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class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">View source for Solar power in China</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <div id="mw-content-subtitle">← <a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_China" title="Solar power in China">Solar power in China</a></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-undo-failure"><div class="cdx-message cdx-message--block cdx-message--error"><span class="cdx-message__icon"></span><div class="cdx-message__content"><div class="mw-parser-output"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238441935">.mw-parser-output .fmbox{clear:both;margin:0.2em 0;width:100%;border:1px solid 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have done nothing wrong.</b> Some kinds of blocks restrict editing from specific service providers or telecom companies in response to recent abuse or vandalism, and can sometimes affect other users who are unrelated to that abuse. Review the information below for assistance if you do not believe that you have done anything wrong.<div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <p>The IP address or range 8.222.128.0/17 has been <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Blocking_policy" title="Wikipedia:Blocking policy">blocked</a> by <a href="/wiki/User:L235" title="User:L235">‪L235‬</a> for the following reason(s): </p> <div style="padding:10px; background:var(--background-color-base, white); color:inherit; border:1px #666 solid;"> <div class="user-block colocation-webhost" style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; background-color: #ffefd5; border: 1px solid #AAA; padding: 0.7em;"> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Server-multiple.svg/40px-Server-multiple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Server-multiple.svg/60px-Server-multiple.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Server-multiple.svg/80px-Server-multiple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052"></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure><b>The <a href="/wiki/IP_address" title="IP address">IP address</a> that you are currently using has been blocked because it is believed to be a <a href="/wiki/Web_hosting_service" title="Web hosting service">web host provider</a> or <a href="/wiki/Colocation_centre" title="Colocation centre">colocation provider</a>.</b> To prevent abuse, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Open_proxies" title="Wikipedia:Open proxies">web hosts and colocation providers may be blocked</a> from editing Wikipedia. <div style="border-top: 1px solid #AAA; clear: both">You will not be able to edit Wikipedia using a web host or colocation provider because it hides your IP address, much like a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Open_proxies" title="Wikipedia:Open proxies">proxy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Virtual_private_network" title="Virtual private network">VPN</a>. <p><b>We recommend that you attempt to use another connection to edit.</b> For example, if you use a proxy or VPN to connect to the internet, turn it off when editing Wikipedia. If you edit using a mobile connection, try using a Wi-Fi connection, and vice versa. If you are using a corporate internet connection, switch to a different Wi-Fi network. If you have a Wikipedia account, please log in. </p><p>If you do not have any other way to edit Wikipedia, you will need to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:IP_block_exemption#Requesting_and_granting_exemption" title="Wikipedia:IP block exemption">request an IP block exemption</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center;">How to appeal if you are confident that your connection does not use a colocation provider's IP address:</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style=""> If you are confident that you are not using a web host, you may <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Appealing_a_block" title="Wikipedia:Appealing a block">appeal this block</a> by adding the following text on your <a href="/wiki/Help:Talk_pages" title="Help:Talk pages">talk page</a>: <code>{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Unblock" title="Template:Unblock">unblock</a>|reason=Caught by a colocation web host block but this host or IP is not a web host. My IP address is _______. <i>Place any further information here.</i> ~~~~}}</code>. <b>You must fill in the blank with your IP address for this block to be investigated.</b> Your IP address can be determined <span class="plainlinks"><b><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Get_my_IP_address?withJS=MediaWiki:Get-my-ip.js">here</a></b></span>. Alternatively, if you wish to keep your IP address private you can use the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Unblock_Ticket_Request_System" title="Wikipedia:Unblock Ticket Request System">unblock ticket request system</a>. There are several reasons you might be editing using the IP address of a web host or colocation provider (such as if you are using VPN software or a business network); please use this method of appeal only if you think your IP address is in fact not a web host or colocation provider.</div></div> <p><span class="sysop-show" style="font-size: 85%;"><span style="border:#707070 solid 1px;background-color:#ffe0e0;padding:2px"><b>Administrators:</b></span> The <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:IP_block_exemption" title="Wikipedia:IP block exemption">IP block exemption</a> user right should only be applied to allow users to edit using web host in exceptional circumstances, and requests should usually be directed to the functionaries team via email. If you intend to give the IPBE user right, a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:CheckUser" title="Wikipedia:CheckUser">CheckUser</a> needs to take a look at the account. This can be requested most easily at <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:SPI#Quick_CheckUser_requests" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:SPI">SPI Quick Checkuser Requests</a>. <b>Unblocking</b> an IP or IP range with this template <b>is highly discouraged</b> without at least contacting the blocking administrator.</span> </p> </div></div> </div> <p>This block will expire on 18:23, 24 August 2026. Your current IP address is 8.222.208.146. </p> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>Even when blocked, you will <i>usually</i> still be able to edit your <a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Special:MyTalk">user talk page</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Emailing_users" title="Wikipedia:Emailing users">email</a> administrators and other editors. </p> </div> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>For information on how to proceed, please read the <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Appealing_a_block#Common_questions" title="Wikipedia:Appealing a block">FAQ for blocked users</a></b> and the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Appealing_a_block" title="Wikipedia:Appealing a block">guideline on block appeals</a>. 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China's photovoltaic industry began by making panels for [[satellite]]s, and transitioned to the manufacture of domestic panels in the late 1990s.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web|title=中国光伏发展史 - 能源界|url=http://www.nengyuanjie.net/article/33815.html|access-date=5 June 2021|website=nengyuanjie.net|archive-date=6 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606023240/http://www.nengyuanjie.net/article/33815.html|url-status=live}}</ref> After substantial government incentives were introduced in 2011, China's solar power market grew dramatically: the country became the [[Growth of photovoltaics|world's leading installer of photovoltaics]] in 2013. China surpassed Germany as the world's largest producer of photovoltaic energy in 2015,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Rose|first=Adam|date=21 January 2016|title=China's solar capacity overtakes Germany in 2015, industry data show|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/china-solar-idUSL3N15533U|access-date=6 June 2021|archive-date=8 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708045939/https://www.reuters.com/article/china-solar-idUSL3N15533U|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":82">{{Cite web|last=Hill|first=Joshua S.|date=22 January 2016|title=China Overtakes Germany To Become World's Leading Solar PV Country|url=https://cleantechnica.com/2016/01/22/china-overtakes-germany-become-worlds-leading-solar-pv-country/|access-date=16 May 2021|website=CleanTechnica|language=en-US|archive-date=15 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615040834/https://cleantechnica.com/2016/01/22/china-overtakes-germany-become-worlds-leading-solar-pv-country/|url-status=live}}</ref> and became the first country to have over 100 GW of total installed photovoltaic capacity in 2017.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|date=24 August 2017|title=China has already surpassed its 2020 solar target|url=https://unearthed.greenpeace.org/2017/08/25/china-raises-solar-power-target/|access-date=15 May 2021|website=Unearthed|language=en-GB|archive-date=10 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171210015953/https://unearthed.greenpeace.org/2017/08/25/china-raises-solar-power-target/|url-status=live}}</ref> As of at least 2024, Chinese firms are the industry leaders in almost all of the key parts of the solar industry supply chain, including polysilicon, silicon wafers, batteries, and photovoltaic modules. As of at least 2024, China has one third of the world's installed solar panel capacity. Most of China's solar power is generated within its western provinces and is transferred to other regions of the country. In 2011, China owned the largest solar power plant in the world at the time, the [[Huanghe Hydropower Golmud Solar Park]], which had a photovoltaic capacity of 200 MW. In 2018, it held the record again with the [[Tengger Desert Solar Park]] with its photovoltaic capacity of 1.5 GW. China currently owns the second-largest solar plant in the world, the Huanghe Hydropower Hainan Solar Park, which has a capacity of 2.2 GW.<ref name=":102">{{Cite web|date=2 October 2020|title=China completes world's second-largest solar power plant|url=https://balkangreenenergynews.com/china-completes-worlds-second-largest-solar-power-plant/|access-date=6 June 2021|website=Balkan Green Energy News|language=en-US|archive-date=6 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606023237/https://balkangreenenergynews.com/china-completes-worlds-second-largest-solar-power-plant/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2023, China completed the world's largest hydro-solar power plant in Sichuan, which utilises the consistency in hydropower production to offset the variability in solar power.