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id="toc-Beginnings_of_the_dialect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beginnings_of_the_dialect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Beginnings of the dialect </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beginnings_of_the_dialect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Linguistic_situation_of_Ancient_Tunisia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_situation_of_Ancient_Tunisia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Linguistic situation of Ancient Tunisia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_situation_of_Ancient_Tunisia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Ottoman period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Modern history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distinctive_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinctive_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Distinctive features </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinctive_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Dialects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Dialects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tunis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tunis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Tunis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tunis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sahel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sahel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Sahel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sahel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sfax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sfax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Sfax </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sfax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northwestern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northwestern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Northwestern </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northwestern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southeastern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeastern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Southeastern </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeastern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southwestern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southwestern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Southwestern </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southwestern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_and_geographical_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_and_geographical_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Use and geographical distribution </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Use_and_geographical_distribution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Use and geographical distribution subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Use_and_geographical_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Society </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cinema_and_mass_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cinema_and_mass_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Cinema and mass media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cinema_and_mass_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scripts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scripts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Scripts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scripts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Scripts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Scripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arabic_script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arabic_script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Arabic script </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arabic_script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_script" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_script"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Latin script </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_script-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deutsche_Morgenländische_Gesellschaft_Umschrift" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deutsche_Morgenländische_Gesellschaft_Umschrift"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft Umschrift </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deutsche_Morgenländische_Gesellschaft_Umschrift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_scripts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_scripts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Additional scripts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_scripts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Vocabulary </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Vocabulary subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Non-Arabic_words" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-Arabic_words"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Non-Arabic words </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-Arabic_words-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shift_in_meanings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shift_in_meanings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Shift in meanings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shift_in_meanings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_fusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_fusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Word fusion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_fusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pattern_and_root-based_creation_of_new_words" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pattern_and_root-based_creation_of_new_words"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Pattern and root-based creation of new words </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pattern_and_root-based_creation_of_new_words-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conjugation_in_Tunisian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conjugation_in_Tunisian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Conjugation in Tunisian </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conjugation_in_Tunisian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Phonology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Metathesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metathesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Metathesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metathesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Stress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Assimilation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assimilation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Assimilation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assimilation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syllables_and_pronunciation_simplification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syllables_and_pronunciation_simplification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Syllables and pronunciation simplification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syllables_and_pronunciation_simplification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Morphology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semantics_and_pragmatics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semantics_and_pragmatics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Semantics and pragmatics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semantics_and_pragmatics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 International influences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Notes and references </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Tunisian Arabic</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" > 31 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لهجة تونسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لهجة تونسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabe_tuniciano" title="Arabe tuniciano – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Arabe tuniciano" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rabe_tunec%C3%ADn" title="Árabe tunecín – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Árabe tunecín" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabeg_Tunizia" title="Arabeg Tunizia – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Arabeg Tunizia" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunesisch-Arabisch" title="Tunesisch-Arabisch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Tunesisch-Arabisch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%A4%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Αραβικά της Τυνησίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αραβικά της Τυνησίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rabe_tunecino" title="Árabe tunecino – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Árabe tunecino" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="عربی تونسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عربی تونسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabe_tunisien" title="Arabe tunisien – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Arabe tunisien" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8A%80%EB%8B%88%EC%A7%80_%EC%95%84%EB%9E%8D%EC%96%B4" title="튀니지 아랍어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="튀니지 아랍어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B9%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Թունիսյան արաբերեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Թունիսյան արաբերեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuniski_arapski" title="Tuniski arapski – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Tuniski arapski" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Arab_Tunisia" title="Bahasa Arab Tunisia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Arab Tunisia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_araba_tunisina" title="Lingua araba tunisina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua araba tunisina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Туниски арапски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Туниски арапски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C4%A7arbi_Tune%C5%BCin" title="Għarbi Tuneżin – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Għarbi Tuneżin" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D9%87_%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%87" title="لهجه تونسيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لهجه تونسيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Arab_Tunisia" title="Bahasa Arab Tunisia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Arab Tunisia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunesisch-Arabisch" title="Tunesisch-Arabisch – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Tunesisch-Arabisch" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%81%E3%83%A5%E3%83%8B%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A2%E8%AA%9E" title="チュニジア語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="チュニジア語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunis_arab_lahjasi" title="Tunis arab lahjasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tunis arab lahjasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a 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Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tunus Arapçası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Туніська арабська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Туніська арабська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="تونسی عربی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تونسی عربی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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For the grammatical cases and conjugation, see <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic_morphology" title="Tunisian Arabic morphology">Tunisian Arabic morphology</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Tunisian Arabic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">تونسي Tūnsi   </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Tounsi.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tounsi.png/200px-Tounsi.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tounsi.png/300px-Tounsi.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Tounsi.png/400px-Tounsi.png 2x" data-file-width="886" data-file-height="514" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Tunisian Arabic">[ˈtuːnsi]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/f\/f8\/Tounsi2.wav\/Tounsi2.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Tounsi2.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f8/Tounsi2.wav/Tounsi2.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Tounsi2.wav" title="File:Tounsi2.wav">ⓘ</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a><a href="#cite_note-e27-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Tunisians" title="Tunisians">Tunisian Arabs</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Speakers</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">12 million (2021)<a href="#cite_note-e27-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Tunisian Arabic</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language" title="Manually coded language">Signed forms</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Sign_Language" title="Tunisian Sign Language">Tunisian Sign Language</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Recognised minority language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="vertical-align:middle;">As a variety of Maghrebi Arabic on 7 May 1999 (Not ratified due to several Constitutional Matters):<a href="#cite_note-recogn99-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-cairnL-3">[3]</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/aeb" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:aeb">aeb</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/tuni1259">tuni1259</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%81rabe_tunecino.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/%C3%81rabe_tunecino.png/320px-%C3%81rabe_tunecino.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/%C3%81rabe_tunecino.png 1.5x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="368" /></a><div style="text-align:left;">Extent of Tunisian Arabic[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">image reference needed</a>]</div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> Tunisian Arabic, or simply Tunisian (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: تونسي, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: Tūnsi), is a <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">variety of Arabic</a> spoken in <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-phon-4">[4]</a> It is known among its 12 million speakers as Tūnsi, <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Tunisian Arabic">[ˈtuːnsi]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/f\/f8\/Tounsi2.wav\/Tounsi2.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Tounsi2.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f8/Tounsi2.wav/Tounsi2.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Tounsi2.wav" title="File:Tounsi2.wav">ⓘ</a> "Tunisian"<a href="#cite_note-sayahi-5">[5]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Derja</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: الدارجة; meaning "common or everyday dialect"<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>) to distinguish it from <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a>, the official language of Tunisia. Tunisian Arabic is mostly similar to eastern <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian Arabic</a> and western <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan Arabic</a>. As part of the <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a> <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>, Tunisian merges into <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan Arabic</a> at the borders of the country. Like other Maghrebi dialects, it has a vocabulary that is predominantly <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> and Arabic<a href="#cite_note-Abdou_Elimam-7">[7]</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a><a href="#cite_note-mohand-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-corrient-9">[9]</a> and possibly <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Neo-Punic</a><a href="#cite_note-maghribi-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)#Substratum" title="Stratum (linguistics)">substratum</a>. Tunisian Arabic contains Berber loanwords which represent 8% to 9% of its vocabulary.<a href="#cite_note-:02-12">[12]</a> However, Tunisian has also loanwords from <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>,<a href="#cite_note-cota-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>,<a href="#cite_note-cota-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a><a href="#cite_note-cota-13">[13]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Spain" title="Languages of Spain">languages of Spain</a><a href="#cite_note-cota-13">[13]</a> and a little bit of <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cota-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Multilingualism" title="Multilingualism">Multilingualism</a> within Tunisia and in the <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_diaspora" title="Tunisian diaspora">Tunisian diaspora</a> makes it common for Tunisians to <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code-switch</a>, mixing Tunisian with French, English, Italian, Standard Arabic or other languages in daily speech.<a href="#cite_note-dig-14">[14]</a> Within some circles, Tunisian Arabic has thereby integrated new French and English words, notably in technical fields, or has replaced old French and Italian loans with standard Arabic words.<a href="#cite_note-dig-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-digl-15">[15]</a> Moreover, code-switching between Tunisian Arabic and modern standard Arabic is mainly done by more educated and upper-class people and has not negatively affected the use of more recent French and English loanwords in Tunisian.<a href="#cite_note-dig-14">[14]</a> Tunisian Arabic is also closely related to <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a>,<a href="#cite_note-maltese-16">[16]</a> which is a separate language that descended from Tunisian and <a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-maltese-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Maltese and Tunisian Arabic have about 30 to 40 per cent spoken <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Arabic_intelligibility-18">[18]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> Tunisian Arabic is one of the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic languages">Arabic languages</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> branch<a href="#cite_note-e18-19">[19]</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic language family</a>.<a href="#cite_note-e18-19">[19]</a> It is a variety of <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a> like <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian Arabic</a>, which are mostly unintelligible to Modern Standard or <a href="/wiki/Mashriqi_Arabic" title="Mashriqi Arabic">Mashriqi Arabic</a> speakers.<a href="#cite_note-sayahi-5">[5]</a> It has a considerable number of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">pre-hilalian dialects</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> but is usually considered in its <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">koiné</a> form to be a mostly <a href="/wiki/Hilalian_dialects" title="Hilalian dialects">Hilalian variety of Maghrebi Arabic</a> because it was affected by the immigration of <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hilal" title="Banu Hilal">Banu Hilal</a> in the 11th century, as were the other Maghrebi varieties.<a href="#cite_note-preh-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-ritt-23">[23]</a> As a part of the Arabic <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>, it is reported that Tunisian Arabic is partly <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutually intelligible</a> with Algerian Arabic,<a href="#cite_note-sayahi-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan Arabic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-sayahi-5">[5]</a> Moroccan,<a href="#cite_note-sayahi-5">[5]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-maltese-16">[16]</a> However, it is only slightly intelligible, if at all, with <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-s'hiri-24">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-s'hiri-24">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-s'hiri-24">[24]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-s'hiri-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/WIKITONGUES-_Afek_speaking_Tunisian_Arabic.webm/220px--WIKITONGUES-_Afek_speaking_Tunisian_Arabic.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="123" data-durationhint="112" data-mwtitle="WIKITONGUES-_Afek_speaking_Tunisian_Arabic.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:WIKITONGUES-_Afek_speaking_Tunisian_Arabic.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/16/WIKITONGUES-_Afek_speaking_Tunisian_Arabic.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Afek_speaking_Tunisian_Arabic.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/WIKITONGUES-_Afek_speaking_Tunisian_Arabic.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1080" data-height="606" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/16/WIKITONGUES-_Afek_speaking_Tunisian_Arabic.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Afek_speaking_Tunisian_Arabic.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/16/WIKITONGUES-_Afek_speaking_Tunisian_Arabic.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Afek_speaking_Tunisian_Arabic.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/16/WIKITONGUES-_Afek_speaking_Tunisian_Arabic.webm/WIKITONGUES-_Afek_speaking_Tunisian_Arabic.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>A Tunisian person from the town of <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A9boursouk" title="Téboursouk">Téboursouk</a> speaking Tunisian Arabic</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Tunisia" title="History of Tunisia">History of Tunisia</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginnings_of_the_dialect">Beginnings of the dialect</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Beginnings of the dialect">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Linguistic_situation_of_Ancient_Tunisia">Linguistic situation of Ancient Tunisia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Linguistic situation of Ancient Tunisia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_early_Tunisia" title="History of early Tunisia">History of early Tunisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Carthage" title="History of Carthage">History of Carthage</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman-era_Tunisia" title="History of Roman-era Tunisia">History of Roman-era Tunisia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Africans" title="Roman Africans">Roman Africans</a></div> During <a href="/wiki/History_of_early_Tunisia" title="History of early Tunisia">classical antiquity</a>, Tunisia's population spoke <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber languages</a> related to the <a href="/wiki/Numidian_language" title="Numidian language">Numidian language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-berb-25">[25]</a> However, the languages progressively lost their function as main languages of Tunisia since the 12th century BC, and their usage became restricted mainly to the western regions of the country until their disappearance or evolution into other languages.