is There a "Popular Confucianism"?"</a> (PDF). T'oung Pao. 89 (LXXXIX): 1–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156853203322691301">10.1163/156853203322691301</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150226013000/http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~clartp/Clart%202003.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 26 February 2015. Retrieved 8 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=T%27oung+Pao&rft.atitle=Confucius+and+the+Mediums%3A+Is+There+a+%22Popular+Confucianism%22%3F&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=LXXXIX&rft.pages=1-38&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156853203322691301&rft.aulast=Clart&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-leipzig.de%2F~clartp%2FClart%25202003.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClart1997" class="citation journal cs1">Clart, Philip (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~clartp/The%20Phoenix%20and%20the%20Mother.pdf">"The Phoenix and the Mother: The Interaction of Spirit Writing Cults and Popular Sects in Taiwan"</a> (PDF). Journal of Chinese Religions. 25: 1–32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2F073776997805306959">10.1179/073776997805306959</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140304002847/http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~clartp/The%20Phoenix%20and%20the%20Mother.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2014. Retrieved 17 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Religions&rft.atitle=The+Phoenix+and+the+Mother%3A+The+Interaction+of+Spirit+Writing+Cults+and+Popular+Sects+in+Taiwan&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=1-32&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2F073776997805306959&rft.aulast=Clart&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uni-leipzig.de%2F~clartp%2FThe%2520Phoenix%2520and%2520the%2520Mother.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2005" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Edward L. (2005). Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415241298" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415241298"><bdi>978-0415241298</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Contemporary+Chinese+Culture&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0415241298&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Edward+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Groot1892" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Jakob_Maria_de_Groot" class="mw-redirect" title="Jan Jakob Maria de Groot">De Groot, J.J.M.</a> (1892). The Religious System of China: Its Ancient Forms, Evolution, History and Present Aspect, Manners, Customs and Social Institutions Connected Therewith. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religious+System+of+China%3A+Its+Ancient+Forms%2C+Evolution%2C+History+and+Present+Aspect%2C+Manners%2C+Customs+and+Social+Institutions+Connected+Therewith&rft.place=Leiden%2C+Netherlands&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1892&rft.aulast=De+Groot&rft.aufirst=J.J.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> 6 volumes. Online at: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/groot_jjm_de/religious_system_of_china/religious_system.html">Les classiques des sciences sociales, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090109115521/http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/groot_jjm_de/religious_system_of_china/religious_system.html">Archived</a> 9 January 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; Scribd: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/298935093/The-Religious-System-of-China-1892-Vol-1-Groot">Vol. 1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/298935163/The-Religious-System-of-China-1892-Vol-2-Groot">Vol. 2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160817115926/https://www.scribd.com/doc/298935163/The-Religious-System-of-China-1892-Vol-2-Groot">Archived</a> 17 August 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/298935219/The-Religious-System-of-China-1892-Vol-3-Groot">Vol. 3</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160817103126/https://www.scribd.com/doc/298935219/The-Religious-System-of-China-1892-Vol-3-Groot">Archived</a> 17 August 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/298935256/The-Religious-System-of-China-1892-Vol-4-Groot">Vol. 4</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160817120613/https://www.scribd.com/doc/298935256/The-Religious-System-of-China-1892-Vol-4-Groot">Archived</a> 17 August 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/298935289/The-Religious-System-of-China-1892-Vol-5-Groot">Vol. 5</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160817121415/https://www.scribd.com/doc/298935289/The-Religious-System-of-China-1892-Vol-5-Groot">Archived</a> 17 August 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/298935357/The-Religious-System-of-China-1892-Vol-6-Groot">Vol. 6</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160817125642/https://www.scribd.com/doc/298935357/The-Religious-System-of-China-1892-Vol-6-Groot">Archived</a> 17 August 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDidier2009" class="citation journal cs1">Didier, John C. (2009). "In and Outside the Square: The Sky and the Power of Belief in Ancient China and the World, c. 4500 BC – AD 200". <a href="/wiki/Sino-Platonic_Papers" title="Sino-Platonic Papers">Sino-Platonic Papers</a> (192).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=In+and+Outside+the+Square%3A+The+Sky+and+the+Power+of+Belief+in+Ancient+China+and+the+World%2C+c.+4500+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+200&rft.issue=192&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Didier&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp192_vol1.pdf">Volume I: The Ancient Eurasian World and the Celestial Pivot</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220323050218/http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp192_vol1.pdf">Archived</a> 23 March 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp192_vol2.pdf">Volume II: Representations and Identities of High Powers in Neolithic and Bronze China</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220318005855/http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp192_vol2.pdf">Archived</a> 18 March 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp192_vol3.pdf">Volume III: Terrestrial and Celestial Transformations in Zhou and Early-Imperial China</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220323050228/http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp192_vol3.pdf">Archived</a> 23 March 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDo2003" class="citation book cs1">Do, Thien (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Piudqn9uijUC">Vietnamese Supernaturalism: Views from the Southern Region</a>. Anthropology of Asia. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415307994" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415307994"><bdi>978-0415307994</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240215111713/https://books.google.com/books?id=Piudqn9uijUC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 23 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnamese+Supernaturalism%3A+Views+from+the+Southern+Region&rft.series=Anthropology+of+Asia&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0415307994&rft.aulast=Do&rft.aufirst=Thien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPiudqn9uijUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFanChen2015" class="citation journal cs1">Fan, Lizhu; Chen, Na (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fcdc-2015-0005">"The Religiousness of "Confucianism" and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today"</a>. Cultural Diversity in China. 