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-06-26 |title=World's largest solar-hydro plant creates power on Tibetan Plateau |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3225408/china-worlds-largest-hybrid-solar-hydro-plant-produces-electricity-tibetan-plateau |access-date=2023-06-27 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en |archive-date=27 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627105301/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3225408/china-worlds-largest-hybrid-solar-hydro-plant-produces-electricity-tibetan-plateau |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Dua |first=Shubhangi |date=2023-06-26 |title=World's largest hydro-solar power plant enters full operation in China |url=https://interestingengineering.com/science/kela-pv-hydro-solar-power-plant-enters-full-operation-in-china |access-date=2023-06-27 |website=interestingengineering.com |language=en-US |archive-date=27 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627082006/https://interestingengineering.com/science/kela-pv-hydro-solar-power-plant-enters-full-operation-in-china |url-status=live }}</ref> Solar power contributes to a small portion of China's total energy use, accounting for 3.5% of China's total energy capacity in 2020.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|last=Shukla|first=Harsh|date=21 January 2021|title=China Adds 48.2 GW of Solar Capacity in 2020, its Second Best Year on Record|url=https://mercomindia.com/china-adds-solar-capacity-2020/|access-date=6 June 2021|website=Mercom India|language=en-US|archive-date=21 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121105022/https://mercomindia.com/china-adds-solar-capacity-2020/|url-status=live}}</ref> Chinese President [[Xi Jinping]] announced at the 2020 Climate Ambition Summit that China plans to have 1,200 GW of combined solar and wind energy capacity by 2030.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|date=15 December 2020|title=China's new 2030 climate commitments: Beyond peak emissions|url=https://ihsmarkit.com/research-analysis/chinas-updated-2030-climate-targets-beyond-carbon-peak.html|access-date=6 June 2021|website=IHS Markit|archive-date=8 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108072945/https://ihsmarkit.com/research-analysis/chinas-updated-2030-climate-targets-beyond-carbon-peak.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Solar water heating]] is also extensively implemented, with a total installed capacity of 290 [[gigawatt thermal|GWth]] at the end of 2014, representing about 70% of world's total installed solar thermal capacity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=chinas-big-push-for-renewable-energy|title=China's Big Push for Renewable Energy|access-date=9 August 2008|archive-date=27 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200427192532/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/chinas-big-push-for-renewable-energy/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="SHC-IEA_2014" /> The expansion of the solar sector in China has been criticized due to the large quantities of waste being produced and improperly disposed of from the production of photovoltaic cells.<ref name=":142">{{Cite news|last=Cha|first=Ariana|date=9 March 2008|title=Solar Energy Firms Leave Waste Behind in China|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/03/08/AR2008030802595_pf.html|access-date=5 June 2021|archive-date=1 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001182211/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/03/08/AR2008030802595_pf.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Criticism over large amounts of unused energy being produced has appeared along with criticism over the forced removal of native populations for development land and the usage of [[Xinjiang internment camps|forced labor]] in the production of photovoltaic cells.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|last=Baker|first=Jill|title=Solar Leader China Is Slashing Its Subsidies On Solar Power -- What You Need To Know|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jillbaker/2018/06/18/solar-leader-china-is-slashing-its-subsidies-on-solar-power-what-you-need-to-know/|access-date=16 May 2021|website=Forbes|language=en|archive-date=27 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427221627/https://www.forbes.com/sites/jillbaker/2018/06/18/solar-leader-china-is-slashing-its-subsidies-on-solar-power-what-you-need-to-know/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":172">{{Cite book|last=Li|first=Yifei |title=China goes green: coercive environmentalism for a troubled planet|date=2020|others=Judith Shapiro|isbn=978-1-5095-4311-3|location=Cambridge, UK|oclc=1137747668}}</ref><ref name=":132">{{Cite journal|title=A Dark Spot for the Solar Energy Industry: Forced Labor in Xinjiang|url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/dark-spot-solar-energy-industry-forced-labor-xinjiang|access-date=16 May 2021|website=csis.org|date=19 April 2021 |language=en|archive-date=16 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516053426/https://www.csis.org/analysis/dark-spot-solar-energy-industry-forced-labor-xinjiang|url-status=live|last1=Reinsch |first1=William Alan |last2=Arrieta-Kenna |first2=Seán }}</ref> As of at least 2023, solar power is cheaper than coal-fired power in China.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Li |first=David Daokui |title=China's World View: Demystifying China to Prevent Global Conflict |date=2024 |publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] |isbn=978-0393292398 |location=New York, NY |author-link=David Daokui Li}}</ref>{{Rp|page=167}} By the first quarter of 2024, the momentum continued with China installing 45.7 gigawatts of photovoltaic panels, a 34% increase from the previous year. This reflects ongoing growth, although the increase was less than the 154% surge seen in early 2023, showing some variability in expansion rates.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-04-22 |title=China's Rapid Solar Growth Slows as Grid Struggles to Keep Pace |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-04-22/china-s-rapid-solar-growth-slows-as-grid-struggles-to-keep-pace |access-date=2024-04-23 |work=Bloomberg.com |language=en}}</ref> In 2024, China added 277 gigawatts (GW) of solar power, contributing 15% of the world's newly installed solar capacity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 January 2025 |title=Infographic: China's solar capacity growth sets new record in 2024 |url=https://www.spglobal.com/commodity-insights/en/news-research/latest-news/012425-infographic-china-solar-capacity-coal-electricity-renewable-energy-hydro-wind |access-date=22 February 2025 |website=S&P Global}}</ref> ==History== Photovoltaic research in China began in 1958 with the development of China's first piece of [[monocrystalline silicon]]. Research continued with the development of solar cells for space satellites in 1968. The Institute of Semiconductors of the [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]] led this research for a year, stopping after batteries failed to operate. Other research institutions continued the development and research of solar cells for [[Dong Fang Hong 2|Dongfanghong satellites]]. In 1975, domestic solar cell production began with factories in Ningbo and Kaifeng. These cells were produced in a similar fashion to the satellite cells of the past.<ref name=":42"/> Annual solar capacity installations were still low, as only 0.5&nbsp;kW of photovoltaic capacity was installed. This increased to 8&nbsp;kW in 1980, 70&nbsp;kW in 1985, 500&nbsp;kW in 1990, and 1550&nbsp;kW in 1995.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Junfeng|first=Li|title=2007 China Solar PV Report|publisher=[[China Environmental Science Press]]|year=2007}}</ref> China's [[Sixth five-year plan|Sixth Five-Year Plan]] (1981-1985) was the first to address government [[Energy policy of China|policy support]] for solar PV panel manufacturing.<ref name=":324">{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Joanna I. |title=Cooperating for the Climate: Learning from International Partnerships in China's Clean Energy Sector |journal=International Relations of the Asia-Pacific |date=2023 |volume=24 |pages=175–178 |publisher=The [[MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-54482-5 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |doi=10.1093/irap/lcad008}}</ref>{{Rp|page=34}} Policy support for solar panel manufacturing has been a part of every [[Five-year plans of China|Five-Year Plan]] since.<ref name=":324" />{{Rp|page=34}} In the early 1990s, [[Tsinghua University]] scientists developed a new type of [[Solar thermal collector#Evacuated tube collectors|evacuated tube]] solar water heater design.<ref name=":122">{{Cite book |last=Harrell |first=Stevan |title=An Ecological History of Modern China |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |year=2023 |isbn=9780295751719 |location=Seattle}}</ref>{{Rp|page=409}} These units became ubiquitous in rural China during the early 2000s. By 2014, China had more than 85 million solar water heaters, primarily operating in rural households.<ref name=":122" />{{Rp|page=409}} In 1998, demonstration projects for solar energy production began to appear, starting with a 3W polysilicon battery and applications for the energy. [[Yingli]] became one of the first producers of this new solar energy. However, annual capacity did not increase much until 2002 when a 10 MW solar cell production line was put into operation by [[Suntech Power]].<ref name=":42"/> That year, a program aimed to install more solar and wind energy in Tibet, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, and Sichuan was introduced by the National Development and Planning Commission. This spurred solar cell production and annual installations skyrocketed from 3.3 MW in 2000 to 20.3 MW in 2002. Photovoltaic cell production expanded in the following years, with 140 MW manufactured in 2005. Only 5 MW of solar energy was installed in China that year, however, as most of the manufactured photovoltaic cells were sold to European countries, with Germany being the largest buyer. China's annual solar energy installations grew to 10 MW installed in 2006, increasing China's total installed solar energy capacity to 80 MW.<ref name=":5" /> Annual solar energy installations continued to grow, with 20 MW of capacity installed in 2007 and 40 MW installed in 2008. After Suntech's listing on the [[New York Stock Exchange]] in 2005, founder [[Shi Zhengrong]] became the richest person in China.<ref name=":622" />{{Rp|page=144}} Academic Lan Xiaohuan writes that Shi's wealth following the listing "acted as a strong demonstration effect and local governments across China soon began to invest in the solar industry."<ref name=":622" />{{Rp|page=144}} In 2007, the [[National Development and Reform Commission]] planned to have China's solar capacity increase to 1,800 MW by 2020. However, according to Wang Zhongying, the head of the National Development and Reform Commission's renewable energy development, stated that China would far exceed this goal, predicting that at least 10 GW can be installed by 2020, with 20 GW of installed capacity within the realm of possibility. Despite these predictions, solar energy accounted for only a small fraction of China's total installed energy in 2008.