<a href="#cite_note-berb-25">[25]</a> Indeed, migrants from <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> settled Tunisia during the 12th to the 2nd century BC, founded <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">ancient Carthage</a> and progressively mixed with the local population.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The migrants brought with them their culture and language that progressively spread from Tunisia's coastal areas to the rest of the coastal areas of <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwest Africa">Northwest Africa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> and the Mediterranean islands.<a href="#cite_note-Aubet,_Maria_Eugenia_2001-27">[27]</a> From the eighth century BC, most of Tunisia's inhabitants spoke the <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic language</a>, a variant of the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician language</a> influenced by the local Numidian language.<a href="#cite_note-epig-28">[28]</a> Also, already at that time, in the regions near to Punic settlements, the Berber that was used evolved considerably. In the urban centers such as <a href="/wiki/Dougga" title="Dougga">Dougga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulla_Regia" title="Bulla Regia">Bulla Regia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thuburnica" title="Thuburnica">Thuburnica</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chemtou" title="Chemtou">Chemtou</a>, Berber lost its Maghrebi phonology but kept the essential of its vocabulary. The word "<a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>", which gave its name to the <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continent</a>, possibly is derived from the name of the Berber tribe of the <a href="/wiki/Afri" title="Afri">Afri</a> that was one of the first to enter in contact with Carthage.<a href="#cite_note-Michell-29">[29]</a> Also during this period and up to the third century BC, the <a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a> alphabet developed from the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> After the arrival of Romans, following the fall of Carthage in 146 BC,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> the coastal population spoke mainly Punic, but that influence decreased away from the coast.<a href="#cite_note-epig-28">[28]</a> From <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Roman period</a> until the Arab conquest, <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and Numidian further influenced the language, called Neo-Punic to differentiate it from its older version.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-ency-35">[35]</a> This also progressively gave birth to <a href="/wiki/African_Romance" title="African Romance">African Romance</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Latin dialect</a>, influenced by Tunisia's other languages and used along with them.<a href="#cite_note-HaspelmathTadmor2009-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-belazi-37">[37]</a> Also, as it was the case for the other dialects,<a href="#cite_note-ency-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-HaspelmathTadmor2009-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-lughat.blogspot.com-38">[38]</a> Punic probably survived the Arabic conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>: the geographer <a href="/wiki/Al-Bakri" title="Al-Bakri">al-Bakri</a> described in the 11th century people speaking a language that was not Berber, Latin or <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> in rural <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a>, a region where spoken Punic survived well past its written use.<a href="#cite_note-jongel-39">[39]</a> However, it may be that the existence of Punic facilitated the spread of Arabic in the region,<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> as Punic and Arabic are both Semitic languages and share many common roots.<a href="#cite_note-omniglot-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-elimam-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_early_Islamic_Tunisia" title="History of early Islamic Tunisia">History of early Islamic Tunisia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Tunisia" title="History of medieval Tunisia">History of medieval Tunisia</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> began to be installed as a governmental and administrative language in Tunisia that was called then <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a> from its older name <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest of the Maghreb</a> in 673.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-history69-44">[44]</a> The people of several urban cities were progressively influenced by Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-history69-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-history70-45">[45]</a> By the 11th century, through contact of local languages such as African Romance or Berber with Classical Arabic, some urban dialects appeared in the main coastal cities of Tunisia.<a href="#cite_note-lughat.blogspot.com-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-DC-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-keesNT-47">[47]</a> The dialects were slightly and characteristically influenced by several common Berber structures and vocabulary like negation because Tamazight was the language of contact for citizens of that period.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-fran-49">[49]</a> The new dialects were also significantly influenced by other historical languages.<a href="#cite_note-preh-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-fran-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-quit-50">[50]</a> Many Tunisian and Maghrebi words, like qarnīṭ ("octopus"), have a Latin etymology.<a href="#cite_note-corrient-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The dialects were later called <a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects</a> and were used along Classical Arabic for communication in Tunisia.<a href="#cite_note-agiu-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Also, <a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a> was spoken in several islands near Tunisia like <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pantelleria" title="Pantelleria">Pantelleria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> and entered into contact with the Tunisian pre-hilalian dialects.<a href="#cite_note-agiu-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Consequently, it ameliorated the divergence in grammar and structures of all the concerned dialects from Classical Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-ency-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-keesNT-47">[47]</a> By the mid-11th century, the Banu Hilal immigrated to rural northern and central Tunisia and <a href="/wiki/Banu_Sulaym" title="Banu Sulaym">Banu Sulaym</a> immigrated to southern Tunisia.<a href="#cite_note-ritt-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-ency-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-quit-50">[50]</a> The immigrants played a major role in spreading the use of Tunisian Arabic in an important part of the country.<a href="#cite_note-ency-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-quit-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-dial-55">[55]</a> However, they brought some of the characteristics of their local Arabic dialects as well.<a href="#cite_note-ritt-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-quit-50">[50]</a> In fact, central and western Tunisian Arabic speakers began using the <a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced velar stop">voiced velar stop</a> [ɡ] instead of the <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless uvular stop">voiceless uvular stop</a> [q] in words such as qāl "he said".<a href="#cite_note-ritt-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-dial-55">[55]</a> Main linguists working about Hilalian dialects like Veronika Ritt-Benmimoum and Martine Vanhove supposed that even the replacement of the diphthongs /aw/ and /aj/ respectively by /uː/ and /iː/ vowels was a Hilalian influence.<a href="#cite_note-preh-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-ritt-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-dial-55">[55]</a> Furthermore, the phonologies brought to the new towns speaking Tunisian Arabic are those of the immigrants and not Tunisian phonology.<a href="#cite_note-ritt-23">[23]</a> The Sulaym even spread a new dialect in southern Tunisia, Libyan Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-ritt-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-dial-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-anda-56">[56]</a> However, some dialects avoided the Hilalian influence: <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian Arabic</a>, a vernacular spoken by <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Jews">Tunisian Jews</a> and known for the conservation of foreign phonemes in loanwords and slightly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Hebrew phonology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-cohend-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Sfax dialect<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a> and Tunisian urban woman dialect.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> By the 15th century, after the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> and subsequent decline of the formerly Arabic-speaking <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>, many Andalusians immigrated to the Tunisian main coastal cities. These migrants brought some of the characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Andalusian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Andalusian Arabic">Andalusian Arabic</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Sedentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedentary">sedentary</a> urban dialects spoken in Tunisia. Among others, it led to the reuse of the voiceless uvular stop [q] instead of the <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> Hilalian voiced velar stop [ɡ] and to speech simplification in Tunisian,<a href="#cite_note-anda-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> which further differentiated the language from Classical Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-anda-56">[56]</a> Furthermore, the changes were recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Hafsid_dynasty" title="Hafsid dynasty">Hafsid</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">ibn Khaldun</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Muqaddimah" title="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah</a> in 1377. He said that language contact between classical Arabic and local languages caused the creation of many Arabic varieties very distinct from formal Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-curr-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-LeddyC-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ottoman_period">Ottoman period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ottoman period">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Tunisia" title="Ottoman Tunisia">Ottoman Tunisia</a></div> During the 17th to the 19th centuries, Tunisia came under <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> rule and hosted <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Morisco</a> then <a href="/wiki/Italian_diaspora" title="Italian diaspora">Italian</a> immigrants from 1609.<a href="#cite_note-quit-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-curr-65">[65]</a> That made Tunisian, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Lingua_Franca" title="Mediterranean Lingua Franca">Mediterranean Lingua Franca</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> languages connected.<a href="#cite_note-curr-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Tunisian acquired several new loanwords from <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a><a href="#cite_note-quit-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-curr-65">[65]</a> and even some structures like the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkish language">Ottoman Turkish</a>: -jī suffix added to several nouns to mean professions like kawwāṛjī, qahwājī...<a href="#cite_note-history70-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-curr-65">[65]</a> During the mid-19th century, Tunisian Arabic was studied by several European scientists.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In 1893, a first linguistic study was completed by the German linguist <a href="/wiki/Hans_Stumme" title="Hans Stumme">Hans Stumme</a>. That began a still ongoing research trend on Tunisian Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-stumme-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_history">Modern history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modern history">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_French-era_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of French-era Tunisia">History of French-era Tunisia</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_modern_Tunisia" title="History of modern Tunisia">History of modern Tunisia</a></div> During the <a href="/wiki/French_protectorate_of_Tunisia" title="French protectorate of Tunisia">French protectorate of Tunisia</a>, the country encountered the <a href="/wiki/Standard_French" title="Standard French">Standard</a> <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fran-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-sayahidigl-71">[71]</a> That affected Tunisian considerably, as new loanwords, meanings and structures were drawn from French.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> The unintelligibility of Tunisian to Middle Eastern Arabic speakers was worsened.<a href="#cite_note-s'hiri-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-fran-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-sayahidigl-71">[71]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tunisian_dialect.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Tunisian_dialect.svg/220px-Tunisian_dialect.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Tunisian_dialect.svg/330px-Tunisian_dialect.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Tunisian_dialect.svg/440px-Tunisian_dialect.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="198" data-file-height="179" /></a><figcaption>Geographic distribution of Tunisian Arabic as of 1960 (in blue). The fields in dark blue and light blue were respectively the geographic dispositions of <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan Arabic</a><a href="#cite_note-cantineau-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-borisg-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-boris1-75">[75]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_officiel_de_Habib_Bourguiba.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Portrait_officiel_de_Habib_Bourguiba.png/220px-Portrait_officiel_de_Habib_Bourguiba.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Portrait_officiel_de_Habib_Bourguiba.png/330px-Portrait_officiel_de_Habib_Bourguiba.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Portrait_officiel_de_Habib_Bourguiba.png 2x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="514" /></a><figcaption>Tunisian leader <a href="/wiki/Habib_Bourguiba" title="Habib Bourguiba">Habib Bourguiba</a> usually delivered his speeches in Tunisian even for religious celebrations<a href="#cite_note-enma-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></figcaption></figure> However, the same period was characterized by the rise of interest toward Tunisian Arabic. Indeed, this period was the beginning of the spread of the formal use of Tunisian Arabic as by <a href="/wiki/Taht_Essour" title="Taht Essour">Taht Essour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-elodie-78">[78]</a> Also, more research about Tunisian was produced, mainly by French and German linguists.<a href="#cite_note-cohend-57">[57]</a> Tunisian Arabic became even taught in French high schools, as an optional language.<a href="#cite_note-Jourdan,_J._1952-79">[79]</a> By the <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_independence" title="Tunisian independence">Tunisian independence</a> in 1956, Tunisian Arabic was spoken only in coastal Tunisia while the other regions spoke <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan Arabic</a> or several <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber dialects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-msit-81">[81]</a> The profusion is from many factors including the length of time the country was inhabited, its long history as a migration land and the profusion of cultures that have inhabited it,<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> and the geographical length and diversification of the country, divided between mountain, forest, plain, coastal, island and desert areas.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> That is why Tunisian leader <a href="/wiki/Habib_Bourguiba" title="Habib Bourguiba">Habib Bourguiba</a> began a trial of Arabization and Tunisification of Tunisia and spread free basic education for all Tunisians.<a href="#cite_note-fran-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-dig1-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-lppt-86">[86]</a> That contributed to the progressive and partial minimisation of code-switching from European languages in Tunisian and the use of <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code-switching</a> from Standard Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-fran-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-LeddyC-66">[66]</a> Furthermore, the creation of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tablissement_de_la_radiodiffusion-t%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_tunisienne" class="mw-redirect" title="Établissement de la radiodiffusion-télévision tunisienne">Établissement de la radiodiffusion-télévision tunisienne</a> in 1966 and the nationwide spread of television with the contact of dialects led to a dialect leveling by the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-gibson12-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-chin-88">[88]</a> By then, Tunisian Arabic reached nationwide usage and became composed of six slightly different but fully mutually intelligible dialects: Tunis dialect, considered the reference Tunisian dialect; Sahil dialect; Sfax dialect; southwestern dialect; southeastern dialect and northwestern dialect.<a href="#cite_note-ferg-89">[89]</a> Older dialects became less commonly used and began disappearing.<a href="#cite_note-gibson12-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-gibson11-90">[90]</a> Consequently, Tunisian became the main prestigious language of communication and interaction within the Tunisian community<a href="#cite_note-ferg-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> and Tunisia became the most linguistically homogeneous state of the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Laval-92">[92]</a> However, Berber dialects, Libyan and Algerian Arabic as well as several Tunisian dialects like the traditional urban woman dialect, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian Arabic</a> or even several Tunisian structures like lā noun+š[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">definition needed</a>], also practically disappeared from Tunisia.<a href="#cite_note-gibson12-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-gibson11-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> The period after <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_independence" title="Tunisian independence">Tunisian independence</a> was also marked by the spread of Tunisian Arabic usage in literature and education. In fact, Tunisian Arabic was taught by the Peace Corps from 1966 until 1993<a href="#cite_note-peacebg-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-peacend-95">[95]</a> and more studies were carried out. Some which used new methods like computing operations and the automated creation of several <a href="/wiki/Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">speech recognition</a>-based and <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">corpora</a>,<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> including the publicly available Tunisian Arabic Corpus<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Others, more traditional, were also made about the phonology, the morphology, the pragmatic and the semantics of Tunisian.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> The language has also been used to write several novels since the 1990s<a href="#cite_note-elodie-78">[78]</a> and even a <a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh list</a> in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Now, it is taught by many institutions like the <a href="/wiki/Institut_national_des_langues_et_civilisations_orientales" title="Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales">Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> with Tunisian Arabic courses since 1916)<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> and the Institut Bourguiba des Langues Vivantes (in <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a> with Tunisian Arabic courses since 1990).<a href="#cite_note-cairnL-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> or in French high schools as an optional language.<a href="#cite_note-caub-105">[105]</a> In fact, 1878 students sat for the Tunisian Arabic examination in the 1999 French <a href="/wiki/Baccalaur%C3%A9at" title="Baccalauréat">Baccalauréat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-caub-105">[105]</a> Nowadays, the tendency in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> is to implement <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a>, mainly Tunisian Arabic, in basic education.<a href="#cite_note-cairnL-3">[3]</a> But, those were not the only trials of Tunisian Arabic in education. A project to teach basic education for the elderly people using Tunisian Arabic was proposed in 1977 by Tunisian linguist Mohamed Maamouri. It aimed to ameliorate the quality and intelligibility of basic courses for elderly people who could not understand Standard Arabic as they did not learn it. However, the project was not implemented.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Nowadays, the linguistic classification of Tunisian Arabic causes controversies between interested people.<a href="#cite_note-elodie-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-stanmd-108">[108]</a> The problem is caused because of the Arabic dialect continuum.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Some linguists, such as Michel Quitout and Keith Walters, consider it an independent language,<a href="#cite_note-quit-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-elodie-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-ferg-89">[89]</a> and some others, such as Enam El-Wer, consider it a divergent dialect of Arabic that is still dependent of Arabic morphology and structures.