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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Ancient Greek ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Greek_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Indian ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Chinese ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_law_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_law_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Natural law ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_law_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kantian_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kantian_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Kantian ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kantian_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Utilitarianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Utilitarianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Utilitarianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Utilitarianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Twentieth_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twentieth_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Twentieth century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Twentieth_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professional_and_applied_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professional_and_applied_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Professional and applied ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professional_and_applied_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" 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Available in 10 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-10" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">10 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="تاريخ الأخلاقيات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الأخلاقيات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Ethik" title="Geschichte der Ethik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Ethik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_%C3%A9tica" title="Historia de la ética – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la ética" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27%C3%A9thique" title="Histoire de l'éthique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'éthique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%A9%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Էթիկայի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էթիկայի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27etica" title="Storia dell'etica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dell'etica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Этика тарихы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Этика тарихы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="История этики – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История этики" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Історія етики – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія етики" data-language-autonym="Українська" 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Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior". The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns matters of value, and thus comprises the branch of philosophy called axiology. </p><p>Various ethical theories pose various answers to the question "What is the greatest good?" and elaborate a complete set of proper behaviors for individuals and groups. Ethical theories are closely related to forms of life in various social orders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacIntyre1998_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacIntyre1998-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ethics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The epic poems that stand at the beginning of many world literatures, such as the Mesopotamian <a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a>, Homer's <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a> and the Icelandic <a href="/wiki/Eddas" class="mw-redirect" title="Eddas">Eddas</a>, portray a set of values that suit the strong leader of a small tribe. Valour and success are the principal qualities of a hero and are generally not constrained by moral considerations. Revenge and vendetta are appropriate activities for heroes. The gods that appear in such epics are not defenders of moral values but are capricious forces of nature and are to be feared and propitiated.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More strictly ethical claims are found occasionally in the literature of ancient civilizations that is aimed at lower classes of society. The Sumerian Farmer's Almanac and the Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Instruction_of_Amenemope" title="Instruction of Amenemope">Instruction of Amenemope</a> both advise farmers to leave some grain for poor gleaners, and promise favours from the gods for doing so.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of ancient religions and ethical thinkers also put forward some version of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Golden rule">golden rule</a>, at least in its negative version: do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_Greek_ethics">Ancient Greek ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ethics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient Greek ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While Greek moral thought was originally based on <a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">mythology</a>, which provided moral meaning but no comprehensive framework, from the 600s <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BC</a> a new moral approach emerged which used rational arguments instead, leading to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> as a distinct mode of thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201412_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201412-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been especially attributed to <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201412_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201412-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a> aimed to establish moral truths by questioning the beliefs of others, rather than by explaining them directly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201418_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201418-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He opposed the <a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">moral relativism</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a>, insisting on the formulation of moral principles from beginning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201420_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201420-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As portrayed in <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <i>Republic</i>, he articulates the greatest good as the transcendent "form of good itself".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his personal life, Socrates lived extremely morally. He was chaste, disciplined, pious, responsible, and cared for his friends<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the so-called <a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a>, he raised the problem of whether divine action was motivated by it being good, or whether it was good because it was divine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201421-22_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201421-22-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a> he defends the notion that it is better to suffer injustice than to do it. </p><p>The key work of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s ethics was the <i>Republic</i>, which was focused on conceiving <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, a concept which for Plato was inclusive of wider morality as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201424_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201424-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a dialogue, <a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus" title="Thrasymachus">Thrasymachus</a> argued that conventional morality was a ruse invented to keep the elite in power, which should be discarded in favour of self-interest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201424_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201424-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plato responded by planning a <a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">utopia</a> and giving a metaphysical theory of what is good.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201425_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201425-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued there were <a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_five_regimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Plato's five regimes">five regimes</a> into which different societies could be divided, with the best one being <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>, in which "the desires of the inferior many are controlled by the wisdom and desires of the superior few".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201426_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201426-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, democracy would lead to the degradation of culture and morality, with him arguing that "extreme freedom can't be expected to lead to anything but a change to extreme slavery".