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</li> <li id="toc-Omotic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Omotic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Omotic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Omotic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semitic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semitic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Semitic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semitic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_proposed_branches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_proposed_branches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Other proposed branches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_proposed_branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_subdivisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_subdivisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Further subdivisions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_subdivisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Classification history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Origin </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origin-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Origin subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Timeline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Location" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Location"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Location </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Location-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonological_characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonological_characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Phonological characteristics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonological_characteristics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonological characteristics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonological_characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Syllable_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syllable_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Syllable structure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syllable_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonant_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonant_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Consonant systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonant_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonant_incompatibility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonant_incompatibility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Consonant incompatibility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonant_incompatibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowel_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowel_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Vowel systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowel_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Tones </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Similarities_in_grammar,_syntax,_and_morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Similarities_in_grammar,_syntax,_and_morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Similarities in grammar, syntax, and morphology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Similarities_in_grammar,_syntax,_and_morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Similarities in grammar, syntax, and morphology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Similarities_in_grammar,_syntax,_and_morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 General features </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonantal_root_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonantal_root_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Consonantal root structures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonantal_root_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.2 Word order </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduplication_and_gemination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduplication_and_gemination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.3 Reduplication and gemination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduplication_and_gemination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Grammatical_gender_and_number" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammatical_gender_and_number"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Grammatical gender and number </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammatical_gender_and_number-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noun_cases_and_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_cases_and_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Noun cases and states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_cases_and_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modifiers_and_agreement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modifiers_and_agreement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Modifiers and agreement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modifiers_and_agreement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb_forms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_forms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Verb forms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_forms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tenses,_aspects,_and_moods_(TAMs)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tenses,_aspects,_and_moods_(TAMs)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.1 Tenses, aspects, and moods (TAMs) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tenses,_aspects,_and_moods_(TAMs)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Prefix_conjugation"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Prefix_conjugation""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.2 "Prefix conjugation" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Prefix_conjugation"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Suffix_conjugation"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Suffix_conjugation""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.3 "Suffix conjugation" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Suffix_conjugation"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Common_derivational_affixes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_derivational_affixes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Common derivational affixes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_derivational_affixes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-M-prefix_noun_derivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#M-prefix_noun_derivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.1 M-prefix noun derivation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-M-prefix_noun_derivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbal_extensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbal_extensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.2 Verbal extensions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbal_extensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Nisba"_derivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Nisba"_derivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.3 "Nisba" derivation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Nisba"_derivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary_comparison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary_comparison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Vocabulary comparison </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vocabulary_comparison-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Vocabulary comparison subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary_comparison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Pronouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Numerals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Cognates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Afroasiatic languages</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 117 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-117" aria-hidden="true" > 117 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Asiatiese_tale" title="Afro-Asiatiese tale – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Afro-Asiatiese tale" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-asiatische_Sprachen" title="Afro-asiatische Sprachen – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Afro-asiatische Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%8D%8D%E1%88%AE_%E1%8A%A5%E1%88%B5%E1%8B%AB%E1%8B%8A_%E1%89%8B%E1%8A%95%E1%89%8B%E1%8B%8E%E1%89%BD" title="አፍሮ እስያዊ ቋንቋዎች – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አፍሮ እስያዊ ቋንቋዎች" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A5%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A2%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لغات إفريقية آسيوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغات إفريقية آسيوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luengas_afroasiaticas" title="Luengas afroasiaticas – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Luengas afroasiaticas" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_afroasi%C3%A1tiques" title="Llingües afroasiátiques – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingües afroasiátiques" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A2%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="آفروآسیا دیللری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آفروآسیا دیللری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B-%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B9" title="আফ্রো-এশীয় ভাষাসমূহ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আফ্রো-এশীয় ভাষাসমূহ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hui-A_g%C3%AD-h%C4%93" title="Hui-A gí-hē – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hui-A gí-hē" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B4%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Афразия телдәре – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Афразия телдәре" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Афразійскія мовы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Афразійскія мовы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE-%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Афро-азиатски езици – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Афро-азиатски езици" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroasiatische_Sprochn" title="Afroasiatische Sprochn – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Afroasiatische Sprochn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroazijski_jezici" title="Afroazijski jezici – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Afroazijski jezici" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezho%C3%B9_afrikat-hag-aziat" title="Yezhoù afrikat-hag-aziat – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhoù afrikat-hag-aziat" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lleng%C3%BCes_afroasi%C3%A0tiques" title="Llengües afroasiàtiques – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llengües afroasiàtiques" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroasijsk%C3%A9_jazyky" title="Afroasijské jazyky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Afroasijské jazyky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieithoedd_Affro-Asiaidd" title="Ieithoedd Affro-Asiaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ieithoedd Affro-Asiaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroasiatiske_sprog" title="Afroasiatiske sprog – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Afroasiatiske sprog" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroasiatische_Sprachen" title="Afroasiatische Sprachen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Afroasiatische Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroaziske_r%C4%9Bcy" title="Afroaziske rěcy – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Afroaziske rěcy" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroaasia_keeled" title="Afroaasia keeled – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Afroaasia keeled" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%86%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Αφροασιατικές γλώσσες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αφροασιατικές γλώσσες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_afroasi%C3%A1ticas" title="Lenguas afroasiáticas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas afroasiáticas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikazia_lingvaro" title="Afrikazia lingvaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Afrikazia lingvaro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-asiar_hizkuntzak" title="Afro-asiar hizkuntzak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Afro-asiar hizkuntzak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A2%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="زبان‌های آفروآسیایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان‌های آفروآسیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Asiatic_bhasa" title="Afro-Asiatic bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Afro-Asiatic bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langues_chamito-s%C3%A9mitiques" title="Langues chamito-sémitiques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langues chamito-sémitiques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Aziatyske_talen" title="Afro-Aziatyske talen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Afro-Aziatyske talen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teangacha_Afra-%C3%81iseacha" title="Teangacha Afra-Áiseacha – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Teangacha Afra-Áiseacha" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87hengaghyn_Affro-Aishanagh" title="Çhengaghyn Affro-Aishanagh – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Çhengaghyn Affro-Aishanagh" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_afroasi%C3%A1ticas" title="Linguas afroasiáticas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linguas afroasiáticas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%ED%94%84%EB%A6%AC%EC%B9%B4%EC%95%84%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%84%EC%96%B4%EC%A1%B1" title="아프리카아시아어족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아프리카아시아어족" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A5%D5%B4%D5%A1-%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%A8%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D6%84" title="Սեմա-քամյան լեզվաընտանիք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սեմա-քամյան լեզվաընտանիք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="सामी-हामी भाषा-परिवार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सामी-हामी भाषा-परिवार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroaziske_r%C4%9B%C4%8De" title="Afroaziske rěče – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Afroaziske rěče" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrazijski_jezici" title="Afrazijski jezici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Afrazijski jezici" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Aziana_linguaro" title="Afro-Aziana linguaro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Afro-Aziana linguaro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasao_nga_Apro-Asiatiko" title="Sasao nga Apro-Asiatiko – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Sasao nga Apro-Asiatiko" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumpun_bahasa_Afro-Asia" title="Rumpun bahasa Afro-Asia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rumpun bahasa Afro-Asia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_afro-asiatic" title="Linguas afro-asiatic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Linguas afro-asiatic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingues_afro-asian" title="Lingues afro-asian – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Lingues afro-asian" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afr%C3%B3as%C3%ADsk_tungum%C3%A1l" title="Afróasísk tungumál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Afróasísk tungumál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_afro-asiatiche" title="Lingue afro-asiatiche – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingue afro-asiatiche" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95-%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="שפות אפרו-אסייתיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שפות אפרו-אסייתיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulawarga_basa_Afroasiatika" title="Kulawarga basa Afroasiatika – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kulawarga basa Afroasiatika" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%AB%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8B-%E0%B2%8F%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಆಫ್ರೋ-ಏಷ್ಯಾಟಿಕ್ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆಫ್ರೋ-ಏಷ್ಯಾಟಿಕ್ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="აფრაზიული ენები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აფრაზიული ენები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indimi_z%E2%80%99ikinyafuro-aziyatike" title="Indimi z’ikinyafuro-aziyatike – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Indimi z’ikinyafuro-aziyatike" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugha_za_Kiafrika-Kiasia" title="Lugha za Kiafrika-Kiasia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Lugha za Kiafrika-Kiasia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malbata_ziman%C3%AAn_afr%C3%AEkay%C3%AE_%C3%BB_asyay%C3%AE" title="Malbata zimanên afrîkayî û asyayî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Malbata zimanên afrîkayî û asyayî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82-%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Семит-хамит тилдери – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Семит-хамит тилдери" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguae_Afro-Asiaticae" title="Linguae Afro-Asiaticae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Linguae Afro-Asiaticae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroazi%C4%81tu_valodas" title="Afroaziātu valodas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Afroaziātu valodas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semit%C5%B3-chamit%C5%B3_kalbos" title="Semitų-chamitų kalbos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Semitų-chamitų kalbos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengue_afroasiatiche" title="Lengue afroasiatiche – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lengue afroasiatiche" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Aziatische_spraoke" title="Afro-Aziatische spraoke – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Afro-Aziatische spraoke" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_afroasiatica" title="Linguas afroasiatica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Linguas afroasiatica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro%C3%A1zsiai_nyelvcsal%C3%A1d" title="Afroázsiai nyelvcsalád – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Afroázsiai nyelvcsalád" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Афроазиски јазици – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Афроазиски јазици" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_hamit%C3%B4-semitika" title="Fiteny hamitô-semitika – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny hamitô-semitika" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9" title="आफ्रो-आशियन भाषासमूह – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="आफ्रो-आशियन भाषासमूह" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="აფრაზიული ნინეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="აფრაზიული ნინეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%88-%D8%A2%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86" title="آفرو-آسیایی زوونون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="آفرو-آسیایی زوونون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa-bahasa_Afro-Asia" title="Bahasa-bahasa Afro-Asia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa-bahasa Afro-Asia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Aziatische_talen" title="Afro-Aziatische talen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Afro-Aziatische talen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="अफ्रोएसियाली भाषा परिवार – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अफ्रोएसियाली भाषा परिवार" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%95%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A2%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A2%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="アフロ・アジア語族 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アフロ・アジア語族" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Asiaatisk_spriaken" title="Afro-Asiaatisk spriaken – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Afro-Asiaatisk spriaken" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroasiatiske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Afroasiatiske språk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Afroasiatiske språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroasiatiske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Afroasiatiske språk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Afroasiatiske språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengas_afroasiaticas" title="Lengas afroasiaticas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lengas afroasiaticas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afaan_Afiroo-Eeshiyaatikii" title="Afaan Afiroo-Eeshiyaatikii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Afaan Afiroo-Eeshiyaatikii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Som-hom_tillari" title="Som-hom tillari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Som-hom tillari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%90%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%8F%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%90%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82" title="ਐਫਰੋਏਸ਼ੀਐਟਿਕ ਭਾਸ਼ਾਵਾਂ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਐਫਰੋਏਸ਼ੀਐਟਿਕ ਭਾਸ਼ਾਵਾਂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%88_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="افرو ایشیائی بولیاں – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="افرو ایشیائی بولیاں" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenganan_Afro-asiatiko" title="Lenganan Afro-asiatiko – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Lenganan Afro-asiatiko" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%DB%90" title="افرواسيايي ژبې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="افرواسيايي ژبې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenghe_afro-asi%C3%A0tiche" title="Lenghe afro-asiàtiche – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenghe afro-asiàtiche" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyki_afroazjatyckie" title="Języki afroazjatyckie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Języki afroazjatyckie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADnguas_afro-asi%C3%A1ticas" title="Línguas afro-asiáticas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Línguas afro-asiáticas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbi_afro-asiatice" title="Limbi afro-asiatice – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limbi afro-asiatice" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphuru-asyatiku_simikuna" title="Aphuru-asyatiku simikuna – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Aphuru-asyatiku simikuna" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8B_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D1%8B" title="Афроазийскы языкы – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Афроазийскы языкы" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Афразийские языки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Афразийские языки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%B3%E1%B1%BC%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B4%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A0_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9A" title="ᱟᱯᱷᱨᱳᱼᱮᱥᱤᱭᱟᱴᱤᱠ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤᱠᱚ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱟᱯᱷᱨᱳᱼᱮᱥᱤᱭᱟᱴᱤᱠ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤᱠᱚ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbas_afro-asi%C3%A0ticas" title="Limbas afro-asiàticas – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Limbas afro-asiàticas" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Asiatiske_Sproaken" title="Afro-Asiatiske Sproaken – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Afro-Asiatiske Sproaken" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%86%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F" title="අප්‍රිකාආසියාතික භාෂා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අප්‍රිකාආසියාතික භාෂා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Afroasiatic languages" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D9%BB%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86" title="افروايشيائي ٻوليون – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="افروايشيائي ٻوليون" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro%C3%A1zijsk%C3%A9_jazyky" title="Afroázijské jazyky – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Afroázijské jazyky" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroazijski_jeziki" title="Afroazijski jeziki – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Afroazijski jeziki" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Aasiyatik" title="Afro-Aasiyatik – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Afro-Aasiyatik" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%95_%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زمانە ئەفریقائاسیایییەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانە ئەفریقائاسیایییەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Афроазијски језици – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Афроазијски језици" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroazijski_jezici" title="Afroazijski jezici – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Afroazijski jezici" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroaasialaiset_kielet" title="Afroaasialaiset kielet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Afroaasialaiset kielet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroasiatiska_spr%C3%A5k" title="Afroasiatiska språk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Afroasiatiska språk" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95-%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="ஆபிரிக்க-ஆசிய மொழிகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஆபிரிக்க-ஆசிய மொழிகள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutlayin_Tifrusyanin" title="Tutlayin Tifrusyanin – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tutlayin Tifrusyanin" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutlayin_tifrusyawiyin" title="Tutlayin tifrusyawiyin – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tutlayin tifrusyawiyin" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81" title="ตระกูลภาษาแอโฟรเอชีแอติก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ตระกูลภาษาแอโฟรเอชีแอติก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D2%B3%D0%BE%D0%B8_%D2%B3%D0%BE%D0%BC%D3%A3-%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D3%A3" title="Забонҳои ҳомӣ-сомӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Забонҳои ҳомӣ-сомӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Asya_dilleri" title="Afro-Asya dilleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Afro-Asya dilleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Афразійські мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Афразійські мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%94%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%BA" title="افرو۔