<a href="#cite_note-dial-55">[55]</a> Moreover, its political recognition is still limited as it is only recognized in France as a minority language part of Maghrebi Arabic according to the <a href="/wiki/European_Charter_for_Regional_or_Minority_Languages" title="European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages">European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages</a> of May 1999. However, even the charter was not agreed on by the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Council_(France)" title="Constitutional Council (France)">Constitutional Council of France</a> because its conflicts with the Article 2 of the <a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1958" class="mw-redirect" title="French Constitution of 1958">French Constitution of 1958</a>.<a href="#cite_note-recogn99-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-cairnL-3">[3]</a> Also, no official recognition or standardization in <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> was provided for Tunisian Arabic until 2011 despite the efforts of Tunisian professors Salah Guermadi and Hedi Balegh to prove that Tunisian is a language.<a href="#cite_note-elodie-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-ferg-89">[89]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Revolution">Tunisian revolution of 2011</a> when Tunisian Arabic was the mainly used language of communication, efforts to have the Tunisian language recognised were reinvigorated.<a href="#cite_note-elodie-78">[78]</a> In 2011, the Tunisian Ministry of Youth and Sports has launched a version of its official website in Tunisian Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> However, this version was closed after a week of work because of an internet poll that has concluded that 53% of the users of the website were against using Tunisian Arabic in the website.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> In 2013, Kélemti initiative was founded by Hager Ben Ammar, Scolibris, Arabesques Publishing House, and Valérie Vacchiani to promote and encourage the creation and publication of written resources about and in Tunisian Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> In 2014, a version of the <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Constitution_of_2014" title="Tunisian Constitution of 2014">Tunisian Constitution of 2014</a> was published in Tunisian Arabic by the Tunisian Association of Constitutional Law.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> In 2016 and after two years of work, the <a href="/wiki/Derja_Association" title="Derja Association">Derja Association</a> has been launched by Ramzi Cherif and Mourad Ghachem in order to standardize and regulate Tunisian, to define a standard set of orthographic rules and vocabularies for it, to promote its use in daily life, literature and science, and to get an official recognition for it as a language in Tunisia and abroad.<a href="#cite_note-irmc-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-jo16-116">[116]</a> The Derja Association also offers an annual prize, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abdelaziz_Aroui_Prize&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abdelaziz Aroui Prize (page does not exist)">Abdelaziz Aroui Prize</a>, for the best work written in Tunisian Arabic. Since the 2011 revolution, there have been many novels published in Tunisian Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-:0-117">[117]</a> The first such novel was <a href="/wiki/Taoufik_Ben_Brik" title="Taoufik Ben Brik">Taoufik Ben Brik</a>'s Kelb ben Kelb (2013); several prominent novels have been written by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anis_Ezzine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anis Ezzine (page does not exist)">Anis Ezzine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Faten_Faza%C3%A2" title="Faten Fazaâ">Faten Fazaâ</a> (the first woman to publish a novel in Tunisian Arabic).<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Although often criticized by literary critics,<a href="#cite_note-:0-117">[117]</a> the Tunisian Arabic novels have been commercially successful: the first printing of <a href="/wiki/Faten_Faza%C3%A2" title="Faten Fazaâ">Faten Fazaâ</a>'s third novel sold out in less than a month.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distinctive_features">Distinctive features</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Distinctive features">edit</a>]</div> Tunisian Arabic is a variety of Arabic and as such shares many features with other <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">modern varieties</a>, especially the <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi varieties</a> of Arabic. Some of its distinctive features (compared to other Arabic dialects) are listed here. <ul><li>A conservative <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonantal</a> <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> (due to <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a> <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)#Substratum" title="Stratum (linguistics)">substrates</a><a href="#cite_note-mohand-8">[8]</a>), with the pre-hilalian /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>/ and <a href="/wiki/Dental_fricative" title="Dental fricative">interdental fricatives</a> generally maintained. /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>/ is usually pronounced /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>/ in Bedouin dialects.<a href="#cite_note-pereira2011-120">[120]</a> The interdental fricatives are lost in the dialect of Mahdia, the Jewish dialect of Tunis, and the Jewish dialect of Soussa.<a href="#cite_note-pereira2011-120">[120]</a></li> <li>The use of إنتِي [ˈʔɪnti] in urban varieties meaning "you" when addressing both men and women, and a concomitant loss of second person <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">gender</a> distinction in the <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbal</a> <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>. Second person gender distinction is still maintained in rural varieties by using إنتَا /ʔinta/ for male and إنتِي /ʔinti/ for female, with corresponding distinctions in verbal morphology.<a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a></li> <li>The lack of an <a href="/wiki/Indicative" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative">indicative</a> <a href="/wiki/Prefix_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefix (linguistics)">prefix</a> in the verbal system, resulting in no distinction between indicative and <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive moods</a>.<a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a></li> <li>The innovation of a <a href="/wiki/Continuous_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuous aspect">progressive</a> <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> by means of the <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participle</a> قاعد [ˈqɑːʕɪd], originally meaning "sitting"; and the <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">preposition</a> في ['fi] "in" in <a href="/wiki/Transitivity_(grammatical_category)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transitivity (grammatical category)">transitive</a> <a href="/wiki/Clauses" class="mw-redirect" title="Clauses">clauses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></li> <li>The distinctive usage of future tense by using the prefixes ماش [ˈmɛːʃ] or باش [ˈbɛːʃ] or ْبِش [ˈbəʃ] + verb that is nearly equivalent to "will" + verb.<a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a></li> <li>Some vocabulary such as فيسع [ˈfiːsɑʕ] "fast", باهي [ˈbɛːhi] "good" and برشة [ˈbærʃæ] "very much". (e.g.: [ˈbɛːhi ˈbærʃæ]="very good")<a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a></li> <li>Unlike most of the other Muslim countries, the greeting <a href="/wiki/As-salamu_alaykum" title="As-salamu alaykum">as-salamu alaykum</a> is not used as the common greeting expression in Tunisia. Tunisians use the expression عالسلامة [ʕæsˈlɛːmæ] (formal) or أهلا [æhlæ] (informal) for greeting. Also, بالسلامة [bɪsːˈlɛːmæ] (formal) or the Italian ciao (informal) or more rarely the Italian arrivederci are used as the Tunisian "goodbye" expression.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a> يعيشك [jʕæjʃɪk] is used as "thank you", in lieu of شكرا [ˈʃʊkræn].<a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a> However, Tunisian people do use some expressions from standard Arabic such as بارك الله فيك [ˈbɑːræk ɑlˤˈlˤɑːhu ˈfiːk] and أحسنت [ʔɑħˈsænt] for thank you. But, these expressions are used only as loan structures from standard Arabic and are not used as they are used in standard Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-dig1-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a></li> <li>The passive derivation of verbs is influenced by <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a> and is different from the one of classical Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-mohand-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-pass-123">[123]</a> It is obtained by prefixing the verb with /t-/, /tt-/, /tn-/ or /n-/ and the choice of one of the four prefixes depends on the used verb (ex: شرب /ʃræb/ "to drink" → تّشرب /ttæʃræb/ "to be drunk").<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-pass-123">[123]</a></li> <li>Nearly all educated Tunisians can communicate in French, which is widely used in business and as the main language of communication with foreigners. <a href="/wiki/Code_switching" class="mw-redirect" title="Code switching">Code switching</a> into French is common in Tunisian.<a href="#cite_note-belazi-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></li> <li>Tunisian Arabic is an <a href="/wiki/SVO_language" class="mw-redirect" title="SVO language">SVO language</a> and it is most of the time a <a href="/wiki/Null-subject_language" title="Null-subject language">Null-subject language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> In fact, the subject is only written in order to avoid meaning ambiguity.<a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a></li> <li>Tunisian has more <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative structures</a> than Standard Arabic or the other varieties of Arabic,<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> a phenomenon that was further strengthened by the influence of Turkish on Tunisian in the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-curr-65">[65]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Dialects">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Cleanup-lang plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article should specify the language of its non-English content, using {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Lang" title="Template:Lang">lang</a>}}, {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Transliteration" title="Template:Transliteration">transliteration</a>}} for transliterated languages, and {{<a href="/wiki/Template:IPA" title="Template:IPA">IPA</a>}} for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ISO_639_codes" title="Lists of ISO 639 codes">ISO 639 code</a>. Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_multilingual_support_templates" title="Category:Wikipedia multilingual support templates">multilingual support templates</a> may also be used. <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Rationale" title="Template:Lang">See why</a>. (May 2019)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tunisian_dialect_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Tunisian_dialect_1.png/220px-Tunisian_dialect_1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="429" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Tunisian_dialect_1.png/330px-Tunisian_dialect_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Tunisian_dialect_1.png/440px-Tunisian_dialect_1.png 2x" data-file-width="514" data-file-height="1003" /></a><figcaption>Geographic disposition of the Tunisian Arabic dialects as of 2015.<a href="#cite_note-gibson12-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-gibson11-90">[90]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Tunis dialect<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-jabe-127">[127]</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Sfax dialect<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Sahel dialect<a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-msak-129">[129]</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Northwestern Tunisian<a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Southwestern Tunisian<a href="#cite_note-douz-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-saadat-132">[132]</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Southeastern Tunisian<a href="#cite_note-phon-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Djerba-133">[133]</a></div> </figcaption></figure> The Arabic dialects of Tunisia belong to either <a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">pre-Hilalian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hilalian_dialects" title="Hilalian dialects">Hilalian</a> dialectal families.<a href="#cite_note-DC-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-tme-134">[134]</a> Before 1980, The pre-Hilalian group included old (Baldī) Urban dialects of Tunis, Kairouan, Sfax, Sousse, Nabeul and its region Cap Bon, Bizerte, old Village dialects (Sahel dialects), and the <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a>. The Hilalian set includes the <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Sulaym dialects</a> in the south and the Eastern Hilal dialects in central Tunisia. The latter were also spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Constantinois" title="Constantinois">Constantinois</a> (eastern Algeria).<a href="#cite_note-DC-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-tme-134">[134]</a> Nowadays and due to dialect leveling, the main dialect varieties of Tunisian Arabic are Northwestern Tunisian (also spoken in Northeastern Algeria), southwestern Tunisian, Tunis dialect, Sahel dialect, Sfax dialect and southeastern Tunisian.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-gibson12-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-gibson11-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> All of these varieties are Hilalian excepting the Sfax one.<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-gibson12-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> Tunis,<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> Sahel<a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> and Sfax<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a> dialects (considered sedentary dialects) use the voiceless uvular stop [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>] in words such as قال /qaːl/ "he said" while southeastern,<a href="#cite_note-douz-131">[131]</a> northwestern<a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a> and southwestern<a href="#cite_note-phon-4">[4]</a> varieties (considered <a href="/wiki/Nomadic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomadic">nomadic</a> dialects) substitute it by the voiced velar stop [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>] as in /ɡaːl/. Moreover, only Tunis, Sfax and Sahel dialects use Tunisian phonology.<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> Indeed, northwestern<a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a> and southwestern<a href="#cite_note-douz-131">[131]</a> Tunisians speak Tunisian with Algerian Arabic phonology, which tends to simplify short vowels as short <a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwas</a> while southeastern Tunisian speak Tunisian with the Libyan Arabic phonology.<a href="#cite_note-phon-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-gibson12-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Additionally, Tunis,<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> Sfax<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a> and the urban Sahel<a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> dialects are known for not marking the second person gender. Hence, the otherwise feminine إنتِي /ʔinti/ is used to address both men and women, and no feminine marking is used in verbs (inti mšīt). Northwestern,<a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a> southeastern<a href="#cite_note-Djerba-133">[133]</a> and southwestern<a href="#cite_note-douz-131">[131]</a> varieties maintain the gender distinction found in Classical Arabic (إنتَا مشيت inta mšīt, إنتِي مشيتي inti mšītī). Furthermore, Tunis,<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> Sfax<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a> and Sahel<a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> varieties conjugate CCā verbs like mšā and klā in feminine third person and in past tense as CCāt. For example, هية مشات hiya mšāt. However, Northwestern,<a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a> southeastern<a href="#cite_note-Djerba-133">[133]</a> and southwestern<a href="#cite_note-douz-131">[131]</a> varieties conjugate them in feminine third person and in past tense as CCat For example, هية مشت hiya mšat. Finally, each of the six dialects have specific vocabulary and patterns.<a href="#cite_note-gibson12-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tunis">Tunis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Tunis">edit</a>]</div> As the prestige variety of media, the Tunis dialect is considered the standard form of Tunisian Arabic and is the variety described in pedagogical and reference materials about "Tunisian" Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a> It is spoken on the Northern East of Tunisia around Tunis, Cap Bon and Bizerte.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> However, it has a characteristic not shared with some of the other Tunisian Arabic dialects.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> It distinguishes the three short vowels<a href="#cite_note-peacebg-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a> and tends to pronounce [æ] as [ɛ]<a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> and the āš suffix, used in the end of question words, as an [ɛ:h].<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sahel">Sahel</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sahel">edit</a>]</div> The Sahel dialect is known for the use of the singular first person ānī instead of ānā.<a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-msak-129">[129]</a> It is also known for the pronunciation of wā as [wɑː] and the pronunciation ū and ī as respectively [oː] and [eː] when it is a substitution of the common Classical Arabic diphthongs /aw/ and /aj/.<a href="#cite_note-phon-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-msak-129">[129]</a> For example, زيت zīt is pronounced as [ze:t] and لون lūn is pronounced as [lɔːn].<a href="#cite_note-phon-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-msak-129">[129]</a> Furthermore, when ā is at the end of the indefinite or "il-" definite word, this final ā is pronounced as [iː].<a href="#cite_note-phon-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-msak-129">[129]</a> For example, سماء smā is pronounced as [smiː]. Moreover, If a word begins with a consonant cluster starting with /θ/ or /ð/, these sounds are pronounced respectively as [t] and [d].<a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-cohenK-136">[136]</a> For example, ثلاثة /θlaːθa/ is pronounced as [tlɛːθæ].<a href="#cite_note-phon-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> As well, the Sahel dialect is known for using مش miš instead of موش mūš to mean the negation of future predicted action.<a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sfax">Sfax</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sfax">edit</a>]</div> The Sfax dialect is known mostly for its conservation of the Arabic <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a> /aj/ and /aw/ and of the short /a/ between two consonants<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a> and its use of وحيد wḥīd instead of وحود wḥūd to mean the plural of someone.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Other dialects have substituted them respectively by /iː/ and /uː/ and dropped the short /a/ between the first and second consonant of the word.<a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-cohenK-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> It is also known by the substitution of short /u/ by short /i/, when it comes in the beginning of the word or just after the first consonant.<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a> For example, خبز /χubz/ is pronounced as [χibz].<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a> It is also known for the use of specific words, like baṛmaqnī meaning window.<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a> Furthermore, it is known for the substitution of [ʒ] by [z] when it comes in the beginning of a word and when that word contains [s] or [z] in its middle or end.<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a> For example, جزّار /ʒazzaːrˤ/ is pronounced as [zæzzɑːrˤ] and جرجيس /ʒarʒiːs/ is pronounced as [zærzi:s].<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a> Unlike other Tunisian dialects, Sfax dialect does not simplify the last long vowel at the end of a word.<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> It is also known for some specific verbs like أرى aṛā (to see) and the use of the demonstrative articles هاكومة hākūma for those and هاكة hāka (m.) and هٰاكي hākī (f.) for that respectively instead of هاذوكم hāðūkum and هاذاكة hāðāka (m.) and هاذيكة hāðākī (f.) determinants.<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a> Finally, the conjugation of mūš as a modal verb uses ماهواش māhūwāš instead of ماهوش māhūš, ماهياش māhīyāš instead of ماهيش māhīš, ماحناش māḥnāš instead of ماناش mānāš and ماهوماش māhūmāš instead of ماهمش māhumš.<a href="#cite_note-cota-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Sfax dialect is also known for its profusion of diminutives.<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a> For example, <ul><li>قطيطس qṭayṭas (little or friendly cat) for قطّوس qaṭṭūs (cat).<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a></li> <li>كليب klayib (little or friendly dog) for كلب kalb (dog).<a href="#cite_note-sfaxdt-60">[60]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northwestern">Northwestern</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Northwestern">edit</a>]</div> The northwestern dialect is known by pronouncing r as [rˤ] when it is written before an ā or ū.<a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-korb-140">[140]</a> Furthermore, it is known for the substitution of [ʒ] by [z] when it comes at the beginning of a word and when that word contains [s] or [z] in its middle or end.<a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-korb-140">[140]</a> Also, it is known for the pronunciation of ū and ī respectively as [o:] and [e:] when they are in an emphatic or uvular environment.<a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-korb-140">[140]</a> As well, northwestern dialect is known for using مش miš that is pronounced as [məʃ] instead of مانيش mānīš to mean the negation of future predicted action.<a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a> Similarly, the conjugation of مش miš as a modal verb uses مشني mišnī instead of مانيش mānīš, مشك mišk instead of ماكش mākš, مشّو miššū instead of موش mūš and ماهوش māhūš, مشها mišhā instead of ماهيش māhīš, مشنا mišnā instead of ماناش mānāš, مشكم miškum instead of ماكمش mākumš and مشهم mišhum instead of ماهمش māhumš.