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201427_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201427-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas ordinary people were living in an illusion, demonstrated by the <a href="/wiki/Allegory_of_the_cave" title="Allegory of the cave">allegory of the cave</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">theory of forms</a> suggested that objective definitions, as looked for by Socrates, did actually exist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201428_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201428-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The highest form was that of the Good, which gave purpose for everything in the world and could only be understood by the philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201429_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201429-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics" title="Aristotelian ethics">Aristotle's ethics</a> builds upon Plato's with important variations. Aristotle defined the good as "that at which all things aim".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201433_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201433-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While many different goods were being pursued by different people and activities, that good which is being pursued for its own sake was the supreme good, or what he called <i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a></i>, which has been translated as '<a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">happiness</a>' but may be more broadly described as '<a href="/wiki/Flourishing" title="Flourishing">flourishing</a>', and involves "living well and doing well", not mere pleasure (which will itself follow).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201434_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201434-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A "<a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">great-souled</a>" citizen who lives a life of virtue can expect to achieve <i>eudaimonia</i>, which Aristotle argues is the highest good for man. Following Plato, Aristotle gives a significant role in moral life to the <a href="/wiki/Virtues" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtues">virtues</a>, fixed habits of behaviour that lead to good outcomes; the main virtues are <a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">courage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">prudence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">temperance</a>. The highest form of life is, however, purely intellectual activity.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the virtues for him are merely the means to an end.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201434_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201434-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, he disagreed with Plato on there being a universal transcendental good, instead seeing ethics as practical and particular.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201434_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201434-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather, the virtues should be based on finding the <a href="/wiki/Golden_mean_(philosophy)" title="Golden mean (philosophy)">golden mean</a> between extremes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201437_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201437-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later Greek schools of philosophy, such as the <a href="/wiki/Epicureans" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicureans">Epicureans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stoics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stoics">Stoics</a>, debated the conditions of the good life. Both of these schools argued that tranquility should be the aim of life but disagreed on the mean of getting there despite both claiming the Socratic tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201444_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201444-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> taught that the greatest good was pleasure and freedom from pain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201444_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201444-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the latter was more important, as indulgences should be avoided so they did not lead to want and therefore suffering.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201445_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201445-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, the Epicureans emphasized the quiet enjoyment of pleasures, especially mental pleasure, free of fear and anxiety. Founded by <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a>, the Stoics thought the greatest good not pleasure but reason and everything in accord with reason, even if painful. Hence, they praised the life of reason lived in accordance with nature.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had been influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynics'</a> and Socrates' ascetism and indifference to adversity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201445_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201445-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The acceptance of the inevitable subsequently became a key aspect of their thinking, based also on their belief in <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">determinism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201446_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201446-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas the Epicureans believed the universe was essentially meaningless, the Stoics believed that God (understood to be one with the universe) gave meaning to the world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201446_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201446-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">problem of evil</a>, the Stoics developed the concept of <a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">theodicy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201448_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201448-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Stoic philosopher <a href="/wiki/Hierocles_(Stoic)" title="Hierocles (Stoic)">Hierocles</a> also developed the concept of morality being based on concentric circles of proximity to the individual, such as family, community and humanity, with the process of bringing the self and the other together called <i><a href="/wiki/Oikei%C3%B4sis" title="Oikeiôsis">Oikeiôsis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201450_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201450-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indian_ethics">Indian ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ethics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Indian ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a></div> <p>The foundation of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> is in the epic of <i><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></i>, which contains the concept of <i><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a></i>, a conception of natural law and the duties required for the upholding of the natural order.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201477–78_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201477–78-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hinduism itself is viewed by its followers as <i><a href="/wiki/San%C4%81tana_Dharma" title="Sanātana Dharma">Sanātana Dharma</a></i>, or the 'Eternal Law', which binds everyone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201479–80_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201479–80-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The four aims of Hinduism are <i><a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">moksha</a></i> (enlightenment), <i><a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">artha</a></i> (wealth), <i><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">kama</a></i> (pleasure), and <i>dharma</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201481_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201481-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The significance of <i>moksha</i> is that only it can break through <i><a href="/wiki/Maya_(religion)" title="Maya (religion)">maya</a></i>, the illusion hiding reality, which requires both understanding the impermanence of material reality as well as the attainment of an understanding of the unity of the Self (<i><a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">atman</a></i>) and the foundation of being (<i><a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">brahman</a>)</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201481_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201481-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Moksha</i> also means breaking free from the cycle of <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnation</a> which is governed by <i><a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a>,</i> the accumulated balance of good and bad actions by an individual.