1 (1): 27–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fcdc-2015-0005">10.1515/cdc-2015-0005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2353-7795">2353-7795</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cultural+Diversity+in+China&rft.atitle=The+Religiousness+of+%22Confucianism%22+and+the+Revival+of+Confucian+Religion+in+China+Today&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27-43&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fcdc-2015-0005&rft.issn=2353-7795&rft.aulast=Fan&rft.aufirst=Lizhu&rft.au=Chen%2C+Na&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1515%252Fcdc-2015-0005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFanChen2013" class="citation journal cs1">Fan, Lizhu; Chen, Na (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fudan-uc.ucsd.edu/_files/201306_China_Watch_Fan_Chen.pdf">"The Revival of Indigenous Religion in China"</a> (PDF). China Watch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210421062120/http://fudan-uc.ucsd.edu/_files/201306_China_Watch_Fan_Chen.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+Watch&rft.atitle=The+Revival+of+Indigenous+Religion+in+China&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Fan&rft.aufirst=Lizhu&rft.au=Chen%2C+Na&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffudan-uc.ucsd.edu%2F_files%2F201306_China_Watch_Fan_Chen.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> Preprint from The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion, 2014. doi: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195338522.013.024</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler2005" class="citation book cs1">Fowler, Jeanine D. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9wi-ZDdmaqEC">An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality</a>. Sussex Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845190866" title="Special:BookSources/978-1845190866"><bdi>978-1845190866</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Philosophy+and+Religion+of+Taoism%3A+Pathways+to+Immortality&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1845190866&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=Jeanine+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9wi-ZDdmaqEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoossaertPalmer2011" class="citation book cs1">Goossaert, Vincent; Palmer, David (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bx83dlLMPdMC">The Religious Question in Modern China</a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226304168" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226304168"><bdi>978-0226304168</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240215112111/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bx83dlLMPdMC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 23 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religious+Question+in+Modern+China&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0226304168&rft.aulast=Goossaert&rft.aufirst=Vincent&rft.au=Palmer%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBx83dlLMPdMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaenssbauer2015" class="citation book cs1">Gaenssbauer, Monika (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hGfOCgAAQBAJ">Popular Belief in Contemporary China: A Discourse Analysis</a>. Projekt Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226304168" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226304168"><bdi>978-0226304168</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240215112126/https://books.google.com/books?id=hGfOCgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 28 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Popular+Belief+in+Contemporary+China%3A+A+Discourse+Analysis&rft.pub=Projekt+Verlag&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0226304168&rft.aulast=Gaenssbauer&rft.aufirst=Monika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhGfOCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJin2005" class="citation conference cs1">Jin, Ze (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924003028/http://www.brookings.edu/fp/cnaps/events/jinzeenglish20050201.pdf">Challenges and Choices Facing Folk Faith in China</a> (PDF). Religion and Cultural Change in China. The Brookings Institution - Center for Northeast Asian Policy Studies, Washington: DC. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brookings.edu/fp/cnaps/events/jinzeenglish20050201.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Challenges+and+Choices+Facing+Folk+Faith+in+China&rft.place=The+Brookings+Institution+-+Center+for+Northeast+Asian+Policy+Studies%2C+Washington%3A+DC&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Jin&rft.aufirst=Ze&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brookings.edu%2Ffp%2Fcnaps%2Fevents%2Fjinzeenglish20050201.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJansen2012" class="citation cs2">Jansen, Thomas (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FmnKSfAS4PcC">"Sacred Texts"</a>, in Nadeau, Randall L. 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In Search of the Folk Daoists of North China. Ashgate Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1409481300" title="Special:BookSources/978-1409481300"><bdi>978-1409481300</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+the+Folk+Daoists+of+North+China&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1409481300&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLagerweyKalinowski2008" class="citation book cs1">Lagerwey, John; Kalinowski, Marc (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Idhyr1hqS0kC">Early Chinese Religion: Part One: Shang Through Han (1250 BC-220 AD)</a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004168350" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004168350"><bdi>978-9004168350</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240215112115/https://books.google.com/books?id=Idhyr1hqS0kC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 27 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Chinese+Religion%3A+Part+One%3A+Shang+Through+Han+%281250+BC-220+AD%29&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-9004168350&rft.aulast=Lagerwey&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Kalinowski%2C+Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIdhyr1hqS0kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaw2005" class="citation journal cs1">Law, Pui-Lam (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/672">"The Revival of Folk Religion and Gender Relationships in Rural China: A Preliminary Observation"</a>. Asian Folklore Studies. 64: 89–109.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Folklore+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Revival+of+Folk+Religion+and+Gender+Relationships+in+Rural+China%3A+A+Preliminary+Observation&rft.volume=64&rft.pages=89-109&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Law&rft.aufirst=Pui-Lam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp%2Fnfile%2F672&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2009" class="citation book cs1">Li, Ganlang (2009). 