<a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a> Moreover, northwestern dialect is known for the use of نحنا naḥnā instead of أحنا aḥnā as a plural second person personal pronoun<a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a> and the southern area of this Tunisian dialect like <a href="/wiki/El_Kef" title="El Kef">El Kef</a> is known for the use of ناي nāy or ناية nāya instead of آنا ānā (meaning I) excepting <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a> that is known for using يانة yāna in this situation.<a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southeastern">Southeastern</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Southeastern">edit</a>]</div> The southeastern dialect is known for a different conjugation of verbs ending with ā in the third person of plural. In fact, people speaking this variety of Tunisian Arabic do not add the regular ū suffix after the vowel ā but used to drop the ā and then add the ū.<a href="#cite_note-Djerba-133">[133]</a> For example, مشى mšā is conjugated as مشوا mšū instead of مشاوا mšāw with the third person of plural.<a href="#cite_note-Djerba-133">[133]</a> Furthermore, it is known for the substitution of [ʒ] by [z] at the beginning of a word and when that word contains [s] or [z] in its middle or end.<a href="#cite_note-phon-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-cantineau-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-Djerba-133">[133]</a> Moreover, it is known like the Sahil dialect for the pronunciation /uː/ and /iː/ as respectively [oː] and [eː] when it is a substitution of the common classical Arabic diphthongs /aw/ and /aj/.<a href="#cite_note-phon-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-cantineau-73">[73]</a> Furthermore, this dialect is also known for the use of أنا anā instead of آنا ānā (meaning I), the use of حنا ḥnā instead of أحنا aḥnā (meaning we), the use of إنتم intumm (masc.) and إنتن intinn (fem.) instead of انتوما intūma (meaning you in plural) and the use of هم humm (masc.) and هن hinn (fem.) instead of هوما hūma (meaning they).<a href="#cite_note-stud-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southwestern">Southwestern</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Southwestern">edit</a>]</div> The southwestern dialect is known for a different conjugation of verbs ending with ā in the third person of plural. In fact, people who are speaking this variety of Tunisian Arabic do not add the regular ū suffix after the vowel ā but used to drop the ā and then add the ū.<a href="#cite_note-douz-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-saadat-132">[132]</a> For example, مشى mšā is conjugated as مشوا mšū with the third person of plural.<a href="#cite_note-douz-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-saadat-132">[132]</a> Furthermore, this dialect is also known for the use of ناي nāy instead of آنا ānā (meaning I), the use of حني ḥnī instead of أحنا aḥnā (meaning we), the use of إنتم intumm (masc.) and إنتن intinn (fem.) instead of انتوما intūma (meaning you in plural) and the use of هم humm (masc.) and هن hinn (fem.) instead of هوما hūma (meaning they).<a href="#cite_note-douz-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-saadat-132">[132]</a> Moreover, it is known for the pronunciation of ū and ī respectively as [o:] and [e:] in an emphatic or uvular environment.<a href="#cite_note-douz-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-saadat-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_and_geographical_distribution">Use and geographical distribution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Use and geographical distribution">edit</a>]</div> Tunisian Arabic is the mother tongue of the Arabic-speaking population in <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-curr-65">[65]</a> It is also the second language of the <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berber</a> minority living in the country, particularly in some villages of <a href="/wiki/Djerba" title="Djerba">Djerba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tataouine" title="Tataouine">Tataouine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-e18-19">[19]</a> However, Tunisian Arabic has the role of the low variety in an example of classic <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a>, and Standard Arabic is the high variety.<a href="#cite_note-digl-15">[15]</a> As such, the use of Tunisian Arabic is mainly restricted to spoken domains.<a href="#cite_note-e18-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-elodie-78">[78]</a> as its written and cultural use began in the 17th century<a href="#cite_note-histoire-143">[143]</a> and regularly developed since the 20th century only.<a href="#cite_note-ref1-144">[144]</a> Now, it is used for a wide range of purposes, including communication, politics, literature, theatre, and music.<a href="#cite_note-elodie-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-volkme-145">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society">Society</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Society">edit</a>]</div> From the 1990s, Tunisians began to write in Tunisian Arabic when communicating on the Internet, especially on <a href="/wiki/Social_networking" class="mw-redirect" title="Social networking">social networking</a> sites, and in text messages.<a href="#cite_note-eltw-146">[146]</a> This trend accelerated during the <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Revolution">2011 street protests</a> that brought down the regime of <a href="/wiki/Zine_El_Abidine_Ben_Ali" title="Zine El Abidine Ben Ali">Zine El Abidine Ben Ali</a>, in which text messaging and social networking played a major role.<a href="#cite_note-volkme-145">[145]</a> In religion, the use of Tunisian Arabic in promoting <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> is limited although there are some trial efforts.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, the use of Tunisian Arabic is significant beginning with a 1903 <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> translation.<a href="#cite_note-e18-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-voix-148">[148]</a> In 2013 and subsequent years, Tunisian author and linguist Mohamed Bacha<a href="#cite_note-amazon.com/author/mohamedbacha-149">[149]</a> published very popular textbooks and references to learn Tunisian Arabic and explore Tunisian culture, aimed to international readers who are fluent in English : Tunisian Arabic in 24 lessons,<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Tunisian Arabic in 30 lessons,<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Tunisian Arabic - English dictionary,<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Tunisian folklore: folktales, songs, proverbs,<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> This unique book contains a selection of Tunisia's oral literature and culture : folktales, proverbs, popular songs. In the latter book, the author Mohamed Bacha adapted into written form (through transliteration) and translated into English some of the most representative oral folklore of Tunisia, while keeping its authenticity and unique cultural flavor. In addition to multilingual editions of oral folktales: Jabra and the lion, in Tunisian Arabic, English, French.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Eternal Classic Songs of Tunisia (Tunisian, English, French)<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-155">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> Before <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_independence" title="Tunisian independence">Tunisian independence</a>, there was a large body of <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folk tales</a> and folk poems in Tunisian Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> It was mainly an <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a>, told by wandering storytellers and bards at marketplaces and festivals.<a href="#cite_note-sayahi-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> The most important of these folktales are il-Jāzya il-hlālīya (الجازية الهلالية) and ḥkāyat ummī sīsī w il-ðīb (حكاية أمّي سيسي والذيب).<a href="#cite_note-takamt-158">[158]</a> A few years after independence, the more popular ones were recorded for <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tablissement_de_la_Radiodiffusion-T%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_Tunisienne" class="mw-redirect" title="Établissement de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Tunisienne">ERTT</a> broadcast, in Tunisian Arabic by Abdelaziz El Aroui,<a href="#cite_note-turn-159">[159]</a> or translated mainly to French and standard Arabic by other authors.<a href="#cite_note-takamt-158">[158]</a> The recorded Tunisian folktales were transcribed in Tunisian Arabic using Arabic script only in the 2010s, thanks to the work of the Kelemti Association of the promotion of Tunisian Arabic in 2013<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> and the work of Karen McNeil of 2014.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> As for novels and short stories, most authors who fluently know Tunisian Arabic prefer to write in Standard Arabic or in French. But since the initiative of the <a href="/wiki/Taht_Essour" title="Taht Essour">Taht Essour</a> and particularly <a href="/wiki/Ali_Douagi" title="Ali Douagi">Ali Douagi</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> to use Tunisian Arabic in transcribing dialogues in novels and writing some newspapers, the dialogues in the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Arabic">Standard Arabic</a> Tunisian novels or romans became written in Tunisian Arabic using the Arabic script.<a href="#cite_note-ref1-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-douagi-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> However, since the early 1990s, Hedi Balegh initiated a new trend in Tunisian literature.<a href="#cite_note-elodie-78">[78]</a> He was the first to translate a novel to Tunisian Arabic in 1997<a href="#cite_note-stanmd-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-balegh-165">[165]</a> and to make collections of Tunisian idioms and proverbs in 1994 using Arabic script.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> Some authors, particularly Tahar Fazaa (mainly in Tšanšīnāt Tūnsīya (تشنشينات تونسية))<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taoufik_Ben_Brik" title="Taoufik Ben Brik">Taoufik Ben Brik</a> (mainly when writing Kalb Bin Kalb (كلب بن كلب)<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> and Kawāzākī (كوازاكي)<a href="#cite_note-brik-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a>) followed him and used Tunisian Arabic in order to write novels, plays and books in Tunisian Arabic. As for plays in Tunisian Arabic, the first ones were made by the Tunisian-Egyptian Company just after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-thea-172">[172]</a> They faced several objections.<a href="#cite_note-thea-172">[172]</a> However, it acquired general recognition in Tunisia by the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-thea-172">[172]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_independence" title="Tunisian independence">Tunisian independence</a>, the government encouraged the development of theater in Tunisian Arabic through the creation of supporting institutions.<a href="#cite_note-thea-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-ayed-173">[173]</a> That resulted in the creation of notable plays in Tunisian Arabic following the trends of world literature between 1965 and 2005.<a href="#cite_note-thea-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-ayed-173">[173]</a> The main authors of these plays were <a href="/wiki/Jalila_Baccar" title="Jalila Baccar">Jalila Baccar</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fadhel_Ja%C3%AFbi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fadhel Jaïbi (page does not exist)">Fadhel Jaïbi</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fadhel_Ja%C3%AFbi" class="extiw" title="fr:Fadhel Jaïbi">fr</a>] and members of the National Theatre troupes of the <a href="/wiki/Medina_of_Tunis" title="Medina of Tunis">Medina of Tunis</a>, <a href="/wiki/El_Kef" title="El Kef">El Kef</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gafsa" title="Gafsa">Gafsa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-thea-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-ayed-173">[173]</a> Now, plays are almost always written in Tunisian Arabic except when they are placed in a historical setting.<a href="#cite_note-thea-172">[172]</a> Plays written in Tunisian Arabic are widely considered as meaningful and valuable ones.<a href="#cite_note-thea-172">[172]</a> Since the 2011 <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Revolution">Tunisian Revolution</a>, there has been a trend of novels written in Tunisian Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> Since <a href="/wiki/Taoufik_Ben_Brik" title="Taoufik Ben Brik">Taoufik Ben Brik</a>'s Kalb Bin Kalb (كلب بن كلب) in 2013, Tunisian Arabic novels have been written by <a href="/wiki/Faten_Faza%C3%A2" title="Faten Fazaâ">Faten Fazaâ</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anis_Ezzine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anis Ezzine (page does not exist)">Anis Ezzine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amira_Charfeddine" title="Amira Charfeddine">Amira Charfeddine</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Youssef_Chahed_(writer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Youssef Chahed (writer) (page does not exist)">Youssef Chahed</a>. Translation of Tunisian and world literature into Tunisian Arabic have been done by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dhia_Bousselmi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dhia Bousselmi (page does not exist)">Dhia Bousselmi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Majd_Mastoura" title="Majd Mastoura">Majd Mastoura</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Music">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Music_of_Tunisia" title="Music of Tunisia">Music of Tunisia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Music_in_Tunisian_Arabic" title="Music in Tunisian Arabic">Music in Tunisian Arabic</a></div> The oldest lyrics found written in Tunisian, dates back to the 17th century,<a href="#cite_note-histoire-143">[143]</a> by Abu el-Hassan el-Karray, who died in 1693 in the <a href="/wiki/Medina_quarter" title="Medina quarter">medina quarter</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sfax" title="Sfax">Sfax</a> and wrote a poem in Tunisian Arabic during his youth:<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> The effective beginning of Tunisian Arabic written songs came in the early 19th century, when <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tunisia" title="History of the Jews in Tunisia">Tunisian Jews</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Beylik_of_Tunis" title="Beylik of Tunis">Beylik of Tunis</a> began writing songs in Tunisian Arabic about love, betrayal and other <a href="/wiki/Libertine" title="Libertine">libertine</a> subjects.<a href="#cite_note-histoire-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-hist-176">[176]</a> The current strengthened at the beginning of the 20th century and affected the Tunisian <a href="/wiki/Ma%27luf" title="Ma'luf">ma'luf</a> and folklore.<a href="#cite_note-histoire-143">[143]</a> Judeo-Tunisian song flowered in the 1930s, with such Jewish artists as Cheikh El Afrit and Habiba Msika.<a href="#cite_note-hist-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-comp-177">[177]</a> This tendency was promoted by the creation of <a href="/wiki/Radio_Tunis" title="Radio Tunis">Radio Tunis</a> in 1938 and the creation of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tablissement_de_la_radiodiffusion-t%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_tunisienne" class="mw-redirect" title="Établissement de la radiodiffusion-télévision tunisienne">Établissement de la radiodiffusion-télévision tunisienne</a> in 1966,<a href="#cite_note-comp-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-history-178">[178]</a> which allowed many musicians to better disseminate their works and helped spread the use of Tunisian Arabic in songs.<a href="#cite_note-comp-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-history-178">[178]</a> At the same time, popular music developed in the early 19th century, using Tunisian Arabic poems accompanied by Tunisian musical instruments like the <a href="/wiki/Mizwad" title="Mizwad">mizwad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hist-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> This kind of music was promoted by the National Troupe of the Popular Arts, created in 1962.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> Later adaptation and promotion of popular songs, especially by Ahmed Hamza and later Kacem Kefi, further developed Tunisian music.<a href="#cite_note-history-178">[178]</a> Natives of Sfax, they were both influenced by Mohamed Ennouri and Mohamed Boudaya, leading masters of popular music in that city.<a href="#cite_note-histoire-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-history-178">[178]</a> Nowadays, this kind of music is very popular.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Tunisian Arabic became the main variety used in writing lyrics of songs in <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> and even the main <a href="/wiki/Musicology" title="Musicology">technical words</a> in music have their synonyms in Tunisian Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-histoire-143">[143]</a> In the early 1990s, <a href="/wiki/Underground_music" title="Underground music">underground music</a> in Tunisian Arabic appeared.<a href="#cite_note-curry-182">[182]</a> This mainly consisted of rap and was not successful in the beginning because of the lack of media coverage.<a href="#cite_note-curry-182">[182]</a> Tunisian underground music, mainly written in Tunisian Arabic, became successful in the 2000s, thanks to its spread over the Internet, and came to involve other alternative genres like <a href="/wiki/Reggae" title="Reggae">reggae</a> and rock.<a href="#cite_note-curry-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-rock-183">[183]</a> In 2014, the first opera songs in Tunisian Arabic had appeared.<a href="#cite_note-tun1-184">[184]</a> They were the ones of Yosra Zekri that were written by Emna Rmilli and composed by Jalloul Ayed.<a href="#cite_note-tun1-184">[184]</a> In 2018, the Tunisian linguist Mohamed Bacha<a href="#cite_note-amazon.com/author/mohamedbacha-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-tunisianarabic24.blogspot.com-185">[185]</a> published Eternal Classic Songs of Tunisia<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-155">[155]</a> The mythical classic Tunisian songs presented in this book were performed by artists popular in Tunisia's urban centers in the 1950s, 60s, 70s, 80s. The lyrics of these beautiful songs are in natural and authentic Tunisian Arabic, the spoken language of Tunisia. The singers performed with Western and Egyptian-like orchestra ensembles, in addition to a Chorus that repeats some verses in a beautiful, unique Tunisian manner, in some songs like ‘’O The Beauty of The Desert”<a href="#cite_note-tunisianarabic24.blogspot.com-185">[185]</a> and ‘’How Could you believe it!?’’<a href="#cite_note-tunisianarabic24.blogspot.com-185">[185]</a> The music of the songs was composed by great professional musicians such as Boubaker El Mouldi, Mohamed Triki, Salah El Mahdi, Ridha Kalaï, Ali Riahi, Kaddour Srarfi, Chedly Anouar, Hedi Jouini. The lyrics written by poets like Omar Ben Salem, Mahmoud Bourguiba, Mohamed Bouthina. Only rarely was the singer himself at the same time the music composer, as in the case of Ali Riahi in some of his songs. Some of the best Tunisian classic songs were selected from the rich traditional musical folklore. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cinema_and_mass_media">Cinema and mass media</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cinema and mass media">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Tunisia" title="Cinema of Tunisia">Cinema of Tunisia</a></div> Of the few domestic movies produced since 1966, many tried to reflect new social dynamics, development, identity research and modernity shock,<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> and were done in Tunisian Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-lang-189">[189]</a> Some of them achieved relative success outside Tunisia, such as La Goulette (ḥalq il-wād (حلق الواد), 1996), Halfaouine: Child of the Terraces (ʿaṣfūr il-sṭaḥ (عصفور السطح), 1990), and <a href="/wiki/Les_Ambassadeurs_(film)" title="Les Ambassadeurs (film)">The Ambassadors</a> (il-sufaṛā (السفراء), 1975).<a href="#cite_note-lang-189">[189]</a> Television and radio programs in Tunisian Arabic began officially in 1966 with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tablissement_de_la_Radiodiffusion-T%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision_Tunisienne" class="mw-redirect" title="Établissement de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Tunisienne">Établissement de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Tunisienne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> Tunisian Arabic is now widely used for all television and radio programs, with the exception of news, religious programs and historical dramas.<a href="#cite_note-enma-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-turn-159">[159]</a> There is even several translations of cartoon series in Tunisian Arabic, like during the 1980s Qrīnaṭ il-šalwāš (قرينط الشلواش) and Mufattiš kaʿbūṛa (مفتّش كعبورة).<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> As well, foreign <a href="/wiki/Television_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Television series">Television series</a> begun to be translated to Tunisian Arabic in 2016.<a href="#cite_note-ness-193">[193]</a> The first translation of foreign television series was entitled Qlūb il-rummān (قلوب الرمان) and was developed by <a href="/wiki/Nessma_TV" class="mw-redirect" title="Nessma TV">Nessma TV</a> from the Turkish television series Kaderimin Yazıldığı Gün.<a href="#cite_note-ness-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> Some Tunisian Arabic works acquired some honors in the broader <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> like the ASBU Festival First Prize in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> and the Festival of Arab Media Creation Prize in 2008.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Moreover, since the 1990s, mass media advertisements increasingly use Tunisian Arabic, and many advertising boards have their slogans and the original or alternative company name written in Tunisian.<a href="#cite_note-dig-14">[14]</a> However, the main newspapers in Tunisia are not written in Tunisian Arabic<a href="#cite_note-dig-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-digl-15">[15]</a> although there were trials to establish humoristic newspapers in Tunisian Arabic<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> like kull šay b- il-makšūf (كل شيء بالمكشوف) that was directed by Hedi Saidi and Hechmi Bouaziz and led by <a href="/wiki/Ali_Douagi" title="Ali Douagi">Ali Douagi</a> and that was issued quite regularly from 23 April 1937 to 22 October 1959.<a href="#cite_note-douagi-163">[163]</a> The leading newspapers are still written either in Modern Standard Arabic or in Standard French, even if cartoons in most of them can be written in Tunisian.