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Wong|first=Rujun Shen, Jacqueline|date=5 May 2009|title=CORRECTED - CORRECTED-China solar set to be 5 times 2020 target-researcher|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/china-solar-idAFPEK12384620090505|access-date=6 June 2021|archive-date=8 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508113944/http://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idAFPEK12384620090505|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[2007–2008 financial crisis|global financial crisis of 2007-2008]] prompted significant stimulus efforts by China to invigorate its then-struggling solar industry.<ref name=":324" />{{Rp|page=34}} Policy tools to stimulate growth in the industry included inexpensive land, tax incentives, and subsidized loans.<ref name=":622" />{{Rp|page=144}} [[File:Dunhuang.champs.de.panneaux.solaires.jpg|right|thumb|A part of [[Gansu Dunhuang Solar Park]]（10MW， Solar PV）]] In 2011, feed-in-tariffs for solar power projects completed before a certain deadline were introduced. These feed-in tariffs were extremely successful at expanding China's solar power sector, largely exceeding the Chinese government's expectations for growth.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Sun shines on development of power sector |department=Industries |newspaper=China Daily |url=http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2012-07/03/content_15545080.htm |access-date=16 May 2021 |archive-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725034325/http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2012-07/03/content_15545080.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The Huanghe Hydropower Golmud Solar Park was also completed in 2011 in [[Golmud]], a county-level city in [[Qinghai|Qinghai province]].<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=3 November 2011|title=China PV plant largest in the world|url=http://www.accendo.ro/news/res/74-golmud-solar-park|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405034226/http://www.accendo.ro/news/res/74-golmud-solar-park|archive-date=5 April 2012|access-date=5 June 2021}}</ref> The solar park contains 200 MW of installed photovoltaic capacity and was the largest individual solar plant in the world on its completion.<ref>{{Cite web|date=7 June 2012|title=Golmud 200MW PV Station Won China Quality Power Project Award|url=http://eng.cpicorp.com.cn/NewsCenter/CorporateNews/201206/t20120607_200313.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725025143/http://eng.cpicorp.com.cn/NewsCenter/CorporateNews/201206/t20120607_200313.htm|archive-date=25 July 2012|access-date=5 June 2021}}</ref> Other solar parks such as the 20 MW [[Qinghai Golmud Solar Park]] were also installed in Golmud, with 570 MW of capacity installed in total at the end of 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|date=11 November 2011|title=Astroenergy completes 20 MW Golmud solar project in China|url=http://www.renewbl.com/2011/11/11/astronergy-completes-20-mw-golmud-solar-project-in-china.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405022737/http://www.renewbl.com/2011/11/11/astronergy-completes-20-mw-golmud-solar-project-in-china.html|archive-date=5 April 2012|access-date=5 June 2021|website=}}</ref> The Chinese PV production system faced severe external shocks since 2010. A sharp recession in the global demand due to institutional alterations in the German market in 2010, followed by [[Dumping (pricing policy)|anti-dumping duties]] and anti-subsidy countervailing duties on Chinese PV products enforced in both USA and EU.<ref name="Shubbak2019">{{cite journal |last1=Shubbak |first1=Mahmood H. |title=The technological system of production and innovation: The case of photovoltaic technology in China |journal=Research Policy |date=May 2019 |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=993–1015 |doi=10.1016/j.respol.2018.10.003 |s2cid=158742469 |url=https://media.suub.uni-bremen.de/handle/elib/4421 |access-date=25 June 2021 |archive-date=1 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001234802/https://media.suub.uni-bremen.de/handle/elib/4421 |url-status=live }}</ref> Chinese PV manufacturers, which were already running at full capacity, faced a difficult situation in 2011 and 2012 with huge financial losses that led to the bankruptcy of some important companies, such as [[Suntech Power]] in 2013 which defaulted on $541&nbsp;million of convertible bonds.<ref name="Shubbak2019" /> To rescue the huge PV industry with its large labor market and assets, a comprehensive set of policies was introduced by the Chinese government mainly to stimulate the domestic market. Accordingly, the annual installed capacity in China experienced notable growth since 2011. This growth was mainly due to the construction of several PV power plants around the country. In May&nbsp;2011, the [[National People's Congress]] (NPC) revised the solar target again, setting 5&nbsp;GW as an official minimum PV target for 2015, with a longer-term target of 20–30&nbsp;GW by 2020.<ref name="epia-2011">{{cite web|url=http://www.epia.org/publications/archives/archives-publications.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100731073558/http://www.epia.org/publications/archives/archives-publications.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=31 July 2010|title=Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics until 2015|date=May 2011|publisher=European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA)|page=39|access-date=10 March 2012}}</ref> According to a 2012 forecast by the European Photovoltaic Industry Association, the total installed capacity was predicted to reach between 47&nbsp;GW and 66&nbsp;GW by 2017.<ref name="epia-2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.epia.org/news/publications/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121203185136/http://www.epia.org/news/publications/|archive-date=3 December 2012|title=Publications - European Photovoltaic Industry Association|date=3 December 2012}}</ref>{{rp|35}} Beginning in 2013, China's domestic demand for the solar industry rapidly increase.<ref name=":622" />{{Rp|page=150}} In 2014, the National Development and Reform Commission increased the solar capacity target to 70 GW by 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|title=China Targets 70 Gigawatts of Solar Power to Cut Coal Reliance|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-05-16/china-targets-70-gigawatts-of-solar-power-to-cut-coal-reliance|url-status=live|access-date=6 June 2021|newspaper=Bloomberg|date=16 May 2014 |archive-date=27 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627092723/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-05-16/china-targets-70-gigawatts-of-solar-power-to-cut-coal-reliance}}</ref> The National Energy Administration also announced plans to install 100 GW of solar power along with other renewable energy sources and nuclear energy by 2020 in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|date=14 October 2014|title=China Plans to Install 200GW of Wind and 100GW of Solar Power by 2020|url=http://pv.energytrend.com/news/20141014-7578.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017173002/http://pv.energytrend.com/news/20141014-7578.html|archive-date=17 October 2014|access-date=5 June 2021|website=pv.energytrend.com}}</ref> However, market analysts expected for 110 GW to be installed by 2018 and that by 2020, more solar energy could be installed than planned.<ref name=":72">{{Cite web|last=SolarPower Europe|title=Global Market Outlook for Solar Power 2017-2021|url=https://resources.solarbusinesshub.com/solar-industry-reports/item/global-market-outlook-2017-2021|access-date=6 June 2021|website=Solar Business Hub|department=Resources|language=en-gb|archive-date=6 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606023245/https://resources.solarbusinesshub.com/solar-industry-reports/item/global-market-outlook-2017-2021|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015, the solar capacity target was initially planned to be 15 GW but was increased in March 2015 by the [[National Development and Reform Commission|National Energy Administration]] to 17.8 GW of installed solar capacity for the year.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ayre|first=James|date=19 March 2015|title=China's National Energy Administration: 17.8 GW Of New Solar PV In 2015 (~20% Increase)|url=https://cleantechnica.com/2015/03/19/chinas-national-energy-administration-17-8-gw-new-solar-pv-2015/|access-date=6 June 2021|website=CleanTechnica|language=en-US|archive-date=30 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171230230416/https://cleantechnica.com/2015/03/19/chinas-national-energy-administration-17-8-gw-new-solar-pv-2015/|url-status=live}}</ref> This target was increased again to 23.1 GW in October, a very ambitious goal considering that the annual solar energy installations for the entire world in 2010 were less than 20 GW.<ref name=":72" /> Despite these ambitious goals, China only 7.73 GW of solar energy in the first half of 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|title=China again lifts 2015 solar target, now aims at 23.1 GW|url=https://renewablesnow.com/news/china-again-lifts-2015-solar-target-now-aims-at-23-1-gw-496550/|access-date=6 June 2021|website=Renewablesnow.com|language=en|archive-date=7 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210707030317/https://renewablesnow.com/news/china-again-lifts-2015-solar-target-now-aims-at-23-1-gw-496550/|url-status=live}}</ref> By the end of 2015, China installed 15.1 GW of solar energy, failing to meet both of the raised goals, but meeting the original goal.<ref name=":72" /> The plan for annual solar capacity for 2020 was also increased in October 2015 to 150 GW.<ref>{{Cite web|title=China boosts 2020 solar target to 150 GW|url=https://renewablesnow.com/news/china-boosts-2020-solar-target-to-150-gw-497270/|access-date=6 June 2021|website=Renewablesnow.com|language=en|archive-date=7 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210707030325/https://renewablesnow.com/news/china-boosts-2020-solar-target-to-150-gw-497270/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Panda Solar Station SkySat.jpg|thumb|left|A 50 MW photovoltaic solar power station built in Shanxi Province in 2017]] In 2016, China added 34.5 GW of solar energy.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|date=15 June 2020|title=Global Market Outlook 2020-2024|url=https://www.solarpowereurope.org/global-market-outlook-2020-2024/|access-date=15 May 2021|website=SolarPower Europe|language=en-US|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421180134/https://www.solarpowereurope.org/global-market-outlook-2020-2024/|url-status=live}}</ref> The first 105 GW solar capacity by 2020 goal set by Chinese authorities was met in July 2017. In the first nine months of 2017, China saw 43 GW of solar energy installed in the first nine months of the year and saw a total of 52.8 GW of solar energy installed for the entire year.