台灣古建築圖解事典 (四版五刷 ed.). Taipei: 遠流出版社. pp. 47–49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9573249573" title="Special:BookSources/978-9573249573"><bdi>978-9573249573</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E5%8F%A4%E5%BB%BA%E7%AF%89%E5%9C%96%E8%A7%A3%E4%BA%8B%E5%85%B8&rft.place=Taipei&rft.pages=47-49&rft.edition=%E5%9B%9B%E7%89%88%E4%BA%94%E5%88%B7&rft.pub=%E9%81%A0%E6%B5%81%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-9573249573&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Ganlang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2016" class="citation book cs1">Li, Lan (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pwrPCwAAQBAJ">Popular Religion in Modern China: The New Role of Nuo</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317077954" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317077954"><bdi>978-1317077954</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240215112113/https://books.google.com/books?id=pwrPCwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 7 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Popular+Religion+in+Modern+China%3A+The+New+Role+of+Nuo&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1317077954&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Lan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpwrPCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibbrecht2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Libbrecht" title="Ulrich Libbrecht">Libbrecht, Ulrich</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rmT3ZHGxJPgC">Within the Four Seas...: Introduction to Comparative Philosophy</a>. Peeters Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9042918122" title="Special:BookSources/978-9042918122"><bdi>978-9042918122</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240215112107/https://books.google.com/books?id=rmT3ZHGxJPgC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 23 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Within+the+Four+Seas...%3A+Introduction+to+Comparative+Philosophy&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-9042918122&rft.aulast=Libbrecht&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrmT3ZHGxJPgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittleEichman2000" class="citation book cs1">Little, Stephen; Eichman, Shawn (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5ame4Rl1RXMC">Taoism and the Arts of China</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520227859" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520227859"><bdi>978-0520227859</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taoism+and+the+Arts+of+China&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0520227859&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Eichman%2C+Shawn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_5ame4Rl1RXMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittlejohn2010" class="citation book cs1">Littlejohn, Ronnie (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_RZe8Hr57NEC">Confucianism: An Introduction</a>. I. B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1848851740" title="Special:BookSources/978-1848851740"><bdi>978-1848851740</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240215112124/https://books.google.com/books?id=_RZe8Hr57NEC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 23 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confucianism%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1848851740&rft.aulast=Littlejohn&rft.aufirst=Ronnie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_RZe8Hr57NEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLüGong2014" class="citation book cs1">Lü, Daji; Gong, Xuezeng (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6r0FAwAAQBAJ">Marxism and Religion</a>. Religious Studies in Contemporary China. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9047428022" title="Special:BookSources/978-9047428022"><bdi>978-9047428022</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240215112548/https://books.google.com/books?id=6r0FAwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 23 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marxism+and+Religion&rft.series=Religious+Studies+in+Contemporary+China&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-9047428022&rft.aulast=L%C3%BC&rft.aufirst=Daji&rft.au=Gong%2C+Xuezeng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6r0FAwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedhurst1847" class="citation book cs1">Medhurst, Walter H. (1847). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.13521">A Dissertation on the Theology of the Chinese, with a View to the Elucidation of the Most Appropriate Term for Expressing the Deity, in the Chinese Language</a>. Mission Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dissertation+on+the+Theology+of+the+Chinese%2C+with+a+View+to+the+Elucidation+of+the+Most+Appropriate+Term+for+Expressing+the+Deity%2C+in+the+Chinese+Language&rft.pub=Mission+Press&rft.date=1847&rft.aulast=Medhurst&rft.aufirst=Walter+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpli.kerala.rare.13521&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> Original preserved at The British Library. Digitalised in 2014.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMou2012" class="citation book cs1">Mou, Zhongjian (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OtkMuSA5pNsC">Taoism</a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004174535" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004174535"><bdi>978-9004174535</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240215112553/https://books.google.com/books?id=OtkMuSA5pNsC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 23 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taoism&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-9004174535&rft.aulast=Mou&rft.aufirst=Zhongjian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOtkMuSA5pNsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOvermyer1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_L._Overmyer" title="Daniel L. Overmyer">Overmyer, Daniel L.</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nYkbAAAAQBAJ">Religions of China: The World as a Living System</a>. New York: Harper & Row. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781478609896" title="Special:BookSources/9781478609896"><bdi>9781478609896</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231009211554/https://books.google.com/books?id=nYkbAAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2023. Retrieved 9 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religions+of+China%3A+The+World+as+a+Living+System&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9781478609896&rft.aulast=Overmyer&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnYkbAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOvermyer2009" class="citation book cs1">Overmyer, Daniel L. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150616021930/http://cnqzu.com/library/To%20Organize/Books/Brill%20Ebooks/Brill._Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies/Brill.%20Handbook%20of%20Oriental%20Studies/Local_Religion_in_North_China_in_the_Twentieth_Century__Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies_.pdf">Local Religion in North China in the Twentieth Century: The Structure and Organization of Community Rituals and Beliefs</a> (PDF). Leiden; Boston: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789047429364" title="Special:BookSources/9789047429364"><bdi>9789047429364</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cnqzu.com/library/To%20Organize/Books/Brill%20Ebooks/Brill._Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies/Brill.