<a href="#cite_note-dig-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-dig1-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scripts">Scripts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Scripts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arabic_script">Arabic script</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Arabic script">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a></div> The Arabic script used for Tunisian is largely the same as for Arabic. However, it includes additional letters to support /g/ (ڨ), /v/ (ڥ) and /p/ (پ).<a href="#cite_note-cota-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brustad,_K._2000-198">[198]</a> The first known use of Arabic script for Tunisian was recorded in the 17th century, when Sheykh Karray wrote several poems in Tunisian Arabic for mystic purposes.<a href="#cite_note-histoire-143">[143]</a> However, transcription of Tunisian Arabic was not common until 1903, when the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">Gospel of John</a> was transcribed in Tunisian Arabic using Arabic script.<a href="#cite_note-e18-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-voix-148">[148]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the use of Arabic script to Tunisian Arabic became very common with the works of <a href="/wiki/Taht_Essour" title="Taht Essour">Taht Essour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ref1-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-douagi-163">[163]</a> Nowadays, it has become the main script used for Tunisian Arabic, even in published books,<a href="#cite_note-balegh-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-brik-170">[170]</a> but writing conventions for Tunisian Arabic are not standardized and can change from one book to another.<a href="#cite_note-cota-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-balegh-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-brik-170">[170]</a> In 2014, Ines Zribi et al. proposed a Conventional Orthography for Tunisian Arabic based on the principles of CODA as proposed in 2012. The orthography is based on eliminating phonological simplifications by comparing the words and structures of Tunisian Arabic by their correspondent etymological equivalent in <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cota-13">[13]</a> Although the convention is quite important, the orthography does not differentiate between [q] and [g] and does not involve several important phonemes that are mainly used in loanwords.<a href="#cite_note-cota-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_script">Latin script</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Latin script">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">Romanization of Arabic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marcaisl.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e4/Marcaisl.png/220px-Marcaisl.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e4/Marcaisl.png/330px-Marcaisl.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e4/Marcaisl.png/440px-Marcaisl.png 2x" data-file-width="1048" data-file-height="817" /></a><figcaption>Phonemic transcription method of Tunisian Arabic and <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian Arabic</a> into <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a> used by <a href="/wiki/William_Mar%C3%A7ais" title="William Marçais">William Marçais</a> in 1908<a href="#cite_note-marcaisl-199">[199]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deutsche_Morgenländische_Gesellschaft_Umschrift">Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft Umschrift</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft Umschrift">edit</a>]</div> In 1845, the <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Morgenl%C3%A4ndische_Gesellschaft" title="Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft">Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft</a> or DMG, a German scientific association dedicated to the studies and the languages of the orient, was formed in <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> Soon, the organization developed a transcription system for Arabic in Latin script.<a href="#cite_note-guddat-201">[201]</a> Its system was a phonemic transcription of Arabic written with an <a href="/wiki/Extended_Latin_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Extended Latin alphabet">extended Latin alphabet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macron_(diacritic)" title="Macron (diacritic)">macrons</a> for long vowels.<a href="#cite_note-guddat-201">[201]</a> However, this Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft transcription was first tried on Tunisian only after the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/French_Protectorate_of_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="French Protectorate of Tunisia">French Protectorate of Tunisia</a> in 1881.<a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> The first linguistic study about Tunisian to be completed was of German linguist Hans Stumme, who, from 1893 to 1896, transcribed Tunisian Arabic with the DMG transcription.<a href="#cite_note-stumme-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> In addition, from 1897 to 1935, a series of linguistic works were conducted by several French members of the DMG, like William Marçais,<a href="#cite_note-takr-203">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-gabe-204">[204]</a> <a href="/wiki/Philippe_Mar%C3%A7ais" title="Philippe Marçais">Philippe Marçais</a>,<a href="#cite_note-marcaisp-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> David Cohen<a href="#cite_note-cohend-57">[57]</a> and Alfred Nicolas.<a href="#cite_note-dico-207">[207]</a> These works included corpuses,<a href="#cite_note-takr-203">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-gabe-204">[204]</a> grammar books,<a href="#cite_note-marcaisp-205">[205]</a> dictionaries,<a href="#cite_note-dico-207">[207]</a> or studies.<a href="#cite_note-cohend-57">[57]</a> By 1935, the DMG transcription included many unique letters and diacritics for Tunisian not used for Arabic,<a href="#cite_note-dmgt-208">[208]</a> such as, à, è, ù and ì, for short and accentuated vowels.<a href="#cite_note-marcaisl-199">[199]</a> This is the reason why the XIXth international congress of orientalists held in Rome, from 23 to 29 September 1935, adopted a modified simplified version of the DMG transcription specifically for Arabic dialects.<a href="#cite_note-dmgt-208">[208]</a> From 1935 to 1985, most of the linguists working on Tunisian Arabic such as Gilbert Boris,<a href="#cite_note-borisg-74">[74]</a> Hans Rudolf Singer,<a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> Lucienne Saada<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> and others,<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-peacebg-94">[94]</a> adopted the modified DMG. As of 2016, <a href="/wiki/DIN_31635" title="DIN 31635">the modified DMG</a> is still used by institutions such as <a href="/wiki/SIL_International" title="SIL International">SIL International</a> or the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Vienna" title="University of Vienna">University of Vienna</a> for Tunisian Arabic written corpuses and linguistic books.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-douz-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-dallaji-213">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Additional_scripts">Additional scripts</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Additional scripts">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">Phonetic Transcription</a>:</li></ul> Even if the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft transcription was abundantly used in early linguistic researches about Tunisian,<a href="#cite_note-marcaisl-199">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-dallaji-213">[213]</a> some trials were performed in order to create alternative Latin scripts and writing methods.<a href="#cite_note-eltw-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-inglefield1-214">[214]</a> The purpose of the trials was to have a simpler and more intuitive Latin Script Writing system than DMG or to try to solve the lack of interconvertibility between scripts as the transcription of Tunisian with the German DMG method was phonetic and not <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cota-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jourdan,_J._1952-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brustad,_K._2000-198">[198]</a> The first successful trial to create a specific Latin script and writing method for Tunisian was the Practical Orthography of Tunisian Arabic, created by Joseph Jourdan in 1913.<a href="#cite_note-abel-215">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> Its principle was to use French consonant and vowel digraphs and phonology to transcribe non-Latin sounds.<a href="#cite_note-abel-215">[215]</a> In this method, kh is used to transcribe /χ/, ch to transcribe /ʃ/, th to transcribe /θ/, gh to transcribe /ʁ/, dh to transcribe /ð/ or /ðˤ/ and ou to transcribe /u:/, a to transcribe /a:/ and /ɛː/, i to transcribe /i:/ and e to transcribe the short vowels.<a href="#cite_note-Battesti-217">[217]</a> The layout was successful because it did not involve additional Latin letters and could be transcribed efficiently. It was used in the later linguistic works of Joseph Jourdan about Tunisian Arabic until 1956.<a href="#cite_note-Jourdan,_J._1952-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> Moreover, it is still presently used in French books to transcribe Tunisian Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-Battesti-217">[217]</a> The method was used in 1995 by the Tunisian Arabizi, an <a href="/wiki/Arabic_chat_alphabet" title="Arabic chat alphabet">Arabic chat alphabet</a>, converting the consonant digraphs into digits.<a href="#cite_note-sayahi-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-curr-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-volkme-145">[145]</a> It uses 2 to transcribe a glottal stop, 3 to transcribe /ʕ/, 5 to transcribe /χ/, 6 to transcribe /tˤ/, 7 to transcribe /ħ/, 8 to transcribe /ʁ/ and 9 to transcribe /q/.<a href="#cite_note-volkme-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-eltw-146">[146]</a> The ch, dh, and th digraphs were kept in Tunisian Arabizi.<a href="#cite_note-volkme-145">[145]</a> Vowels are transcribed according to their quality and not to their length as a is used to transcribe short and long [ɐ] and [æ], e is used to transcribe short and long [ɛ] and [e], u is used to transcribe short and long [y], eu is used to transcribe short and long [œ], o is used to transcribe short and long [o], ou is used to transcribe short and long [u] and i is used to transcribe short and long [i] and [ɪ].<a href="#cite_note-eltw-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-pluT-220">[220]</a> Sometimes, users differentiate between short and long vowels by dropping short ones.<a href="#cite_note-eltw-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-pluT-220">[220]</a> Like all other Arabic chat alphabets, its use spread considerably during the 1990s mainly with the Tunisian young people.<a href="#cite_note-sayahi-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-curr-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> Nowadays, it is used principally on social networks and mobile phones.<a href="#cite_note-volkme-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-eltw-146">[146]</a> Also, during the <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Revolution_of_2011" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Revolution of 2011">Tunisian Revolution of 2011</a>, Tunisian Arabizi was the main script used for message transmission on internet.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> After 2011, more interest was given to Tunisian Arabizi<a href="#cite_note-pluT-220">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-arabizi1-224">[224]</a> and in 2013, a concise grammar book about Tunisian, written with Tunisian Arabizi, was issued.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> In 2016, Tunisian Arabizi has been recognized by Ethnologue as an official informal script for writing Tunisian.<a href="#cite_note-e19-226">[226]</a> However, this chat alphabet is not standardized and is seen as informal as the Arabic sounds are transcribed as numbers and letters at the same time.<a href="#cite_note-arabizi1-224">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> The use of digits as numerals and letters at the same time made transcribing Tunisian difficult to users and did not linguistically solve the matters that were faced by the Practical Transcription.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> Although they are popular, both methods have problems such as the possibility of ambiguity between digraphs,<a href="#cite_note-unesco-229">[229]</a> the absolute certainty of getting a rate of graphs per phoneme that is significantly superior to 1 and of getting independent consonants having the same transliteration as the digraphs,<a href="#cite_note-unesco-229">[229]</a> and the lack of disambiguation between /ð/ and /ðˤ/.<a href="#cite_note-Battesti-217">[217]</a> A translation of <a href="/wiki/Le_Petit_Nicolas" title="Le Petit Nicolas">Le Petit Nicolas</a> by Dominique Caubet uses a phonetic transcription.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US-Official-PeaceCorps-Logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/US-Official-PeaceCorps-Logo.svg/100px-US-Official-PeaceCorps-Logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/US-Official-PeaceCorps-Logo.svg/150px-US-Official-PeaceCorps-Logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/US-Official-PeaceCorps-Logo.svg/200px-US-Official-PeaceCorps-Logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="806" data-file-height="806" /></a><figcaption>Logo of <a href="/wiki/Peace_Corps" title="Peace Corps">Peace Corps</a></figcaption></figure> Separately, another Latin script transcription method was created by Patrick L. Inglefield and his team of linguists from <a href="/wiki/Peace_Corps" title="Peace Corps">Peace Corps</a> Tunisia and <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University" title="Indiana University">Indiana University</a> in 1970.<a href="#cite_note-inglefield1-214">[214]</a> Letters in this method can be written in lowercase letters only, and even T and S are not equivalent to t and s as T is used to transcribe /tˤ/ and S is used to transcribe /sˤ/.<a href="#cite_note-inglefield1-214">[214]</a> Moreover, three additional Latin letters are used in this writing method that are 3 (/ʕ/), ø (/ð/) and ħ (/ħ/).<a href="#cite_note-inglefield1-214">[214]</a> Four common English digraphs are used that are dh (/ðˤ/), gh (/ʁ/), th (/tˤ/) and sh (/ʃ/).<a href="#cite_note-inglefield1-214">[214]</a> In order to distinguish the digraphs from the independent letters written like the digraphs, the digraphs are underlined.<a href="#cite_note-inglefield1-214">[214]</a> As for the vowels, they are written as å (glottal stop or /ʔ/), ā (/æ/), ā: (/ɛ:/), a (short a or /a/), a: (long a or /a:/), i (short i or /i/), i: (long i or /i:/), u (short u or /u/), u: (Long u or /u:/).<a href="#cite_note-inglefield1-214">[214]</a> This method was used in the Peace Corps books about Tunisian Arabic until 1993, when <a href="/wiki/Peace_Corps" title="Peace Corps">Peace Corps</a> Tunisia became inactive.<a href="#cite_note-peacend-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-peacecs-231">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-begp-232">[232]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">Syntactic Transliteration</a>:</li></ul> After years of works on a phonetic transliteration of Tunisian, linguists decided that the transliteration should be mainly <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-buck-233">[233]</a> Timothy Buckwalter created an orthography-based transcription of Arabic texts during his work for Xerox.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> <a href="/wiki/Buckwalter_transliteration" title="Buckwalter transliteration">Buckwalter transcription</a> was created in order to avoid the effect of phoneme simplification of spoken Modern Standard Arabic on the morphological analysis of the language.<a href="#cite_note-buck-233">[233]</a> In 2004, Tunisian linguist Mohamed Maamouri proposed to use the same transliteration for Arabic dialects and mainly Tunisian.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> This idea was later developed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nizar_Habash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nizar Habash (page does not exist)">Nizar Habash</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mona_Diab" title="Mona Diab">Mona Diab</a> in 2012 into CODA-based Buckwalter transliteration that eliminates phonological simplification in the Arabic dialects through doing comparisons between dialectal structures and their Modern Standard Arabic equivalents.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> In 2013, a complete work about the regulations of the use of the <a href="/wiki/Buckwalter_transliteration" title="Buckwalter transliteration">Buckwalter transliteration</a> for Tunisian was issued by Ines Zribi and her team from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sfax" title="University of Sfax">University of Sfax</a>.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> In fact, a morphological analysis method and a conventional orthography for Tunisian Arabic using this method were posted by 2014.<a href="#cite_note-cota-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> However, the method is currently used for computer operations only<a href="#cite_note-cota-13">[13]</a> and it is not used by people, as it involves some ASCII non-alphanumeric graphs as letters, and S, D and T do not correspond respectively to the same phonemes as s, d and t.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-syst-241">[241]</a> Furthermore, p does not correspond to /p/ but to ﺓ.<a href="#cite_note-hbsone-242">[242]</a> Even the modified version of Buckwalter transliteration that was proposed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nizar_Habash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nizar Habash (page does not exist)">Nizar Habash</a> et al. in 2007 and that substitute ASCII non-alphanumeric graphs by additional Latin letters did not solve the other problems of the original Buckwalter transliteration.<a href="#cite_note-hbsone-242">[242]</a> That is why both versions of Buckwalter transliteration were not adopted for daily use in writing Tunisian Arabic and are adopted only for NLP purposes.<a href="#cite_note-syst-241">[241]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Vocabulary">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Cleanup-lang plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article should specify the language of its non-English content, using {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Lang" title="Template:Lang">lang</a>}}, {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Transliteration" title="Template:Transliteration">transliteration</a>}} for transliterated languages, and {{<a href="/wiki/Template:IPA" title="Template:IPA">IPA</a>}} for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ISO_639_codes" title="Lists of ISO 639 codes">ISO 639 code</a>. Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_multilingual_support_templates" title="Category:Wikipedia multilingual support templates">multilingual support templates</a> may also be used. <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Rationale" title="Template:Lang">See why</a>. (May 2019)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-Arabic_words">Non-Arabic words</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Non-Arabic words">edit</a>]</div> The most immediately apparent difference between Tunisian and Standard Arabic is the extensive use of native, substratum words of Latin and <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a> etymology or borrowed ones from Italian, Spanish, French and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>.<a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> For example, electricity is كهرباء kahraba in standard Arabic. It is تريسيتي trīsītī in Tunisian Arabic (a word used mainly by older people), from the French électricité.<a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Larousse-243">[243]</a> Other loans from French include برتمان buṛtmān (flat), and بياسة byāsa (coin).<a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> Furthermore, there are words and structures that came from Turkish, such as ڨاوري gāwrī (foreigner) (<a href="/wiki/Giaour" title="Giaour">Gavur</a>) as well as the suffix of occupation as in بوصطاجي būṣṭājī (post officer) and كوّارجي kawwāṛjī (football player).<a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> A sample of words derived from Latin, French, Italian, Turkish, Berber, Greek or Spanish is below:<a href="#cite_note-cota-13">[13]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Tunisian Arabic</th> <th>Standard Arabic</th> <th>English</th> <th>Etymology of Tunisian Arabic[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </th></tr> <tr> <td>بابور ḅaḅūr</td> <td>سفينة /safiːna/</td> <td>ship</td> <td>Turkish:<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> vapur meaning "steamboat" </td></tr> <tr> <td>باكو bakū</td> <td>صندوق /sˤundu:q/</td> <td>package</td> <td>Italian:<a href="#cite_note-italiano-245">[245]</a> pacco </td></tr> <tr> <td>بانكة ḅanka</td> <td>بنك /bank/</td> <td>bank</td> <td>Italian:<a href="#cite_note-italiano-245">[245]</a> banca </td></tr> <tr> <td>بلاصة bḷaṣa</td> <td>مكان /makaːn/</td> <td>place</td> <td>Spanish:<a href="#cite_note-spagnolo-246">[246]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>]plaza </td></tr> <tr> <td>داكردو dakūrdū</td> <td>حسنا /ħasanan/</td> <td>okay</td> <td>Italian:<a href="#cite_note-italiano-245">[245]</a> d'accordo </td></tr> <tr> <td>فيشتة fišta</td> <td>عيد /ʕiːd/</td> <td>holiday</td> <td>Latin:<a href="#cite_note-Glare,_P._G._1982-247">[247]</a> festa </td></tr> <tr> <td>كرّوسة kaṛṛūsa</td> <td>عربة /ʕaraba/</td> <td>carriage</td> <td>Italian: carrozza </td></tr> <tr> <td>كيّاس kayyās</td> <td>طريق معبد /tˤarīq maʕbad/</td> <td>roadway</td> <td>Spanish: calles </td></tr> <tr> <td>كوجينة kūjīna</td> <td>مطبخ /matˤbax/</td> <td>kitchen</td> <td>Italian: cucina </td></tr> <tr> <td>كسكسي kusksī</td> <td>كسكسي /kuskusi/</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Couscous" title="Couscous">couscous</a></td> <td>Berber:<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> seksu </td></tr> <tr> <td>كلسيطة kalsīta</td> <td>جورب /jawrab/</td> <td>sock</td> <td>Italian: calzetta </td></tr> <tr> <td>قطّوس qaṭṭūs</td> <td>قط /qitˤː/</td> <td>cat</td> <td>Latin:<a href="#cite_note-Glare,_P._G._1982-247">[247]</a> cattus </td></tr> <tr> <td>سبيطار sbīṭaṛ</td> <td>مستشفىً /mustaʃfa:/</td> <td>hospital</td> <td>Latin:<a href="#cite_note-Glare,_P._G._1982-247">[247]</a> hospitor </td></tr> <tr> <td>سفنارية sfinārya</td> <td>جزر /jazar/</td> <td>carrot</td> <td>Greek:<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed verification</a>] σταφυλῖνος ἄγριος (stafylīnos ā́grios) </td></tr></tbody></table> Those words are not to be confused with the actual use of French words or sentences in everyday speech by Tunisians (<a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">codeswitching</a>), which is common in everyday language and business environments. However, many French words are used within Tunisian Arabic discourse, without being adapted to Tunisian phonology, apart from the French r [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a>], which is often replaced, especially by men, with [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>].