ایشیائی زبانیں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="افرو۔ایشیائی زبانیں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%DA%A7%D8%B1%D9%88-%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%84_%D8%B3%DB%90%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%85%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89" title="ئاڧرو-ئاسيا تىل سېستىمىسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئاڧرو-ئاسيا تىل سېستىمىسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%AF_h%E1%BB%87_Phi-%C3%81" title="Ngữ hệ Phi-Á – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngữ hệ Phi-Á" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" 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class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Aziatische_taelen" title="Afro-Aziatische taelen – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Afro-Aziatische taelen" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%9A%E9%9D%9E%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="亚非语系 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="亚非语系" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumpun_basa_Apro-Asiya" title="Rumpun basa Apro-Asiya – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Rumpun basa Apro-Asiya" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kumoring</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%9C%E2%B5%8D%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%A2%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%8F_%E2%B5%9C%E2%B5%89%E2%B4%BC%E2%B5%94%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%A2%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%A1%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%A2%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%8F" title="ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q25268#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Large language family of Africa and West Asia</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Afro-Asiatic" and "Afrasian" redirect here. For the ethnic classification, see <a href="/wiki/Afro-Asians" title="Afro-Asians">Afro-Asians</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Afro-Asiatic_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Afro-Asiatic (disambiguation)">Afro-Asiatic (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #faecc8;">Afroasiatic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Hamito-Semitic, Semito-Hamitic, Afrasian</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographic distribution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data">630 million<a href="#cite_note-Eth-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-eth-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data">One of the world's primary <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language families</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Proto-language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language" title="Proto-Afroasiatic language">Proto-Afroasiatic</a></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadic_languages" title="Chadic languages">Chadic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omotic_languages" title="Omotic languages">Omotic</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESands2009559–580-3">[3]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a> / <a href="/wiki/ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">5</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/afa" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:afa">afa</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/afro1255">afro1255</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg/300px-Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg/450px-Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg/600px-Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1750" data-file-height="1100" /></a><div style="text-align:left;">Distribution of the Afroasiatic languages</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Afroasiatic languages (also known as Afro-Asiatic, Afrasian, Hamito-Semitic, or Semito-Hamitic) are a <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language family</a> (or "phylum") of about 400 languages spoken predominantly in <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>, and parts of the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmansa-VillatoroŠtubňová_Nigrelli20233-4">[4]</a> Over 500 million people are native speakers of an Afroasiatic language, constituting the fourth-largest language family after <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEberhardSimonsFennig2021Summary_by_language_family-5">[5]</a> Most linguists divide the family into six branches: <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chadic_languages" title="Chadic languages">Chadic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omotic_languages" title="Omotic languages">Omotic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESands2009565-6">[6]</a> The vast majority of Afroasiatic languages are considered indigenous to the <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">African continent</a>, including all those not belonging to the Semitic branch. <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, if counted as a single language, is by far the most widely spoken within the family, with around 300 million native speakers concentrated primarily in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmansa-VillatoroŠtubňová_Nigrelli20233-4">[4]</a> Other major Afroasiatic languages include the Cushitic <a href="/wiki/Oromo_language" title="Oromo language">Oromo language</a> with 45 million native speakers, the Chadic <a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa language</a> with over 34 million, the Semitic <a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a> language with 25 million, and the Cushitic <a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali language</a> with 15 million. Other Afroasiatic languages with millions of native speakers include the Semitic <a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a>, the Cushitic <a href="/wiki/Sidama_language" title="Sidama language">Sidama language</a>, and the Omotic <a href="/wiki/Wolaitta_language" title="Wolaitta language">Wolaitta language</a>, though most languages within the family are much smaller in size.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019249-7">[7]</a> There are many well-attested Afroasiatic languages from antiquity that have since <a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">died or gone extinct</a>, including Egyptian and the Semitic languages <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a>. There is no consensus among <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguists</a> as to precisely where or when the common ancestor of all Afroasiatic languages, known as <a href="/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language" title="Proto-Afroasiatic language">Proto-Afroasiatic</a>, was originally spoken. However, most agree that the Afroasiatic homeland was located somewhere in northeastern Africa, with specific proposals including the Horn of Africa, Egypt, and the eastern Sahara. A significant minority of scholars argues for an origin in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. The reconstructed timelines of when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary extensively, with dates ranging from 18,000 BC to 8,000 BC. Even the latest plausible dating makes Afroasiatic the oldest language family accepted by contemporary linguists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENichols2003300-8">[8]</a> Comparative study of Afroasiatic is hindered by the massive disparities in textual attestation between its branches: while the Semitic and Egyptian branches are attested in writing as early as the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_millennium_BC" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth millennium BC">fourth millennium BC</a>, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic languages were often not recorded until the 19th or 20th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201941-9">[9]</a> While systematic <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">sound laws</a> have not yet been established to explain the relationships between the various branches of Afroasiatic, the languages share a number of common features. One of the most important for establishing membership in the branch is a common set of pronouns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018315-316-10">[10]</a> Other widely shared features include a prefix m- which creates nouns from verbs, evidence for alternations between the vowel "a" and a high vowel in the forms of the verb, similar methods of marking gender and plurality, and some details of phonology such as the presence of <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">pharyngeal fricatives</a>. Other features found in multiple branches include a specialized verb conjugation using suffixes (Egyptian, Semitic, Berber), a specialized verb conjugation using prefixes (Semitic, Berber, Cushitic), verbal prefixes deriving <a href="/wiki/Middle_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle voice">middle</a> (t-), <a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">causative</a> (s-), and <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive</a> (m-) verb forms (Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Cushitic), and a suffix used to derive adjectives (Egyptian, Semitic). <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name">edit</a>]</div> In current scholarship, the most common names for the family are Afroasiatic (or Afro-Asiatic), Hamito-Semitic, and Semito-Hamitic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20123-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaborski2011-12">[12]</a> Other proposed names that have yet to find widespread acceptance include Erythraic/Erythraean, Lisramic, Noahitic, and Lamekhite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetzron2009454-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020270-14">[14]</a> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_M%C3%BCller_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Müller (linguist)">Friedrich Müller</a> introduced the name Hamito-Semitic to describe the family in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft (1876).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200121–22-15">[15]</a> The variant Semito-Hamitic is mostly used in older Russian sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20123-11">[11]</a> The elements of the name were derived from the names of two sons of <a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a> as attested in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Generations_of_Noah" title="Generations of Noah">Table of Nations</a> passage: "Semitic" from the first-born <a href="/wiki/Shem" title="Shem">Shem</a>, and "Hamitic" from the second-born <a href="/wiki/Ham_(son_of_Noah)" title="Ham (son of Noah)">Ham</a> (Genesis 5:32).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019250-16">[16]</a> Within the Table of Nations, each of Noah's sons is presented as the common progenitor of various people groups deemed to be closely related: among others Shem was the father of the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a>, while Ham was the father of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Cushites</a>. This genealogy does not reflect the actual origins of these peoples' languages: for example, the Canaanites are descendants of Ham according to the Table, even though Hebrew is now classified as a <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanite language">Canaanite language</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/Elamites" class="mw-redirect" title="Elamites">Elamites</a> are ascribed to Shem despite <a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">their language</a> being totally unrelated to Hebrew.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020269–270-17">[17]</a> The term Semitic for the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a> had already been coined in 1781 by <a href="/wiki/August_Ludwig_von_Schl%C3%B6zer" title="August Ludwig von Schlözer">August Ludwig von Schlözer</a>, following an earlier suggestion by <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> in 1710.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020269-18">[18]</a> Hamitic was first used by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Ernest Renan</a> in 1855 to refer to languages that appeared similar to the Semitic languages, but were not themselves provably a part of the family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020269-18">[18]</a> The belief in a connection between Africans and the Biblical Ham, which had existed at least as far back as <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a> in the 6th century AD, led scholars in the early 19th century to speak vaguely of "Hamian" or "Hamitish" languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolleveld2020204-19">[19]</a> The term Hamito-Semitic has largely fallen out of favor among linguists writing in English, but is still frequently used in the scholarship of various other languages, such as German.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004138-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20125-21">[21]</a> Several issues with the label Hamito-Semitic have led many scholars to abandon the term and criticize its continued use. One common objection is that the Hamitic component inaccurately suggests that a <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a> "Hamitic" branch exists alongside Semitic. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a> has argued that Hamitic possesses <a href="/wiki/Hamites" title="Hamites">racial connotations</a>, and that "Hamito-Semitic" overstates the centrality of the Semitic languages within the family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDimmendaal2008840-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetzron2009545-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmansa-VillatoroŠtubňová_Nigrelli20234-24">[24]</a> By contrast, Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label is simply an inherited convention, and does not imply a duality of Semitic and "Hamitic" any more than Indo-European implies a duality of Indic and "European".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020270-14">[14]</a> Because of its use by several important scholars and in the titles of significant works of scholarship, the total replacement of Hamito-Semitic is difficult.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmansa-VillatoroŠtubňová_Nigrelli20234-24">[24]</a> While Greenberg ultimately popularized the name "Afroasiatic" in 1960, it appears to have been coined originally by <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Delafosse" title="Maurice Delafosse">Maurice Delafosse</a>, as French afroasiatique, in 1914.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDimmendaal2008840-22">[22]</a> The name refers to the fact that it is the only major language family with large populations in both Africa and Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020270-14">[14]</a> Due to concerns that "Afroasiatic" could imply the inclusion of all languages spoken across Africa and Asia, the name "Afrasian" (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: afrazijskije) was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Igor_Diakonoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Igor Diakonoff">Igor Diakonoff</a> in 1980. At present it predominantly sees use among Russian scholars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetzron2009545-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020270-14">[14]</a> The names Lisramic—based on the Afroasiastic root *lis- ("tongue") and the Egyptian word rmṯ ("person")—and Erythraean—referring to the core area around which the languages are spoken, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>—have also been proposed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20123-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distribution_and_branches">Distribution and branches</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Distribution and branches">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Afroasiatic_6-Family_Diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Afroasiatic_6-Family_Diagram.svg/220px-Afroasiatic_6-Family_Diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Afroasiatic_6-Family_Diagram.svg/330px-Afroasiatic_6-Family_Diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Afroasiatic_6-Family_Diagram.svg/440px-Afroasiatic_6-Family_Diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1420" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>A diagram of the six widely recognized branches of the Afroasiatic family, including some of the larger or more culturally significant languages in each branch.</figcaption></figure> Scholars generally consider Afroasiatic to have between five and eight branches. The five that are universally agreed upon are <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a> (also called "Libyco-Berber"), <a href="/wiki/Chadic_languages" title="Chadic languages">Chadic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004138-139-25">[25]</a> Most specialists consider the <a href="/wiki/Omotic_languages" title="Omotic languages">Omotic languages</a> to constitute a sixth branch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESands2009565-6">[6]</a> Due to the presumed distance of relationship between the various branches, many scholars prefer to refer to Afroasiatic as a "linguistic phylum" rather than a "language family".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20121-26">[26]</a> G.W. Tsereteli goes even further and outright doubts that the Afro-Asiatic languages are a genetic language family altogether, but are rather a sprachbund.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoprieno199551-27">[27]</a> However, this is not the academic consensus. M. Victoria Almansa-Villatoro and Silvia Štubňová Nigrelli write that there are about 400 languages in Afroasiatic;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmansa-VillatoroŠtubňová_Nigrelli20233-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> lists 375 languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEberhardSimonsFennig2021Summary_by_language_family-5">[5]</a> Many scholars estimate fewer languages; exact numbers vary depending on the definitions of "<a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20121-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Berber">Berber</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Berber">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber languages</a></div> The Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201923–24-28">[28]</a> They are often considered to constitute a single language with multiple dialects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019252-253-29">[29]</a> Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance or Germanic languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018324-30">[30]</a> In the past, Berber languages were spoken throughout North Africa except in Egypt;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200134-31">[31]</a> since the 7th century CE, however, they have been heavily affected by Arabic and have been replaced by it in many places.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019253-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201924-33">[33]</a> There are two extinct languages potentially related to modern Berber.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018325-34">[34]</a> The first is the <a href="/wiki/Numidian_language" title="Numidian language">Numidian language</a>, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the <a href="/wiki/Libyco-Berber_alphabet" title="Libyco-Berber alphabet">Libyco-Berber alphabet</a>, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201924-33">[33]</a> The second is the <a href="/wiki/Guanche_language" title="Guanche language">Guanche language</a>, which was formerly spoken on the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> and went extinct in the 17th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018325-34">[34]</a> The first longer written examples of modern Berber varieties only date from the 16th or 17th centuries CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200137-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chadic">Chadic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Chadic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chadic_languages" title="Chadic languages">Chadic languages</a></div> Chadic languages number between 150 and 190, making Chadic the largest family in Afroasiatic by number of extant languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019254-36">[36]</a> The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201929-37">[37]</a> Most Chadic languages are located in the <a href="/wiki/Chad_Basin" title="Chad Basin">Chad Basin</a>, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201927-38">[38]</a> Hausa is the largest Chadic language by native speakers, and is spoken by a large number of people as a lingua franca in Northern Nigeria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200139-39">[39]</a> It may have as many as 80 to 100 million first and second language speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019254-36">[36]</a> Eight other Chadic languages have around 100,000 speakers; other Chadic languages often have few speakers and may be in danger of going extinct.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018342–343-40">[40]</a> Only about 40 Chadic languages have been fully described by linguists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019254-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cushitic">Cushitic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cushitic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic languages</a></div> There are about 30 Cushitic languages,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019259-41">[41]</a> more if Omotic is included,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAppleyard201239-42">[42]</a> spoken around the Horn of Africa and in Sudan and Tanzania.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019259-41">[41]</a> The Cushitic family is traditionally split into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201925–26-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019259-41">[41]</a> Only one Cushitic language, <a href="/wiki/Oromo_language" title="Oromo language">Oromo</a>, has more than 25 million speakers; other languages with more than a million speakers include <a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afar_language" title="Afar language">Afar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hadiyya_language" title="Hadiyya language">Hadiyya</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sidaama_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidaama language">Sidaama</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019259-41">[41]</a> Many Cushitic languages have relatively few speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAppleyard201239-42">[42]</a> Cushitic does not appear to be related to the written ancient languages known from its area, <a href="/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Old_Nubian" title="Old Nubian">Old Nubian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200130-44">[44]</a> The oldest text in a Cushitic language probably dates from around 1770;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019259-41">[41]</a> written orthographies were only developed for a select number of Cushitic languages in the early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAppleyard201239-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Egyptian">Egyptian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Egyptian">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peribsen2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Peribsen2.JPG/220px-Peribsen2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Peribsen2.JPG/330px-Peribsen2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Peribsen2.JPG/440px-Peribsen2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1018" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Seal impression from the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Seth-Peribsen</a> (c. 2690 BCE), containing the first complete sentence in Ancient Egyptian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20132-45">[45]</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptian language">Ancient Egyptian language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic language</a></div> The Egyptian branch consists of a single language, <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a> (often called "Ancient Egyptian"), which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019252-46">[46]</a> Egyptian is first attested in writing around 3000 BCE and finally went extinct around 1300 CE, making it the language with the longest written history in the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201924-33">[33]</a> Egyptian is usually divided into two major periods, Earlier Egyptian (c. 3000–1300 BCE), which is further subdivided into Old Egyptian and Middle Egyptian, and Later Egyptian (1300 BCE-1300 CE), which is further subdivided into Late Egyptian, Demotic, and Coptic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019252-46">[46]</a> Coptic is the only stage written <a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">alphabetically</a> to show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyph" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyph">hieroglyphs</a>, which only represent consonants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20134–5-47">[47]</a> In the Coptic period, there is evidence for six major dialects, which presumably existed previously but are obscured by pre-Coptic writing; additionally, Middle Egyptian appears to be based on a different dialect than Old Egyptian, which in turn shows dialectal similarities to Late Egyptian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen20134-48">[48]</a> Egyptian was replaced by Arabic as the spoken language of Egypt,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018322-49">[49]</a> but Coptic continues to be the liturgical language of the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" title="Coptic Orthodox Church">Coptic Orthodox Church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20126-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Omotic">Omotic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Omotic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Omotic_languages" title="Omotic languages">Omotic languages</a></div> The c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201927-38">[38]</a> They are all spoken in southwest Ethiopia except for the <a href="/wiki/Ganza_language" title="Ganza language">Ganza language</a>, spoken in Sudan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019261-51">[51]</a> Omotic is typically split into North Omotic (or Aroid) and South Omotic, with the latter more influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Nilotic_languages" title="Nilotic languages">Nilotic languages</a>; it is unclear whether the Dizoid group of Omotic languages belongs to the Northern or Southern group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201927-38">[38]</a> The two Omotic languages with the most speakers are <a href="/wiki/Wolaitta_language" title="Wolaitta language">Wolaitta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gamo-Gofa-Dawro_language" title="Gamo-Gofa-Dawro language">Gamo-Gofa-Dawro</a>, with about 1.2 million speakers each.