%20Handbook%20of%20Oriental%20Studies/Local_Religion_in_North_China_in_the_Twentieth_Century__Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies_.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 16 June 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Local+Religion+in+North+China+in+the+Twentieth+Century%3A+The+Structure+and+Organization+of+Community+Rituals+and+Beliefs&rft.place=Leiden%3B+Boston&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9789047429364&rft.aulast=Overmyer&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcnqzu.com%2Flibrary%2FTo%2520Organize%2FBooks%2FBrill%2520Ebooks%2FBrill._Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies%2FBrill.%2520Handbook%2520of%2520Oriental%2520Studies%2FLocal_Religion_in_North_China_in_the_Twentieth_Century__Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies_.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwnby2008" class="citation journal cs1">Ownby, David (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fassr.17633">"Sect and Secularism in Reading the Modern Chinese Religious Experience"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Archives_de_sciences_sociales_des_religions" title="Archives de sciences sociales des religions">Archives de sciences sociales des religions</a>. 144 (144). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fassr.17633">10.4000/assr.17633</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+de+sciences+sociales+des+religions&rft.atitle=Sect+and+Secularism+in+Reading+the+Modern+Chinese+Religious+Experience&rft.volume=144&rft.issue=144&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fassr.17633&rft.aulast=Ownby&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4000%252Fassr.17633&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer2011" class="citation journal cs1">Palmer, David A. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/139685/1/Content.pdf?accept=1">"Chinese Redemptive Societies and Salvationist Religion: Historical Phenomenon or Sociological Category?"</a> (PDF). Journal of Chinese Ritual, Theatre and Folklore. 172: 21–72. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140504001451/http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/139685/1/Content.pdf?accept=1">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 May 2014. Retrieved 3 May 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chinese+Ritual%2C+Theatre+and+Folklore&rft.atitle=Chinese+Redemptive+Societies+and+Salvationist+Religion%3A+Historical+Phenomenon+or+Sociological+Category%3F&rft.volume=172&rft.pages=21-72&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhub.hku.hk%2Fbitstream%2F10722%2F139685%2F1%2FContent.pdf%3Faccept%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaper1995" class="citation book cs1">Paper, Jordan (1995). The Spirits are Drunk: Comparative Approaches to Chinese Religion. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791423158" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791423158"><bdi>978-0791423158</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spirits+are+Drunk%3A+Comparative+Approaches+to+Chinese+Religion&rft.place=Albany%2C+NY&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0791423158&rft.aulast=Paper&rft.aufirst=Jordan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPregadio2013" class="citation book cs1">Pregadio, Fabrizio (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R3Sp6TfzhpIC">The Encyclopedia of Taoism</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135796341" title="Special:BookSources/978-1135796341"><bdi>978-1135796341</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231005052151/https://books.google.com/books?id=R3Sp6TfzhpIC">Archived</a> from the original on 5 October 2023. Retrieved 23 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Taoism&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1135796341&rft.aulast=Pregadio&rft.aufirst=Fabrizio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR3Sp6TfzhpIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"> Two volumes: 1) A-L; 2) L-Z.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPas2014" class="citation book cs1">Pas, Julian F. (2014). Historical Dictionary of Taoism. Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements. Albany, NY: Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B00IZ9E7EI">B00IZ9E7EI</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Taoism&rft.place=Albany%2C+NY&rft.series=Historical+Dictionaries+of+Religions%2C+Philosophies%2C+and+Movements&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB00IZ9E7EI%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Pas&rft.aufirst=Julian+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayette2016" class="citation journal cs1">Payette, Alex (February 2016). "Local Confucian Revival in China: Ritual Teachings, 'Confucian' Learning and Cultural Resistance in Shandong". China Report. 52 (1): 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0009445515613867">10.1177/0009445515613867</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147263039">147263039</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=China+Report&rft.atitle=Local+Confucian+Revival+in+China%3A+Ritual+Teachings%2C+%27Confucian%27+Learning+and+Cultural+Resistance+in+Shandong&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=2016-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0009445515613867&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147263039%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Payette&rft.aufirst=Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSautman1997" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barry_Sautman" title="Barry Sautman">Sautman, Barry</a> (1997). 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Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 75–95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9622094430" title="Special:BookSources/9622094430"><bdi>9622094430</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Myths+of+Descent%2C+Racial+Nationalism+and+Ethnic+Minorities+in+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China&rft.btitle=The+Construction+of+Racial+Identities+in+China+and+Japan%3A+Historical+and+Contemporary+Perspectives&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pages=75-95&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%27i+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9622094430&rft.aulast=Sautman&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaharWeller1996" class="citation cs2">Shahar, Meir; Weller, Robert Paul (1996), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gegRl__dR8EC">Unruly Gods: Divinity and Society in China</a>, University of Hawaii Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190258146" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190258146"><bdi>978-0190258146</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240215112537/https://books.google.com/books?id=gegRl__dR8EC">archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2024, retrieved 31 July 2016</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unruly+Gods%3A+Divinity+and+Society+in+China&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0190258146&rft.aulast=Shahar&rft.aufirst=Meir&rft.au=Weller%2C+Robert+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgegRl__dR8EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShi2008" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">Shi, Yilong 石奕龍 (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190831211141/http://www.doc88.com/p-2949949083043.html">"Zhongguo Hanren zifadi zongjiao shijian: Shenxianjiao" <bdi lang="zh">中国汉人自发的宗教实践 — 神仙教</bdi></a> [The Spontaneous Religious Practices of Han Chinese Peoples — Shenxianism]. 