<ref name=":9"/> 2017 is currently the year with the largest addition of solar energy capacity in China. China's total photovoltaic energy capacity at the end of 2017 was 130 GW, surpassing Germany as the world's largest producer of solar energy.<ref>{{Cite web|date=19 March 2018|title=2017 PV installations utility and distributed by province|url=https://chinaenergyportal.org/2017-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|access-date=6 June 2021|website=China Energy Portal|language=en|archive-date=6 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606033214/https://chinaenergyportal.org/2017-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2018, China saw a decrease in annual solar energy, dropping down to 44.4 GW. In 2019, annual solar energy installation further dropped to 30.1 GW, even lower than the installations made in 2016.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web|date=2020-06-15|title=Global Market Outlook 2020-2024|url=https://www.solarpowereurope.org/global-market-outlook-2020-2024/|access-date=2021-05-15|website=SolarPower Europe|language=en-US|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421180134/https://www.solarpowereurope.org/global-market-outlook-2020-2024/|url-status=live}}</ref> This decline in growth is attributed to the Chinese government restructuring government incentives to start solar energy projects in May 2018. Despite this decline in growth, China remained the largest market for solar energy with 205 GW total installed capacity in 2019, which was almost as much as the total installed capacity in the European Union (132 GW) and the United States (76 GW) combined.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web|title=Snapshot 2020|url=https://iea-pvps.org/snapshot-reports/snapshot-2020/|access-date=16 May 2021|website=IEA-PVPS|language=en-US|archive-date=11 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210111031649/https://iea-pvps.org/snapshot-reports/snapshot-2020/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, from all of the total energy produced by China in 2019, only 3.9% of that energy was produced by solar energy. This was lower than the percent energy production from solar power of the European Union (4.9%) but greater than the percent share in the United States (2.8%).<ref name=":13" /> In 2020, China saw an increase in annual solar energy installations with 48.4 GW of solar energy capacity being added, accounting for 3.5% of China's energy capacity that year. 2020 is currently the year with the second-largest addition of solar energy capacity in China's history. Combined with wind energy, almost 10% of China's energy came from non-hydroelectric renewable power in 2020.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web|date=19 April 2021|title=China targets 11% solar and wind in power mix in 2021|url=https://www.pv-tech.org/china-targets-11-solar-and-wind-in-power-mix-in-2021/|access-date=16 May 2021|website=PV Tech|language=en-US|archive-date=16 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516100152/https://www.pv-tech.org/china-targets-11-solar-and-wind-in-power-mix-in-2021/|url-status=live}}</ref> China's total photovoltaic energy capacity at the end of 2020 was 252.5 GW.<ref name=":11"/> China has stated that it aims to increase the energy share of solar and wind energy to 11% by the end of 2021. Renewable energy subsidies for 2021 for increased, with subsidies for solar power having increased more than subsidies for wind energy.<ref name=":23" /> The Huanghe Hydropower Hainan Solar Park was also completed in 2020 in Hainan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Qinghai Province. The solar park has an installed capacity of 2.2 GW, making it the second-largest solar plant in the world as of 2021, behind the [[Bhadla Solar Park]] in India. The solar plant is connected to the world's first ultra-high voltage power line which gets all of its power from renewable energy and is capable of transferring power over 1000&nbsp;km. The solar plant is planned to expand to a photovoltaic capacity of 10 GW.<ref name=":102"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Huawei Smart PV Solution Highlights Role In World's Largest PV Plant - Saur Energy International|url=https://www.saurenergy.com/solar-energy-news/huawei-smart-pv-solution-highlights-role-in-worlds-largest-pv-plant|access-date=6 June 2021|website=saurenergy.com|archive-date=2 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302194835/https://www.saurenergy.com/solar-energy-news/huawei-smart-pv-solution-highlights-role-in-worlds-largest-pv-plant|url-status=live}}</ref> At the Climate Ambition Summit in 2020, Xi Jinping announced that China planned to have 1,200 GW of solar and wind energy capacity by 2030.<ref name=":12"/> Between first 6 months of 2022, China built nearly 31GW of new solar power capacity, which up 137% compared to a years before. It expected the full-year installations would hit a record high.<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 July 2022 |title=China solar installations more than double in first half - assn |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/china-solar-installations-more-than-double-first-half-assn-2022-07-21/ |access-date=23 July 2022 |archive-date=24 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124090924/https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/china-solar-installations-more-than-double-first-half-assn-2022-07-21/ |url-status=live }}</ref> China added a total of 87.41 GW of solar in 2022, up 62% from the year before.<ref name=scmp2022>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-18 |title=China adds record solar power capacity as it cuts back on fossil fuels |url=https://www.scmp.com/business/article/3207250/climate-change-china-sets-another-solar-power-installation-record-while-putting-brakes-fossil-fuel |access-date=2023-01-24 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en |archive-date=30 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130204808/https://www.scmp.com/business/article/3207250/climate-change-china-sets-another-solar-power-installation-record-while-putting-brakes-fossil-fuel |url-status=live }}</ref> Because solar works well as a distributed power source, recent Chinese policies have focused on increasing the prevalence of distributed solar energy and for developing systems so that electricity from solar energy can be used at its point of generation instead of transmitted over long distances.<ref name=":324" />{{Rp|page=34}} In June 2024, China activated the world's largest solar power facility, a 3.5-gigawatt (GW) installation in [[Ürümqi|Urumqi]], [[Xinjiang]]. Built by [[Power Construction Corporation of China]], this plant produces around 6.09 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity annually.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Howe |first=Colleen |date=June 7, 2024 |title=World's biggest solar farm comes online in China's Xinjiang |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/china/worlds-biggest-solar-farm-comes-online-chinas-xinjiang-2024-06-03/ |access-date=26 June 2024 |work=www.reuters.com}}</ref> Although in some countries there are aesthetic objections to large-scale solar farms, in China they are often perceived as an aesthetic positive due to their associations with modernity and green development.<ref name=":023">{{Cite book |last1=Bachulska |first1=Alicja |url=https://ecfr.eu/publication/idea-of-china/ |title=The Idea of China: Chinese Thinkers on Power, Progress, and People |last2=Leonard |first2=Mark |last3=Oertel |first3=Janka |date=2 July 2024 |publisher=[[European Council on Foreign Relations]] |isbn=978-1-916682-42-9 |location=Berlin, Germany |pages= |format=EPUB |access-date=22 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717120845/https://ecfr.eu/publication/idea-of-china/ |archive-date=17 July 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Rp|page=119}} China plans to reduce subsidies for renewable energy projects after a surge in solar and wind power capacity. New projects will face market-based pricing from June 2025, potentially impacting on the solar industry due to overcapacity and lower prices.<ref>{{cite news|title=China to roll back clean power subsidies after boom |date=9 February 2025 | work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/china-roll-back-clean-power-subsidies-after-boom-2025-02-09/|access-date=9 January 2025}}</ref> ==Solar resources== [[File:China GHI Solar-resource-map GlobalSolarAtlas World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Global Horizontal Irradiation in China.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globalsolaratlas.info/|title=Global Solar Atlas|access-date=7 December 2018|archive-date=27 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127131800/https://globalsolaratlas.info/|url-status=live}}</ref>]] A July 2019 report found that local air pollution ([[black carbon]] and sulfur dioxide) has decreased the available solar energy that can be harnessed today by up to 15% compared to the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inverse.com/article/58347-solar-energy-china-s-panels-reveal-a-big-issue|title=China's Pollution-Hampered Solar Panels Reveal a Big Issue|last1=Brown|first1=Mike|website=Inverse|date=6 August 2019 |language=en|access-date=6 August 2019|archive-date=6 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190806211713/https://www.inverse.com/article/58347-solar-energy-china-s-panels-reveal-a-big-issue|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Solar photovoltaics== {| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center; width: 320px; margin-right: 16px;" |+Photovoltaics |- !style="background:Yellow;"|Year!!style="background:Yellow;"|Capacity (MW)!!style="background:Yellow;"|Installed/yr |- |1999||16|| |- |2000||19||3 |- |2001||23.5||4.5 |- |2002||42||8.5 |- |2003||52||10 |- |2004||62||10 |- |2005||70||8 |- |2006||80||10 |- |2007||100||20 |- |2008||140||40 |- |2009||300||160 |- |2010||800||500 |- |2011||3,300||2,500 |- |2012||4,198||898 |- |2013||16,137||12,119 |- |2014||28,050||11,733 |- |2015||43,180||15,130 |- |2016||77,420||34,240 |- |2017||130,200||52,780 |- |2018||174,460||44,260 |- |2019||204,680||30,220 |- |2020||253,430||48,750 |- |2021||306,560||53,130 |- |2022 |392,610 |87,410 |- |2023 |609,490 |216,880 |- |2024 |886,660 |277,170 |- ! colspan="3" style="font-weight: normal; font-size: 0.85em; text-align: left; padding: 6px 2px 4px 4px;" |Sources: IEA for years up to and incl 2011;<ref name="iea">{{cite web|url=http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=1&eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=1236|title=National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in China 2011|access-date=20 August 2012|archive-date=1 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301103418/http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=1&eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=1236|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="iea-pvps-snapshot-1992-2014">{{cite web |url=http://www.iea-pvps.org/fileadmin/dam/public/report/technical/PVPS_report_-_A_Snapshot_of_Global_PV_-_1992-2014.pdf |title=Snapshot of Global PV 1992-2014 |publisher=International Energy Agency – Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme |date=30 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150407023056/http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=92&eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=2430 |archive-date=7 April 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> China National Energy Administration for data from 2012 onwards<ref>{{cite web|title = 2012 & 2013 distributed and utility PV installations by province (Original title:2013年光伏发电统计数据)|date = 28 April 2014|url = https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2012-2013-distributed-utility-pv-installations-province/|access-date = 8 February 2020|archive-date = 6 June 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210606112928/https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2012-2013-distributed-utility-pv-installations-province/|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = 2014 distributed and utility PV installations by province (Original title:2014年光伏发电统计数据)|date = 9 March 2015|url = https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2014-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|access-date = 8 February 2020|archive-date = 7 June 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210607023355/https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2014-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = 2015 distributed and utility PV installations by province (Original title:2015年光伏发电统计数据)|date = 5 February 2016|url = https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2015-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|access-date = 8 February 2020|archive-date = 7 June 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210607021834/https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2015-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = 2016 distributed and utility PV installations by province (Original title:2016年光伏发电统计数据)|date = 4 February 2017|url = https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2016-pv-installations-utility-distributed-province/|access-date = 8 February 2020|archive-date = 6 June 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210606040255/https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2016-pv-installations-utility-distributed-province/|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = 2017 distributed and utility P installations by province (Original title:2017年光伏发电统计数据)|date = 19 March 2018|url = https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2017-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|access-date = 8 February 2020|archive-date = 6 June 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210606033223/https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2017-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = 2018 distributed and utility PV installations by province (Original title:2018年光伏发电统计数据)|date = 19 March 2019|url = https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2018-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|access-date = 8 February 2020|archive-date = 7 November 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201107231127/https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2018-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = 2019 electricity & other energy statistics (preliminary) (Original title: 2019年电力统计年快报基本数据一览表)|url = https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2019-electricity-other-energy-statistics-preliminary/|access-date = 24 January 2018|archive-date = 1 November 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201101072817/https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2019-electricity-other-energy-statistics-preliminary/|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2021-electricity-other-energy-statistics-preliminary/|title=2021 electricity & other energy statistics (preliminary)|website=Chinaenergyportal.org|date=27 January 2022|access-date=19 February 2022|archive-date=18 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220318112509/https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2021-electricity-other-energy-statistics-preliminary/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Xu |first=Muyu |date=2023-02-16 |title=China solar power capacity could post record growth in 2023 |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-solar-power-capacity-could-post-record-growth-2023-2023-02-16/ |access-date=2023-08-29 |archive-date=29 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829145439/https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-solar-power-capacity-could-post-record-growth-2023-2023-02-16/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = China hits 277.17 GW of new PV installations in 2024|date = 21 January 2025|url = https://www.pv-magazine.com/2025/01/21/china-hits-277-17-gw-of-new-pv-installations-in-2024/|access-date = 22 January 2025 |url-status = live}}</ref> |} As of at least 2024, China has one third of the world's installed solar panel capacity and is the largest domestic market for solar panels.<ref name=":622" />{{Rp|page=143}} === Solar PV by province === A large part of the solar power capacity installed in China is in the form of large PV power plants in the west of the country, an area much less populated than the eastern part but with better solar resources and available land. {| style="text-align: right" class="wikitable sortable" |+Installed solar PV capacity in MW by province<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnenergy.org/yw/201702/t20170206_411688.html|title=能源局：2016年光伏发电累计装机容量7742万千瓦 - 中国能源网|website=cnenergy.org|access-date=15 April 2017|archive-date=15 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170415202650/http://www.cnenergy.org/yw/201702/t20170206_411688.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Chinaenergyportal 2017 update">{{cite web|url=https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2018-q12-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|title=2018 Q1&2 PV installations utility and distributed by province; Original Title: 2018年上半年光伏建设运行情况|work=National Energy Administration, translation via chinaenergyportal.org|date=3 August 2018|access-date=3 March 2019|archive-date=6 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306045043/https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2018-q12-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Chinaenergyportal 2018 update">{{cite web|url=https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2018-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|title=2018 PV installations utility and distributed by province; Original Title: 2018年年光伏建设运行情况|work=National Energy Administration, translation via chinaenergyportal.org|date=19 March 2019|access-date=22 March 2019|archive-date=7 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107231127/https://chinaenergyportal.org/en/2018-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=27 February 2020|title=2019 PV installations utility and distributed by province|url=https://chinaenergyportal.org/2019-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|access-date=6 January 2022|website=China Energy Portal {{!}} 中国能源门户|language=en|archive-date=24 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124084115/https://chinaenergyportal.org/2019-pv-installations-utility-and-distributed-by-province/|url-status=live}}</ref> |- ! Province !! end of 2015 !! end of 2016 !! end of 2017 !! end of 2018 !end of 2019 !end of 2020 |- | China total || 43,170 || 77,420 || 130,200 || 174,460 |204,300 |253,430 |- | [[Shandong]]|| 1,330 || 4,450 || 10,520 || 13,610 |16,190 |22,720 |- | [[Hebei]]|| 2,390 || 4,430 || 8,680 || 12,340 |14,740 |21,900 |- | [[Jiangsu]]|| 4,220 || 5,460 || 9,070 || 13,320 |14,860 |16,840 |- | [[Qinghai]]|| 5,640 || 6,820 || 7,910 || 9,560 |11,010 |16,010 |- | [[Zhejiang]]|| 1,640 || 3,380 || 8,410 || 11,380 |13,390 |15,170 |- | [[Anhui]]|| 1,210 || 3,450 || 8,880 || 11,180 |12,540 |13,700 |- | [[Shanxi]]|| 1,140 || 2,970 || 5,910 || 8,460 |10,880 |13,090 |- | [[Xinjiang]]|| 4,060 || 8,620 || 9,470 || 9,920 |10,410 |12,660 |- | [[Inner Mongolia]]|| 4,880 || 6,370 || 7,430 || 9,450 |10,810 |12,370 |- | [[Ningxia]]|| 3,080 || 5,260 || 6,200 || 8,160 |9,180 |11,970 |- | [[Henan]]|| 410 || 2,840 || 7,030 || 9,910 |10,540 |11,740 |- | [[Shaanxi]]|| 1,170 || 3,340|| 5,240 || 7,160 |9,390 |10,860 |- | [[Guizhou]]|| 30 || 460 || 1,370 || 1,780 |5,100 |10,570 |- | [[Gansu]]|| 6,100 || 6,860 || 7,840 || 8,280 |9,080 |9,650 |- | [[Jiangxi]]|| 440 || 2,280 || 4,500 || 5,360 |6,300 |7,760 |- | [[Hubei]] || 480|| 1,870 || 4,140 || 5,100 |6,210 |6,970 |- | [[Guangdong]] || 640 || 1,560 || 3,310 || 5,270 |6,100 |6,970 |- | [[Liaoning]]|| 170 || 520 || 2,230 || 3,020 |3,430 |4,000 |- | [[Hunan]]|| 290 || 300 || 1,760 || 2,920 |3,440 |3,910 |- | [[Yunnan]]|| 640 || 2,080 || 2,330 || 3,430 |3,750 |3,890 |- | [[Jilin]]|| 60 || 560 || 1,590 || 2,650 |2,740 |3,380 |- | [[Heilongjiang]]|| 20 || 170 || 940 || 2,150 |2,740 |3,180 |- | [[Guangxi]]|| 120 || 180 || 690 || 1,240 |1,350 |2,070 |- | [[Fujian]]|| 150 || 270 || 920 || 1,480 |1,690 |2,020 |- | [[Sichuan]]|| 370 || 960 || 1,340 || 1,810 |1,880 |1,910 |- | [[Tianjin]]|| 120|| 600 || 680 || 1,280 |1,430 |1,640 |- | [[Hainan]]|| 240 || 340 || 320 || 1,360 |1,400 |1,400 |- | Shanghai|| 200 || 350 || 580 || 890 |1,090 |1,370 |- | [[Tibet Autonomous Region]]|| 170 || 330 || 790 || 980 |1,100 |1,370 |- | [[Chongqing]]|| 5 || 5 || 130 || 430 |650 |630 |- | Beijing|| 160 || 240 || 250 || 400 |510 |610 |} === Solar PV by type === {| style="text-align: right" class="wikitable" |+PV installations by sector, 2018<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iea-pvps.org/?id=6|title=IEA-PVPS Annual Report 2018, 2019/07/15|access-date=7 September 2019|archive-date=11 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211155734/http://www.iea-pvps.org/?id=6|url-status=live}}</ref> !Sector !Annual MW !Cumulative MW |- | align="left" |Power Plant |23,300 |123,730 |- | align="left" |Distributed |20,960 |51,250 |- | align="left" |Off-grid | |360 |- | align="left" |'''''Total''''' |'''''44,260''''' |'''''175,340''''' |} In 2018 23,300 MW of utility scale power plant installations were added bring the cumulative total in this sector to 123,730 MW of power. Distributed installations rose by almost as much during 2018 at 20,960 MW bringing the cumulative total in the sector to 51,250 MW by year end 2018. Off-grid solar was the smallest component in 2018 with just 360 MW cumulatively installed. === Manufacturers === [[File:Largest Producers of Solar Cells by Country-Market Share.svg|thumb|Data on the world's largest solar PV producers, including China, Taiwan, US, Japan, and Germany]] {{see also|List of photovoltaics companies}} China has been the world's largest manufacturer of solar panels since 2008 and, since 2011, has produced the majority of global photovoltaics on an annualized basis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earth-policy.org/datacenter/xls/indicator12_2013_2.xlsx|title=Annual Solar Photovoltaics Production by Country, 1995-2012|publisher=Earth Policy Institute|date=31 July 2013|access-date=8 August 2014|archive-date=1 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001003610/http://www.earth-policy.org/datacenter/xls/indicator12_2013_2.xlsx|url-status=live}}</ref> Industry projections estimated that, by the end of 2017, China would have enough manufacturing capacity to produce 51 GW of PV modules per year, an amount over twice as large as 2010's global production of 24 GW.