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAppleyard201239-42">[42]</a> A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESands2009565-6">[6]</a> Omotic was formerly considered part of the Cushitic branch;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004139-52">[52]</a> some scholars continue to consider it part of Cushitic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201926-53">[53]</a> Other scholars have questioned whether it is Afroasiatic at all, due its lack of several typical aspects of Afroasiatic morphology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESands2009565-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semitic">Semitic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Semitic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a></div> There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019262-54">[54]</a> Today, Semitic languages are spoken across North Africa, West Asia, and the Horn of Africa, as well as on the island of Malta, making them the sole Afroasiatic branch with members originating outside Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200124-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019262-54">[54]</a> Arabic, spoken in both Asia and Africa, is by far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language today,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmansa-VillatoroŠtubňová_Nigrelli20233-4">[4]</a> with around 300 million native speakers, while the Ethiopian Amharic language has around 25 million; collectively, Semitic is the largest branch of Afroasiatic by number of current speakers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019249-7">[7]</a> Most authorities divide Semitic into two branches: East Semitic, which includes the extinct Akkadian language, and West Semitic, which includes Arabic, Aramaic, the Canaanite languages (including Hebrew), as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Geʽez and Amharic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayward200078–80-56">[56]</a> The classification within West Semitic remains contested. The only group with an African origin is Ethiopian Semitic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019262-54">[54]</a> The oldest written attestations of Semitic languages come from Mesopotamia, Northern Syria, and Egypt and date as early as c. 3000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200124-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_proposed_branches">Other proposed branches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other proposed branches">edit</a>]</div> There are also other proposed branches, but none has so far convinced a majority of scholars:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaborski2011-12">[12]</a> <ul><li>Linguist H. Fleming proposed that the near-extinct <a href="/wiki/Ongota_language" title="Ongota language">Ongota language</a> is a separate branch of Afroasiatic;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFleming2006-57">[57]</a> however, this is only one of several competing theories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESands2009565-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004139-52">[52]</a> About half of current scholarly hypotheses on Ongota's origins align it with Afroasiatic in some way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018342-58">[58]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hetzron" title="Robert Hetzron">Robert Hetzron</a> proposed that <a href="/wiki/Beja_language" title="Beja language">Beja</a> is not part of Cushitic, but a separate branch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004140-59">[59]</a> The prevailing opinion, however, is that Beja is a branch of Cushitic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018327-60">[60]</a></li> <li>The extinct <a href="/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic language</a> has been proposed to represent a branch of Afroasiatic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019251-61">[61]</a> Although an Afroasiatic connection is sometimes viewed as refuted, it continues to be defended by scholars such as Edward Lipiński.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018282-62">[62]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Kujarge_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kujarge language">Kujarge language</a> is usually considered part of the Chadic languages;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019258-63">[63]</a> however, Roger Blench has proposed that it may be a separate branch of Afroasiatic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeust2012231-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlench2008-65">[65]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_subdivisions">Further subdivisions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further subdivisions">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller;"> <caption>Some proposed Afroasiatic subdivisions<a href="#cite_note-66">[a]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="#CITEREFFleming1983">Fleming 1983</a></th> <th><a href="#CITEREFEhret1995">Ehret 1995</a></th> <th><a href="#CITEREFBender1997">Bender 1997</a></th> <th><a href="#CITEREFDiakonoff1988">Diakonoff 1988</a></th> <th><a href="#CITEREFMilitarev2005">Militarev 2005</a> </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><ul><li>Omotic</li> <li>Afroasiatic <ul><li>Semitic</li> <li>Old East Africa Cushitic<a href="#cite_note-67">[b]</a></li> <li>Erythraic <ul><li>Cushitic<a href="#cite_note-68">[c]</a></li> <li>Beja</li> <li>Egyptian</li> <li>Berber-Chadic <ul><li>Berber</li> <li>Chadic</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><ul><li>Omotic</li> <li>Erythraean <ul><li>Cushitic</li> <li>North Erythrean <ul><li>Chadic</li> <li>Boreafrasian <ul><li>Egyptian</li> <li>Berber</li> <li>Semitic</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><ul><li>Omotic</li> <li>Chadic</li> <li>Central Afroasiatic <ul><li>Egyptian</li> <li>Macro-Cushtic <ul><li>Berber</li> <li>Cushitic</li> <li>Semitic</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><ul><li>East–West Afrasian <ul><li>Semitic</li> <li>Cushitic</li> <li>Berber (Berbero-Libyan)</li></ul></li> <li>North-South Afrasian <ul><li>Egyptian</li> <li>Chadic</li> <li>Omotic</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><ul><li>Cushomotic <ul><li>Cushitic</li> <li>Omotic</li></ul></li> <li>North Afrasian <ul><li>Semitic</li> <li>African North Afrasian <ul><li>Egyptian</li> <li>Chado-Berber <ul><li>Chadic</li> <li>Berber</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> There is no agreement on the relationships between and subgrouping of the different Afroasiatic branches.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019251-61">[61]</a> Whereas <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Cohen" title="Marcel Cohen">Marcel Cohen</a> (1947) claimed he saw no evidence for internal subgroupings, numerous other scholars have made proposals,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2018-69">[66]</a> with Carsten Peust counting 27 as of 2012.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeust2012225-227-70">[67]</a> Common trends in proposals as of 2019 include using common or lacking grammatical features to argue that Omotic was the first language to branch off, often followed by Chadic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201943-71">[68]</a> In contrast to scholars who argue for an early split of Chadic from Afroasiatic, scholars of the Russian school tend to argue that Chadic and Egyptian are closely related,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlench2006145-72">[69]</a> and scholars who rely on percentage of shared lexicon often group Chadic with Berber.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanker202329-73">[70]</a> Three scholars who agree on an early split between Omotic and the other subbranches, but little else, are Harold Fleming (1983), Christopher Ehret (1995), and Lionel Bender (1997).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018312–313-74">[71]</a> In contrast, scholars relying on shared lexicon often produce a Cushitic-Omotic group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanker202329-73">[70]</a> Additionally, the minority of scholars who favor an Asian origin of Afroasiatic tend to place Semitic as the first branch to split off.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlench2006144-75">[72]</a> Disagreement on which features are innovative and which are inherited from Proto-Afroasiatic produces radically different trees, as can be seen by comparing the trees produced by Ehret and <a href="/wiki/Igor_Diakonoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Igor Diakonoff">Igor Diakonoff</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBacovcinWilson2018422-76">[73]</a> Responding to the above, Tom Güldemann criticizes attempts at finding subgroupings based on common or lacking morphology by arguing that the presence or absence of morphological features is not a useful way of discerning subgroupings in Afroasiatic, because it can not be excluded that families currently lacking certain features did not have them in the past; this also means that the presence of morphological features cannot be taken as defining a subgroup.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018310-77">[74]</a> Peust notes that other factors that can obscure genetic relationships between languages include the poor state of present documentation and understanding of particular language families (historically with Egyptian, presently with Omotic).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeust2012227-78">[75]</a> Gene Gragg likewise argues that more needs to be known about Omotic still, and that Afroasiatic linguists have still not found convincing <a href="/wiki/Isogloss" title="Isogloss">isoglosses</a> on which to base genetic distinctions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201943-71">[68]</a> One way of avoiding the problem of determining which features are original and which are inherited is to use a computational methodology such as <a href="/wiki/Lexicostatistics" title="Lexicostatistics">lexicostatistics</a>, with one of the earliest attempts being Fleming 1983.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlench2006144-75">[72]</a> This is also the method used by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Militarev" title="Alexander Militarev">Alexander Militarev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Starostin" title="Sergei Starostin">Sergei Starostin</a> to create a family tree.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilitarev2005398–399-79">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlažek20131-80">[77]</a> Fleming (2006) was a more recent attempt by Fleming, with a different result from Militarev and Starostin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeust2012227-78">[75]</a> Hezekiah Bacovcin and David Wilson argue that this methodology is invalid for discerning linguistic sub-relationship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBacovcinWilson2018422-76">[73]</a> They note the method's inability to detect various strong commonalities even between well-studied branches of AA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBacovcinWilson2018427-81">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_history">Classification history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Classification history">edit</a>]</div> A relationship between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic and the Berber languages was perceived as early as the 9th century CE by the Hebrew grammarian and physician <a href="/wiki/Judah_ibn_Kuraish" title="Judah ibn Kuraish">Judah ibn Quraysh</a>, who is regarded as a forerunner of Afroasiatic studies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200121-82">[79]</a> The French orientalist <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Postel" title="Guillaume Postel">Guillaume Postel</a> had also pointed out similarities between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic in 1538, and <a href="/wiki/Hiob_Ludolf" title="Hiob Ludolf">Hiob Ludolf</a> noted similarities also to Geʽez and Amharic in 1701. This family was formally described and named "Semitic" by <a href="/wiki/August_Ludwig_von_Schl%C3%B6zer" title="August Ludwig von Schlözer">August Ludwig von Schlözer</a> in 1781.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20124-83">[80]</a> In 1844, <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Benfey" title="Theodor Benfey">Theodor Benfey</a> first described the relationship between Semitic and the Egyptian language and connected both to the Berber and the Cushitic languages (which he called "Ethiopic").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200121-82">[79]</a> In the same year T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early scholars of Afroasiatic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020270-14">[14]</a> In 1855, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Renan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernst Renan">Ernst Renan</a> named these languages, related to Semitic but not Semitic, "Hamitic," in 1860 Carl Lottner proposed that they belonged to a single language family, and in 1876 <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_M%C3%BCller_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Müller (linguist)">Friedrich Müller</a> first described them as a "Hamito-Semitic" language family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020269-18">[18]</a> Müller assumed that there existed a distinct "Hamitic" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20124-83">[80]</a> He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist <a href="/wiki/Karl_Richard_Lepsius" title="Karl Richard Lepsius">Karl Richard Lepsius</a> argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayward200084-84">[81]</a> Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, "<a href="/wiki/Negroid" title="Negroid">Negroid</a>" Chadic languages were in the same family as the "<a href="/wiki/Caucasian_race" title="Caucasian race">Caucasian</a>" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuhlen199187–88-85">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020271-86">[83]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Africa_ethnic_groups_1996.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Africa_ethnic_groups_1996.png/290px-Africa_ethnic_groups_1996.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Africa_ethnic_groups_1996.png/435px-Africa_ethnic_groups_1996.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Africa_ethnic_groups_1996.png/580px-Africa_ethnic_groups_1996.png 2x" data-file-width="8651" data-file-height="10315" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of ethnic groups in Africa (Afroasiatic/Hamito-Semitic-speaking in yellow)</figcaption></figure> An important development in the history of Afroasiatic scholarship – and the history of African linguistics – was the creation of the "<a href="/wiki/Hamites" title="Hamites">Hamitic theory</a>" or "Hamitic hypothesis" by Lepsius, fellow Egyptologist <a href="/wiki/Christian_Bunsen" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Bunsen">Christian Bunsen</a>, and linguist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_Bleek&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christian Bleek (page does not exist)">Christian Bleek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolleveld2020204-205-87">[84]</a> This theory connected the "Hamites", the originators of Hamitic languages, with (supposedly culturally superior) "Caucasians", who were assumed to have migrated into Africa and intermixed with indigenous "Negroid" Africans in ancient times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019251-61">[61]</a> The "Hamitic theory" would serve as the basis for <a href="/wiki/Carl_Meinhof" title="Carl Meinhof">Carl Meinhof</a>'s highly influential classification of African languages in his 1912 book Die Sprache der Hamiten.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann201861-88">[85]</a> On one hand, the "Hamitic" classification was justified partially based on linguistic features: for example, Meinhof split the presently-understood Chadic family into "Hamito-Chadic", and an unrelated non-Hamitic "Chadic" based on which languages possessed grammatical gender.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020271-86">[83]</a> On the other hand, the classification also relied on non-linguistic anthropological and culturally contingent features, such as skin color, hair type, and lifestyle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuhlen199182–83-89">[86]</a> Ultimately, Meinhof's classification of Hamitic proved to include languages from every presently-recognized language family within Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayward200084-84">[81]</a> The first scholar to question the existence of "Hamitic languages" was <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Cohen" title="Marcel Cohen">Marcel Cohen</a> in 1924,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20125-21">[21]</a> with skepticism also expressed by A. Klingenheben and Dietrich Westermann during the 1920s and '30s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019251-61">[61]</a> However, Meinhof's "Hamitic" classification remained prevalent throughout the early 20th century until it was definitively disproven by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a> in the 1940s, based on racial and anthropological data.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020271-86">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018309-90">[87]</a> Instead, Greenberg proposed an Afroasiatic family consisting of five branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019251-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201922-91">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20125-21">[21]</a> Reluctance among some scholars to recognize Chadic as a branch of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020271-86">[83]</a> In 1969, <a href="/wiki/Harold_C._Fleming" title="Harold C. Fleming">Harold Fleming</a> proposed that a group of languages classified by Greenberg as Cushitic were in fact their own independent "Omotic" branch—a proposal that has been widely, if not universally, accepted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019251-61">[61]</a> These six branches now constitute an academic consensus on the genetic structure of the family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020272-92">[89]</a> Greenberg relied on his own method of <a href="/wiki/Mass_comparison" title="Mass comparison">mass comparison</a> of vocabulary items rather than the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> of demonstrating regular sound correspondences to establish the family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayward200086–87-93">[90]</a> An alternative classification, based on the pronominal and conjugation systems, was proposed by A.N. Tucker in 1967.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge197111-94">[91]</a> As of 2023, widely accepted sound correspondences between the different branches have not yet been firmly established.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWinand202340-95">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2023140-96">[93]</a> Nevertheless, morphological traits attributable to the proto-language and the establishment of cognates throughout the family have confirmed its <a href="/wiki/Genetic_relationship_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic relationship (linguistics)">genetic validity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018347-97">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20123-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Origin">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_homeland" class="mw-redirect" title="Afroasiatic homeland">Afroasiatic homeland</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline">Timeline</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Timeline">edit</a>]</div> There is no consensus as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019252-46">[46]</a> The absolute latest date for when Proto-Afroasiatic could have been extant is <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 4000 BCE, after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are firmly attested. However, in all likelihood these languages began to diverge well before this hard boundary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201943-71">[68]</a> The estimations offered by scholars as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary widely, ranging from 18,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019252-46">[46]</a> An estimate at the youngest end of this range still makes Afroasiatic the oldest proven language family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENichols2003300-8">[8]</a> Contrasting proposals of an early emergence, Tom Güldemann has argued that less time may have been required for the divergence than is usually assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due to <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">areal contact</a>, with the evolution of Chadic (and likely also Omotic) serving as pertinent examples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018311-98">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Location">Location</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Location">edit</a>]</div> Likewise, no consensus exists as to where proto-Afroasiatic originated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019252-46">[46]</a> Scholars have proposed locations for the Afroasiatic homeland across Africa and West Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay201213-99">[96]</a> Roger Blench writes that the debate possesses "a strong ideological flavor", with associations between an Asian origin and "high civilization".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlench2006144-75">[72]</a> An additional complicating factor is the lack of agreement on the subgroupings of Afroasiatic (see <a href="#Further_subdivisions">Further subdivisions</a>) – this makes associating archaeological evidence with the spread of Afroasiatic particularly difficult.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlench2006148–150-100">[97]</a> Nevertheless, there is a long-accepted link between the speakers of Proto-<a href="/wiki/Southern_Cushitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Cushitic languages">Southern Cushitic languages</a> and the East African <a href="/wiki/Savanna_Pastoral_Neolithic" title="Savanna Pastoral Neolithic">Savanna Pastoral Neolithic</a> (5,000 years ago), and archaeological evidence associates the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Cushitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Cushitic">Proto-Cushitic</a> speakers with economic transformations in the Sahara dating c. 8,500 years ago, as well as the speakers of the <a href="/wiki/Zenati_languages" title="Zenati languages">Proto-Zenati</a> variety of the Berber languages with an expansion across the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> in the 5th century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhret_et_al.2023270-101">[98]</a> An origin somewhere on the African continent has broad scholarly support,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201943-71">[68]</a> and is seen as being well-supported by the linguistic data.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier201213-102">[99]</a> Most scholars more narrowly place the homeland near the geographic center of its present distribution,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004138-20">[20]</a> "in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhretKeitaNewman20041680-103">[100]</a> The Afroasiatic languages spoken in Africa are not more closely related to each other than they are to Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in a West Asian homeland while all other branches had spread from there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStarostin2017226-104">[101]</a> Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201943-71">[68]</a> Proponents of an origin of Afroasiatic within Africa assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithic <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherers" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunter-gatherers">hunter-gatherers</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018311-98">[95]</a> arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhretKeitaNewman20041680-103">[100]</a> Christopher Ehret, S.O. Y. Keita, and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Newman_(linguist)" title="Paul Newman (linguist)">Paul Newman</a> also argue that archaeology does not support a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhretKeitaNewman20041680–1681-105">[102]</a> Ehret, in a separate publication, argued that the two principles in linguistic approaches for determining the origin of languages which are the principles of fewest moves and greatest diversity had put “beyond reasonable doubt” that the language family “had originated in the Horn of Africa”.<a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a> A significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlench2006144-75">[72]</a> most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlench2006150-107">[104]</a> The main proponent of an Asian origin is the linguist <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Militarev" title="Alexander Militarev">Alexander Militarev</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmansa-VillatoroŠtubňová_Nigrelli20235-108">[105]</a> who argues that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken by early agriculturalists in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and subsequently spread to Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019252-46">[46]</a> Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-<a href="/wiki/Natufian_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Natufian Culture">Natufian Culture</a>, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming and pastoralist vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilitarev2002-109">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilitarev2009-110">[107]</a> Scholar <a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a> and archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Peter_Bellwood" title="Peter Bellwood">Peter Bellwood</a> have taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of linguistic <a href="/wiki/Macrofamily" title="Macrofamily">macrofamilies</a> (such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiamondBellwood2003601-111">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonological_characteristics">Phonological characteristics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Phonological characteristics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="180" style="width:180px;" data-durationhint="71" data-mwtitle="Tamazightchelha.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Tamazightchelha.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Tamazightchelha.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/fe/Tamazightchelha.ogg/Tamazightchelha.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption>Speech sample in <a href="/wiki/Shilha_language" title="Shilha language">Shilha</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a> branch)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="180" style="width:180px;" data-durationhint="61" data-mwtitle="Assyriansample.