中南民族大学学报 — 人文社会科学版 (Journal of South-Central University for Nationalities (Humanities and Social Sciences)). 28 (3): 146–150. 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Retrieved 7 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+in+Chinese+Society%3B+a+Study+of+Contemporary+Social+Functions+of+Religion+and+Some+of+Their+Historical+Factors&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=9780520013711&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=C.+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN2d09EhGBgkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYao2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Yao_Xinzhong" class="mw-redirect" title="Yao Xinzhong">Yao, Xinzhong</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GuINLKnJp0AC">Chinese Religion: A Contextual Approach</a>. London: A&C Black. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781847064752" title="Special:BookSources/9781847064752"><bdi>9781847064752</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240215112539/https://books.google.com/books?id=GuINLKnJp0AC">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2024. Retrieved 19 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Religion%3A+A+Contextual+Approach&rft.place=London&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781847064752&rft.aulast=Yao&rft.aufirst=Xinzhong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGuINLKnJp0AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZavidovskaya2012" class="citation journal cs1">Zavidovskaya, Ekaterina A. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2071015">"Deserving Divine Protection: Religious Life in Contemporary Rural Shanxi and Shaanxi Provinces"</a>. St. Petersburg Annual of Asian and African Studies. I: 179–197. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220408035321/https://www.academia.edu/2071015">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 2 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=St.+Petersburg+Annual+of+Asian+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Deserving+Divine+Protection%3A+Religious+Life+in+Contemporary+Rural+Shanxi+and+Shaanxi+Provinces&rft.volume=I&rft.pages=179-197&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Zavidovskaya&rft.aufirst=Ekaterina+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2071015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhao2012" class="citation cs2">Zhao, Dunhua (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7BMp7VT7G4oC">"The Chinese Path to Polytheism"</a>, in Wang, Robin R. (ed.), Chinese Philosophy in an Era of Globalization, State University of New York Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791485507" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791485507"><bdi>978-0791485507</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Chinese+Path+to+Polytheism&rft.btitle=Chinese+Philosophy+in+an+Era+of+Globalization&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0791485507&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Dunhua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7BMp7VT7G4oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhou2005" class="citation journal cs1">Zhou, Jixu (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp167_old_chinese_proto_indo_european.pdf">"Old Chinese "*tees" and Proto-Indo-European "*deus": Similarity in Religious Ideas and a Common Source in Linguistics"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Sino-Platonic_Papers" title="Sino-Platonic Papers">Sino-Platonic Papers</a> (167). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924102445/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp167_old_chinese_proto_indo_european.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 28 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=Old+Chinese+%22%2Atees%22+and+Proto-Indo-European+%22%2Adeus%22%3A+Similarity+in+Religious+Ideas+and+a+Common+Source+in+Linguistics&rft.issue=167&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Zhou&rft.aufirst=Jixu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sino-platonic.org%2Fcomplete%2Fspp167_old_chinese_proto_indo_european.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChinese+folk+religion" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <dl><dt>Articles</dt></dl> <ul><li>Fenggang Yang. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/2013/10/31/stand-still-and-watch/">Stand still and watch</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140106153252/http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/2013/10/31/stand-still-and-watch/">Archived</a> 6 January 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. In <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140106153206/http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/the-state-of-religion-in-china/">The state of religion in China</a>. The Immanent Frame, 2013.</li> <li>Prasenjit Duara. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/2013/11/21/chinese-religions-in-comparative-historical-perspective/">Chinese religions in comparative historical perspective</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140117123442/http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/2013/11/21/chinese-religions-in-comparative-historical-perspective/">Archived</a> 17 January 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. In <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140106153206/http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/the-state-of-religion-in-china/">The state of religion in China</a>. The Immanent Frame, 2013.</li> <li>Richard Madsen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/2013/10/10/secular-belief-religious-belonging/">Secular belief, religious belonging</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131030065448/http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/2013/10/10/secular-belief-religious-belonging/">Archived</a> 30 October 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. In <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140106153206/http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/the-state-of-religion-in-china/">The state of religion in China</a>. The Immanent Frame, 2013.</li> <li>Nathan Schneider. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/2010/09/23/the-future-of-chinas-past/">The future of China's past: An interview with Mayfair Yang</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140106153208/http://blogs.ssrc.org/tif/2010/09/23/the-future-of-chinas-past/">Archived</a> 6 January 2014 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. The Immanent Frame, 2010.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_folk_religion&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_folk_religion" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20140502160117/http://zumiao.jguo.cn/">China Ancestral Temples Network</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boredinheaven.com/">Bored in Heaven</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181019161639/http://www.boredinheaven.com/">Archived</a> 19 October 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, a documentary on the reinvention of Chinese religion and Taoism. By Kenneth Dean, 2010, 80 minutes.