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201481-82_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201481-82-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was in turn used as a justification for the <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">caste system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201483_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201483-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a> and becoming a <a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">hermit</a> increased in popularity, sometimes being a reaction to the prevailing social structures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201487_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201487-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two significant belief systems emerged from this reaction. <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, formalised by the ascetic philosopher <a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a>, according to which enlightenment came through a perfectly ethical life that necessitated a complete renunciation of the killing of any living beings, including the smallest of insects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201487-88_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201487-88-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The other one was <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">the Buddha</a>. Other responses to the era included materialist schools such as <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a>, which embraced hedonism and rejected spirituality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201487_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201487-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most important of the Buddha's teaching was the <i><a href="/wiki/Dhammacakkappavattana_Sutta" title="Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta">Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta</a></i>, at the core of which were the <a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201489_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201489-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of these was <i><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">duḥkha</a></i>, the suffering that is part of life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201489_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201489-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is also one of the <a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">three marks of existence</a> which define life, the others being <i><a href="/wiki/Impermanence" title="Impermanence">anitya</a></i>, the impermanence of everything, and <i><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">anatman</a></i>, or the non-existence of the <a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">self</a> across time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201489_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201489-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second Noble Truth was that all human suffering is caused by desire that cannot be satisfied, and that only be renouncing the desire could the suffering be ended, which was the Third Noble Truth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201490_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201490-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final Noble Truth was that desire could only be relinquished by following <a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201490_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201490-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Eightfold Path consists of eight practices: right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right <i><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samadhi</a></i> ('meditative absorption or union'; alternatively, equanimous meditative awareness).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter198811–14_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter198811–14-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a> refers to major aspects of the teaching of the <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha</a>, either to the spiritual practice that steers clear of both extreme <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a> and sensual indulgence, which is defined as the Noble Eightfold Path, or the Buddha's avoiding of <a href="/wiki/Sassatavada" title="Sassatavada">eternalism</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">absolutism</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Ajita_Kesakambali#From_Buddhist_sources" title="Ajita Kesakambali">annihilationism</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna Buddhism</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">śūnyatā</a></i> ('emptiness') refers to the tenet that "all things are empty of intrinsic existence and nature (<i><a href="/wiki/Svabhava" title="Svabhava">svabhava</a></i>)".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chinese_ethics">Chinese ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ethics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Chinese ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, who lived around the same time as the Buddha, was focused mostly on ethical philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201498_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201498-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was especially interested in how to create a harmonious society, which he believed was based on two human qualities: <i><a href="/wiki/Ren_(philosophy)" title="Ren (philosophy)">ren</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">li</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201498_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201498-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Ren</i>, the highest principle, describes <a href="/wiki/Humanity_(virtue)" title="Humanity (virtue)">humaneness</a>, encompassing all the qualities required for ideal behaviour between people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201498_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201498-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Confucious argued that a form of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Rule" title="Golden Rule">Golden Rule</a> should be the guiding principle of all actions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201498_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201498-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, he also believed that different forms of behaviour were appropriate in different relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201498_40-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201498-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second principle of <i>li</i> embodied this by establishing the need to follow tradition, rituals and other conventional norms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201498_40-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201498-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_law_ethics">Natural law ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ethics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Natural law ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> developed a synthesis of Biblical and Aristotelian ethics called <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> theory, according to which the nature of humans determines what is right and wrong. For example, murder is wrong because life is essential to humans so depriving someone of it is inherently an evil. Education is needed for humans, and is their right, because their intellectual nature requires developing. Natural law theory remains at the heart of Catholic moral teaching, for example in its positions on <a href="/wiki/Contraception" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraception">contraception</a> and other controversial moral issues.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Catholic practice of compulsory <a href="/wiki/Confession_(religion)" title="Confession (religion)">confession</a> led to the development of manuals of <a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">casuistry</a>, the application of ethical principles to detailed cases of conscience, such as the conditions of a <a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">just war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kantian_ethics">Kantian ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ethics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Kantian ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, in the 18th century, argued that right and wrong are founded on <a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">duty</a>, which issues a <a href="/wiki/Categorical_Imperative" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorical Imperative">Categorical Imperative</a> to us, a command that, of its nature, ought to be obeyed. An action is only truly moral if done from a sense of duty, and the most valuable thing is a human will that has decided to act rightly. To decide what duty requires, Kant proposes the principle of <a href="/wiki/Universalizability" title="Universalizability">universalizability</a>: correct moral rules are those everyone could adopt.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kant's philosophy marks a number of important conceptual shifts in philosophical thinking about ethics. Kant argues that questions about happiness should not be a focus in ethical thought, because ethics should be universal while happiness may involve very different modes of life for different individuals. He also believed this approach was necessary if an ethical theory was to avoid becoming 'heteronomous'; that is, locating the source of proper moral motivation outside of properly moral concerns. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ethics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Utilitarianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></div> <p>In 19th century Britain, <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> advocated <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, the view that right actions are those that are likely to result in the greatest happiness of the greatest number. Utilitarianism remains popular in the twenty-first century.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both Kantianism and Utilitarianism provide ethical theories that can support contemporary liberal political developments, and associated enlightenment ways of conceiving of the individual. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Twentieth_century">Twentieth century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ethics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Twentieth century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early twentieth century saw many debates on <a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">metaethics</a>, that is, philosophical theory on the nature of ethics. Views ranged from <a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">moral realism</a>, which holds that moral truths are about mind-independent realities,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">evolutionary ethics</a>, which believes ethical practices are merely evolved ways of behavior that led to evolutionary success, to the <a href="/wiki/Error_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Error theory">error theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a>, which held that the entire notion of ethical obligation is a mistake.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reflections on the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a>, such as those of <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Hannah Arendt</a>, led to a deepening appreciation of the reality of extreme evil. The Holocaust impacted other Jewish philosophers immensely, for instance, the post-war period saw <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Levinas" title="Emmanuel Levinas">Emmanuel Levinas</a> develop his 'ethics of the other' and situate ethics as 'first philosophy'.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This philosophy showed a focus on the relation to the other in distress as central to the development of ethics and placed ethical theories center-stage in philosophy. Also, in reaction to the Holocaust, <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a> theories, as expressed for example in the 1948 <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>, asserted the inalienable moral rights of humans to life, education, and other basic goods. Another response to the atrocities of World War II included existential reflections on the meaning of life, leading to approaches to ethics based on "the situation" and personal interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 20th century, there was a so-called 'aretaic turn' and renewed interest in <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>. This turn is often traced to a paper by <a href="/wiki/G.E.M._Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="G.E.M. Anscombe">G.E.M. Anscombe</a> entitled "<a href="/wiki/Modern_Moral_Philosophy" title="Modern Moral Philosophy">Modern Moral Philosophy</a>". This approach was then furthered and popularized by figures such as <a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Hursthouse" title="Rosalind Hursthouse">Rosalind Hursthouse</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ricoeur" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Ricoeur">Paul Ricoeur</a>. The revival of this ethical position congruently saw a return to engagement with earlier philosophers associated with moral philosophy such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professional_and_applied_ethics">Professional and applied ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ethics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Professional and applied ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While mid-twentieth century ethics mostly dealt with theoretical issues, <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">medical ethics</a> continued to deal with issues of practice. The 1970s saw a revival of other fields of <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a>, the consideration of detailed practical cases in <a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">bioethics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">animal ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">business ethics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">environmental ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">computer ethics</a> and other special fields. The development of new technologies produced many new issues requiring ethical debate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ethics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics_in_Ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="History of ethics in Ancient Greece">History of ethics in Ancient Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">List of years in philosophy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ethics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacIntyre1998-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacIntyre1998_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacIntyre1998">MacIntyre 1998</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. Cahill, <i>The Gifts of the Jews</i> (New York, 1998), ch. 1; A. W. H. Adkins, <i>Merit and Responsibility: A Study in Greek Values</i> (Oxford, 1960).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. N. Kramer, <i>The Sumerians</i> (Chicago, 1963), 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Wattles, <i>The Golden Rule</i> (New York, 1996), ch. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201412-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201412_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201412_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201418-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201418_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201420-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201420_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Republic, Book VI</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. Symposium, Phaedo, and Republic, Book I</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201421-22-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201421-22_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 21-22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201424-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201424_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201424_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201425-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201425_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201426-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201426_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201427-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201427_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201428-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201428_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201429-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201429_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201433-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201433_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201434-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201434_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201434_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201434_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. O. Urmson, <i>Aristotle's Ethics</i> (New York, 1988.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201437-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201437_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201444-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201444_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201444_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201445-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201445_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201445_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. O. Stephens, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/stoiceth/">Stoic ethics</a> in <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201446-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201446_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201446_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201448-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201448_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201450-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201450_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201477–78-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201477–78_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, pp. 77–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201479–80-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201479–80_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, pp. 79–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201481-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201481_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201481_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201481-82-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201481-82_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 81-82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201483-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201483_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201487-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201487_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201487_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201487-88-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201487-88_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 87-88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201489-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201489_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201489_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201489_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201490-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201490_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201490_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVetter198811–14-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVetter198811–14_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVetter1988">Vetter 1988</a>, pp. 11–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kohn (1991), p. 