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earth-policy.org/datacenter/xls/highlights47_1.xlsx|title=Annual Solar Photovoltaics Module Production in China, 2007-2013, with Projection to 2017|publisher=Earth Policy Institute|date=8 July 2014|access-date=8 August 2014|archive-date=10 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810001231/http://www.earth-policy.org/datacenter/xls/highlights47_1.xlsx|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earth-policy.org/datacenter/xls/indicator12_2013_1.xlsx|title=World Solar Photovoltaics Production, 1975-2012|publisher=Earth Policy Institute|date=31 July 2013|access-date=8 August 2014|archive-date=1 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141001005025/http://www.earth-policy.org/datacenter/xls/indicator12_2013_1.xlsx|url-status=live}}</ref> The industry is dominated by several major manufacturers. They include [[CHINT Group Corporation]], [[JA Solar Holdings]], [[Jinniu Energy]], [[Suntech Power]], [[Yingli]], [[China Sunergy]] and [[Hanwha SolarOne]].<ref name="GCL-Poly Energy Holdings Limited">{{Cite web |url=http://www.gcl-poly.com.hk/eng/about/glance_key.php |title=About GCL-Poly |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110118003255/http://www.gcl-poly.com.hk/eng/about/glance_key.php |url-status=dead |publisher=GCL-Poly Energy Holdings Limited |archive-date=18 January 2011 |access-date=14 January 2023}}</ref><ref name="Solar Energy Booming in China">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldwatch.org/node/41|title=Solar Energy Booming in China|access-date=6 March 2010|archive-date=7 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607175656/http://www.worldwatch.org/node/41|url-status=live}}</ref> Large debt challenges several manufacturers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.digitimes.com/news/a20161223PD201.html |title=60% of China PV makers may be forced out in 2017, say reports |last1=Huang |first1=Nuying |date=23 December 2016 |publisher=DigiTimes |access-date=24 December 2016 |quote=domestic demand is not large enough to absorb the output |archive-date=24 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224155542/http://www.digitimes.com/news/a20161223PD201.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ==Concentrated solar power== [[File:50 MW molten-salt power tower in hami.jpg|thumb|The China Energy Engineering Corporation 50 MW Hami power tower has 8 hours of molten-salt storage]] ===Solar resource=== China has large potential for [[concentrated solar power]] (CSP), especially in the south-western part of the country.<ref name=wang2017>{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Jun|last2=Yang|first2=Song|last3=Jiang|first3=Chuan|last4=Zhang|first4=Yaoming|last5=Lund|first5=Peter D.|title=Status and future strategies for Concentrating Solar Power in China|journal=Energy Science & Engineering|date=April 2017|volume=5|issue=2|pages=100–109|doi=10.1002/ese3.154|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017EneSE...5..100W }}</ref> The highest daily mean values of [[direct normal radiation]] are found in the [[Qinghai-Tibet Plateau]] and [[Sichuan Basin]], at 9 kWh/m2. Most of northern and western China has daily average direct normal radiation over 5 kWh/m2, considered the limit for economical use of CSP.<ref name=wang2017/> Practical limitations for deployment of CSP include mountainous terrain and distance from energy load centers, mostly concentrated in the east.<ref name=wang2017/> ===Public policy=== The 12th five-year plan, for 2011 to 2015, called for the installation of 1,000&nbsp;MW by 2015, and 3,000&nbsp;MW of CSP plants by 2020. However, at the end of 2014, only several demonstration stations were operational in the country.<ref name=wang2017/> In the subsequent 13th five-year plan a demonstration batch for 20 CSP plants for 1.35 GW was launched, which aimed to bring latest international technologies to China and build a domestic CSP industry. Plants were located in different provinces and used several different routes, including parabolic trough, central receiver towers and a novel beam-down tower design.<ref name=Lilliestam2019>{{cite journal|last1=Lilliestam|first1=Johan|last2=Ollier|first2=Lana|last3=Pfenninger|first3=Stefan|title=The dragon awakens: Will China save or conquer concentrating solar power?|journal=AIP Conference Proceedings|series=SOLARPACES 2018: International Conference on Concentrating Solar Power and Chemical Energy Systems |date=July 2019|volume=2126 |issue=1 |page=130006 |doi= 10.1063/1.5117648|bibcode=2019AIPC.2126m0006L |doi-access=free}}</ref> The initially target for 2018 could not be met and deadlines were extended multiple times, and the initially planned second batch was canceled. At the end of 2021 the installed capacity stood at 550 MW.<ref name=Thonig2022>{{cite journal|last1=Thonig|first1=Richard|last2=Gilmanova|first2=Alina|last3=Zhan|first3=Jing| last4=Lilliestam|first4=Johan |title=Chinese CSP for the World?|journal=AIP Conference Proceedings|series=SOLARPACES 2020: 26th International Conference on Concentrating Solar Power and Chemical Energy Systems |date=May 2022|volume=2445 |issue=1 |page=050007 |doi=10.1063/5.0085752|bibcode=2022AIPC.2445e0007T |doi-access=}}</ref> Chinese industry has gained considerable experience in the molten-salt storage technology and operating results of the plants are promising and meet their design parameters.<ref>CNSTE,2021, SUPCON SOLAR Delingha 50MW Molten Salt Tower Concentrated Solar Power Plant Passed the Technical Assessment of Fichtner, http://en.cnste.org/html/csp/2021/0126/986.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921152033/http://en.cnste.org/html/csp/2021/0126/986.html |date=21 September 2022 }}</ref> In the current 14th five-year plan there is no federal support for CSP. However, several provinces including Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjian UAR and Jilin have announced CSP projects in the context of the storage and peak shaving legislation. Optimistic assessments suggest that several GW could be built in the next five years.<ref>Kraemer, 2022, China Announces Another 1.3 GW of CSP with 12,000 MWh of Thermal Storage, https://www.solarpaces.org/china-announces-another-1-3-gw-of-csp-with-12000-mwh-of-thermal-storage/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921152035/https://www.solarpaces.org/china-announces-another-1-3-gw-of-csp-with-12000-mwh-of-thermal-storage/ |date=21 September 2022 }}</ref> ==Solar water heating== {{multiple image |direction = horizontal |align = right |width1 = 300 |width2 = 225 |image1=Tieshan-solar-water-heaters-0101.jpg |image2=SolarGlobal2007V2.png |caption1=Rooftop solar water heaters are ubiquitous in China |caption2=New solar hot water installations during 2007, worldwide }} China is the leading country for [[solar water heating]] capacity in the world, with 290 [[GWth|GW<sub>th</sub>]] in operation at the end of 2014, accounting for about 70% of the total world capacity. In terms of capacity per unit of population, China comes 7th in the world with 213&nbsp;kW<sub>th</sub> per 1,000 people. Most of the installed capacity (92%) was [[Evacuated tube collector|evacuated tube]] water heaters.<ref name="SHC-IEA_2014">{{cite web|title=Solar Heat Worldwide 2014|url=http://www.iea-shc.org/data/sites/1/publications/Solar-Heat-Worldwide-2016.pdf|website=iea-shc.org|publisher=IEA Solar Heating & Cooling Programme|access-date=13 June 2016|archive-date=4 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104211321/http://www.iea-shc.org/data/sites/1/publications/Solar-Heat-Worldwide-2016.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> == Effects on the global solar power industry == {{See also|Growth of photovoltaics}}The growth of solar power industries worldwide has been rapidly accelerated by the growth of the solar market in China. Chinese-produced photovoltaic cells have made the construction of new solar power projects much cheaper than in previous years. Domestic solar projects have also been heavily subsidized by the Chinese government, allowing for China's solar energy capacity to dramatically soar. As a result, they have become the leading country for solar energy, passing Germany's capacity in 2015.<ref name=":82"/> As other countries from around the world look to switch to renewable energy sources, cheap options for solar and wind have become focal points of interest for investments.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Roberts|first=David|date=18 June 2019|title=The global transition to clean energy, explained in 12 charts|url=https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/6/18/18681591/renewable-energy-china-solar-pv-jobs|access-date=16 May 2021|website=Vox|language=en|archive-date=30 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210530234150/https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/6/18/18681591/renewable-energy-china-solar-pv-jobs|url-status=live}}</ref> China's mass production of cheap photovoltaic cells and wind energy have consequently spurred investments in Chinese products from around the world and expanded the construction of solar energy projects worldwide.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Klein|first=Naomi |title=This changes everything: capitalism vs. the climate|date=2014|isbn=978-1-4516-9738-4|publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York|page=91|oclc=881875853}}</ref> As of at least 2024, Chinese firms are the industry leaders in almost all of the key parts of the solar industry supply chain, including polysilicon, silicon wafers, batteries, and photovoltaic modules.<ref name=":622">{{Cite book |last=Lan |first=Xiaohuan |title=How China Works: An Introduction to China's State-led Economic Development |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2024 |isbn=978-981-97-0079-0 |translator-last=Topp |translator-first=Gary |doi=10.1007/978-981-97-0080-6}}</ref>{{Rp|page=143}} China's impact on economies of scale and technological development was an important contributor in the 85% drop in the price of photovoltaic modules from 2010-2020.<ref name=":622" />{{Rp|page=143}} ==Government incentives== The [[China Development Bank]] provided $20 billion of financing to domestic solar manufacturers in 2010.<ref name=":324" />{{Rp|page=1}} In 2011, new [[feed-in tariff]]s were promised to potential solar power developers to help drive investments and growth in the solar power market. The government of Qinghai province offered solar projects that were operational before 30 September, 1.15 yuan ($0.18) for each kWh they produced in May 2011. The National Development and Reform Commission offered same-priced subsidies to potential solar power project operators nationwide.