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chinese_mythology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_mythology" title="Template:Chinese mythology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_mythology" title="Template talk:Chinese mythology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_mythology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese mythology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chinese_mythology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_mythology" title="Chinese mythology">Chinese mythology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_creation_myths" title="Chinese creation myths">Creation myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_spiritual_world_concepts" title="Chinese spiritual world concepts">Godly world concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_astrology" title="Chinese astrology">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">Dragons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gods_and_demons_fiction" title="Gods and demons fiction">Shenmo fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_gods_and_immortals" title="Chinese gods and immortals">Gods and immortals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangu" title="Pangu">Pangu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture" title="Ghosts in Chinese culture">Ghosts</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese folk religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major personages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_gods_and_immortals" title="Chinese gods and immortals">Gods and immortals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors">Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Immortals" title="Eight Immortals">Eight Immortals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youchao" title="Youchao">Youchao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shennong" title="Shennong">Shennong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Emperor" title="Yan Emperor">Yan Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiyou" title="Chiyou">Chiyou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chang%27e" title="Chang'e">Chang'e</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hou_Yi" title="Hou Yi">Hou Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuafu" title="Kuafu">Kuafu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mythological creatures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Symbols" title="Four Symbols">Four Symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Tortoise" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Tortoise">Black Tortoise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azure_Dragon" title="Azure Dragon">Azure Dragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Tiger_(mythology)" title="White Tiger (mythology)">White Tiger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermilion_Bird" title="Vermilion Bird">Vermilion Bird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Dragon" title="Yellow Dragon">Yellow Dragon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Holy_Beasts" title="Four Holy Beasts">Four Holy Beasts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qilin" title="Qilin">Qilin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenghuang" title="Fenghuang">Fenghuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglong" title="Yinglong">Yinglong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_turtle" title="Spirit turtle">Spirit turtle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bixi" title="Bixi">Bixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_spirit" title="Fox spirit">Huli jing</a> (Fox spirit)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_guardian_lions" title="Chinese guardian lions">Chinese guardian lions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pixiu" title="Pixiu">Pixiu</a> (Bixie)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nian" title="Nian">Nian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_Chinese_mythology" title="Horses in Chinese mythology">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundun" title="Hundun">Hundun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiezhi" title="Xiezhi">Xiezhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuzhiqi" title="Wuzhiqi">Wuzhiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeren" title="Yeren">Yeren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_spirit" title="Fox spirit">Fox spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Perils" title="Four Perils">Four Perils</a> (<a href="/wiki/Four_Perils" title="Four Perils">Four Evildoers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peng_(mythology)" title="Peng (mythology)">Peng (mythology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine-headed_Bird" class="mw-redirect" title="Nine-headed Bird">Nine-headed Bird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianma" title="Tianma">Tianma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine-tailed_fox" title="Nine-tailed fox">Nine-tailed fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legendary_creatures_from_China" title="List of legendary creatures from China">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Buzhou" title="Mount Buzhou">Buzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diyu" title="Diyu">Diyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Pillars" title="Eight Pillars">Eight Pillars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_of_the_Ghosts" title="Gate of the Ghosts">Gate of the Ghosts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusang" title="Fusang">Fusang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jade_Mountain_(mythology)" title="Jade Mountain (mythology)">Jade Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunlun_(mythology)" title="Kunlun (mythology)">Kunlun Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longmen_(mythology)" title="Longmen (mythology)">Longmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moving_Sands" title="Moving Sands">Moving Sands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Penglai" title="Mount Penglai">Penglai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_(mythology)" title="Red River (mythology)">Red River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_River_(mythology)" title="Weak River (mythology)">Weak River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youdu" title="Youdu">Youdu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Items</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gu_(poison)" title="Gu (poison)">Gu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaches_of_Immortality" title="Peaches of Immortality">Peaches of Immortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xirang" title="Xirang">Xirang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classic_of_Mountains_and_Seas" title="Classic of Mountains and Seas">Classic of Mountains and Seas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shi_Yi_Ji" title="Shi Yi Ji">Shi Yi Ji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowuzhi" title="Bowuzhi">Bowuzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liexian_Zhuan" title="Liexian Zhuan">Liexian Zhuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenxian_Zhuan" title="Shenxian Zhuan">Shenxian Zhuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Gods_and_Strange_Things" title="Book of Gods and Strange Things">Shenyi Jing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Peach_Blossom_Spring" title="The Peach Blossom Spring">The Peach Blossom Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Four_Journeys" class="mw-redirect" title="The