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Assyriansample.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Assyriansample.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1d/Assyriansample.ogg/Assyriansample.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption>Speech sample in the Semitic <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Neo-Aramaic">Neo-Aramaic</a> language, a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="180" style="width:180px;" data-durationhint="62" data-mwtitle="Shaxmednuradc1.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Shaxmednuradc1.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Shaxmednuradc1.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c9/Shaxmednuradc1.ogg/Shaxmednuradc1.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption>Speech sample in <a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a> branch)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_3" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="180" style="width:180px;" data-durationhint="44" data-mwtitle="Poem_by_Abu_'ala_al-Ma'arri_("I_no_longer_steal_from_nature")_read_in_Arabic.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Poem_by_Abu_%27ala_al-Ma%27arri_(%22I_no_longer_steal_from_nature%22)_read_in_Arabic.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Poem_by_Abu_%27ala_al-Ma%27arri_%28%22I_no_longer_steal_from_nature%22%29_read_in_Arabic.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/28/Poem_by_Abu_%27ala_al-Ma%27arri_%28%22I_no_longer_steal_from_nature%22%29_read_in_Arabic.ogg/Poem_by_Abu_%27ala_al-Ma%27arri_%28%22I_no_longer_steal_from_nature%22%29_read_in_Arabic.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio><figcaption>Speech sample in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> branch)</figcaption></figure> Afroasiatic languages share a number of phonetic and phonological features.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019263-112">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllable_structure">Syllable structure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Syllable structure">edit</a>]</div> Egyptian, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, and most languages in the Semitic branch require every syllable to begin with a consonant (with the exception of some grammatical prefixes).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012511-113">[110]</a> <a href="/wiki/Igor_Diakonoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Igor Diakonoff">Igor Diakonoff</a> argues that this constraint goes back to Proto-Afroasiatic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiakonoff198842-114">[111]</a> Some Chadic languages allow a syllable to begin with a vowel;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012511-113">[110]</a> however, in many Chadic languages verbs must begin with a consonant. In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2018-69">[66]</a> Typically, syllables begin with only a single consonant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019304-115">[112]</a> Diakonoff argues that proto-Afroasiatic did not have consonant clusters within a syllable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDiakonoff198842-114">[111]</a> With the exception of some Chadic languages, all Afroasiatic languages allow both open syllables (ending in a vowel) and closed syllables (ending in a consonant); many Chadic languages do not allow a syllable to end in a consonant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012511-512-116">[113]</a> Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019304-115">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Syllable_weight" title="Syllable weight">Syllable weight</a> plays an important role in Afroasiatic, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012512-117">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonant_systems">Consonant systems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Consonant systems">edit</a>]</div> Several Afroasiatic languages have large consonant inventories, and it is likely that this is inherited from proto-Afroasiatic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayward200094-118">[115]</a> All Afroasiatic languages contain <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricatives</a>; some branches have additional types of consonants such as <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">lateral consonants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012508-119">[116]</a> Afroasiatic languages tend to have <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">pharyngeal</a> <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricative</a> consonants, with Egyptian, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic sharing <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019264-120">[117]</a> In all Afroasiatic languages, consonants can be <a href="/wiki/Bilabial" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilabial">bilabial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alveolar" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar">alveolar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Velar" class="mw-redirect" title="Velar">velar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">glottal</a>, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012508-119">[116]</a> Additionally, the <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a> (ʔ) usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between [p] and [f] or [b] and [v].<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019264-120">[117]</a> In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic language <a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a>, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme [p] at all.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012509-121">[118]</a> Most, if not all branches of Afroasiatic distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced">voiced</a>, and "<a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic</a>" consonants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetzron2009548-122">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[d]</a> The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019264-120">[117]</a> they can be realized variously as <a href="/wiki/Glottalic_consonant" title="Glottalic consonant">glottalized</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">pharyngealized</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uvularization" title="Uvularization">uvularized</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ejective" class="mw-redirect" title="Ejective">ejective</a>, and/or <a href="/wiki/Implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Implosive">implosive</a> consonants in the different branches.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetzron2009548-122">[119]</a> This distinction between three manners of articulation is not generally reconstructed for <a href="/wiki/Continuant" title="Continuant">continuant</a> <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a> (such as fricatives), which are generally reconstructed as being only voiceless in Proto-Afroasiatic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay201210-125">[121]</a> A form of long-distance consonant <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assimilation (linguistics)">assimilation</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Consonant_harmony" title="Consonant harmony">consonant harmony</a> is attested in Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Semitic: it usually affects features such as pharyngealization, <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">labialization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012517-126">[122]</a> Several Omotic languages have "<a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilant</a> harmony", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) in a word must match.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmha2012439–440-127">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonant_incompatibility">Consonant incompatibility</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Consonant incompatibility">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; font-size:smaller;"> <caption>Examples of root consonant incompatibilities from Egyptian, after <a href="#CITEREFAllen2020a">Allen 2020a</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>consonant</th> <th>cannot occur with </th></tr> <tr> <td>p</td> <td>b, f, m, h </td></tr> <tr> <td>r</td> <td>ꜣ, b </td></tr> <tr> <td>ḫ</td> <td>h, ḥ, ẖ, q, k, g, ṯ, ḏ </td></tr> <tr> <td>s</td> <td>ḥ, z </td></tr> <tr> <td>t</td> <td>ꜥ, z, q, g, d, ḏ </td></tr></tbody></table> Restrictions against the co-occurrence of certain, usually similar, consonants in verbal roots can be found in all Afroasiatic branches, though they are only weakly attested in Chadic and Omotic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBender19789-10-128">[124]</a> The most widespread constraint is against two different <a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">labial consonants</a> (other than w) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhret199577,_488-129">[125]</a> Another widespread constraint is against two non-identical <a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">lateral</a> <a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a>, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhret1995395-130">[126]</a> Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or <a href="/wiki/Denominal_verb" title="Denominal verb">denominal verbs</a>, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg1950a178-131">[127]</a> Roots that may have contained sequences that were possible in Proto-Afroasiatic but are disallowed in the daughter languages are assumed to have undergone consonant <a href="/wiki/Dissimilation" title="Dissimilation">dissimilation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assimilation (linguistics)">assimilation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdzard1992153-154-132">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETakács1999323–332-133">[129]</a> A set of constraints, developed originally by Joseph Greenberg on the basis of Arabic, has been claimed to be typical for Afroasiatic languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVernet20111-134">[130]</a> Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: "back consonants" (<a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">glottal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">pharyngeal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">uvular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_consonant" title="Laryngeal consonant">laryngeal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar consonants</a>), "front consonants" (<a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">dental</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar consonants</a>), <a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">liquid consonants</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">labial consonants</a>. He showed that, generally, any consonant from one of these groups could combine with consonants from any other group, but could not be used together with consonants from the same group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg1950a178-131">[127]</a> Additionally, he showed that Proto-Semitic restricted a sequence of two identical consonants in the first and second position of the triliteral root.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg1950a167–168-135">[131]</a> These rules also have a number of exceptions: <ol><li>velar consonants can occur with pharyngeals or laryngeals;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVernet20117-136">[132]</a></li> <li>dental consonants can co-occur with <a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilants</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBender197810-137">[133]</a> However, there are no Proto-Semitic verbal roots with ḍ and a sibilant, and roots with d and a sibilant are uncommon. In all attested cases of a dental and a sibilant, the sibilant occurs in first position and the dental in second.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVernet20117-136">[132]</a></li></ol> Similar exceptions can be demonstrated for the other Afroasiatic branches that have these restrictions to their root formation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBender197810-137">[133]</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Peter_Allen" title="James Peter Allen">James P. Allen</a> has demonstrated that slightly different rules apply to Egyptian: for instance, Egyptian allows two identical consonants in some roots, and disallows velars from occurring with pharyngeals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen2020a90-92-138">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowel_systems">Vowel systems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Vowel systems">edit</a>]</div> There is a large variety of vocalic systems in Afroasiatic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019264-120">[117]</a> and attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay201210-125">[121]</a> All branches of Afroasiatic have a limited number of underlying vowels (between two and seven), but the number of phonetic vowels can be much larger. The quality of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout Afroasiatic is <a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012621-139">[135]</a> In the different languages, central vowels are often inserted to break up consonant clusters (a form of <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthesis</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019264-120">[117]</a> Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of <a href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">vowel harmony</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012517–519-140">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tones">Tones</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Tones">edit</a>]</div> The majority of Afroasiatic languages are <a href="/wiki/Tonal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonal language">tonal languages</a>: phonemic tonality is found in Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, but absent in Berber and Semitic. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019265-141">[137]</a> In contemporary Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, tone is primarily a grammatical feature: it encodes various grammatical functions, only differentiating lexical roots in a few cases.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier201212-142">[138]</a> In some Chadic and some Omotic languages every syllable has to have a tone, whereas in most Cushitic languages this is not the case.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012513-143">[139]</a> Some scholars postulate that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had tone, while others believe it arose later from a <a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">pitch accent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019265-141">[137]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Examples of tones marking lexical and morphological changes in some Afroasiatic languages, after <a href="#CITEREFFrajzyngier2012">Frajzyngier 2012</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Language</th> <th colspan="3">Examples </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Somali (Cushitic)</td> <td>díbi bull, absolutive case</td> <td>dibi bull, nominative case</td> <td>dibí bull, genitive case </td></tr> <tr> <td>ínan, boy</td> <td colspan="2">inán girl </td></tr> <tr> <td>Bench (Omotic)</td> <td>k'áyts' work! do it! (active imperative)</td> <td colspan="2">k'àyts' be done! (passive imperative) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Hausa (Chadic)</td> <td>màatáa woman, wife</td> <td colspan="2">máatáa women, wives </td></tr> <tr> <td>dáfàa to cook (infinitive)</td> <td colspan="2">dàfáa cook! (imperative) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Similarities_in_grammar,_syntax,_and_morphology">Similarities in grammar, syntax, and morphology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Similarities in grammar, syntax, and morphology">edit</a>]</div> At present, there is no generally accepted reconstruction of Proto-Afroasiatic grammar, syntax, or morphology, nor one for any of the sub-branches besides Egyptian. This means that it is difficult to know which features in Afroasiatic languages are retentions, and which are innovations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay2020572-573-144">[140]</a> Moreover, all Afroasiatic languages have long been in contact with other language families and with each other, leading to the possibility of widespread borrowing both within Afroasiatic and from unrelated languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShay2014574-145">[141]</a> There are nevertheless a number of commonly observed features in Afroasiatic morphology and derivation, including the use of <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infix" title="Infix">infixes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">vowel lengthening</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">shortening</a> as a morphological change, as well as the use of tone changes to indicate morphology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012529–530-146">[142]</a> Further commonalities and differences are explored in more detail below. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_features">General features</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: General features">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consonantal_root_structures">Consonantal root structures</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Consonantal root structures">edit</a>]</div> A widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic "templates" are placed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019265-141">[137]</a> This structure is particularly visible in the verbs,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201936-147">[143]</a> and is particularly noticeable in Semitic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019265-141">[137]</a> Besides for Semitic, vocalic templates are well attested for Cushitic and Berber,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201937-148">[144]</a> where, along with Chadic, it is less productive; it is absent in Omotic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019265-141">[137]</a> For Egyptian, evidence for the root-and-template structure exists from Coptic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201937-148">[144]</a> In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given stem are dependent on the vocalic template.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012622-149">[145]</a> In Chadic, verb stems can include an inherent vowel as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2018-69">[66]</a> Most Semitic verbs are <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">triliteral</a> (have three consonants), whereas most Chadic, Omotic, and Cushitic verbs are biliteral (having two consonants).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayward200093-150">[146]</a> The degree to which the Proto-AA verbal root was triliteral is debated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018311-98">[95]</a> It may have originally been mostly biconsonantal, to which various affixes (such as <a href="#Verbal_extensions">verbal extensions</a>) were then added and lexicalized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019265-141">[137]</a> Although any root could theoretically be used to create a noun or a verb, there is evidence for the existence of distinct noun and verb roots, which behave in different ways.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShay2014576-151">[147]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller;"> <caption>Examples of verbal templates in AA languages, after <a href="#CITEREFGragg2019">Gragg 2019</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Language</th> <th>Akkadian (Semitic)</th> <th>Berber</th> <th>Beja (Cushitic)</th> <th>Ron/Daffo (Chadic)</th> <th>Coptic (Egyptian) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Root</td> <td>p-r-s to divide</td> <td>k-n-f to roast</td> <td>d-b-l to gather</td> <td>m-(w)-t to die</td> <td>k-t to build </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6">Templates</td> <td>iprus- (preterite)</td> <td>ǎknəf (aorist)</td> <td>-dbil- (past)</td> <td>mot (perfective)</td> <td>kôt (infintive) </td></tr> <tr> <td>iparras- (present)</td> <td>əknǎf (perfective)</td> <td>-i:-dbil- (aorist)</td> <td>mwaát (imperfective)</td> <td>kêt (qualitative) </td></tr> <tr> <td>iptaras (perfect)</td> <td>əkǎnnǎf (imperfective)</td> <td>i:-dbil- (modal) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3"></td> <td>əknəf (neg. perfective)</td> <td>da:n-bi:l (present sg) </td></tr> <tr> <td>əkənnəf (neg. imperfective)</td> <td>-e:-dbil- (present pl) </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>-dabi:l- (negative) </td></tr></tbody></table> As part of these templates, the alternation (<a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">apophony</a>) between high vowels (e.g. i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012593-152">[148]</a> It is unclear whether this system is a common AA trait;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201938-153">[149]</a> the Chadic examples, for instance, show signs of originally deriving from affixes, which could explain the origins of the alterations in other languages as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012593-152">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Word_order">Word order</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Word order">edit</a>]</div> It remains unclear what <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a> Proto-Afroasiatic had.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay201213-99">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019269-154">[150]</a> Berber, Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are <a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object_word_order" title="Verb–subject–object word order">verb-initial languages</a>, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb_word_order" title="Subject–object–verb word order">verb-final languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018319-155">[151]</a> Proto-Chadic is reconstructed as having verb-initial word order,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier201213-102">[99]</a> but most Chadic languages have <a href="/wiki/Subject-verb-object_word_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject-verb-object word order">subject-verb-object word order</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019269-154">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reduplication_and_gemination">Reduplication and gemination</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Reduplication and gemination">edit</a>]</div> Afroasiatic Languages use the processes of <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">reduplication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">gemination</a> (which often overlap in meaning) to derive nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs throughout the AA language family. Gemination in particular is one of the typical features of AA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012531-156">[152]</a> Full or partial reduplication of the verb is often used to derive forms showing repeated action (<a href="/wiki/Pluractionality" title="Pluractionality">pluractionality</a>), though it is unclear if this is an inherited feature or has been widely borrowed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019268-157">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Nouns">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Grammatical_gender_and_number">Grammatical gender and number</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Grammatical gender and number">edit</a>]</div> The assignment of nouns and pronouns to either masculine or feminine gender is present in all branches – but not all languages – of the Afroasiatic family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012522-158">[154]</a> This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018319-155">[151]</a> In most branches, gender is an inherent property of nouns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012523-159">[155]</a> Additionally, even when nouns are not cognates, they tend to have the same gender throughout Afroasiatic ("gender stability").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019266-160">[156]</a> In Egyptian, Semitic, and Berber, a feminine suffix -t is attested to mark feminine nouns; in some Cushitic and Chadic languages, a feminine -t suffix or prefix (lexicalized from a demonstrative) is used to mark definiteness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouag2023308-161">[157]</a> In addition to these uses, -t also functions as a <a href="/wiki/Diminutive" title="Diminutive">diminutive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pejorative" title="Pejorative">pejorative</a>, and/or <a href="/wiki/Singulative" class="mw-redirect" title="Singulative">singulative</a> marker in some languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012522-158">[154]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller;"> <caption>Use of T on feminine nouns, using data from <a href="#CITEREFSouag2023">Souag 2023</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Kabyle (Berber)</th> <th>Hausa (Chadic)</th> <th>Beja (Cushitic)</th> <th>Egyptian</th> <th>Arabic (Semitic) </th></tr> <tr> <td>wəl-t 'daughter'</td> <td>yārinyà-r̃ 'the girl' (r̃ < final -t) </td> <td>ʔo:(r)-t 'a daughter' t-ʔo:r 'the daughter'</td> <td>zꜣ-t 'daughter'</td> <td>bin-t 'daughter' </td></tr></tbody></table> Afroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019266-160">[156]</a> while in others, plural forms are ungendered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012253-162">[158]</a> In addition to marking plurals via a number of affixes (with the suffixes -*uu/-*w and -*n(a) widely attested), several AA languages make use of internal vowel change (<a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">apophony</a>) and/or insertion (<a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthesis</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019266–267-163">[159]</a> These so-called <a href="/wiki/Broken_plural" title="Broken plural">"internal-a" or "broken" plurals</a> are securely attested in Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic, although it is unclear if the Chadic examples are an independent development.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201940–41-164">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[e]</a> Another common method of forming plurals is reduplication.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012538-167">[162]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller;"> <caption>Some examples of internal plurals in AA, using data from <a href="#CITEREFGragg2019">Gragg 2019</a> and <a href="#CITEREFMeyerWolff2019">Meyer & Wolff 2019</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Language</th> <th>Meaning</th> <th>Singular</th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <td>Geʽez (Semitic)</td> <td>king</td> <td>nɨgus</td> <td>nägäs-t </td></tr> <tr> <td>Teshelhiyt (Berber)</td> <td>country</td> <td>ta-mazir-t</td> <td>ti-mizar </td></tr> <tr> <td>Afar (Cushitic)</td> <td>body</td> <td>galab</td> <td>galo:b-a </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hausa (Chadic)</td> <td>stream</td> <td>gulbi</td> <td>gulà:be: </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mubi (Chadic)</td> <td>eye</td> <td>irin</td> <td>aràn </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Noun_cases_and_states">Noun cases and states</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Noun cases and states">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">Nouns cases</a> are found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic branches. They are not found in Chadic languages, and there is no evidence for cases in Egyptian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012534-168">[163]</a> A common pattern in AA languages with case is for the nominative to be marked by -u or -i, and the accusative to be marked by -a.