<ref name=":62">{{Cite news |title=Sun shines on development of power sector |department=Industries |newspaper=China Daily |url=http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2012-07/03/content_15545080.htm |access-date=16 May 2021 |archive-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725034325/http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2012-07/03/content_15545080.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> These tariffs were not capped. Other subsidies, such as Top Runner and Poverty Alleviation programs, were used in conjunction with feed-in tariffs to help grow the solar power market immensely.<ref>{{Cite web|last=REN21|title=RENEWABLES 2019 GLOBAL STATUS REPORT|url=https://www.ren21.net/gsr-2019|access-date=16 May 2021|website=ren21.net|language=en|archive-date=5 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605142956/https://ren21.net/gsr-2019/|url-status=live}}</ref> These incentives were more successful in garnering attention and investment to the solar power sector than the Chinese government expected. Consequently, the Chinese government has struggled to keep up with these incentives. The government incentives have also contributed to the [[Curtailment (electricity)|curtailment]] of solar energy, as many of the solar projects have been built in northern and western regions of China where there is a low demand for electricity and a lack of infrastructure to transfer energy towards China's main power grid.<ref name=":32" /> In response to the growing problems of the rapidly expanding solar power market and the need to meet promised subsidies, the National Development and Reform Commission announced in May 2018 that solar power subsidies would be slashed and feed-in tariffs would be significantly reduced in favor of an auction-based system.<ref name=":32"/> In 2020, the [[Ministry of Finance of the People's Republic of China]] slashed the solar energy subsidy budget down to 1.5&nbsp;billion yuan ($233&nbsp;million) from 3&nbsp;billion yuan in 2019. With the auction-based system, companies are to submit subsidies bids for solar power construction projects to the [[National Energy Administration]]. Companies that do not partake in competitive bidding must instead accept a largely reduced amount of subsidies for projects that are already in operation while new projects do not receive any subsidies outside of auctions.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 March 2021|title=As China moves to cut subsidies, uncertainties mount for wind and solar firms|url=https://www.scmp.com/business/companies/article/3124106/china-moves-reduce-subsidy-load-uncertainties-mount-countrys|access-date=16 May 2021|website=South China Morning Post|language=en|archive-date=18 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618150820/https://www.scmp.com/business/companies/article/3124106/china-moves-reduce-subsidy-load-uncertainties-mount-countrys|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=12 March 2020|title=China to Slash Subsidies for Renewable Energy|url=http://www.sixthtone.com/news/1005309/china-to-slash-subsidies-for-renewable-energy|access-date=16 May 2021|website=Sixth Tone|language=en|archive-date=16 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516053422/http://www.sixthtone.com/news/1005309/china-to-slash-subsidies-for-renewable-energy|url-status=live}}</ref> The switch to the auction system and capping of subsidies was designed to alleviate costs of solar subsidies and is attributed to the decline of the growth of the Chinese solar market in 2018 and 2019.<ref name=":02"/> However, the auction system has made renewable energy in western provinces cheaper than thermal energy in some cases, with Qinghai observing periods of time in which all of its energy usage was supplied through renewable energy.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book|title=China 2049: economic challenges of a rising global power|date=2020 |editor=David Dollar |editor2=Yiping Huang |editor3=Yang Yao |isbn=978-0-8157-3806-0|location=Washington, DC|oclc=1135224565}}</ref> China's budget for renewable energy subsidies was increased to 6&nbsp;billion yuan for 2021, with solar power receiving 3.38&nbsp;billion yuan.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Daly|first=Muyu Xu, Tom|date=20 November 2020|title=UPDATE 2-China lifts renewable power subsidy for 2021 by nearly 5% y/y|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/china-renewables-subsidy-idUKL1N2I60PC|access-date=16 May 2021|archive-date=11 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611163927/https://www.reuters.com/article/china-renewables-subsidy-idUKL1N2I60PC|url-status=live}}</ref> These grants are set to be distributed to 14 provinces, with Inner Mongolia receiving the majority of the funding with 5.10&nbsp;billion yuan.<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 November 2020|title=China unveils boost for 2021 renewable subsidies, solar wins biggest share|url=https://www.pv-tech.org/china-unveils-boost-for-2021-renewable-subsidies-solar-wins-biggest-share/|access-date=16 May 2021|website=PV Tech|language=en-US|archive-date=16 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516054920/https://www.pv-tech.org/china-unveils-boost-for-2021-renewable-subsidies-solar-wins-biggest-share/|url-status=live}}</ref> ==Controversy== === Government incentives === The government subsidies for solar power energy projects have been considered "unsustainable" as the costs of subsidizing a rapidly growing industry are massive and some of China's struggles dealing with the costs have become visible. The renewable energy fund, which is paid by consumers, has a 100&nbsp;billion yuan deficit<ref name=":32"/> while tariff payments have occasionally been paid late.<ref>{{Cite news|date=21 June 2017|title=Future Energy: China leads world in solar power production|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-40341833|access-date=16 May 2021|archive-date=6 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606030342/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-40341833|url-status=live}}</ref> Government subsidies for solar power have also been attributed to over construction, as many solar power projects have been funded by the Chinese government but do not operate at full capacity due to the inability to transfer the full energy capacity from production sites.<ref name=":32" /> === Solar cell production pollution === Chinese green energy companies such as Luoyang Zhonggui High-Technology Co. in Henan have become large producers of [[Polycrystalline silicon|polysilicon]] in response to growing the demand for solar cells. However, polysilicon production produces [[silicon tetrachloride]] as a byproduct. Silicon tetrachloride is a poisonous material that can make soil infertile and harm humans if it is not disposed of properly. In developed countries, silicon tetrachloride is recycled and reprocessed, preventing the substance from entering the environment. However, special technology and large amounts of energy are required to reprocess silicon tetrachloride. Chinese green energy companies have not invested in recycling this byproduct, instead opting to lower production costs and dump waste into nearby residential areas. This lack of investment into environmental safety protocols has also been attributed to Chinese factories attempting to open much sooner than it would take normally.<ref name=":142"/> Some solar cells are also made with chemicals such as [[sulfuric acid]] and [[Phosphine|phosphine gas]] as well as metals such as lead, [[chromium]], and [[cadmium]]. These chemicals and metals are toxic to humans through contact and contamination of resources. While many developed countries that produce photovoltaic cells have properly disposed of or repurposed wasted solar cells, many Chinese firms have not adopted the practice recycling solar panels and waste. Non-hazardous materials have also been dumped instead of repurposed, further contributing to waste.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 July 2018|title=The Dark Side of China's Solar Boom|url=http://www.sixthtone.com/news/1002631/the-dark-side-of-chinas-solar-boom-|access-date=6 June 2021|website=Sixth Tone|language=en|archive-date=27 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427223333/http://www.sixthtone.com/news/1002631/the-dark-side-of-chinas-solar-boom-|url-status=live}}</ref> Various protests over solar cell production pollution have been staged. In Zhejiang province, protests over the destruction of fish habitats emerged in September 2011. Hundreds of villagers rioted in the Zhejiang Jinko Solar Co., Ltd. factory, which produces photovoltaic cells and wafers. The factory had previously failed pollution tests in April and that its waste control was inadequate despite warnings from the local environmental protection bureau. The protests occurred over multiple days, in which company property was damaged and destroyed.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Protest over factory pollution in E China enters third day |department=Society |newspaper=China Daily |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2011-09/18/content_13727154.htm |access-date=6 June 2021 |archive-date=19 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919095015/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2011-09/18/content_13727154.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> === Climate change contribution === China has pledged to peak its carbon emissions by 2030 and has invested into renewable sources of energy, including solar power, to help meet this pledge.<ref>{{Citation|title=China's Next Economic Transformation: Going Carbon Neutral by 2060|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tGQQ8fyWJi4|language=en|access-date=16 May 2021|archive-date=16 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516053416/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tGQQ8fyWJi4|url-status=live}}</ref> China has been opening new plants for solar energy production.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ramirez|first=Vanessa Bates|date=9 October 2020|title=A Ridiculously Huge New Solar Farm Just Came Online in China|url=https://singularityhub.com/2020/10/09/a-ridiculously-huge-new-solar-farm-just-came-online-in-china/|access-date=16 May 2021|website=Singularity Hub|language=en-US|archive-date=5 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210105194524/https://singularityhub.com/2020/10/09/a-ridiculously-huge-new-solar-farm-just-came-online-in-china/|url-status=live}}</ref> Critics of China's climate policy argue that China is not trying to replace fossil fuels with renewable sources of energy, but instead trying to increase the energy capacity of both forms of energy. Although China's solar energy capacity has increased dramatically in recent years, its carbon emissions have risen as well.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sandalow|first=David|title=Guide to Chinese Climate Policy 2019|year=2019|publisher=Independently Published |isbn=978-1691490240}}</ref> Consequently, critics have seen China's pledge to peak its carbon emissions as a time window for it to increase its carbon emissions rather than reduce them, with its investments into renewable energy sources such as solar power being used as a coverup for China's plan to continue expanding with fossil fuel-powered production.