Four Journeys">The Four Journeys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_of_the_Gods" title="Investiture of the Gods">Investiture of the Gods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Three_Sui_Quash_the_Demons%27_Revolt" title="The Three Sui Quash the Demons' Revolt">The Sorcerer's Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_Tales_from_a_Chinese_Studio" title="Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio">Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journey_to_the_West" title="Journey to the West">Journey to the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Search_of_the_Supernatural" title="In Search of the Supernatural">In Search of the Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/What_the_Master_Would_Not_Discuss" title="What the Master Would Not Discuss">What the Master Would Not Discuss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavenly_Questions" title="Heavenly Questions">Heavenly Questions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chu_Ci" title="Chu Ci">Chu Ci</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_the_Thatched_Abode_of_Close_Observations" title="Notes of the Thatched Abode of Close Observations">Notes of the Thatched Abode of Close Observations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other folk tales</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legend_of_the_White_Snake" title="Legend of the White Snake">Legend of the White Snake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dong_Yong_and_the_Seventh_Fairy" title="Dong Yong and the Seventh Fairy">Dong Yong and the Seventh Fairy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Cowherd_and_the_Weaver_Girl" title="The Cowherd and the Weaver Girl">The Cowherd and the Weaver Girl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Magic_Lotus_Lantern" title="The Magic Lotus Lantern">The Magic Lotus Lantern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulian_Rescues_His_Mother" title="Mulian Rescues His Mother">Mulian Rescues His Mother</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_Religion_in_China" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_in_China" title="Template:Religion in China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_in_China" title="Template talk:Religion in China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion in China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_Religion_in_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion in China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Major religions in China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestor_veneration_in_China" title="Ancestor veneration in China">Ancestor veneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk ritual ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Chinese salvationist religions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravada Buddhism">Theravada Buddhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism in China">Roman Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Orthodox_Church" title="Chinese Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of China"><img alt="Flag of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/53px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="53" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/80px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/106px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_China" title="Baháʼí Faith in China">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongbaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dongbaism">Dongbaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_China" title="Hinduism in China">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Miao folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_folk_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolian folk religion">Mongolian folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism_in_China" title="Sikhism in China">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao folk religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northeast_China" title="Religion in Northeast China">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Inner_Mongolia" title="Religion in Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tibet" title="Religion in Tibet">Tibet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_teachings_(Chinese_law)" title="Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)">Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_China" title="Irreligion in China">Irreligion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Religious_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Regional Religious System">Regional Religious System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture" title="Ghosts in Chinese culture">Ghosts in Chinese culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Persian_religions" title="Three Persian religions">Three Persian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_Persecution_of_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Huichang Persecution of Buddhism">Huichang Persecution of Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Folk_religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Folk_religion" title="Template:Folk religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Folk_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Folk religion (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Folk_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Folk religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Folk_religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Christianity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folk_Orthodoxy" title="Folk Orthodoxy">Folk Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_Catholicism" title="Folk Catholicism">Folk Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cunning_folk_traditions_and_the_Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Cunning folk traditions and the Latter Day Saint movement">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_saint" title="Folk saint">Folk saint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asian traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_China_folk_religion" title="Northeast China folk religion">Northeast China folk religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Tai folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Philippine_folk_religions" title="Indigenous Philippine folk religions">Indigenous Philippine folk religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_mythology" title="Lower mythology">Lower mythology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religious_Confucianism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religious_Confucianism" title="Template:Religious Confucianism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Religious_Confucianism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Religious Confucianism (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religious_Confucianism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religious Confucianism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religious_Confucianism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religious_Confucianism" title="Religious Confucianism">Religious Confucianism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rituals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesa" title="Jesa">Jesa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice_to_Heaven" title="Sacrifice