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019319-169">[164]</a> However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012534-168">[163]</a> Some languages in AA have a <a href="/wiki/Marked_nominative_alignment" title="Marked nominative alignment">marked nominative alignment</a>, a feature which may date back to Proto-Afroasiatic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012535–536-170">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018317-171">[166]</a> Zygmont Frajzyngier states that a general characteristic of case marking in AA languages is that it tends to mark roles such as genitive, dative, locative, etc. rather than the subject and object.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012535-172">[167]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller;"> <caption>Subject-Object case marking in some AA branches, using data in <a href="#CITEREFGragg2019">Gragg 2019</a>, <a href="#CITEREFHuehnergard2011">Huehnergard 2011</a> and <a href="#CITEREFBender2000">Bender 2000</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case</th> <th colspan="2">Oromo (Cushitic)</th> <th colspan="2">Berber</th> <th colspan="2">Akkadian (Semitic)</th> <th colspan="2">Wolaitta (Omotic) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Masculine</td> <td>Feminine</td> <td>Masculine</td> <td>Feminine</td> <td>Masculine</td> <td>Feminine</td> <td>Masculine</td> <td>Feminine </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative/bound</td> <td>nam-(n)i boy</td> <td>intal-t-i girl</td> <td>u-frux boy</td> <td>t-frux-t girl</td> <td>šarr-u-m king</td> <td>šarr-at-u-m queen</td> <td>keett-i house</td> <td>macci-yo woman </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative/absolutive/unbound</td> <td>nam-a</td> <td>intal-a</td> <td>a-frux</td> <td>t-a-frux-t</td> <td>šarr-a-m</td> <td>šarr-at-a-m</td> <td>keett-a</td> <td>macci-ya </td></tr></tbody></table> A second category, which partially overlaps with case, is the AA linguistic category of "state". Linguists use the term "state" to refer to different things in different languages. In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in the "free state" or the "construct state". The construct state is a special, usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012533-173">[168]</a> Edward Lipiński refers to Semitic nouns as having four states: absolute (free/indeterminate), construct, determinate, and predicate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2001265-174">[169]</a> Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a "free" (absolute) state, a "construct state", and a "pronominal state". The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen202013-175">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeylage201859-176">[171]</a> Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state", the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012533–534-177">[172]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller;"> <caption>Noun states in different AA branches, using data from <a href="#CITEREFAllen2020">Allen 2020</a>, <a href="#CITEREFLipiński2001">Lipiński 2001</a>, <a href="#CITEREFMous2012">Mous 2012</a>, and <a href="#CITEREFKossmann2012">Kossmann 2012</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Language</th> <th>Free/absolute state</th> <th>Construct State</th> <th>Additional state </th></tr> <tr> <td>Aramaic (Semitic)</td> <td>malkā(h) queen</td> <td>malkat</td> <td>Emphatic: malkətā </td></tr> <tr> <td>Coptic (Egyptian)</td> <td>jôj head</td> <td>jaj-</td> <td>Pronominal: jô- </td></tr> <tr> <td>Iraqw (Cushitic)</td> <td>afee mouths</td> <td>afé-r</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Riffian (Berber)</td> <td>a-ryaz man</td> <td>–</td> <td>Annexed: wə-ryaz </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modifiers_and_agreement">Modifiers and agreement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Modifiers and agreement">edit</a>]</div> There is no strict distinction between adjectives, nouns, and adverbs in Afroasiatic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019312-178">[173]</a> All branches of Afroasiatic have a lexical category of <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a> except for Chadic;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012538-167">[162]</a> some Chadic languages do have adjectives, however. In Berber languages, adjectives are rare and are mostly replaced by nouns of quality and <a href="/wiki/Stative_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Stative verbs">stative verbs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019279-179">[174]</a> In different languages, adjectives (and other modifiers) must either precede or follow the noun.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019298-180">[175]</a> In most AA languages, numerals precede the noun.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019279-179">[174]</a> In those languages that have adjectives, they can take gender and number markings, which, in some cases, agree with the gender and number of the noun they are modifying.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012538-167">[162]</a> However, in Omotic, adjectives do not agree with nouns: sometimes, they only take gender and number marking when they are used as nouns, in other cases, they take gender and number marking only when they follow the noun (the noun then receives no marking).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012539–540-181">[176]</a> A widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic, found on demonstratives, articles, adjectives, and relative markers, is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. This can be found in Semitic, Egyptian, Beja, Berber, and Chadic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018316-182">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouag2023308-161">[157]</a> A system K (masculine), T (feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay201210-125">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetzron2009548-122">[119]</a> The feminine marker T is one of the most consistent aspects across the different branches of AA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019266-160">[156]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller;"> <caption>Masculine, Feminine, Plural agreement patterns in N T N, using data from <a href="#CITEREFGreenberg1960">Greenberg 1960</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[f]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Language</th> <th>meaning</th> <th>Masculine</th> <th>Feminine</th> <th>Plural<a href="#cite_note-184">[g]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Old South Arabian (Semitic)</td> <td>this</td> <td>ð-n</td> <td>ð-t </td> <td>ʔl-n </td></tr> <tr> <td>Egyptian</td> <td>this</td> <td>(p-n)</td> <td>t-n</td> <td>n-n </td></tr> <tr> <td>Beja (Cushitic)</td> <td>this</td> <td>be-n</td> <td>be-t</td> <td>bal-īn </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tuareg (Berber)</td> <td>relative verb form</td> <td>ilkəm-ən</td> <td>təlkəm-ət</td> <td>ilkəm-ən-in </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hausa (Chadic)</td> <td>possessive base</td> <td>na-</td> <td>ta-</td> <td>na- </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_forms">Verb forms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Verb forms">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tenses,_aspects,_and_moods_(TAMs)">Tenses, aspects, and moods (TAMs)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Tenses, aspects, and moods (TAMs)">edit</a>]</div> There is no agreement about which <a href="/wiki/Tense-aspect-mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Tense-aspect-mood">tenses, aspects, or moods</a> (TAMs) Proto-Afroasiatic might have had.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019267-185">[178]</a> Most grammars of AA posit a distinction between <a href="/wiki/Perfective" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfective">perfective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperfective" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperfective">imperfective</a> verbal aspects, which can be found in Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, most Chadic languages, and some Omotic languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012592-186">[179]</a> The Egyptian verbal system diverges greatly from that found in the other branches.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019268-157">[153]</a> Additionally, it is common in Afroasiatic languages for the present/imperfective form to be a derived (marked) form of the verb, whereas in most other languages and language families the present tense is the default form of the verb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKouwenberg201090-187">[180]</a> Another common trait across the family is the use of a <a href="/wiki/Suppletion" title="Suppletion">suppletive</a> imperative for verbs of motion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay2020-188">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Prefix_conjugation"">"Prefix conjugation"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: "Prefix conjugation"">edit</a>]</div> Conjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found in Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019268-157">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201934-189">[182]</a> where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMous2012391-190">[183]</a> These prefixes are clearly cognate across the branches, although their use within the verbal systems of the individual languages varies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201934-189">[182]</a> There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018315-191">[184]</a> Prefixes of ʔ- (<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>) for the first person singular and y- for the third person masculine can also be reconstructed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004140-141-192">[185]</a> As there is no evidence for the "prefix conjugation" in Omotic, Chadic, or Egyptian, it is unclear whether this was a Proto-Afroasiatic feature that has been lost in those branches or is a shared innovation among Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201936-147">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018315-191">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[h]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller;"> <caption>The "prefix conjugation" in Afroasiatic, following <a href="#CITEREFGragg2019">Gragg 2019</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Number</th> <th rowspan="2">Person</th> <th rowspan="2">Gender</th> <th colspan="2">Akkadian (Semitic)</th> <th colspan="2">Berber</th> <th colspan="3">Beja (Cushitic) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Preterite</td> <td>Present</td> <td>Aorist</td> <td>Imperfective</td> <td>"Old Past"</td> <td>"Old Present"</td> <td>"New Present" </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">Singular</td> <td colspan="2">1</td> <td>a-prus</td> <td>a-parras</td> <td>ăknəf-ăʕ</td> <td>əkănnăf-ăʕ</td> <td>ʔ-i:-dbíl</td> <td>ʔ-a-dbíl</td> <td>ʔ-a-danbí:l </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2</td> <td>m</td> <td>ta-prus</td> <td>ta-parras</td> <td rowspan="2">t-ăknəf-ət</td> <td rowspan="2">t-əkănnăf-ət</td> <td>t-i:-dbíl-a</td> <td>t-i-dbíl-a</td> <td>danbí:l-a </td></tr> <tr> <td>f</td> <td>ta-prus-i:</td> <td>ta-parras-i</td> <td>t-i:-dbíl-i</td> <td>t-i-dbíl-i</td> <td>danbí:l-i </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">3</td> <td>m</td> <td>i-prus</td> <td>i-parras</td> <td>y-ăknəf</td> <td>y-əkănnăf</td> <td>ʔ-i:-dbíl</td> <td>ʔ-i-dbíl</td> <td rowspan="2">danbí:l </td></tr> <tr> <td>f</td> <td>ta-prus</td> <td>ta-parras</td> <td>t-ăknəf</td> <td>t-əkănnăf</td> <td>t-i:-dbíl</td> <td>t-i-dbíl </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">Plural</td> <td colspan="2">1</td> <td>ni-prus</td> <td>ni-parras</td> <td>n-ăknəf</td> <td>n-əkănnăf</td> <td>n-i:-dbíl</td> <td>n-i-dbíl</td> <td>n-e:-dbíl </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2</td> <td>m</td> <td rowspan="2">ta-prus-a:</td> <td>a-parras</td> <td>t-ăknəf-ăm</td> <td>t-əkănnăf-ăm</td> <td rowspan="2">t-i:-dbíl-na</td> <td rowspan="2">t-i-dbíl-na</td> <td rowspan="2">t-e:-dbíl-na </td></tr> <tr> <td>f</td> <td>ta-parras</td> <td>t-ăknəf-măt</td> <td>t-əkănnăf-măt </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">3</td> <td>m</td> <td>i-prus-u:</td> <td>ta-parras-i:</td> <td>ăknəf-ăn</td> <td>əkănnăf-ăn</td> <td rowspan="2">ʔ-i:-dbíl</td> <td rowspan="2">ʔ-i-dbíl</td> <td rowspan="2">ʔ-e:-dbíl-na </td></tr> <tr> <td>f</td> <td>i-prus-a:</td> <td>i-parras</td> <td>ăknəf-năt</td> <td>əkănnăf-năt </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Suffix_conjugation"">"Suffix conjugation"</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: "Suffix conjugation"">edit</a>]</div> Some AA branches have what is called a "suffix conjugation", formed by adding pronominal suffixes to indicate person, gender, and number to a verbal adjective.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019268-157">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004141-195">[187]</a> In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a "stative conjugation", used to express the state or result of an action; the same endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201933-196">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2001360-197">[189]</a> In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (see <a href="#Pronouns">Pronouns</a>); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201933-24-198">[190]</a> While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019268-157">[153]</a> as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. The Cushitic forms in particular may be derived from morphology found in subordinate clauses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201934-189">[182]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>The "suffix conjugation" in Afroasiatic, following <a href="#CITEREFGragg2019">Gragg 2019</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Number</th> <th>Person</th> <th>Gender</th> <th>Akkadian (Semitic)</th> <th>Egyptian</th> <th>Berber</th> <th>Afar (Cushitic) </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">Singular</td> <td colspan="2">1</td> <td>pars-a:ku</td> <td>sḏm-kw</td> <td>măttit-ăʕ</td> <td>miʕ-iyo-h </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2</td> <td>m</td> <td>pars-a:ta</td> <td rowspan="2">sḏm-tj</td> <td rowspan="2">măttit-ət</td> <td rowspan="2">miʕ-ito-h </td></tr> <tr> <td>f</td> <td>pars-a:ti </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">3</td> <td>m</td> <td>paris</td> <td>sḏm-w</td> <td>măttit</td> <td rowspan="2">meʕ-e-h </td></tr> <tr> <td>f</td> <td>pars-at</td> <td>sḏm-tj</td> <td>măttit-ăt </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">Plural</td> <td colspan="2">1</td> <td>pars-a:nu</td> <td>sḏm-wjn</td> <td rowspan="5">măttit-it</td> <td>miʕ-ino-h </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2</td> <td>m</td> <td>pars-a:tunu</td> <td rowspan="2">sḏm-tjwnj</td> <td rowspan="2">miʕ-ito:nu-h </td></tr> <tr> <td>f</td> <td>pars-a:tina </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">3</td> <td>m</td> <td>pars-u:</td> <td rowspan="2">sḏm-wj</td> <td rowspan="2">moʕ-o:nu-h </td></tr> <tr> <td>f</td> <td>pars-a: </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_derivational_affixes">Common derivational affixes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Common derivational affixes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="M-prefix_noun_derivation">M-prefix noun derivation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: M-prefix noun derivation">edit</a>]</div> A prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019266-160">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2020123-199">[191]</a> and is one of the features <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a> used to diagnose membership in the family. It forms <a href="/wiki/Agent_noun" title="Agent noun">agent nouns</a>, place nouns, and instrument nouns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay201210-125">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004140-59">[59]</a> In some branches, it can also derive abstract nouns and participles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2020123-199">[191]</a> Omotic, meanwhile, shows evidence for a non-productive prefix mV- associated with the feminine gender.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShay2014577-200">[192]</a> Christopher Ehret has argued that this prefix is a later development that was not present in Proto-Afro-Asiatic, but rather derived from a PAA indefinite pronoun *m-.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhret199552-201">[193]</a> Such an etymology is rejected by A. Zaborski and Gábor Takács, the latter of whom argues for a PAA *ma- that unites all or some of the meanings in the modern languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETakács20088-202">[194]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller;"> <caption>Examples of m-prefix noun derivations, using data from <a href="#CITEREFMeyerWolff2019">Meyer & Wolff 2019</a>, <a href="#CITEREFBeylage2018">Beylage 2018</a>, and <a href="#CITEREFWilson2020">Wilson 2020</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Language</th> <th>Root</th> <th>Agent/Instrument</th> <th>Place/Abstract </th></tr> <tr> <td>Egyptian</td> <td>swr to drink</td> <td>m-swr drinking bowl</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Arabic (Semitic)</td> <td>k-t-b to write</td> <td>mu-katib-un writer</td> <td>ma-ktab-un school </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hausa (Chadic)</td> <td>hayf- to give birth</td> <td>má-hàif-íi father</td> <td>má-háif-áa birthplace </td></tr> <tr> <td>Beja (Cushitic)</td> <td>firi to give birth</td> <td>–</td> <td>mi-frey birth </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tuareg (Berber)</td> <td>äks to eat</td> <td>em-äks eater</td> <td>– </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verbal_extensions">Verbal extensions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Verbal extensions">edit</a>]</div> Many AA languages use prefixes or suffixes (verbal extensions) to encode various pieces of information about the verb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012525-203">[195]</a> Three <a href="/wiki/Derivation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Derivation (linguistics)">derivational</a> prefixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic: *s- '<a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">causative</a>', *t- '<a href="/wiki/Middle_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle voice">middle voice</a>' or '<a href="/wiki/Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">reflexive</a>', and *n- '<a href="/wiki/Passive_Voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Passive Voice">passive</a>';<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004141-195">[187]</a> the prefixes appear with various related meanings in the individual daughter languages and branches.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStauder202387-204">[196]</a> Christopher Ehret has proposed that Proto-Afroasiatic originally had as many as thirty-seven separate verbal extensions, many of which then became fossilized as third consonants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhret199527–34-205">[197]</a> This theory has been criticized by some, such as Andrzej Zaborski and Alan Kaye, as being too many extensions to be realistic, though Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that some Chadic languages have as many as twelve extensions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay201213-99">[96]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller;"> <caption>Common verbal extensions in Afroasiatic, using data from <a href="#CITEREFWilson2020">Wilson 2020</a>, <a href="#CITEREFBubenik2023">Bubenik 2023</a>, and <a href="#CITEREFKossmann2007">Kossmann 2007</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Language</th> <th>Causative *s-</th> <th>Reflexive/middle *t-</th> <th>Passive *n- </th></tr> <tr> <td>Akkadian (Semitic)</td> <td>u-š-apris 'make cut'</td> <td>mi-t-gurum 'agree (with one another)'</td> <td>i-p-paris (> *i-n-paris) 'be cut' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Figuig (Berber)</td> <td>ssu-fəɣ 'let out'</td> <td>i-ttə-ska 'it has been built'</td> <td>mmu-bḍa 'divide oneself' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Beja (Cushitic)</td> <td>s-dabil 'make gather'</td> <td>t-dabil 'be gathered'</td> <td>m-dabaal 'gather each other' </td></tr> <tr> <td>Egyptian</td> <td>s-ꜥnḫ 'make live'</td> <td>pr-tj 'is sent forth'<a href="#cite_note-207">[i]</a></td> <td>n-hp 'escape'<a href="#cite_note-209">[j]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Nisba"_derivation">"Nisba" derivation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: "Nisba" derivation">edit</a>]</div> The so-called "<a href="/wiki/Arabic_nouns_and_adjectives#Nisba" title="Arabic nouns and adjectives">Nisba</a>" is a suffix used to derive adjectives from nouns and, in Egyptian, also from prepositions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeylage2018115-210">[200]</a> It is found in Egyptian, Semitic, and possibly, in some relic forms, Berber.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson202047-211">[201]</a> The suffix has the same basic form in Egyptian and Semitic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeylage2018115-210">[200]</a> taking the form -i(y) in Semitic and being written -j in Egyptian. The Semitic and Cushitic genitive case in -i/-ii may be related to "nisba" adjective derivation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004148-212">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeust2012243-165">[161]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller;"> <caption>"Nisba" derivation in Semitic and Egyptian, using data from <a href="#CITEREFWilson2020">Wilson 2020</a> and <a href="#CITEREFBeylage2018">Beylage 2018</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Language</th> <th>Noun/preposition</th> <th>Derived adjective </th></tr> <tr> <td>Hebrew (Semitic)</td> <td>yārēaḥ moon</td> <td>yərēḥī lunar </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Egyptian</td> <td>nṯr god</td> <td>nṯr.j divine </td></tr> <tr> <td>ḥr upon</td> <td>ḥr.j upper, which is upon </td></tr></tbody></table> Due to its presence in the oldest attested and best-known AA branches, nisba derivation is often thought of as a "quintessentially Afroasiatic feature".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeust2012243-165">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2020168-213">[203]</a> Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape -*ay in addition to -*iy in some cases.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhret199516-214">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary_comparison">Vocabulary comparison</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Vocabulary comparison">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Pronouns">edit</a>]</div> The forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019269-154">[150]</a> and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018315-316-10">[10]</a> However, there is no consensus on what the reconstructed set of Afroasiatic pronouns might have looked like.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201929-37">[37]</a> A common characteristic of AA languages is the existence of a special set of "independent" pronouns, which are distinct from subject pronouns. They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012523–524-215">[205]</a> Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201929-37">[37]</a> For most branches, the first person pronouns contain a <a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasal consonant</a> (n, m), whereas the third person displays a <a href="/wiki/Sibilant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibilant consonant">sibilant consonant</a> (s, sh).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018314-315-216">[206]</a> Other commonalities are masculine and feminine forms used in both the second and third persons, except in Cushitic and Omotic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019269-154">[150]</a> These pronouns tend to show a masculine "u" and a feminine "i".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetzron2009548-122">[119]</a> The Omotic forms of the personal pronouns differ from the others, with only the plural forms in North Omotic appearing potentially to be cognate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201932-217">[207]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller;"> <caption>Pronouns in the Afroasiatic family, following <a href="#CITEREFGragg2019">Gragg 2019</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Meaning</th> <th>North Omotic (Yemsa)</th> <th>Beja Cushitic (Baniamer)</th> <th>East Cushitic (Somali)</th> <th>West Chadic (Hausa)</th> <th>East Chadic (Mubi)</th> <th>Egyptian</th> <th>East Semitic (Akkadian)</th> <th>West Semitic (Arabic)</th> <th>Berber (Tashelhiyt) </th></tr> <tr> <td>'I' (ind.)</td> <td>tá</td> <td>aní</td> <td>aní-ga</td> <td>ni:</td> <td>ndé</td> <td>jnk</td> <td>ana:ku</td> <td>ʔana</td> <td>nkki </td></tr> <tr> <td>'me, my' (dep.)</td> <td>-ná- -tá-</td> <td>-u:</td> <td>-ʔe</td> <td>na</td> <td>ní</td> <td>-j wj</td> <td>-i: -ya</td> <td>-i: -ni:</td> <td>-i </td></tr> <tr> <td>'we' (ind.)</td> <td>ìnno</td> <td>hinín</td> <td>anná-ga inná-ga</td> <td>mu:</td> <td>ána éné</td> <td>jnn</td> <td>ni:nu:</td> <td>naħnu</td> <td>nkkwni </td></tr> <tr> <td>'you' (masc. sing. ind.)</td> <td rowspan="2">né</td> <td>barú:k</td> <td rowspan="2">adí-ga</td> <td>kai</td> <td>kám</td> <td>nt-k</td> <td>at-ta</td> <td>ʔan-ta</td> <td>kiji </td></tr> <tr> <td>'you' (fem. sing. ind.)</td> <td>batú:k</td> <td>ke:</td> <td>kín</td> <td>nt-ṯ</td> <td>at-ti</td> <td>ʔan-ti</td> <td>kmmi (f) </td></tr> <tr> <td>'you' (masc. sing., dep.)</td> <td rowspan="2">-né-</td> <td>-ú:k(a)</td> <td>ku</td> <td>ka</td> <td>ká</td> <td>-k</td> <td>-ka</td> <td>-ka</td> <td>-k </td></tr> <tr> <td>'you' (fem. sing., dep.)</td> <td>-ú:k(i)</td> <td>ku</td> <td>ki</td> <td>kí</td> <td>-ṯ</td> <td>-ki</td> <td>-ki</td> <td>-m </td></tr> <tr> <td>'you' (plural, dep.)</td> <td>-nitì-</td> <td>-ú:kna</td> <td>idin</td> <td>ku</td> <td>ká(n)</td> <td>-ṯn</td> <td>-kunu (m) -kina (f)</td> <td>-kum (m) -kunna (f)</td> <td>-un (m) -un-t (f) </td></tr> <tr> <td>'he' (ind.)</td> <td rowspan="2">bár</td> <td>barú:s</td> <td>isá-ga</td> <td>ši:</td> <td>ár</td> <td>nt-f</td> <td>šu</td> <td>huwa</td> <td>ntta (m) </td></tr> <tr> <td>'she' (ind.)</td> <td>batú:s</td> <td>ijá-ga</td> <td>ita</td> <td>tír</td> <td>nt-s</td> <td>ši</td> <td>hiya</td> <td>ntta-t </td></tr> <tr> <td>'he' (dep.)</td> <td rowspan="2">-bá-</td> <td rowspan="2">-ūs</td> <td rowspan="2">–</td> <td>ši</td> <td>à</td> <td>-f sw</td> <td>-šu</td> <td>-hu</td> <td rowspan="2">-s </td></tr> <tr> <td>'she' (dep.)