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Williams2008" class="citation book cs1">Paul Williams (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GMN-AgAAQBAJ"><i>Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 68–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-25056-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-25056-1"><bdi>978-1-134-25056-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mahayana+Buddhism%3A+The+Doctrinal+Foundations&rft.pages=68-69&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-134-25056-1&rft.au=Paul+Williams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGMN-AgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_W._Gowans2014" class="citation book cs1">Christopher W. Gowans (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yW4KBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT69"><i>Buddhist Moral Philosophy: An Introduction</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 69–70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-65934-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-65934-1"><bdi>978-1-317-65934-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Moral+Philosophy%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=69-70&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-65934-1&rft.au=Christopher+W.+Gowans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyW4KBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalik201498-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201498_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201498_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201498_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201498_40-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201498_40-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMalik201498_40-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMalik2014">Malik 2014</a>, p. 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Finnis, <i>Fundamentals of Ethics</i> (Oxford, 1983).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.R. Jonsen and S. Toulmin, <i>The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning</i>, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Johnson, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-moral/">Kant's moral philosophy</a> (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E.g. P. Singer, <i>Practical Ethics</i> (2nd ed, Cambridge, 1993).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Shafer-Landau, <i>Moral Realism: A Defence</i> (Oxford, 2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Mackie, <i>Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong</i> (New York, 1977).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">B. Bergo, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/levinas/">Emmanuel Levinas</a>(Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy), Retrieved 11 November 2019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, Simone de Beauvoir, <i>The Ethics of Ambiguity</i>. Citadel, 1949.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philippa Foot, <i>Virtues and Vices</i> (Oxford, 2002), pp. 13-14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alasdair MacIntyre, 'Moral philosophy and contemporary social practice', <i>The Tasks of Philosophy Vol1: Selected Essays</i>(Cambridge, 2006), pp. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Martensen, The history of bioethics: an essay review, <i>Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences</i> 56 (2001), 168-175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T.F. McMahon, A brief history of American business ethics, in R. Frederick, ed, <i>A Companion to Business Ethics</i>, Oxford: Blackwell, 2002, pp. 342-52.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ethics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacIntyre1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre, Alasdair</a> (1998). <i>A Short History of Ethics</i>. London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-04027-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-04027-2"><bdi>0-415-04027-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Ethics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-415-04027-2&rft.aulast=MacIntyre&rft.aufirst=Alasdair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIrwin2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Terence_Irwin" title="Terence Irwin">Irwin, Terence</a> (2007). <i>The Development of Ethics</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96824-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-96824-9"><bdi>978-0-415-96824-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Ethics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-415-96824-9&rft.aulast=Irwin&rft.aufirst=Terence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalik2014" class="citation book cs1">Malik, Kenan (2014-05-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xxLUAgAAQBAJ&q=quest+for+a+moral+compass"><i>The Quest for a Moral Compass: A Global History of Ethics</i></a>. Atlantic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78239-030-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78239-030-5"><bdi>978-1-78239-030-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quest+for+a+Moral+Compass%3A+A+Global+History+of+Ethics&rft.pub=Atlantic+Books&rft.date=2014-05-01&rft.isbn=978-1-78239-030-5&rft.aulast=Malik&rft.aufirst=Kenan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxxLUAgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dquest%2Bfor%2Ba%2Bmoral%2Bcompass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVetter1988" class="citation book cs1">Vetter, Tilmann (1988). <i>The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism</i>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-08959-4" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-08959-4"><bdi>90-04-08959-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ideas+and+Meditative+Practices+of+Early+Buddhism&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=90-04-08959-4&rft.aulast=Vetter&rft.aufirst=Tilmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ethics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckerCharlotte_B._Becker2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_C._Becker" title="Lawrence C. Becker">Becker, Lawrence C.</a>; Charlotte B. Becker (2003). <i>A History of Western Ethics</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-04027-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-04027-2"><bdi>0-415-04027-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Western+Ethics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-415-04027-2&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+C.&rft.au=Charlotte+B.+Becker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrisp2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Crisp" title="Roger Crisp">Crisp, Roger</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780199545971.do"><i>Oxford Handbook of the History of Ethics</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954597-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954597-1"><bdi>978-0-19-954597-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Handbook+of+the+History+of+Ethics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-954597-1&rft.aulast=Crisp&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fukcatalogue.oup.com%2Fproduct%2F9780199545971.do&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_ethics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-ancient/">Ancient ethical theory (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/a-ethics/">Ancient ethics (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/natural-law-ethics/">The Natural Law Tradition in Ethics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists<br /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 322 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1726)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1740)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1759)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1780)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1785)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1843)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1861)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1887)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1903)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group 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