<a href="#cite_note-jabeur-250">[250]</a> For example, many Tunisians, when asking "How are you?" will use the French "ça va?" instead of, and in addition to the Tunisian لاباس (lebes) . It is difficult in this case to establish whether it is an example of using French or borrowing.<a href="#cite_note-jabeur-250">[250]</a> In general, concerning the case of loanwords, they are adapted to Tunisian phonology for years until they become pronounced with basic Tunisian Arabic sounds only.<a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-maamouri-251">[251]</a> For example, the French word apartement became برتمان buṛtmān and the Italian word pacco became باكو bakū.<a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shift_in_meanings">Shift in meanings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Shift in meanings">edit</a>]</div> The greatest number of differences between Tunisian and standard Arabic is not due to the influences from other languages but to a shift in meaning of several Arabic roots.<a href="#cite_note-gibson11-90">[90]</a> For example, /x-d-m/ means "serve" in Standard Arabic but "work" in Tunisian Arabic; meanwhile, /ʕ-m-l/ means "work" in Standard Arabic but has a broader meaning of "do" in Tunisian Arabic; and /m-ʃ-j/ in Tunisian Arabic means "go" rather than "walk" as in Standard Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a> In general, meaning shift happens when there is a lexical implication of the society speaking the language so the social situation and the thoughts of the speakers of the languages obliged them to change the meaning of some words so their language could be adapted to their situation<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> and that is exactly what happened in Tunisia.<a href="#cite_note-gibson11-90">[90]</a> In fact, the influences of rhetoric and semantic structures from other contact languages like French helped the meaning shift in Tunisian.<a href="#cite_note-sayahidigl-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-gibson11-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word_fusion">Word fusion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Word fusion">edit</a>]</div> In Tunisian, some new words and structures were created through the fusion of two words or more.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Almost all question words fall into the latter category. The question words are noticeable by beginning or ending with the sound š or āš and are not to be confused with the negation mark, š, which agrees verbs, as in mā mšītš ما مشيتش (I did not go).<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a> The table below shows a comparison of various question words in Tunisian, Standard Arabic and English:<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Tunisian Arabic</th> <th>Construction</th> <th>Standard Arabic</th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td>škūn شكون</td> <td>āš + kūn آش + كون</td> <td>من /man/</td> <td>who </td></tr> <tr> <td>šnūwa شنو (masc.) šnīya (fem.) شني āš آش</td> <td>āš + n + (h)ūwa آش + هو āš + n + (h)īya آش + هي āš آش</td> <td>ماذا /maːða/</td> <td>what </td></tr> <tr> <td>waqtāš وقتاش</td> <td>waqt + āš وقت + آش</td> <td>متى /mata/</td> <td>when </td></tr> <tr> <td>lwāš لواش</td> <td>l- + āš ل + آش</td> <td>لماذا /limaːða/</td> <td>for what reason </td></tr> <tr> <td>ʿlāš علاش</td> <td>ʿlā + āš على + آش</td> <td>لماذا /limaːða/</td> <td>why </td></tr> <tr> <td>kīfāš كيفاش</td> <td>kīf + āš كيف + آش</td> <td>كيف /kajfa/</td> <td>how </td></tr> <tr> <td>qaddāš قدّاش</td> <td>qadd + āš قدّ + آش</td> <td>كم /kam/</td> <td>how much </td></tr> <tr> <td>mnāš مناش</td> <td>min + āš من + آش</td> <td>من أين /man ʔajna/</td> <td>from what </td></tr> <tr> <td>fāš فاش</td> <td>fī + āš في + آش</td> <td>في من /fi man/</td> <td>in what, what </td></tr> <tr> <td>wīn وين</td> <td>w + ayn و + اين</td> <td>أين /ʔajna/</td> <td>where </td></tr></tbody></table> Some of the question words can be merged with other structures such as the prepositions and object pronouns. For example, "who are you" becomes شكونك إنت škūnik intī or simply شكونك škūnik and "how much is this" becomes بقدّاش b-qaddāš.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Another example of word fusion in Tunisian is the formation of numerals between 11 and 19, which are pronounced as one word, composed of the name of the digit obtained by subtracting 10 to the number and the suffix طاش ṭāš derived from the standard Arabic word عَشَرَ /ʕaʃara/, those numbers are in order: احداش aḥdāš, اثناش θṇāš, ثلطّاش θlaṭṭāš, أربعطاش aṛbaʿṭāš, خمسطاش xmasṭāš, سطّاش sitṭāš, سبعطاش sbaʿṭāš, ثمنطاش θmanṭāš and تسعطاش tsaʿṭāš.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pattern_and_root-based_creation_of_new_words">Pattern and root-based creation of new words</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Pattern and root-based creation of new words">edit</a>]</div> In Tunisian Arabic, as in other <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a>, the creation of new words is based on a root and pattern system, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Semitic root</a>.<a href="#cite_note-genC-255">[255]</a> That means that new words can be created through the association of a root that is composed most of the time of three letters that have a meaning with a rhythm or pattern that informs about the position of the object in the fact.<a href="#cite_note-genC-255">[255]</a> For example, K-T-B is a root meaning to write and مفعول maf‘ūl is a pattern meaning that the object submitted the fact. Thus, the combination of the root and the given pattern render maKTūB, which means something that was written.<a href="#cite_note-genC-255">[255]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conjugation_in_Tunisian">Conjugation in Tunisian</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Conjugation in Tunisian">edit</a>]</div> In this representation, we are going to use Latin letters from the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Standard_Tunisian_(Latin)_Alphabet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Standard Tunisian (Latin) Alphabet (page does not exist)">Standard Tunisian Alphabet</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Conjugation of the CVC verb "Qal" (to say) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Pronouns in Eng</th> <th>Pronouns</th> <th>Present</th> <th>Past</th> <th>Future</th> <th>Imperative</th> <th>Passive form</th> <th>Subjunctive I</th> <th>Subjunctive II</th> <th>Conditional </th></tr> <tr> <th>I </th> <td>Ena </td> <td>Nqoul </td> <td>Qolt </td> <td>Beç nqoul </td> <td> </td> <td>Netqal </td> <td>Kên nqoul </td> <td>Rani nqoul </td> <td>Taw nqoul </td></tr> <tr> <th>You sg. </th> <td>Enti </td> <td>Tqoul </td> <td>Qolt </td> <td>Beç tqoul </td> <td>Qoul </td> <td>Tetqal </td> <td>Kên tqoul </td> <td>Rak tqoul </td> <td>Taw tqoul </td></tr> <tr> <th>She </th> <td>Hia </td> <td>Tqoul </td> <td>Qalet </td> <td>Beç tqoul </td> <td> </td> <td>Tetqal </td> <td>Kên tqoul </td> <td>Rahi tqoul </td> <td>Taw tqoul </td></tr> <tr> <th>He </th> <td>Houa </td> <td>Yqoul </td> <td>Qal </td> <td>Beç yqoul </td> <td> </td> <td>Yetqal </td> <td>Kên yqoul </td> <td>Rahu yqoul </td> <td>Taw yqoul </td></tr> <tr> <th>We </th> <td>Aħna </td> <td>Nqoulu </td> <td>Qolna </td> <td>Beç nqoulu </td> <td> </td> <td>netqalu </td> <td>Kên nqoulu </td> <td>Rana nqoulu </td> <td>Taw nqoulu </td></tr> <tr> <th>You pl. </th> <td>Entuma </td> <td>Tqoulu </td> <td>Qoltu </td> <td>Beç tqoulu </td> <td>Qoulu </td> <td>Tetqalu </td> <td>Kên tqoulu </td> <td>Rakom tqoulu </td> <td>Taw tqoul </td></tr> <tr> <th>They </th> <td>Huma </td> <td>Yqoulu </td> <td>Qalu </td> <td>Beç yqoulu </td> <td> </td> <td>Yetqalu </td> <td>Kên yqoulu </td> <td>Rahom yqoulu </td> <td>Taw yqoulu </td></tr></tbody></table> Studying Tunisian verbs, we have found out that we can classify verbs depending on the number and the position of consonants and vowels in a verb. There are more than 11 possible verb patterns/groups, however Tunisians mostly use 4-5: CVC-CCV-CCVC-CVCC-CV. Some examples of infinitive verbs from each category: <ul><li>CVC: Qal (to say), Çêf (to see), Qaas (to measure), Zeed (to add/to increase).</li> <li>CVCC: Ħatt (to put), Ħäbb (to love/to want), Jeewb (to respond/to answer), Xaalf (to disagree).</li> <li>CCV: Klee (to eat), Msce (to go), Qra (to read/to study)</li> <li>CCVC: Scrab (to drink), Sreq (to steal), Staad (to hunt), Mteez (to be different or special at something).</li> <li>CV: Je (to come), Ra (to see, less commonly used).</li></ul> Concerning the conjugation, each verb group has its way: Verbs starting with one consonant: <table class="wikitable"> <caption>The form of conjugation for CVC verbs </caption> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Pronouns in Eng</th> <th>Pronouns</th> <th>Present</th> <th>Past</th> <th>Imperative </th></tr> <tr> <th>I </th> <td>Ena </td> <td>n+gav </td> <td>gav+t </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>You sg. </th> <td>Enti </td> <td>t+gav </td> <td>gav+t </td> <td>gav </td></tr> <tr> <th>He </th> <td>Houa </td> <td>y+gav </td> <td>infinitive </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>She </th> <td>Hia </td> <td>t+gav </td> <td>infinitive+(e)t </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>We </th> <td>Aħna </td> <td>n+gav+u </td> <td>gav+na </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>You pl. </th> <td>Entuma </td> <td>t+gav+u </td> <td>gav+tu </td> <td>gav+u </td></tr> <tr> <th>They </th> <td>Huma </td> <td>y+gav+u </td> <td>infinitive+u </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> As for CVCC verbs, things might change a bit. Both simple-voweled verbs and double-voweled ones will be conjugated differently. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Simple-voweled CVCC verbs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Pronouns in Eng</th> <th>Pronouns</th> <th>Present</th> <th>Past</th> <th>Imperative </th></tr> <tr> <th>I </th> <td>Ena </td> <td>n+gav </td> <td>infinitive+it </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>You sg. </th> <td>Enti </td> <td>t+gav </td> <td>infinitive+it </td> <td>gav </td></tr> <tr> <th>He </th> <td>Houa </td> <td>y+gav </td> <td>infinitive </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>She </th> <td>Hia </td> <td>t+gav </td> <td>infinitive+et </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>We </th> <td>Aħna </td> <td>n+gav+u </td> <td>infinitive+ina </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>You pl. </th> <td>Entuma </td> <td>t+gav+u </td> <td>infinitive+itu </td> <td>gav+u </td></tr> <tr> <th>they </th> <td>huma </td> <td>y+gav+u </td> <td>infinitive+u </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Double-voweled CVCC verbs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Pronouns in Eng</th> <th>Pronouns</th> <th>Present</th> <th>Past</th> <th>Imperative </th></tr> <tr> <th>I </th> <td>Ena </td> <td>n+infinitive </td> <td>CVC+e+C+t </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>You sg. </th> <td>Enti </td> <td>t+infinitive </td> <td>CVC+e+C+t </td> <td>infinitive </td></tr> <tr> <th>He </th> <td>Houa </td> <td>y+infinitive </td> <td>infinitive </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>She </th> <td>Hia </td> <td>t+infinitive </td> <td>infinitive+et </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>We </th> <td>Aħna </td> <td>n+infinitive+u </td> <td>CVC+e+C+na </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>You pl. </th> <td>Entuma </td> <td>t+infinitive+u </td> <td>CVC+e+C+tu </td> <td>infinitive+u </td></tr> <tr> <th>they </th> <td>huma </td> <td>y+infinitive+u </td> <td>CVC+e+C+u </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> Examples: Jeewb: <ul><li>Huma: y+infinitve+u → y+jeewb+u →Yjeewbu (they answer).</li></ul> Seefr: <ul><li>Aħna: CVC+e+C+na → seef+e+r+na →Seeferna (We travelled).</li></ul> Note: gav, as seen in the charts, or the grammatical aspect of the verb represents the new form, a verb could take corresponding to the tense. It's just replacing the V in its CVC or CVCC form by another vowel Vs <table class="wikitable"> <caption>gav chart for CVC verbs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Example</th> <th>V</th> <th>Vs</th> <th>Vs</th> <th>Vs</th> <th>Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <th></th> <th></th> <th>Present</th> <th>Past</th> <th>Imperative</th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Qal </th> <td>a </td> <td>ou </td> <td>o </td> <td>ou </td> <td>"to say" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Scêf </th> <td>ê </td> <td>ou </td> <td>o </td> <td>ou </td> <td>"to see" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Qaas </th> <td>aa </td> <td>i </td> <td>e </td> <td>i </td> <td>"to measure" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Zeed </th> <td>ee </td> <td>i </td> <td>e </td> <td>i </td> <td>"to add" </td></tr></tbody></table> Depending on this chart, we can know the shifted vowels and be able to conjugate verbs in every tense. <pre>gav(CVC)=CVsC, gav(CVCC)=CVsCC. </pre> <ul><li>Ena: n+gav(qal) → n+qoul → Nqoul (I say).</li> <li>Entuma: gav(zeed)+tu → zed+tu → Zedtu (you added).</li></ul> Of course there are some exceptions like "Thaë" (to be lost) and "Xaf" (to be scared). <table class="wikitable"> <caption>gav chart for CVCC verbs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Example</th> <th>V</th> <th>Vs</th> <th>Vs</th> <th>Vs</th> <th>Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <th></th> <th></th> <th>Present</th> <th>Past</th> <th>Imperative</th> <th> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Ħatt </th> <td>a </td> <td>o </td> <td> </td> <td>o </td> <td>"to put" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ħäbb </th> <td>ä </td> <td>e </td> <td> </td> <td>e </td> <td>"to love/want" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Xaalf </th> <td>aa </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>"to disagree" </td></tr> <tr> <th>Jeewb </th> <td>ee </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>"to respond/answer" </td></tr></tbody></table> Other examples: Fädd: <ul><li>Entuma: t+gav(fädd)+u → t+fedd+u → Tfeddu. (you get bored)</li></ul> Ħatt: <ul><li>Hia: infinitive+et → ħatt+et → Ħattet. (she put)</li></ul> Ëaawd <ul><li>Enti: infinitive → Ëaawd. (repeat!)</li></ul> Verbs starting with two consonants: <pre>Ongoing work </pre> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Cleanup-lang plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article should specify the language of its non-English content, using {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Lang" title="Template:Lang">lang</a>}}, {{<a href="/wiki/Template:Transliteration" title="Template:Transliteration">transliteration</a>}} for transliterated languages, and {{<a href="/wiki/Template:IPA" title="Template:IPA">IPA</a>}} for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ISO_639_codes" title="Lists of ISO 639 codes">ISO 639 code</a>. Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_multilingual_support_templates" title="Category:Wikipedia multilingual support templates">multilingual support templates</a> may also be used. <a href="/wiki/Template:Lang#Rationale" title="Template:Lang">See why</a>. (May 2019)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Tunisian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Help:IPA for Tunisian Arabic">Help: IPA for Tunisian Arabic</a></div> There are several differences in pronunciation between Standard and Tunisian Arabic. <a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">Nunation</a> does not exist in Tunisian Arabic, and short <a href="/wiki/Vowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowels">vowels</a> are frequently omitted, especially if they would occur as the final element of an <a href="/wiki/Open_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Open syllable">open syllable</a>, which was probably encouraged by the Berber <a href="/wiki/Substrata_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrata (linguistics)">substratum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jabe-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-maamouri-251">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-wise-256">[256]</a> However, there are some more specific characteristics related to Tunisian Arabic like the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">metathesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wise-256">[256]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metathesis">Metathesis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Metathesis">edit</a>]</div> Metathesis is the shift of the position of the first vowel of the word.<a href="#cite_note-wise-256">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a> It occurs when the unconjugated verb or unsuffixed noun begins with CCVC, where C is an ungeminated consonant and V is a short vowel.<a href="#cite_note-wise-256">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-suny-258">[258]</a> When a suffix is added to this kind of noun or when the verb is conjugated, the first vowel changes of position and the verb or noun begins with CVCC.<a href="#cite_note-wise-256">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-suny-258">[258]</a> For example: <ul><li>(he) wrote in Tunisian Arabic becomes كتب ktib and (she) wrote in Tunisian Arabic becomes كتبت kitbit.<a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-wise-256">[256]</a></li> <li>some stuff in Tunisian Arabic becomes دبش dbaš and my stuff in Tunisian Arabic becomes دبشي dabšī.<a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-wise-256">[256]</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <td>The English pronoun</td> <td>Pronoun</td> <td>Dbaš</td> <td>Wdhin</td> <td>3mor </td></tr> <tr> <td>I</td> <td>Ena</td> <td>Dabši</td> <td>Widhni</td> <td>3omri </td></tr> <tr> <td>You sg.</td> <td>Enty</td> <td>Dabšk</td> <td>Widhnk</td> <td>3omrk </td></tr> <tr> <td>He</td> <td>Houa</td> <td>Dabšu</td> <td>Withnu</td> <td>3omru </td></tr> <tr> <td>She</td> <td>Hia</td> <td>Dbašha</td> <td>Wthinha</td> <td>3morha </td></tr> <tr> <td>We</td> <td>Aħna</td> <td>Dbašna</td> <td>Wthinna</td> <td>3morna </td></tr> <tr> <td>You pl.</td> <td>Entuma</td> <td>Dbaškom</td> <td>Wthinkom</td> <td>3morkom </td></tr> <tr> <td>They</td> <td>Huma</td> <td>Dbaš'hom'</td> <td>Wthinhom</td> <td>3morhom </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stress">Stress</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Stress">edit</a>]</div> Stress is not phonologically distinctive<a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a> and is determined by the word's syllable structure. Hence, <ul><li>it falls on the ultimate syllable if it is doubly closed:<a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a> سروال sirwāl (trousers).</li> <li>Otherwise, it falls on the <a href="/wiki/Penult" title="Penult">penultimate syllable</a>,<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a> if there is one: جريدة jarīda (newspaper).</li> <li>Stress falls on all the word if there is only one syllable within it:<a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a> مرا mṛa (woman).</li> <li>Affixes are treated as part of the word:<a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a> نكتبولكم niktbūlkum (we write to you).</li></ul> For example: <ul><li>جابت jābit (She brought).<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a></li> <li>ما جابتش mā jābitš (She did not bring).<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assimilation">Assimilation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Assimilation">edit</a>]</div> Assimilation is a phonological process in Tunisian Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-stumme-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a> The possible assimilations are: <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <td>/ttˤ/ > /tˤː/</td> <td>/tˤt/ > /tˤː/</td> <td>/χh/ > /χː/</td> <td>/χʁ/ > /χː/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>/tɡ/ > /dɡ/</td> <td>/fd/ > /vd/</td> <td>/ħh/ > /ħː/</td> <td>/nl/ > /lː/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>/sd/ > /zd/</td> <td>/td/ > /dː/</td> <td>/dt/ > /tː/</td> <td>/ln/ > /nː/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>/hʕ/ > /ħː/</td> <td>/tð/ > /dð/</td> <td>/hħ/ > /ħː/</td> <td>/nr/ > /rː/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>/nf/ > /mf/</td> <td>/qk/ > /qː/</td> <td>/kq/ > /qː/</td> <td>/lr/ > /rː/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ndn/ > /nː/</td> <td>/ħʕ/ > /ħː/</td> <td>/ʁh/ > /χː/</td> <td>/ʕh/ > /ħː/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ʃd/ > /ʒd/</td> <td>/fC/<a href="#endnote_1">1</a> > /vC/<a href="#endnote_1">1</a></td> <td>/bC/<a href="#endnote_2">2</a> > /pC/<a href="#endnote_2">2</a></td> <td>/nb/ > /mb/ </td></tr> <tr> <td>/ʕħ/ > /ħː/</td> <td>/tz/ > /d͡z/</td> <td>/tʒ/ > /d͡ʒ/ </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#ref_1">^1</a> Only if C is a voiced consonant.<a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_2">^2</a> Only if C is a voiceless consonant.<a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> Tunisian Arabic <a href="/wiki/Q%C4%81f" class="mw-redirect" title="Qāf">qāf</a> has [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>] and [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>] as reflexes in respectively sedentary and nomadic varieties: he said is [qɑːl] instead of [ɡɑːl]). However, some words have the same form [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>] whatever the dialect: cow is always [baɡra]<a href="#cite_note-baccouchel-259">[259]</a> (the /g/ deriving from an originally Arabic [q]), and a specific species of date is always [digla]<a href="#cite_note-Dico_Karmous-260">[260]</a> (the /g/ deriving from an originally Semitic [q] - e.g. <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>: /diqla/: date tree). Sometimes, substituting [g] by [q] can change the meaning of a word.<a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a> For example, garn means "horn" and qarn means "century".<a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a> Interdental fricatives are also maintained for several situations, except in the Sahil dialect.<a href="#cite_note-dialecit-261">[261]</a> Furthermore, Tunisian Arabic merged /<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">dˤ</a>/ ⟨ض⟩ with /<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">ðˤ</a>/ ⟨ظ⟩.