</td> <td>ta</td> <td>dì</td> <td>-s sy</td> <td>-ša</td> <td>-ha: </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numerals">Numerals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Numerals">edit</a>]</div> Unlike in the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European">Indo-European</a> or <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a> language families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaborski1987317-218">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKayeDaniels1992439-219">[209]</a> The Cushitic and Chadic numeral systems appear to have originally been base 5. The system in Berber, Egyptian, and Semitic, however, has independent words for the numbers 6–9.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaborski1987317–318-220">[210]</a> Thus, it is possible that the numerals in Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2001280-221">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKayeDaniels1992440–441-222">[212]</a> Modern Chadic numeral systems are sometimes <a href="/wiki/Decimal" title="Decimal">decimal</a>, having separate names for the numbers 1–10, and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Quinary" title="Quinary">base-5</a>, deriving the numbers 6–9 from the numbers 1–5 in some way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay2012a273-223">[213]</a> Some families show more than one word for a numeral: Chadic, Semitic, and Berber each have two words for two,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKayeDaniels1992440-224">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2001284-225">[215]</a> and Semitic has four words for one.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2001281-226">[216]</a> Andrzej Zaborski further notes that the numbers "one", "two", and "five" are particularly susceptible to replacement by new words, with "five" often based on a word meaning "hand".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaborski1987317-218">[208]</a> Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">borrowing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKayeDaniels1992439-219">[209]</a> Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019295-227">[217]</a> In some Berber languages, the roots for one and two are also borrowed from Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2001280-281-228">[218]</a> Some South Cushitic numerals are borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Nilotic_languages" title="Nilotic languages">Nilotic languages</a>, other Cushitic numerals have been borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic">Ethiopian Semitic</a> languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaborski1987325-229">[219]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller;"> <caption>Numerals from throughout Afroasiatic, using data from <a href="#CITEREFBlažek2017">Blažek 2017</a>, <a href="#CITEREFBlažek2018">Blažek 2018</a>, <a href="#CITEREFLipiński2001">Lipiński 2001</a>, and <a href="#CITEREFFrajzyngierShay2012a">Frajzyngier & Shay 2012a</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Meaning</th> <th>Egyptian</th> <th>Tuareg (Berber)</th> <th>Akkadian (East Semitic)</th> <th>Arabic (West Semitic)</th> <th>Beja (North Cushitic)</th> <th>West Central Oromo (Cushitic)</th> <th>Lele (East Chadic)</th> <th>Gidar (Central Chadic)</th> <th>Bench (North Omotic) </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">One</td> <td>m.</td> <td>wꜥ</td> <td>yiwən, yan, iğ</td> <td>ištēn</td> <td>wāḥid</td> <td>gáal</td> <td rowspan="2">tokko</td> <td rowspan="2">pínà</td> <td rowspan="2">tákà</td> <td rowspan="2">mat' </td></tr> <tr> <td>f.</td> <td>wꜥ.t</td> <td>yiwət, išt</td> <td>ištiāt</td> <td>wāḥida</td> <td>gáat </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Two</td> <td>m.</td> <td>sn.wj</td> <td>sin, sən</td> <td>šinā</td> <td>ʔiṯnāni</td> <td>máloob</td> <td rowspan="2">lama</td> <td rowspan="2">sò</td> <td rowspan="2">súlà</td> <td rowspan="2">nam </td></tr> <tr> <td>f.</td> <td>sn.tj</td> <td>snat, sənt</td> <td>šittā</td> <td>ʔiṯnatāni</td> <td>máloot </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Three</td> <td>m.</td> <td>ḫmt.w</td> <td>ḵraḍ, šaṛḍ</td> <td>šalāšat</td> <td>ṯalāṯa</td> <td>mháy</td> <td rowspan="2">sadii</td> <td rowspan="2">súbù</td> <td rowspan="2">hókù</td> <td rowspan="2">kaz </td></tr> <tr> <td>f.</td> <td>ḫmt.t</td> <td>ḵraṭt, šaṛṭ</td> <td>šalāš</td> <td>ṯalāṯ</td> <td>mháyt </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Four</td> <td>m.</td> <td>(j)fd.w</td> <td>kkuẓ</td> <td>erbet(t)</td> <td>ʔarbaʕa</td> <td>faḍíg</td> <td rowspan="2">afur</td> <td rowspan="2">pórìn</td> <td rowspan="2">póɗó</td> <td rowspan="2">od </td></tr> <tr> <td>f.</td> <td>(j)fd.t</td> <td>kkuẓt</td> <td>erba</td> <td>ʔarbaʕ</td> <td>faḍígt </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Five</td> <td>m.</td> <td>dj.w</td> <td>səmmus, afus</td> <td>ḫamšat</td> <td>ḫamsa</td> <td>áy</td> <td rowspan="2">šani</td> <td rowspan="2">bày</td> <td rowspan="2">ɬé</td> <td rowspan="2">ut͡ʃ </td></tr> <tr> <td>f.</td> <td>dj.t</td> <td>səmmust</td> <td>ḫamiš</td> <td>ḫams</td> <td>áyt </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Six</td> <td>m</td> <td>sjs.w</td> <td>sḍis</td> <td>šiššet</td> <td>sitta</td> <td>aságwir</td> <td rowspan="2">jaha</td> <td rowspan="2">ménéŋ</td> <td rowspan="2">ɬré</td> <td rowspan="2">sapm </td></tr> <tr> <td>f.</td> <td>sjs.t</td> <td>sḍist</td> <td>šiš(š)</td> <td>sitt</td> <td>asagwitt </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Seven</td> <td>m</td> <td>sfḫ.w</td> <td>sa</td> <td>sebet(t)</td> <td>sabʕa</td> <td>asarámaab</td> <td rowspan="2">tolba</td> <td rowspan="2">mátàlíŋ</td> <td rowspan="2">bùhúl</td> <td rowspan="2">napm </td></tr> <tr> <td>f.</td> <td>sfḫ.t</td> <td>sat</td> <td>seba</td> <td>sabʕ</td> <td>asarámaat </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Eight</td> <td>m.</td> <td>ḫmn.w</td> <td>tam</td> <td>samānat</td> <td>ṯamāniya</td> <td>asúmhay</td> <td rowspan="2">saddet</td> <td rowspan="2">jurgù</td> <td rowspan="2">dòdòpórò</td> <td rowspan="2">nyartn </td></tr> <tr> <td>f.</td> <td>ḫmn.t</td> <td>tamt</td> <td>samānē</td> <td>ṯamānin</td> <td>asúmhayt </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Nine</td> <td>m.</td> <td>psḏ.w</td> <td>tẓa</td> <td>tišīt</td> <td>tisʕa</td> <td>aššaḍíg</td> <td rowspan="2">sagal</td> <td rowspan="2">célà</td> <td rowspan="2">váyták</td> <td rowspan="2">irstn </td></tr> <tr> <td>f.</td> <td>psḏ.t</td> <td>tẓat</td> <td>tiše</td> <td>tisʕ</td> <td>aššaḍígt </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Ten</td> <td>m.</td> <td>mḏ.w</td> <td>mraw</td> <td>ešeret</td> <td>ʕašara</td> <td>támin</td> <td rowspan="2">kuḍan</td> <td rowspan="2">gòrò</td> <td rowspan="2">kláù</td> <td rowspan="2">tam </td></tr> <tr> <td>f.</td> <td>mḏ.t</td> <td>mrawt</td> <td>ešer</td> <td>ʕašr</td> <td>támint </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognates">Cognates</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Cognates">edit</a>]</div> Afroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019248-230">[220]</a> Writing in 2004, John Huehnergard notes the great difficulty in establishing cognate sets across the family.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004141-195">[187]</a> Identifying cognates is difficult because the languages in question are often separated by thousands of years of development and many languages within the family have long been in contact with each other, raising the possibility of loanwords.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201941-9">[9]</a> Work is also hampered because of the poor state of documentation of many languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020273-231">[221]</a> There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, both from 1995. Both works provide highly divergent reconstructions and have been heavily criticized by other scholars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018317-318-232">[222]</a> Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's reconstructions as "controversial", and Ehret's as "not acceptable to many scholars".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaborski2011-12">[12]</a> Tom Güldemann argues that much comparative work in Afroasiatic suffers from not attempting first to reconstruct smaller units within the individual branches, but instead comparing words in the individual languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018318-233">[223]</a> Nevertheless, both dictionaries agree on some items and some proposed cognates are uncontroversial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201941-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004141-195">[187]</a> Such cognates tend to rely on relatively simple <a href="/wiki/Sound_correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound correspondence">sound correspondences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayward200094-118">[115]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller;"> <caption>Some widely recognized cognates in Afroasiatic, following <a href="#CITEREFHayward2000">Hayward 2000</a>, <a href="#CITEREFGragg2019">Gragg 2019</a>, and <a href="#CITEREFHuehnergard2004">Huehnergard 2004</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[k]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Meaning</th> <th colspan="2">Proto-Afroasiatic</th> <th rowspan="2">Omotic</th> <th rowspan="2">Cushitic</th> <th rowspan="2">Chadic</th> <th rowspan="2">Egyptian</th> <th rowspan="2">Semitic</th> <th rowspan="2">Berber </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="#CITEREFEhret1995">Ehret 1995</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[l]</a></th> <th><a href="#CITEREFOrelStolbova1995">Orel & Stolbova 1995</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>to strike, to squeeze</td> <td>–</td> <td>*bak-</td> <td>Gamo bak- 'strike'</td> <td>Afar bak</td> <td>Wandala bak 'to strike, beat'; (possibly) Hausa bùgaː 'to hit, strike </td> <td>bk 'kill (with a sword)'</td> <td>Arabic bkk 'to squeeze, tear'</td> <td>Tuareg bakkat 'to strike, pound' </td></tr> <tr> <td>blood</td> <td>*dîm- *dâm-</td> <td>*dam-</td> <td>Kaffa damo 'blood'; Aari zomʔi 'to blood'</td> <td>(cf. Oromo di:ma 'red')</td> <td>Bolewa dom</td> <td>(cf. jdmj 'red linen')</td> <td>Akkadian damu 'blood'</td> <td>Ghadames dəmmm-ən 'blood' </td></tr> <tr> <td>food</td> <td>–</td> <td>*kamaʔ- / *kamay-</td> <td>–</td> <td>Afar okm- 'to eat'</td> <td>Hausa ka:ma:ma: 'snack'; Tumak ka:m 'mush'</td> <td>kmj 'food'</td> <td>–</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>to be old, elder</td> <td>*gâd-/gûd-</td> <td>*gad-</td> <td>–</td> <td>Oromo gada 'age group, generation'; Burji gad-uwa 'old man'</td> <td>Ngizim gad'e 'old'</td> <td>–</td> <td>Arabic gadd- 'grandfather, ancestor'</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>to say</td> <td>*geh-</td> <td>*gay-</td> <td>Sheko ge 'to say'; Aari gai- 'to say'</td> <td>–</td> <td>Hausa gaya 'to say'</td> <td>ḏwj 'to call, say'</td> <td>(cf. Hebrew gʕy 'to shout')</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>tongue</td> <td>*lis'- 'to lick'</td> <td>*les- 'tongue'</td> <td>Kaffa mi-laso 'tongue'</td> <td>–</td> <td>Mwaghavul liis tongue, Gisiga eles 'tongue Hausa halshe(háɽ.ʃè) 'tongue'; lashe 'to lick' </td> <td>ns 'tongue'</td> <td>Akkadian liša:nu 'tongue'</td> <td>Kabyle iləs 'tongue' </td></tr> <tr> <td>to die</td> <td>*maaw-</td> <td>*mawut-</td> <td>–</td> <td>Rendille amut 'to die, to be ill'</td> <td>Hausa mutu 'to die', Mubi ma:t 'to die'</td> <td>mwt 'to die'</td> <td>Hebrew mwt, 'to die' Geʽez mo:ta 'to die'</td> <td>Kabyle ammat 'to die' </td></tr> <tr> <td>to fly, to soar</td> <td>*pîr-</td> <td>*pir-</td> <td>(cf. Yemsa fill- 'to jump'; Dime far 'to jump')</td> <td>Beja fir 'to fly'</td> <td>Hausa fi:ra 'to soar'; Mafa parr, perr 'bird's flight'</td> <td>pꜣ 'to fly'; prj 'to soar, rise'</td> <td>Ugaritic pr 'to flee'; Arabic frr 'to flee'</td> <td>Ahogar fərə-t 'to fly' </td></tr> <tr> <td>name</td> <td>*sǔm / *sǐm-</td> <td>*süm-</td> <td>–</td> <td>–</td> <td>Hausa su:na: 'name'; Sura sun 'name'; Ga'anda ɬim 'name'</td> <td>–</td> <td>Akkadian šumu 'name'</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>to sour</td> <td>*s'ăm-</td> <td>–</td> <td>Mocha č'àm- 'to be bitter'</td> <td>PEC *cam- 'to rot'</td> <td>*s'am 'sour'; Hausa (t)sʼáː.mí 'sour' </td> <td>smj 'curds' </td> <td>Arabic sumūț 'to begin to turn sour'</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>to spit</td> <td>*tuf-</td> <td>*tuf-</td> <td>–</td> <td>Beja tuf 'to spit'; Kemant təff y- 'to spit'; Somali tuf 'to spit'</td> <td>Hausa tu:fa 'to spit'</td> <td>tf 'to spit'</td> <td>Aramaic tpp 'to spit'; Arabic tff 'to spit'</td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>to rend, tear</td> <td>*zaaʕ-</td> <td>–</td> <td>Gamo zaʔ 'to rend, split'</td> <td>Dahalo ḏaaʕ- 'to rend, to tear (of an animal tearing its prey)' Kw'adza daʔ- 'to bite'<a href="#cite_note-236">[m]</a></td> <td>Ngizim dáar- 'to cut into long strips'</td> <td></td> <td>Arabic zaʕy- 'to snatch violently from, tear out'</td> <td>– </td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dd>Abbreviations: PEC='Proto-Eastern Cushtic'.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_phonetic_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Afroasiatic phonetic notation">Afroasiatic phonetic notation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borean_languages" title="Borean languages">Borean languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Languages of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Asia" title="Languages of Asia">Languages of Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostratic_languages" title="Nostratic languages">Nostratic languages</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> In this display, the universally recognized primary branches of AA are in bold. Individual languages designated as primary branches are in italics. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Old East Africa Cushitic =South Cushitic and <a href="/wiki/Yaaku_language" title="Yaaku language">Yaaku</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Fleming excludes South Cushitic, Yaaku, and Beja from Cushitic proper. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Some scholars reconstruct "emphatic" consonants for Egyptian and some do not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2023142-123">[120]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> As Egyptian is spelled without vowels, it is difficult to know whether it had internal change plurals. There is some evidence from Coptic, but this may be unrelated to AA. There is also some evidence from <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> transcriptions of Egyptian words.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeust2012243-165">[161]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Forms that do not follow the pattern are in parentheses. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Some languages have an additional feminine plural form in -t that is not listed here. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Traditionally, the Hausa subject pronouns have been compared to the prefix conjugation. However, since the 1970s and '80s, comparisons of other Chadic subject pronouns with the Hausa ones have convinced most scholars that the similarity to the prefix conjugation is incidental.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeust2012238–239-193">[186]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> The Egyptian passive suffix is solely morphological and does not form a unique stem.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStauder202388–90-206">[198]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> The Egyptian prefix has a middle voice/intransitive/or passive meaning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen201394-208">[199]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> Many of these roots have other proposed cognates that are not included on the table. </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> A <a href="/wiki/Caron" title="Caron">caron</a> ˇ over a vowel indicates rising <a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">tone</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Circumflex" title="Circumflex">circumflex</a> ^ over a vowel indicates falling tone. V indicates a <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a> of unknown quality. ʔ indicates a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>. * indicates <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">reconstructed forms</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparative method (linguistics)">comparison of related languages</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> Ehret's dictionary lists "Proto-South-Cushitic *daaʕ- 'to rend, tear', a root he reconstructs from the two words listed here in <a href="#CITEREFEhret1980">Ehret 1980</a>. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Eth-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Eth_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/">"Statistical Summaries; Ethnologue"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statistical+Summaries%3B+Ethnologue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2Fstatistics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfroasiatic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-eth-2"><a href="#cite_ref-eth_2-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroup/31/">"Afro-Asiatic; Ethnologue"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Afro-Asiatic%3B+Ethnologue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2Fsubgroup%2F31%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfroasiatic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESands2009559–580-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESands2009559–580_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSands2009">Sands 2009</a>, pp. 559–580. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlmansa-VillatoroŠtubňová_Nigrelli20233-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmansa-VillatoroŠtubňová_Nigrelli20233_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmansa-VillatoroŠtubňová_Nigrelli20233_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmansa-VillatoroŠtubňová_Nigrelli20233_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlmansa-VillatoroŠtubňová_Nigrelli20233_4-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlmansa-VillatoroŠtubňová_Nigrelli2023">Almansa-Villatoro & Štubňová Nigrelli 2023</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEberhardSimonsFennig2021Summary_by_language_family-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEberhardSimonsFennig2021Summary_by_language_family_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEberhardSimonsFennig2021Summary_by_language_family_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEberhardSimonsFennig2021">Eberhard, Simons & Fennig 2021</a>, Summary by language family. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESands2009565-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESands2009565_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESands2009565_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESands2009565_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESands2009565_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESands2009565_6-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFSands2009">Sands 2009</a>, p. 565. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019249-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019249_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019249_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeyerWolff2019">Meyer & Wolff 2019</a>, p. 249. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENichols2003300-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENichols2003300_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENichols2003300_8-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFNichols2003">Nichols 2003</a>, p. 300. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201941-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg201941_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg201941_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg201941_9-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGragg2019">Gragg 2019</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018315-316-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018315-316_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018315-316_10-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGüldemann2018">Güldemann 2018</a>, p. 315-316. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20123-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20123_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20123_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20123_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20123_11-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrajzyngierShay2012">Frajzyngier & Shay 2012</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaborski2011-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaborski2011_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaborski2011_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaborski2011_12-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFZaborski2011">Zaborski 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetzron2009454-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHetzron2009454_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHetzron2009">Hetzron 2009</a>, p. 454. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020270-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020270_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020270_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020270_14-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020270_14-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020270_14-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFPorkhomovsky2020">Porkhomovsky 2020</a>, p. 270. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński200121–22-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński200121–22_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLipiński2001">Lipiński 2001</a>, pp. 21–22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019250-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019250_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeyerWolff2019">Meyer & Wolff 2019</a>, p. 250. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020269–270-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020269–270_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPorkhomovsky2020">Porkhomovsky 2020</a>, pp. 269–270. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020269-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020269_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020269_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020269_18-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPorkhomovsky2020">Porkhomovsky 2020</a>, p. 269. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESolleveld2020204-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolleveld2020204_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSolleveld2020">Solleveld 2020</a>, p. 204. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004138-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004138_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004138_20-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHuehnergard2004">Huehnergard 2004</a>, p. 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20125-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20125_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20125_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay20125_21-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrajzyngierShay2012">Frajzyngier & Shay 2012</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDimmendaal2008840-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDimmendaal2008840_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDimmendaal2008840_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDimmendaal2008">Dimmendaal 2008</a>, p. 840. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetzron2009545-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHetzron2009545_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHetzron2009545_23-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHetzron2009">Hetzron 2009</a>, p. 545. </li> <li 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href="#CITEREFLipiński2001">Lipiński 2001</a>, p. 360. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201933-24-198"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg201933-24_198-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGragg2019">Gragg 2019</a>, p. 33-24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2020123-199">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2020123_199-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2020123_199-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2020">Wilson 2020</a>, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShay2014577-200"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShay2014577_200-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShay2014">Shay 2014</a>, p. 577. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhret199552-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhret199552_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEhret1995">Ehret 1995</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETakács20088-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETakács20088_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTakács2008">Takács 2008</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012525-203"><a 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson202047-211"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson202047_211-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2020">Wilson 2020</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004148-212"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHuehnergard2004148_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHuehnergard2004">Huehnergard 2004</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2020168-213"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson2020168_213-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson2020">Wilson 2020</a>, p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEhret199516-214"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEhret199516_214-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEhret1995">Ehret 1995</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012523–524-215"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngier2012523–524_215-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrajzyngier2012">Frajzyngier 2012</a>, pp. 523–524. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018314-315-216"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018314-315_216-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGüldemann2018">Güldemann 2018</a>, p. 314-315. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGragg201932-217"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGragg201932_217-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGragg2019">Gragg 2019</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaborski1987317-218">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaborski1987317_218-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaborski1987317_218-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFZaborski1987">Zaborski 1987</a>, p. 317. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKayeDaniels1992439-219">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKayeDaniels1992439_219-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKayeDaniels1992439_219-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKayeDaniels1992">Kaye & Daniels 1992</a>, p. 439. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaborski1987317–318-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaborski1987317–318_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZaborski1987">Zaborski 1987</a>, pp. 317–318. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2001280-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2001280_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLipiński2001">Lipiński 2001</a>, p. 280. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKayeDaniels1992440–441-222"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKayeDaniels1992440–441_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKayeDaniels1992">Kaye & Daniels 1992</a>, pp. 440–441. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay2012a273-223"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrajzyngierShay2012a273_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrajzyngierShay2012a">Frajzyngier & Shay 2012a</a>, p. 273. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKayeDaniels1992440-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKayeDaniels1992440_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKayeDaniels1992">Kaye & Daniels 1992</a>, p. 440. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2001284-225"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2001284_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLipiński2001">Lipiński 2001</a>, p. 284. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2001281-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2001281_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLipiński2001">Lipiński 2001</a>, p. 281. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019295-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019295_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeyerWolff2019">Meyer & Wolff 2019</a>, p. 295. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2001280-281-228"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipiński2001280-281_228-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLipiński2001">Lipiński 2001</a>, p. 280-281. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaborski1987325-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZaborski1987325_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFZaborski1987">Zaborski 1987</a>, p. 325. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019248-230"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeyerWolff2019248_230-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMeyerWolff2019">Meyer & Wolff 2019</a>, p. 248. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020273-231"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPorkhomovsky2020273_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPorkhomovsky2020">Porkhomovsky 2020</a>, p. 273. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018317-318-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018317-318_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGüldemann2018">Güldemann 2018</a>, p. 317-318. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018318-233"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGüldemann2018318_233-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGüldemann2018">Güldemann 2018</a>, p. 318. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2013" class="citation book cs1">Allen, James P. (2013). The Ancient Egyptian Language: A Historical Study. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139506090">10.1017/CBO9781139506090</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139506090" title="Special:BookSources/9781139506090"><bdi>9781139506090</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Egyptian+Language%3A+A+Historical+Study&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139506090&rft.isbn=9781139506090&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=James+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfroasiatic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2020" class="citation book cs1">Allen, James P. (2020). Coptic: A Grammar of its Six Major Dialects. Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781646020867">10.1515/9781646020867</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781646020867" title="Special:BookSources/9781646020867"><bdi>9781646020867</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coptic%3A+A+Grammar+of+its+Six+Major+Dialects&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9781646020867&rft.isbn=9781646020867&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=James+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfroasiatic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen2020a" class="citation book cs1">Allen, James P. (2020a). Ancient Egyptian Phonology. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108751827">10.1017/9781108751827</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108751827" title="Special:BookSources/9781108751827"><bdi>9781108751827</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216256704">216256704</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Phonology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A216256704%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108751827&rft.isbn=9781108751827&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=James+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfroasiatic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlmansa-VillatoroŠtubňová_Nigrelli2023" class="citation book cs1">Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (2023). "Comparative Afroasiatic Linguistics and the Place of Ancient Egyptian Within the Phylum". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.). Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins. Eisenbrauns. pp. 3–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781646022120" title="Special:BookSources/9781646022120"><bdi>9781646022120</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Comparative+Afroasiatic+Linguistics+and+the+Place+of+Ancient+Egyptian+Within+the+Phylum&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+and+Afroasiatic%3A+Rethinking+the+Origins&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781646022120&rft.aulast=Almansa-Villatoro&rft.aufirst=M.+Victoria&rft.au=%C5%A0tub%C5%88ov%C3%A1+Nigrelli%2C+Silvia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfroasiatic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmha2012" class="citation book cs1">Amha, Azeb (2012). "Omotic". 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The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. de Gruyter Mouton. pp. 38–53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018613-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018613-0"><bdi>978-3-11-018613-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Semitic-Cushitic%2FOmotic+Relations&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E38-%3C%2Fspan%3E53&rft.pub=de+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-11-018613-0&rft.aulast=Appleyard&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfroasiatic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacovcinWilson2018" class="citation journal cs1">Bacovcin, Hezekiah Akiva; Wilson, David (2018). 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"Macrofamilies and Agricultural Lexicon: Problems and Perspectives". In Robbeets, Martine; Savelyev, Alexander (eds.). Language Dispersal Beyond Farming. 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Journal of Semitic Studies. 56 (1): 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjss%2Ffgq056">10.1093/jss/fgq056</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2445%2F195869">2445/195869</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Semitic+Studies&rft.atitle=Semitic+Root+Incompatibilities+and+Historical+Linguistics&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2445%2F195869&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjss%2Ffgq056&rft.aulast=Vernet&rft.aufirst=Eul%C3%A0lia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfroasiatic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2020" class="citation thesis cs1">Wilson, David (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5891&context=edissertations">A Concatenative Analysis of Diachronic Afro-Asiatic Morphology</a> (Thesis). 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Proceedings of the Fourth International Hamito-Semitic Congress. John Benjamins. pp. 317–347.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Basic+Numerals+in+Cushitic&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+Fourth+International+Hamito-Semitic+Congress&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E317-%3C%2Fspan%3E347&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Zaborski&rft.aufirst=Andrzej&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfroasiatic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaborski2011" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Zaborski, Andrzej (2011). "Afro-Asiatic Languages". In Edzard, Lutz; Jong, Rudolf de (eds.). Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics (Managing Editors Online ed.). Brill. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0008">10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Afro-Asiatic+Languages&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Arabic+Language+and+Linguistics&rft.edition=Managing+Editors+Online&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0008&rft.aulast=Zaborski&rft.aufirst=Andrzej&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAfroasiatic+languages" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130113032053/http://multitree.org/codes/afas">Afro-Asiatic</a> at the Linguist List MultiTree Project: Genealogical trees attributed to Delafosse 1914, Greenberg 1950–1955, Greenberg 1963, Fleming 1976, Hodge 1976, Orel & Stolbova 1995, Diakonoff 1996–1998, Ehret 1995–2000, Hayward 2000, Militarev 2005, Blench 2006, and Fleming 2006</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090104234232/http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95880.html">Afro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees</a>, presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data" at the conference on the 70th anniversary of <a href="/wiki/V.M._Illich-Svitych" class="mw-redirect" title="V.M. Illich-Svitych">V.M. Illich-Svitych</a>, Moscow, 2004; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100818025156/http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95627.html">short annotations of the talks given there</a> (in Russian)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/semroot.pdf">Root Extension And Root Formation In Semitic And Afrasian</a>, by Alexander Militarev in "Proceedings of the Barcelona Symposium on comparative Semitic", 19-20/11/2004. Aula Orientalis 23/1-2, 2005, pp. 83–129.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/akkegypt.pdf">Akkadian-Egyptian lexical matches</a>, by Alexander Militarev in "Papers on Semitic and Afroasiatic Linguistics in Honor of Gene B. Gragg." Ed. by Cynthia L. Miller. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 60. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2007, p. 139–145.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tufs.ac.jp/ts/personal/ratcliffe/comp%20&%20method-Ratcliffe.pdf">A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uio.no/studier/emner/hf/iln/LING2110/v07/THEIL%20Is%20Omotic%20Afroasiatic.pdf">"Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?"</a> by Rolf Theil (2006)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Afroasiatic/AAOP.htm">Afro-Asiatic webpage</a> of <a href="/wiki/Roger_Blench" title="Roger Blench">Roger Blench</a> (with <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rogerblench.info/Language/Afroasiatic/General/AALIST.pdf">family tree</a>).</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Afroasiatic_languages" title="Template:Afroasiatic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Afroasiatic_languages" title="Template talk:Afroasiatic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Afroasiatic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Afroasiatic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Afroasiatic_languages242" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Afroasiatic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language" title="Proto-Afroasiatic language">Proto-Afroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Berber_language" title="Proto-Berber language">Proto-Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic_language" title="Proto-Semitic language">Proto-Semitic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Berber_languages" title="Eastern Berber languages">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Berber_languages" title="Northern Berber languages">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlas_languages" title="Atlas languages">Atlas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenati_languages" title="Zenati languages">Zenati</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Zenati_languages" title="East Zenati languages">East Zenati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mzab%E2%80%93Wargla_languages" title="Mzab–Wargla languages">Mzab–Wargla</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuareg_languages" title="Tuareg languages">Tuareg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Berber_languages" title="Western Berber languages">Western</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chadic_languages" title="Chadic languages">Chadic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biu%E2%80%93Mandara_languages" title="Biu–Mandara languages">Biu–Mandara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Chadic_languages" title="East Chadic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Chadic_languages" title="West Chadic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angas_languages" title="Angas languages">Angas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bade_languages" title="Bade languages">Bade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bole%E2%80%93Tangale_languages" title="Bole–Tangale languages">Bole–Tangale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hausa%E2%80%93Gwandara_languages" title="Hausa–Gwandara languages">Hausa–Gwandara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Bauchi_languages" title="North Bauchi languages">North Bauchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_languages" title="Ron languages">Ron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Bauchi_languages" title="South Bauchi languages">South Bauchi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Masa_languages" title="Masa languages">Masa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marba_language" title="Marba language">Marba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massa_language" title="Massa language">Massa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musey_language" title="Musey language">Musey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zumaya_language" title="Zumaya language">Zumaya</a> (possibly independent)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesme_language" title="Mesme language">Mesme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nget%C3%A9-Herd%C3%A9_language" title="Ngeté-Herdé language">Ngeté-Herdé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peve_language" title="Peve language">Peve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agaw_languages" title="Agaw languages">Agaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dullay_languages" title="Dullay languages">Dullay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_East_Cushitic_languages" title="Highland East Cushitic languages">Highland East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowland_East_Cushitic_languages" title="Lowland East Cushitic languages">Lowland East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Omo%E2%80%93Tana_languages" title="Omo–Tana languages">Omo–Tana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Somali_languages" title="Macro-Somali languages">Macro-Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rendille%E2%80%93Boni_languages" title="Rendille–Boni languages">Rendille–Boni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_languages" title="Somali languages">Somali languages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Omo%E2%80%93Tana_languages" title="Western Omo–Tana languages">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oromoid_languages" title="Oromoid languages">Oromoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saho%E2%80%93Afar_languages" title="Saho–Afar languages">Saho–Afar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Cushitic_languages" title="South Cushitic languages">South</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Omotic_languages" title="Omotic languages">Omotic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aroid_languages" title="Aroid languages">Aroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dizoid_languages" title="Dizoid languages">Dizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_languages" title="Mao languages">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Omotic_languages" title="North Omotic languages">North</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gonga_languages" title="Gonga languages">Gonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ometo_languages" title="Ometo languages">Ometo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kujarg%C3%A9_language" title="Kujargé language">Kujargé</a>? (unclassified; possibly East Chadic (B.1.3), Cushitic, transitional or a language isolate)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ongota_language" title="Ongota language">Ongota</a>? (unclassified; possibly Nilo-Saharan, transitional or a language isolate)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Primary_language_families757" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_families" title="Template:Language families"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_families" title="Template talk:Language families"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_families" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language families"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Primary_language_families757" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_families" title="List of language families">Primary language families</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Afroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoe%E2%80%93Kwadi_languages" title="Khoe–Kwadi languages">Khoe–Kwadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kx%CA%BCa_languages" title="Kxʼa languages">Kx'a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijaw_languages" title="Ijaw languages">Ijaw</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubangian_languages" title="Ubangian languages">Ubangian</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangime_language" title="Bangime language">Bangime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gule_language" title="Gule language">Gule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalaa_language" title="Jalaa language">Jalaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laal_language" title="Laal language">Laal</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eurasia (<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Asia" title="Languages of Asia">Asia</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Afroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" title="Ainu languages">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukotko-Kamchatkan_languages" title="Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages">Chukotko-Kamchatkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Andamanese_languages" title="Great Andamanese languages">Great Andamanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages" title="Koreanic languages">Koreanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nivkh_languages" title="Nivkh languages">Nivkh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">Northwest Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ongan_languages" title="Ongan languages">Ongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeniseian_languages" title="Yeniseian languages">Yeniseian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukaghir_languages" title="Yukaghir languages">Yukaghir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Digaro</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puroik_language" title="Puroik language">Puroik</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burushaski" title="Burushaski">Burushaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenaboi_language" title="Kenaboi language">Kenaboi</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusunda_language" title="Kusunda language">Kusunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_language" title="Minoan language">Minoan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihali_language" title="Nihali language">Nihali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutuli" title="Rutuli">Rutulian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shompen_language" title="Shompen language">Shompen</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambora_language" title="Tambora language">Tambora</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">New Guinea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Oceania" title="Languages of Oceania">the Pacific</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arai%E2%80%93Samaia_languages" title="Arai–Samaia languages">Arai–Samaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binanderean%E2%80%93Goilalan_languages" title="Binanderean–Goilalan languages">Binanderean–Goilalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_languages_(New_Guinea)" title="Border languages (New Guinea)">Border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulaka_River_languages" title="Bulaka River languages">Bulaka River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Solomon_languages" title="Central Solomon languages">Central Solomons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimbu%E2%80%93Wahgi_languages" title="Chimbu–Wahgi languages">Chimbu–Wahgi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demta%E2%80%93Sentani_languages" title="Demta–Sentani languages">Demta–Sentani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doso%E2%80%93Turumsa_languages" title="Doso–Turumsa languages">Doso–Turumsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Geelvink_Bay_languages" title="East Geelvink Bay languages">East Geelvink Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_New_Britain_languages" title="East New Britain languages">East New Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Strickland_languages" title="East Strickland languages">East Strickland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleman_languages" title="Eleman languages">Eleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engan_languages" title="Engan languages">Engan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fas_languages" title="Fas languages">Fas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foja_Range_languages" title="Foja Range languages">Foja Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaure%E2%80%93Kosare_languages" title="Kaure–Kosare languages">Kaure–Kosare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiwaian_languages" title="Kiwaian languages">Kiwaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutubuan_languages" title="Kutubuan languages">Kutubuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakes_Plain_languages" title="Lakes Plain languages">Lakes Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mamberamo_languages" title="Lower Mamberamo languages">Lower Mamberamo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Sepik_languages" title="Lower Sepik languages">Lower Sepik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madang_languages" title="Madang languages">Madang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mairasi_languages" title="Mairasi languages">Mairasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Bougainville_languages" title="North Bougainville languages">North Bougainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauwasi_languages" title="Pauwasi languages">Pauwasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramu_languages" title="Ramu languages">Ramu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senagi_languages" title="Senagi languages">Senagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senu_River_languages" title="Senu River languages">Senu River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepik_languages" title="Sepik languages">Sepik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skou_languages" title="Skou languages">Skou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Bougainville_languages" title="South Bougainville languages">South Bougainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teberan_languages" title="Teberan languages">Teberan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torricelli_languages" title="Torricelli languages">Torricelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Fly_languages" title="Trans-Fly languages">Trans-Fly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans%E2%80%93New_Guinea_languages" title="Trans–New Guinea languages">Trans–New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turama%E2%80%93Kikorian_languages" title="Turama–Kikorian languages">Turama–Kikorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Yuat_languages" title="Upper Yuat languages">Upper Yuat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Papuan_languages" title="West Papuan languages">West Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yam_languages" title="Yam languages">Yam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yawa_languages" title="Yawa languages">Yawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuat_languages" title="Yuat languages">Yuat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Papuan_languages" title="Northwest Papuan languages">Northwest Papuan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_Gulf_languages" title="Papuan Gulf languages">Papuan Gulf</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abinomn_language" title="Abinomn language">Abinomn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abun_language" title="Abun language">Abun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C3%AAm_language" title="Anêm language">Anêm</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ata_language" title="Ata language">Ata</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kol_language_(Papua_New_Guinea)" title="Kol language (Papua New Guinea)">Kol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuot_language" title="Kuot language">Kuot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maybrat_language" title="Maybrat language">Maybrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpur_language" title="Mpur language">Mpur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawaia_language" title="Pawaia language">Pawaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porome_language" title="Porome language">Porome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulka_language" title="Sulka language">Sulka</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayap_language" title="Tayap language">Taiap</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambora_language" title="Tambora language">Tambora</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiru_language" title="Wiru language">Wiru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Gunwinyguan_languages" title="Macro-Gunwinyguan languages">Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunuban_languages" title="Bunuban languages">Bunuban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Region_languages" title="Darwin Region languages">Darwin Region</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Daly_languages" title="Eastern Daly languages">Eastern Daly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Eastern Tasmanian languages">Eastern Tasmanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garawan_languages" title="Garawan languages">Garawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwaidjan_languages" title="Iwaidjan languages">Iwaidjan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarrakan_languages" title="Jarrakan languages">Jarrakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrku%E2%80%93Wurrugu_languages" title="Marrku–Wurrugu languages">Marrku–Wurrugu</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirndi_languages" title="Mirndi languages">Mirndi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northern Tasmanian languages">Northern Tasmanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northeastern Tasmanian languages">Northeastern Tasmanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyulnyulan_languages" title="Nyulnyulan languages">Nyulnyulan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Daly_languages" title="Southern Daly languages">Southern Daly</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkic_languages" title="Tangkic languages">Tangkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagaydyic_languages" title="Wagaydyic languages">Wagaydyic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Daly_languages" title="Western Daly languages">Western Daly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Tasmanian_languages" title="Western Tasmanian languages">Western Tasmanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worrorran_languages" title="Worrorran languages">Worrorran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wardaman_language" title="Wardaman language">Yangmanic</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Wagiman_language" title="Wagiman language">Wagiman</a>)?