<ref name=":16">{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Richard |title=China's engine of environmental collapse|date=2020|isbn=978-1-78680-663-5|location=London|page=xvi|oclc=1164185270}}</ref> The mass government subsidy-fueled construction of solar power plants has also been linked to climate change contribution as mass construction has contributed to increases in carbon emissions while the energy produced by the projects has not been fully used.<ref name=":16" /> ==== Green grabbing ==== China's expansion of solar power capacity has been met with criticism over implications of "[[green grabbing]]". Critics argue that China has seized land from native populations and repurposed it for its own projects, such as solar farms, using the need to protect the country from climate change as a justification for land seizure. Renewable energy projects, such as solar power plants, have been built in western regions of China where many native nomadic people have had their land taken away. As such, critics argue that investments into renewable energy sources such as solar power are means to increase the power of the central state rather than protect the environment. This argument has been complemented by China's expansion of fossil fuel plants in conjunction with solar energy.<ref name=":172"/> Following claims of China has taken land from rural natives under the guise of climate protection, many rural populations have been encouraged to move to government housing or urban centers. However, as expectations for the arrival of urban citizens have risen, so has the construction of buildings infrastructure projects. This speculation of the growth of urban centers has led to a housing bubble in China, where buildings and infrastructure are being constructed at a rate in which much of the construction is unused or redundant.<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 June 2018|title='An incredible amount of waste': What China's eerie ghost cities say about its economy|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-06-27/china-ghost-cities-show-growth-driven-by-debt/9912186|access-date=6 June 2021|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|language=en-AU|archive-date=5 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210605171218/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-06-27/china-ghost-cities-show-growth-driven-by-debt/9912186|url-status=live}}</ref> As these [[Underoccupied developments in China|unused buildings and towns]] are constructed, more carbon emissions are produced due to the usage of cement and other building materials. Thus, China's "green grabbing" has also been criticized by environmentalists who see China's urban expansion as useless and damaging to the environment. The forced movement of rural populations, as critics claim that these rural populations do not receive adequate compensation for removal<ref>{{Cite web|last=Togochog|first=Enghebatu|date=4 November 2006|title=Ecological Migration and Human Rights|url=https://www.hrichina.org/sites/default/files/PDFs/CRF.4.2006/CRF-2006-4_Ecological.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=6 June 2021|archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603173443/https://www.hrichina.org/sites/default/files/PDFs/CRF.4.2006/CRF-2006-4_Ecological.pdf}}</ref> and face discrimination and a lack of support to thrive in urban centers in contrast to citizens who have lived in urban centers throughout their lives.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Miller|first=Tom |title=China's Urban Billion: the story behind the biggest migration in human history|date=2012|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-78032-143-1|location=London|oclc=818848251}}</ref> === Curtailment === The high amount of government incentives has encouraged the mass development of solar projects, especially in the northern and western regions of China. Consequently, there has been mass investment in energy production in low-population regions where energy usage is relatively low and not enough investment in infrastructure to transfer this produced energy to China's main power grid. This has caused the curtailment of solar energy to which critics point out to argue that many of China's heavy investments in renewable energy are inefficient and will become unsustainable for the country in the future.<ref name=":32" /> This inability to transfer energy to regions that require it has led many critics to call for China to invest more into power transfer infrastructure instead of solely energy capacity. Although curtailment rates have lowered since 2016, dropping down from 17% to 7% in 2016, some critics argue that these rates are still too high. Critics have used solar power curtailment as an example to argue for China to change its methods for dealing with the climate crisis as they see that its current efforts are ineffective.<ref name=":152">{{Cite book|title=China 2049 : economic challenges of a rising global power|date=2020 |editor=David Dollar |editor2=Yiping Huang |editor3=Yang Yao |isbn=978-0-8157-3806-0|location=Washington, D.C.|oclc=1135224565}}</ref> === Use of forced labor === {{See also|Xinjiang internment camps}} China's production of cheap photovoltaic cells has been the target of a large amount of criticism due to claims of forced labor being used to drive production costs down. Reports of large Chinese solar manufacturing companies using forced labor from [[Uyghurs]] of [[Xinjiang]] to produce photovoltaic cells have appeared.<ref>{{Cite news |title=New Allegations Made of Forced Labor at Chinese Solar Manufacturers |publisher=Voice of America |url=https://www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/new-allegations-made-forced-labor-chinese-solar-manufacturers |access-date=16 May 2021 |language=en |archive-date=16 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516215106/https://www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/new-allegations-made-forced-labor-chinese-solar-manufacturers |url-status=live }}</ref> Reports for forced labor being used to acquire polysilicon, a key component of solar panels, have also emerged. Although the Chinese government claims that the labor used for material acquisition and production is voluntary, reports claim that there is substantial evidence that Uyghur laborers have been coerced to produce solar panels, threatened by internment camps.<ref>{{Cite news|date=14 May 2021|title=China uses Uyghur forced labour to make solar panels, says report|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-57124636|access-date=6 June 2021|archive-date=6 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606051424/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-57124636|url-status=live}}</ref> As the demand for solar power increases due to climate change, the cheap nature of Chinese photovoltaic cells has resulted in China's solar exports growing massively in recent years in spite of the labor used in production. The usage of forced labor in China has only been partially condemned globally, in part due to the fact that many countries depend on China's cheap labor and photovoltaic cells to afford the transition from thermal energy to renewable energy. Since China is responsible for 80% of the world's polysilicon production, with half of the world's polysilicon produced in Xinjiang, many critics of the forced labor usage have stated that it is difficult for many countries to avoid Chinese made solar power solutions. As a result, debates over whether or not solar energy components from China should be used have arisen.<ref name=":132"/><ref>{{Cite web|last=Shellenberger|first=Michael|title=Why Won't Environmentalists Speak Out Against Forced Labor For China-Made Solar Panels?|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelshellenberger/2021/04/29/why-wont-environmentalists-speak-out-against-forced-labor-for-china-made-solar-panels/|access-date=16 May 2021|website=Forbes|language=en|archive-date=30 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210530144420/https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelshellenberger/2021/04/29/why-wont-environmentalists-speak-out-against-forced-labor-for-china-made-solar-panels/|url-status=live}}</ref> ==== U.S. sanctions ==== {{Further|United States sanctions against China}} In June 2021, the [[United States Department of Commerce]] placed five Chinese solar companies, including [[Daqo New Energy]], on the [[Bureau of Industry and Security]]'s [[Entity List]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=23 June 2021|title=U.S. restricts exports to 5 Chinese firms over rights violations|work=[[Reuters]]|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/us-restricts-exports-5-chinese-firms-over-rights-violations-2021-06-23/|url-status=live|access-date=23 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623235311/https://www.reuters.com/business/us-restricts-exports-5-chinese-firms-over-rights-violations-2021-06-23/|archive-date=23 June 2021}}</ref> An extensive questionnaire was sent to companies by US Customs and Border Protection in early 2024. The survey indicated Customs taking a strong enforcement approach that will be difficult to answer for small/medium-sized solar companies without stable supply chains.<ref>{{cite web |title=US Queries Solar Supply Import Chains Amid China Crackdown |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-02-26/us-customs-questions-solar-importers-about-supply-chains-amid-crackdown-on-china |website=[[Bloomberg News]] |access-date=20 March 2024 |archive-date=4 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304123039/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-02-26/us-customs-questions-solar-importers-about-supply-chains-amid-crackdown-on-china |url-status=live }}</ref> == See also == {{commons category}}{{colbegin}} * [[Climate change in China]] * [[Electricity sector in China]] * [[Growth of photovoltaics]] * [[List of photovoltaics companies]] * {{section link|List of power stations in China|Solar}} * [[List of solar thermal power stations]] * [[Renewable energy in China]] * [[Solar Valley (China)]] * [[Solar power by country]] {{colend}} ==References== {{reflist}}{{Solar energy companies of China}} {{Energy in the People's Republic of China}} {{Solar power by country}} {{Renewable energy by country}} {{Portal bar|Renewable energy|China}} [[Category:Solar power in China| ]] [[Category:Science and technology in the People's Republic of China]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">help</a>)</span>:</span> </p></div><ul> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Allow_wrap" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Allow wrap">Template:Allow wrap</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Allow_wrap&action=edit" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Allow wrap">view source</a>) (template editor protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:C" class="mw-redirect" 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