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Consonant phonemes of Tunisian Arabic </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_fricative" title="Dental fricative">Interdental</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a>/<a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyngeal</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr style="font-size: 80%;"> <th>plain </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic</a> </th> <th>plain </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic</a> </th> <th> plain  </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a> m </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">mˤ</a>) ṃ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a> n </td> <td>(nˤ) ṇ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stop</a> </th> <th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a> </th> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>) p </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a> t </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">tˤ</a> ṭ </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a> k </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a> q </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a> b </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">bˤ</a>) ḅ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a> d </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a> g </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">t͡s</a>) ts </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a>) tš </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">d͡z</a>) dz </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a> f </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a> þ </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a> s </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">sˤ</a> ṣ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a> š </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a> x </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a> ḥ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> h </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a> </th> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>) v </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a> ð </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">ðˤ</a> ḍ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a> z </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">zˤ</a>) ẓ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a> j </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a> ġ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a> ʿ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a> r </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">rˤ</a> ṛ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a> l </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Velarized_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Velarized alveolar lateral approximant">ɫ</a> ḷ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a> y </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a> w </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> Phonetic notes: <ul><li>The emphatic consonants /mˤ, nˤ, bˤ, zˤ/ rarely occur, and most of them are found in words of non-Arabic etymology.<a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-peacebg-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> <a href="/wiki/Minimal_pair" title="Minimal pair">Minimal pairs</a> are not always easy to find for these contrasts, but there are nonetheless examples, which show that these marginal forms do not represent <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> of other phonemes.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-maamouri-251">[251]</a> For example:</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>/baːb/ [bɛːb] "door" and /bˤaːbˤa/ [ˈbˤɑːbˤɑ] "Father"<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-maamouri-251">[251]</a></dd> <dd>/ɡaːz/ [ɡɛːz] "petrol" and /ɡaːzˤ/ [ɡɑːzˤ] "gas"<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-maamouri-251">[251]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd> <dd>These emphatic consonants occur before or after the vowels /a/ and /aː/.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> A different analysis is that the posited allophones of /a/ and /aː/ are phonemically distinct, and it is the marginal emphatic consonants that are allophonic.<a href="#cite_note-phon-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-maamouri-251">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a></dd></dl> <ul><li>/p/ and /v/ are found in words of non-Arabic etymology and are usually replaced by /b/, like in ḅāḅūr and ḅāla. However, they are preserved in some words, like pīsīn and talvza.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a></li> <li>/t͡ʃ/ and /d͡z/ are rarely used, for example tšīša, dzīṛa and dzāyir.<a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a></li> <li>The glottal stop /ʔ/ is usually dropped but tends to occur in the learned <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">register</a>, in loans from Standard Arabic, often in maṣdar (<a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">verbal noun</a>) forms at the onset of the word but also in other words like /biːʔa/ "environment" and /jisʔal/ "he asks", though many (mainly less educated) speakers substitute /<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/ for /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ in the latter word.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a></li> <li>Like in <a href="/wiki/Standard_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Arabic">Standard Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shadda" class="mw-redirect" title="Shadda">shadda</a> "<a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">gemination</a>" is very likely to occur in Tunisian. For example, haddad هدد meaning to threaten.<a href="#cite_note-chekili-257">[257]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> There are two primary analyses of Tunisian vowels: <ul><li>Three vowel qualities, /a, i, u/ and a large number of emphatic consonants, namely /tˤ, sˤ, ðˤ, rˤ, lˤ, zˤ, nˤ, mˤ, bˤ/. /a/ has distinct allophones near <a href="/wiki/Guttural" title="Guttural">guttural</a> (emphatic, uvular and pharyngeal) consonants ([ɐ], [ä]) and near non-guttural consonants ([æ]).<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a></li> <li>Four vowel qualities, /æ, ɐ, i, u/, and only the three phonemic emphatic consonants /tˤ, sˤ, ðˤ/. The other emphatic consonants are allophones found in the environment of /ɐ/.<a href="#cite_note-phon-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a></li></ul> The first analysis is suggested by comparing other <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a> dialects, like <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>, where the same phenomenon of vocalic allophony happens for /u/ and /i/ as well.<a href="#cite_note-marcaisp-205">[205]</a> Regardless of the analysis, Hilalian influence has provided the additional vowels /eː/ and /oː/ to the Sahil and southeastern dialects. These two long vowels are reflexes of the <a href="/wiki/Diphthongs" class="mw-redirect" title="Diphthongs">diphthongs</a> /aj/ and /aw/.<a href="#cite_note-cantineau-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="margin:aut"> <caption>Tunisian Arabic vowels. It is unclear if the vowels written a are allophones or phonemic. </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3" colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Unrounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Unrounded vowel">unrounded</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Rounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rounded vowel">rounded</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>short </th> <th>long </th> <th>long </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a> i </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a> ī </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">yː</a>) ü </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a> u </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a> ū </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <th>oral </th> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a> ā </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front rounded vowel">œː</a>) ë </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊː</a>) ʊ </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">oː</a>) o </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasal</a> </th> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ɛ̃</a>) iñ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ɔ̃</a>) uñ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">ɑ̃</a>) añ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>oral </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Near-open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-open front unrounded vowel">æ</a> a </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐ</a> a </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Near-open_central_vowel" title="Near-open central vowel">ɐː</a> ā </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>By assuming that pharyngealisation is a property of consonants, most dialects have three vowel qualities /a, i, u/, all also distinguished for length, as in Standard Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-jabe-127">[127]</a></li> <li>The length distinction is suspended at the end of the word. A final vowel is realised long in accent-bearing words of one syllable (For example, جاء jā [ʒeː] he came), otherwise short.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a></li> <li>In non-pharyngealised environments, the open vowel /a/ is [e] in stressed syllables and [æ] or [ɛ] in unstressed syllables. In pharyngealised environments, the open vowel is [ɑ].<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-mateur-130">[130]</a></li> <li>/ɔː/ and nasal vowels are rare in native words, for most of the varieties of Tunisian and mainly for the Tunis dialect, like منقوبة mañqūba and لنڨار lañgār and mainly occur in French loans.<a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-maamouri-251">[251]</a> /yː/ and /œː/ only exist in French loanwords.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a></li> <li>Unlike other Maghrebi dialects,<a href="#cite_note-marcaisp-205">[205]</a> short <a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8Cammah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ḍammah">u</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kasrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasrah">i</a> are <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">reduced</a> to [o] and [e] when written between two consonants unless when they are in stressed syllables.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllables_and_pronunciation_simplification">Syllables and pronunciation simplification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Syllables and pronunciation simplification">edit</a>]</div> Tunisian Arabic has a very different syllable structure from Standard Arabic like all other Northwest African varieties.<a href="#cite_note-mohand-8">[8]</a> While Standard Arabic can have only one consonant at the beginning of a syllable, after which a vowel must follow, Tunisian Arabic commonly has two consonants in the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_onset" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable onset">onset</a>.<a href="#cite_note-maamouri-251">[251]</a> For example, Standard Arabic book is كتاب /kitaːb/, while in Tunisian Arabic it is ktāb.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Syllable_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable nucleus">syllable nucleus</a> may contain a short or long vowel, and at the end of the syllable, in the <a href="/wiki/Syllable_coda" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable coda">coda</a>, it may have up to three consonants ما دخلتش (/ma dχaltʃ/ I did not enter). Standard Arabic can have no more than two consonants in this position.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> Word-internal syllables are generally <a href="/wiki/Syllable_weight" title="Syllable weight">heavy</a> in that they either have a long vowel in the nucleus or consonant in the coda.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> Non-final syllables composed of just a consonant and a short vowel (light syllables) are very rare, generally in loans from Standard Arabic. Short vowels in this position have generally been lost (<a href="/wiki/Syncope_(phonology)" title="Syncope (phonology)">Syncope</a>), resulting in the many initial CC clusters. For example, جواب /ʒawaːb/ reply is a loan from Standard Arabic, but the same word has the natural development /ʒwaːb/, which is the usual word for letter.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> As well as those characteristics, Tunisian Arabic is also known for differently pronouncing words according to their orthography and position within a text.<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> This phenomenon is known as pronunciation simplification<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> and has four rules: <ul><li>[iː] and [ɪ], at the end of a word, are pronounced [i]. Also, [uː] and [u] are pronounced [u]. [aː], [ɛː], [a] and [æ] are pronounced [æ].<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> For example, yībdā is practically pronounced as [jiːbdæ]<a href="#cite_note-douzlr-271">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-angoujard-272">[272]</a></li> <li>If a word finishes with a vowel and the next word begins with a short vowel, the short vowel and the space between the two words are not pronounced (<a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">Elision</a>).<a href="#cite_note-maamouri-251">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-wise-256">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> The phenomenon is seen clearly when Arabic texts are compared to their Latin phonemic transliteration in several works.<a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a></li> <li>If a word begins with two successive consonants, an <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">epenthetic</a> [ɪ] is added at the beginning.<a href="#cite_note-Jourdan,_J._1952-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-douzlr-271">[271]</a></li> <li>A sequence of three consonants, not followed by a vowel, is broken up with an epenthetic [ɪ] before the third consonant.<a href="#cite_note-peacebg-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-inglefield1-214">[214]</a> For example: يكتب yiktib, يكتبوا yiktbū.<a href="#cite_note-peacebg-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-inglefield1-214">[214]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Morphology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic_Morphology" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Arabic Morphology">Tunisian Arabic Morphology</a></div> Nouns and adjectives in Tunisian Arabic are classified into nouns that have a regular plural and nouns that have an irregular plural.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> Several nouns in Tunisian Arabic even have <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dual_forms&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dual forms (page does not exist)">dual forms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a> Irregular or <a href="/wiki/Broken_plurals" class="mw-redirect" title="Broken plurals">broken plurals</a> are broadly similar to those of Standard Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gender_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender (grammar)">gender</a> shift is achieved for singular nouns and adjectives by adding an -a suffix.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> However, this cannot occur for most plural nouns.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> Tunisian Arabic has five types of pronouns: <a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">personal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Possessive_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive pronoun">possessive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative pronoun">demonstrative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indirect_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect object">indirect object</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">indefinite pronouns</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> Unlike in Standard Arabic, there is a unique pronoun for the second person singular and a unique pronoun for the second person in plural.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> Furthermore, there are three types of articles: <a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_adjective" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative adjective">demonstrative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Possessive_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Possessive article">possessive articles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> Most of them can be written before or after the noun.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> As for verbs, they are conjugated in five tenses: <a href="/wiki/Perfective_aspect" title="Perfective aspect">perfective</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective</a>, <a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">future</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperative_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperative (grammar)">imperative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conditional_tense" class="mw-redirect" title="Conditional tense">conditional present</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conditional_tense" class="mw-redirect" title="Conditional tense">conditional past</a> Tenses and in four forms: <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Affirmative (linguistics)">affirmative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exclamation_mark_(punctuation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Exclamation mark (punctuation)">exclamative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interrogative_sentences" class="mw-redirect" title="Interrogative sentences">interrogative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Negation_in_Arabic" title="Negation in Arabic">negative</a> forms.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> They can be preceded by modal verbs to indicate a particular intention, situation, belief or obligation when they are conjugated in perfective or imperfective tenses.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> Questions in Tunisian Arabic can be āš (<a href="/wiki/Wh_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Wh question">wh question</a>) or īh/lā (<a href="/wiki/Yes%E2%80%93no_question" title="Yes–no question">yes–no question</a>).<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Question_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Question words">question words</a> for āš questions can be either a pronoun or an adverb.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> As for <a href="/wiki/Negation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Negation (linguistics)">negation</a>, it is usually done using the structure mā verb+š.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> There are three types of nouns that can be derived from verbs: <a href="/wiki/Present_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Present participle">present participle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">past participle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">verbal noun</a>. There are even nouns derived from simple verbs having the root fʿal or faʿlil.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> The same is true in Standard Arabic. Tunisian Arabic also involves several <a href="/wiki/Prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositions">prepositions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">conjunctions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-talmoudi-128">[128]</a> These structures ultimately derive from those of Standard Arabic, even if they are radically different in modern Tunisian because of heavy influence from <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> and other <a href="/wiki/European_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="European languages">European languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gibson-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-singer-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Semantics_and_pragmatics">Semantics and pragmatics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Semantics and pragmatics">edit</a>]</div> Discourses in Tunisian Arabic are likely to use some rhetorical styles like <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> Furthermore, Tunisian Arabic styles and tenses hold several figurative meanings.<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> For example, the use of past tense can mean that the situation is uncontrollable.<a href="#cite_note-figA-276">[276]</a> As well, the use of the third person pronouns can be figurative to mean saints and/or supernatural beings<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> and the use of demonstrative can have figurative meanings like underestimation.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> Moreover, the name of some parts of the body can be used in several expressions to get figurative meanings.<a href="#cite_note-figA-276">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-embo-279">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> That is entitled the embodiment.<a href="#cite_note-embo-279">[279]</a> Some structures like nouns and verbs have figurative meanings,<a href="#cite_note-peac-121">[121]</a> and the use and the adoption of these figurative meanings depends on the circumstances of the discourse like the political situation of the country and the ages of the people participating in the discussion.<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_influences">International influences</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: International influences">edit</a>]</div> Several Tunisian words were used in the lyrics of some famous Arabic songs and poems like ʿaslāma of <a href="/wiki/Majida_Al_Roumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Majida Al Roumi">Majda Al Roumi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> Furthermore, some famous Arabic singers were acknowledged for singing several old Tunisian Arabic songs like <a href="/wiki/Hussain_Al_Jassmi" title="Hussain Al Jassmi">Hussain Al Jassmi</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dina_Hayek" title="Dina Hayek">Dina Hayek</a>.<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> Tunisian Arabic influenced several Berber dialects by transferring to them several Arabic or Tunisian structures and words.<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> It was as well the origin of <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a><a href="#cite_note-maltese-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> and some of its words like بريك Brīk and فريكساي frīkasāy were inspired by French as loanwords.<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> The Il-Ṭalyānī Tunisian Arabic word meaning "the Italian" (الطلياني) was used as a title of a novel in standard Arabic which received the Booker Prize for Arabic literature in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> Also, several prestigious television series from other Arabic countries like the Lebanese Cello Series involved a character talking in Tunisian Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/28px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/42px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/56px-Africa_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Africa" title="Portal:Africa">Africa portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/42px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/56px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Languages">Languages portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Lingua_Franca" title="Mediterranean Lingua Franca">Mediterranean Lingua Franca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Romance" title="African Romance">African Romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties of Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician language</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Notes and references">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e27-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-e27_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-e27_1-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/aeb">Tunisian Arabic</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (27th ed., 2024) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> </li> <li id="cite_note-recogn99-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-recogn99_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-recogn99_2-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCaubet2004" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Caubet, Dominique (November–December 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924031150/http://www.hommes-et-migrations.fr/docannexe/file/2199/dossier_1252_dossier_1252_34_44.pdf">"La 'darja', langue de culture en France"</a> (PDF). Hommes et Migrations (in French) (1252, Langues de France): 34–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fhomig.2004.4263">10.3406/homig.2004.4263</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hommes-et-migrations.fr/docannexe/file/2199/dossier_1252_dossier_1252_34_44.