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giimbiyu_language" title="Giimbiyu language">Giimbiyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malak-Malak_language" title="Malak-Malak language">Malak-Malak</a> (Northern Daly?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwi_language" title="Tiwi language">Tiwi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alsea_language" title="Alsea language">Alsea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caddoan_languages" title="Caddoan languages">Caddoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimakuan_languages" title="Chimakuan languages">Chimakuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinookan_languages" title="Chinookan languages">Chinookan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chumashan_languages" title="Chumashan languages">Chumashan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comecrudan_languages" title="Comecrudan languages">Comecrudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coosan_languages" title="Coosan languages">Coosan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalapuyan_languages" title="Kalapuyan languages">Kalapuyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keres_language" title="Keres language">Keres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maiduan_languages" title="Maiduan languages">Maiduan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskogean_languages" title="Muskogean languages">Muskogean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaihnihan_languages" title="Palaihnihan languages">Palaihnihan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateau_Penutian_languages" title="Plateau Penutian languages">Plateau Penutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomoan_languages" title="Pomoan languages">Pomoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shastan_languages" title="Shastan languages">Shastan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanoan_languages" title="Tanoan languages">Tanoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshianic_languages" title="Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshianic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utian_languages" title="Utian languages">Utian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wintuan_languages" title="Wintuan languages">Wintuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuki%E2%80%93Wappo_languages" title="Yuki–Wappo languages">Yukian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuman%E2%80%93Cochim%C3%AD_languages" title="Yuman–Cochimí languages">Yuman–Cochimí</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chimariko_language" title="Chimariko language">Chimariko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esselen_language" title="Esselen language">Esselen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_language" title="Haida language">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karuk_language" title="Karuk language">Karuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutenai_language" title="Kutenai language">Kutenai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seri_language" title="Seri language">Seri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siuslaw_language" title="Siuslaw language">Siuslaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takelma_language" title="Takelma language">Takelma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timucua_language" title="Timucua language">Timucua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkawa_language" title="Tonkawa language">Tonkawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waikuri_language" title="Waikuri language">Waikuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washo_language" title="Washo language">Washo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yana_language" title="Yana language">Yana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokuts_language" title="Yokuts language">Yokuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuchi_language" title="Yuchi language">Yuchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_language" title="Zuni language">Zuni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_languages" title="Mesoamerican languages">Mesoamerica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jicaquean_languages" title="Jicaquean languages">Jicaquean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lencan_languages" title="Lencan languages">Lencan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misumalpan_languages" title="Misumalpan languages">Misumalpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixe%E2%80%93Zoque_languages" title="Mixe–Zoque languages">Mixe–Zoque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean_languages" title="Oto-Manguean languages">Oto-Manguean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequistlatecan_languages" title="Tequistlatecan languages">Tequistlatecan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totonacan_languages" title="Totonacan languages">Totonacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xincan_languages" title="Xincan languages">Xincan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuitlatec_language" title="Cuitlatec language">Cuitlatec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huave_language" title="Huave language">Huave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_language" title="Purépecha language">Tarascan/Purépecha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alacalufan_languages" title="Alacalufan languages">Alacalufan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andoque%E2%80%93Urequena_languages" title="Andoque–Urequena languages">Andoque–Urequena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawan_languages" title="Arawan languages">Arauan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Araucanian_languages" title="Araucanian languages">Araucanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arutani%E2%80%93Sape_languages" title="Arutani–Sape languages">Arutani–Sape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymaran_languages" title="Aymaran languages">Aymaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbacoan_languages" title="Barbacoan languages">Barbacoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boran_languages" title="Boran languages">Boran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahuapanan_languages" title="Cahuapanan languages">Cahuapanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacaoan_languages" title="Catacaoan languages">Catacaoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapacuran_languages" title="Chapacuran languages">Chapacuran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charruan_languages" title="Charruan languages">Charruan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choco_languages" title="Choco languages">Choco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonan_languages" title="Chonan languages">Chonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaicuruan_languages" title="Guaicuruan languages">Guaicuruan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guajiboan_languages" title="Guajiboan languages">Guajiboan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Har%C3%A1kmbut%E2%80%93Katukinan_languages" title="Harákmbut–Katukinan languages">Harákmbut–Katukinan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jirajaran_languages" title="Jirajaran languages">Jirajaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicham_languages" title="Chicham languages">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katembri%E2%80%93Taruma_languages" title="Katembri–Taruma languages">Katembri–Taruma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascoian_languages" title="Mascoian languages">Mascoian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matacoan_languages" title="Matacoan languages">Matacoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Nadahup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nambikwaran_languages" title="Nambikwaran languages">Nambikwaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otom%C3%A1koan_languages" title="Otomákoan languages">Otomákoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pano-Tacanan_languages" title="Pano-Tacanan languages">Pano-Tacanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peba%E2%80%93Yaguan_languages" title="Peba–Yaguan languages">Peba–Yaguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piaroa%E2%80%93Saliban_languages" title="Piaroa–Saliban languages">Piaroa–Saliban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticuna%E2%80%93Yuri_languages" title="Ticuna–Yuri languages">Ticuna–Yuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timotean_languages" title="Timotean languages">Timotean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiniguan_languages" title="Tiniguan languages">Tiniguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tucanoan_languages" title="Tucanoan languages">Tucanoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uru%E2%80%93Chipaya_languages" title="Uru–Chipaya languages">Uru–Chipaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witotoan_languages" title="Witotoan languages">Witotoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanomaman_languages" title="Yanomaman languages">Yanomaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamucoan_languages" title="Zamucoan languages">Zamucoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaparoan_languages" title="Zaparoan languages">Zaparoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bora%E2%80%93Witoto_languages" title="Bora–Witoto languages">Bora-Witoto</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimuan_languages" title="Chimuan languages">Chimuan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esmeralda%E2%80%93Yaruroan_languages" title="Esmeralda–Yaruroan languages">Esmeralda–Yaruro</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hibito%E2%80%93Cholon_languages" title="Hibito–Cholon languages">Hibito–Cholón</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lule%E2%80%93Vilela_languages" title="Lule–Vilela languages">Lule–Vilela</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequiraca%E2%80%93Canichana_languages" title="Tequiraca–Canichana languages">Tequiraca–Canichana</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates (extant in 2000)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" title="Aikanã language">Aikanã</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kam%C3%ABnt%C5%A1%C3%A1_language" title="Kamëntšá language">Camsá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candoshi-Shapra_language" title="Candoshi-Shapra language">Candoshi-Shapra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimane_language" title="Chimane language">Chimane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiquitano_language" title="Chiquitano language">Chiquitano</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cof%C3%A1n_language" title="Cofán language">Cofán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulni%C3%B4_language" title="Fulniô language">Fulniô</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guat%C3%B3_language" title="Guató language">Guató</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hod%C3%AF_language" title="Hodï language">Hodï/Joti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itonama_language" title="Itonama language">Itonama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kano%C3%AA_language" title="Kanoê language">Kanoê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwaza_language" title="Kwaza language">Kwaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maku_language_of_Auari" title="Maku language of Auari">Maku</a> (Maku-Auari/Jukude)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movima_language" title="Movima language">Movima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mura_language" title="Mura language">Mura-Pirahã</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukak_language" title="Nukak language">Nukak</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1ez_language" title="Páez language">Páez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puinave_language" title="Puinave language">Puinave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanavir%C3%B3n_language" title="Sanavirón language">Sanavirón</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumai_language" title="Trumai language">Trumai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urarina_language" title="Urarina language">Urarina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waorani_language" title="Waorani language">Huaorani/Waorani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahgan_language" title="Yahgan language">Yamana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuracar%C3%A9_language" title="Yuracaré language">Yuracaré</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_sign-language_family" title="Arab sign-language family">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BANZSL" title="BANZSL">BANZSL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Sign_Language" title="Chinese Sign Language">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Sign_Language_family" title="French Sign Language family">Francosign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">Germanosign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_Sign_Language" title="Indo-Pakistani Sign Language">Indo-Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Sign_Language_family" title="Japanese Sign Language family">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chiangmai%E2%80%93Bangkok_Sign_Language_family" title="Old Chiangmai–Bangkok Sign Language family">Original Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Sign_Language_family" title="Swedish Sign Language family">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzanian_sign_languages" title="Tanzanian sign languages">Tanzanian</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>See <a href="/wiki/List_of_sign_languages" title="List of sign languages">list of sign languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Constructed languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Language isolates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unclassified_language" title="Unclassified language">Unclassified languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.</li><li>Families in italics have no living members.</li><li>Families with more than 30 languages are in bold.</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Language_families_of_Eurasia513" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eurasian_languages" title="Template:Eurasian languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eurasian_languages" title="Template talk:Eurasian languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eurasian_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eurasian languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Language_families_of_Eurasia513" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_families" title="List of language families">Language families</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Afroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_language" title="Iberian language">Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartessian_language" title="Tartessian language">Tartessian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Corsican_language" title="Paleo-Corsican language">Paleo-Corsican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Sardinian_language" title="Paleo-Sardinian language">Paleo-Sardinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camunic_language" title="Camunic language">Camunic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligurian_(ancient_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligurian (ancient language)">Ligurian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Picene_language" title="North Picene language">North Picene</a> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutuli" title="Rutuli">Rutulian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicanian" class="mw-redirect" title="Sicanian">Sicanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eteocretan_language" title="Eteocretan language">Eteocretan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eteocypriot_language" title="Eteocypriot language">Eteocypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_language" title="Minoan language">Minoan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">West Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Afroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaskian_language" title="Kaskian language">Kaskian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Caucasus" title="Languages of the Caucasus">Caucasus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages" title="North Caucasian languages">North Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">Northwest Caucasian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Languages of South Asia">South Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burushaski" title="Burushaski">Burushaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihali_language" title="Nihali language">Nihali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusunda_language" title="Kusunda language">Kusunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harappan_language" title="Harappan language">Harappan</a> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_East_Asia" title="Languages of East Asia">East Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages" title="Koreanic languages">Koreanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> rim</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Andamanese_languages" title="Great Andamanese languages">Great Andamanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ongan_languages" title="Ongan languages">Ongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentinelese_language" title="Sentinelese language">Sentinelese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenaboi_language" title="Kenaboi language">Kenaboi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="&quot;Paleosiberian&quot;63" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Paleosiberian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleosiberian languages">Paleosiberian</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" title="Ainu languages">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukotko-Kamchatkan_languages" title="Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages">Chukotko-Kamchatkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nivkh_languages" title="Nivkh languages">Nivkh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeniseian_languages" title="Yeniseian languages">Yeniseian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukaghir_languages" title="Yukaghir languages">Yukaghir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_language" title="Rouran language">Rouran</a> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu_language" title="Xiongnu language">Xiongnu</a> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed groupings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alarodian_languages" title="Alarodian languages">Alarodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borean_languages" title="Borean languages">Borean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nostratic_languages" title="Nostratic languages">Nostratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Caucasian_languages" title="Dené–Caucasian languages">Dené–Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasiatic_languages" title="Eurasiatic languages">Eurasiatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Yeniseian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Dené–Yeniseian languages">Dené–Yeniseian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravido-Korean_languages" title="Dravido-Korean languages">Dravido-Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamo-Dravidian_languages" title="Elamo-Dravidian languages">Elamo-Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibero-Caucasian_languages" title="Ibero-Caucasian languages">Ibero-Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Hittite" title="Indo-Hittite">Indo-Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pacific_languages" title="Indo-Pacific languages">Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Semitic_languages" title="Indo-Semitic languages">Indo-Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Uralic_languages" title="Indo-Uralic languages">Indo-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karasuk_languages" title="Karasuk languages">Karasuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbi%E2%80%93Mongolic_languages" title="Serbi–Mongolic languages">Serbi–Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_languages" title="Pontic languages">Pontic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural-Altaic_languages" title="Ural-Altaic languages">Ural-Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralo-Siberian_languages" title="Uralo-Siberian languages">Uralo-Siberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic%E2%80%93Yukaghir_languages" title="Uralic–Yukaghir languages">Uralic–Yukaghir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskimo%E2%80%93Uralic_languages" title="Eskimo–Uralic languages">Eskimo–Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukotko-Kamchatkan%E2%80%93Amuric_languages" title="Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric languages">Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Arunachal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Siangic_languages" title="Greater Siangic languages">Greater Siangic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Digaro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_Southeast_Asian_languages" title="Classification of Southeast Asian languages">East and Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andamanese_languages" title="Andamanese languages">Andamanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austric_languages" title="Austric languages">Austric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Tai_languages" title="Austro-Tai languages">Austro-Tai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian%E2%80%93Ongan_languages" title="Austronesian–Ongan languages">Austronesian–Ongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_languages" title="East Asian languages">East Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Austronesian_languages" title="Sino-Austronesian languages">Sino-Austronesian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">Substrata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_(Semitic)_languages" title="Atlantic (Semitic) languages">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Celtic">Pre-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Pre-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Goidelic substrate hypothesis">Pre-Goidelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Greek_substrate" title="Pre-Greek substrate">Pre-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasconic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Vasconic substrate hypothesis">Vasconic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substratum_in_Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit">Pre-Vedic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Finno-Ugric_substrate" title="Pre-Finno-Ugric substrate">Pre-Finno-Ugric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Laplandic_languages" title="Paleo-Laplandic languages">Paleo-Laplandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Euphratean_language" title="Proto-Euphratean language">Proto-Euphratean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Families in italics have no living members.</li><li>Families with more than 30 languages are in bold.</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4110088-8">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85002020">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11947334h">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11947334h">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116126&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX528412">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000050360&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007293089105171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027430200">IdRef</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&oldid=1275828430">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&oldid=1275828430</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Afroasiatic_languages" title="Category:Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic languages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Afroasiatic_peoples" title="Category:Afroasiatic peoples">Afroasiatic peoples</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language_families" title="Category:Language families">Language families</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups_in_Africa" title="Category:Ethnic groups in Africa">Ethnic groups in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups_in_Asia" title="Category:Ethnic groups in Asia">Ethnic groups in Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups_in_Europe" title="Category:Ethnic groups in Europe">Ethnic groups in Europe</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_April_2021" 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[\"DEFAULTSORT:Afroasiatic Languages\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 13,\n [\"Eurasian languages\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 40,\n [\"IPA\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox language family\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 3,\n [\"Language families\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 7,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect2\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 361,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sigfig\"] = 1,\n [\"Tree list\"] = 5,\n [\"Tree list/end\"] = 5,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["recursiveClone 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