to Heaven">Sacrifice to Heaven</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Festival_Hu%E1%BA%BF" title="Festival Huế">Festival Huế</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Shan" title="Feng Shan">Feng Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_and_music_system" title="Ritual and music system">Ritual and music system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guan_Li" title="Guan Li">Guan Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji_Li_(ceremony)" title="Ji Li (ceremony)">Ji Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_marriage" title="Traditional Chinese marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ghost_marriage" title="Chinese ghost marriage">Ghost marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_the_living" title="Worship of the living">Worship of the living</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shendao_shejiao" title="Shendao shejiao">Shendao shejiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_theology" title="Chinese theology">Chinese theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucian_ritual_religion" title="Confucian ritual religion">Confucian ritual religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">Filial piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_Heaven_and_humanity" title="Unity of Heaven and humanity">Unity of Heaven and humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactions_Between_Heaven_and_Mankind" title="Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind">Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancestor_veneration_in_China" title="Ancestor veneration in China">Ancestor veneration in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_Heaven" title="Son of Heaven">Son of Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianxia" title="Tianxia">Tianxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Huang_Zisun" title="Yan Huang Zisun">Yan Huang Zisun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_and_grain" title="Soil and grain">Soil and grain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucian_church" title="Confucian church">Confucian church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Confucian_Church" title="Holy Confucian Church">Holy Confucian Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanyuan_teaching" title="Xuanyuan teaching">Xuanyuan teaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taigu_school" title="Taigu school">Taigu school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shengdao" title="Shengdao">Shengdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucian_Academy" title="Confucian Academy">Confucian Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucian_Shinto" title="Confucian Shinto">Confucian Shinto</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shint%C5%8D_Taiseiky%C5%8D" title="Shintō Taiseikyō">Taiseikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinto_Shusei" class="mw-redirect" title="Shinto Shusei">Shusei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamazaki_Ansai" title="Yamazaki Ansai">Suika Shinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onmy%C5%8Dd%C5%8D" title="Onmyōdō">Onmyōdō</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamazaki_Ansai" title="Yamazaki Ansai">Yamazaki Ansai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Buildings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Confucius" title="Temple of Confucius">Temple of Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucian_royal_ancestral_shrine" title="Confucian royal ancestral shrine">Confucian royal ancestral shrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_shrine" title="Ancestral shrine">Ancestral shrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_goods_store" title="Religious goods store">Religious goods store</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero_shrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hero shrine">Hero shrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myo_shrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Myo shrine">Myo shrine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jongmyo_(Seoul)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jongmyo (Seoul)">Jongmyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munmyo" title="Munmyo">Munmyo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ci_shrine" title="Ci shrine">Ci shrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_shrine" title="Miao shrine">Miao shrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_miao" title="Yin miao">Yin miao</a></li> <li>Beijing Temples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Heaven" title="Temple of Heaven">Temple of Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beijing_Shejitan" title="Beijing Shejitan">Beijing Shejitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Agriculture" title="Temple of Agriculture">Temple of Agriculture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_tablet" title="Spirit tablet">Spirit tablet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiangong_censer" title="Tiangong censer">Tiangong censer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hell_money" title="Hell money">Hell money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucian_coin_charm" title="Confucian coin charm">Confucian coin charm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joss_paper" title="Joss paper">Joss paper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Books_and_Five_Classics" title="Four Books and Five Classics">Four Books and Five Classics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Classics" title="Thirteen Classics">Thirteen Classics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Deities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shangdi" title="Shangdi">Shangdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wufang_Shangdi" title="Wufang Shangdi">Wufang Shangdi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baidi_(god)" class="mw-redirect" title="Baidi (god)">White Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaohao" title="Shaohao">Shaohao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heidi_(god)" title="Heidi (god)">Black Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhuanxu" title="Zhuanxu">Zhuanxu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanwu_(god)" title="Xuanwu (god)">Xuanwu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cangdi" title="Cangdi">Bluegreen Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fu_Xi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fu Xi">Fu Xi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chidi_(god)" title="Chidi (god)">Red Emperor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shennong" title="Shennong">Shennong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flame_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Flame Emperor">Flame Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhurong" title="Zhurong">Zhurong</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tutelary deities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landlord_deity#In_China" title="Landlord deity">Landlord deity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tudigong" title="Tudigong">Tudigong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_God_(China)" title="City God (China)">City God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_God" title="Mountain God">Mountain God</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" 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