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hommes+et+Migrations&rft.atitle=La+%27darja%27%2C+langue+de+culture+en+France&rft.issue=1252%2C+%27%27Langues+de+France%27%27&rft.pages=34-44&rft.date=2004-11%2F2004-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fhomig.2004.4263&rft.aulast=Caubet&rft.aufirst=Dominique&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hommes-et-migrations.fr%2Fdocannexe%2Ffile%2F2199%2Fdossier_1252_dossier_1252_34_44.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATunisian+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cairnL-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cairnL_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cairnL_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cairnL_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cairnL_3-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarontini2007" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Barontini, Alexandrine (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924133727/http://www.cairn.info/zen.php?ID_ARTICLE=LFA_158_0020">"Valorisation des langues vivantes en France: le cas de l'arabe maghrébin"</a>. Le français aujourd'hui (in French) (158): 20–27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Flfa.158.0020">10.3917/lfa.158.0020</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2107-0857">2107-0857</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cairn.info/zen.php?ID_ARTICLE=LFA_158_0020">the original</a> on 24 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+fran%C3%A7ais+aujourd%27hui&rft.atitle=Valorisation+des+langues+vivantes+en+France%3A+le+cas+de+l%27arabe+maghr%C3%A9bin&rft.issue=158&rft.pages=20-27&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Flfa.158.0020&rft.issn=2107-0857&rft.aulast=Barontini&rft.aufirst=Alexandrine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cairn.info%2Fzen.php%3FID_ARTICLE%3DLFA_158_0020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATunisian+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-phon-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-phon_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-phon_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-phon_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-phon_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-phon_4-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-phon_4-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-phon_4-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-phon_4-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-phon_4-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-phon_4-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-phon_4-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-phon_4-11">l</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaccoucheSkikAttia1969" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Baccouche, T.; Skik, H.; Attia, A. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-86707-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-86707-8"><bdi>978-1-139-86707-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diglossia+and+Language+Contact%3A+Language+Variation+and+Change+in+North+Africa&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014-04-24&rft.isbn=978-1-139-86707-8&rft.aulast=Sayahi&rft.aufirst=Lotfi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DygFeAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATunisian+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWehr1979" class="citation book cs1">Wehr, Hans (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WTak55pG-_IC&pg=PA319">A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic: (Arab.-Engl.)</a>. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 319. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3447020024" title="Special:BookSources/3447020024"><bdi>3447020024</bdi></a>. Retrieved 30 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Modern+Written+Arabic%3A+%28Arab.-Engl.%29&rft.pages=319&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=3447020024&rft.aulast=Wehr&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWTak55pG-_IC%26pg%3DPA319&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATunisian+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abdou_Elimam-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Abdou_Elimam_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElimam2009" class="citation journal cs1">Elimam, Abdou (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141217104852/http://gerflint.fr/Base/Tunisie1/elimam.pdf">"Du Punique au Maghribi: Trajectoires d'une langue sémito-méditerranéenne"</a> (PDF). Synergies Tunisie (1): 29–38. 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Paris: Geuthner Diff. </li> <li id="cite_note-Djerba-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Djerba_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djerba_133-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djerba_133-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djerba_133-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djerba_133-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djerba_133-5">f</a> (in German) Behnstedt, P. (1998). Zum Arabischen von Djerba (Tunesien) I. Zeitschrift für arabische Linguistik, (35), 52-83. </li> <li id="cite_note-tme-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tme_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tme_134-1">b</a> Kees Versteegh, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://acc.teachmideast.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=113&sequence=5">Dialects of Arabic: Maghreb Dialects</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150715181940/http://acc.teachmideast.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=113&sequence=5">Archived</a> 15 July 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://acc.teachmideast.org/index.php">TeachMideast.org</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150307080732/http://acc.teachmideast.org/index.php">Archived</a> 7 March 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Abumdas, A. H. A. (1985). Libyan Arabic Phonology. University of Michigan. </li> <li id="cite_note-cohenK-136">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cohenK_136-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cohenK_136-1">b</a> (in French) Cohen, D. (1962). Koinè, langues communes et dialectes arabes. Arabica, 119-144. </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> (in Arabic) Zouari, A., & Charfi, Y. (1998). Dictionary of Words and Popular Traditions of Sfax. Sfax, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9973-31-072-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-9973-31-072-9">978-9973-31-072-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/6aNfBNfyz?url=http://web.mit.edu/suyeon/www/Suyeon_Yuns_website/Presentations_files/ALS27_Suyeon.pdf">Yun, S. (2013). To Metathesize or Not to Metathesize: Phonological and Morphological Constraints. 27th Annual Arabic Linguistics Symposium. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Harrat, S., Meftouh, K., Abbas, M., Jamoussi, S., Saad, M., & Smaili, K. (2015). Cross-Dialectal Arabic Processing. In Computational Linguistics and Intelligent Text Processing (pp. 620–632). Springer International Publishing. </li> <li id="cite_note-korb-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-korb_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-korb_140-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-korb_140-2">c</a> Walters, S. K. (1989). Social Change and Linguistic Variation in Korba a Small Tunisian Town. </li> <li id="cite_note-stud-141"><a href="#cite_ref-stud_141-0">^</a> (in French) Cantineau, J. (1960). Études de linguistique arabe (Vol. 2). Librairie C. Klincksiek. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> (in French) Saada, L. (1965). Vocabulaire berbère de l'île de Djerba (Gellala). Centre de dialectologie générale. </li> <li id="cite_note-histoire-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-histoire_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-histoire_143-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-histoire_143-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-histoire_143-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-histoire_143-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-histoire_143-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-histoire_143-6">g</a> (in French) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theses.fr/2007PA083097">Fakhfakh, N. (2007). Le répertoire musical de la confrérie religieuse" al-Karrâriyya" de Sfax (Tunisie) (Doctoral dissertation, Paris8).</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-ref1-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ref1_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ref1_144-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ref1_144-2">c</a> (in Arabic) Dhaoudi, R. &, Lahmar, M. (2004). Ali Douagi, The Ghalba Artist and the Taht Essour Troupe in the Taht Essour Troupe. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization, pp. 134–145 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-977-01-8950-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-977-01-8950-4">978-977-01-8950-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-volkme-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-volkme_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-volkme_145-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-volkme_145-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-volkme_145-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-volkme_145-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-volkme_145-5">f</a> Volk, L. (Ed.). (2015). The Middle East in the World: An Introduction. Routledge. </li> <li id="cite_note-eltw-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eltw_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eltw_146-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eltw_146-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eltw_146-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eltw_146-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eltw_146-5">f</a> Younes, J., & Souissi, E. (2014). A quantitative view of Tunisian dialect electronic writing. 5th International Conference on Arabic Language Processing, CITALA 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Soliman, A. (2008). The changing role of Arabic in religious discourse: A sociolinguistic study of Egyptian Arabic. ProQuest. </li> <li id="cite_note-voix-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-voix_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-voix_148-1">b</a> (in Tunisian Arabic) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lavoixdecarthage.com/fr/nt?v=1">La Voix de Carthage (2014). New Testament in Tunisian</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-amazon.com/author/mohamedbacha-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-amazon.com/author/mohamedbacha_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-amazon.com/author/mohamedbacha_149-1">b</a> amazon.com/author/mohamedbacha </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacha2013" class="citation book cs1">Bacha, Mohamed (4 December 2013). Tunisian Arabic in 24 Lessons. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1494370534" title="Special:BookSources/978-1494370534"><bdi>978-1494370534</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tunisian+Arabic+in+24+Lessons&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing+Platform&rft.date=2013-12-04&rft.isbn=978-1494370534&rft.aulast=Bacha&rft.aufirst=Mohamed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATunisian+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacha2013" class="citation book cs1">Bacha, Mohamed (25 December 2013). Tunisian Arabic in 30 Lessons: A Course in Tunsi: The Spoken Language in Tunisia. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1494706982" title="Special:BookSources/978-1494706982"><bdi>978-1494706982</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tunisian+Arabic+in+30+Lessons%3A+A+Course+in+Tunsi%3A+The+Spoken+Language+in+Tunisia&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing+Platform&rft.date=2013-12-25&rft.isbn=978-1494706982&rft.aulast=Bacha&rft.aufirst=Mohamed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATunisian+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacha2015" class="citation book cs1">Bacha, Mohamed (17 November 2015). Tunisian Arabic - English Dictionary. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1519363428" title="Special:BookSources/978-1519363428"><bdi>978-1519363428</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tunisian+Arabic+-+English+Dictionary&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing+Platform&rft.date=2015-11-17&rft.isbn=978-1519363428&rft.aulast=Bacha&rft.aufirst=Mohamed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATunisian+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B076YV8L2S">Tunisian Folklore: Folktales. Songs. Proverbs</a>. Tunisian Arabic 24. 28 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tunisian+Folklore%3A+Folktales.+Songs.+Proverbs&rft.pub=Tunisian+Arabic+24&rft.date=2017-10-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB076YV8L2S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATunisian+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacha2018" class="citation book cs1">Bacha, Mohamed (14 March 2018). Jabra and the Lion Jabra W ESSid: Folktale by the Great Tunisian Storyteller Abdelaziz el Aroui Multilingual Edition of English, Tunisian Arabic (Arabic and Latin Scripts), French, Italian. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1986496087" title="Special:BookSources/978-1986496087"><bdi>978-1986496087</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jabra+and+the+Lion+Jabra+W+ESSid%3A+Folktale+by+the+Great+Tunisian+Storyteller+Abdelaziz+el+Aroui+Multilingual+Edition+of+English%2C+Tunisian+Arabic+%28Arabic+and+Latin+Scripts%29%2C+French%2C+Italian&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing+Platform&rft.date=2018-03-14&rft.isbn=978-1986496087&rft.aulast=Bacha&rft.aufirst=Mohamed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATunisian+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_155-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacha2018" class="citation book cs1">Bacha, Mohamed (5 April 2018). Eternal Classic Songs of Tunisia to Learn Tunisian Arabic the Fun Way. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1987544107" title="Special:BookSources/978-1987544107"><bdi>978-1987544107</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eternal+Classic+Songs+of+Tunisia+to+Learn+Tunisian+Arabic+the+Fun+Way&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing+Platform&rft.date=2018-04-05&rft.isbn=978-1987544107&rft.aulast=Bacha&rft.aufirst=Mohamed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATunisian+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SmmUAgAAQBAJ&dq=African+Folklore:+An+Encyclopedia&pg=PP1">Peek, P. M., & Yankah, K. (Eds.). (2004). African folklore: An encyclopedia. Routledge.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> (in French) Marçais, W., & Guîga, A. (1925). Textes arabes de Takroûna: Textes, transcription et traduction annotée (Vol. 8). Imprimerie nationale </li> <li id="cite_note-takamt-158">^ <a href="#cite_ref-takamt_158-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-takamt_158-1">b</a> . The linguist and author Mohamed Bacha was the first to adapt some folktales from the oral tradition into bilingual publications in English and Tunisian Arabic, using a special latin transliteration system. Mohamed Bacha's transformation of Tunisian oral literature into written form includes folktales such as ummī sīsī(in French) and folktales told decades ago on radio by the famous storyteller Abdelaziz El Aroui, such as Jabra and the lion, jabra w essid, The great and marvelous Akarek, all met with success by readers worldwide. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://takamtikou.bnf.fr/categories/Monde%20Atold">, (rabe/Contes Takamtikou BNF (2015). Contes du monde arabe. Bibliothèque Nationale de France, BNF 2015</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-turn-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-turn_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-turn_159-1">b</a> (in French) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.turess.com/fr/lapresse/55624">Bouamoud, M. (2012). Where did drama disappear? La Presse de Tunisie, 20 September 2012</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> (in French) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131026112545/http://www.huffpostmaghreb.com/elsa-despiney-ben-hammouda/larabe-dialectal-a-lhonne_b_4143462.html">Despiney, E. (2013). Colloquial Arabic in honour. Al Huffington Post, 23 October 2013</a><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tunisiya.org/">McNeil, K., Faiza, M. (2014). The Tunisian Arabic Corpus. University of Virginia, tunisiya.org</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Granara, William (2010), "Ali al-Du'aji (1909–1949)", in Allen, Roger, Essays in Arabic Literary Biography: 1850–1950, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-447-06141-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-447-06141-3">3-447-06141-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-douagi-163">^ <a href="#cite_ref-douagi_163-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-douagi_163-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-douagi_163-2">c</a> (in Arabic) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tunisianfront.org/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%87-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE/%D8%B4%D8%AE%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D9%81%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9/145-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%8A">Tunisian Front (2014). Ali Douagi. Artistic and Literary Personalities, 23 February 2014</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> (in Arabic) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alittihad.ae/details.php?id=4960&y=2008">Yousfi, M.L. (2008). The Grapes. Al Ittihad, 31 January 2008</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-balegh-165">^ <a href="#cite_ref-balegh_165-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-balegh_165-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-balegh_165-2">c</a> (in Tunisian Arabic) Hédi Balegh, Le Petit Prince, avec des dessins de l'auteur. Traduit en arabe tunisien par Hédi Balegh, éd. Maison tunisienne de l'édition, Tunis, 1997 </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> (in French) Hédi Balegh, Proverbes tunisiens (tomes I et II), éd. La Presse de Tunisie, Tunis, 1994 </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> (in French) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tunisia-today.com/archives/46146">Ben Gamra, M. (2008). "Tunisian Tricks" : If the tricks were narrated to me. LeQuotidien, 2008</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150702021527/http://www.tunisia-today.com/archives/46146">Archived</a> 2 July 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> (in Tunisian Arabic) Ben Brik, T. (2013). Kalb Ben Kalb. Tunis: ed. Apollonia </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> (in French) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tekiano.com/2013/11/08/le-livre-l-kalb-ben-kalb-r-de-taoufik-ben-brick-a-sa-video-sur-youtube-signe-z/">Tanit, S. (2013). The Kalb Ben Kalb Book has a full video version in Youtube signed by User Z. Tekiano, 08 November 2013</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-brik-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brik_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brik_170-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-brik_170-2">c</a> (in Tunisian Arabic) Ben Brik, T. (2014). Kawazaki, Tunis: ed. Sud Editions </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> (in French) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tekiano.com/2015/01/14/l-kawazaki-r-le-nouveau-livre-de-lecrivain-et-journaliste-taoufik-ben-brik/">Tanit, S. (2015). Kawazaki, the new book of the author and journalist Taoufik Ben Brik. Tekiano, 14 January 2015</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-thea-172">^ <a href="#cite_ref-thea_172-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thea_172-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thea_172-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thea_172-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thea_172-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thea_172-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thea_172-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-thea_172-7">h</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wHHVTax7l20C&dq=%22World+Encyclopedia+of+Contemporary+Theatre+Volume+4%22+%22Tunisian-Egyptian%22&pg=PT263">Maleh, G., Ohan, F., Rubin, D., Sarhan, S., & Zaki, A. (1999). 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Journal of Literary Semantics. 28 (3): 189–206. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fjlse.1999.28.3.189">10.1515/jlse.1999.28.3.189</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170738037">170738037</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Literary+Semantics&rft.atitle=Metaphoric+discourse+in+the+age+of+cognitive+linguistics%2C+with+special+reference+to+Tunisian+Arabic+%28TA%29&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=189-206&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fjlse.1999.28.3.189&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170738037%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Maalej&rft.aufirst=Z&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATunisian+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> Belazi, N. (1993). Semantics and pragmatics of the Tunisian tenses and aspects. UMI Dissertation Services. </li> <li id="cite_note-figA-276">^ <a href="#cite_ref-figA_276-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-figA_276-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaalej2004" class="citation journal cs1">Maalej, Z (2004). "Figurative language in anger expressions in Tunisian Arabic: An extended view of embodiment". Metaphor and Symbol. 19 (1): 51–75. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.614.5701">10.1.1.614.5701</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1207%2Fs15327868ms1901_3">10.1207/s15327868ms1901_3</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145296111">145296111</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Metaphor+and+Symbol&rft.atitle=Figurative+language+in+anger+expressions+in+Tunisian+Arabic%3A+An+extended+view+of+embodiment&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=51-75&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.614.5701%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145296111%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1207%2Fs15327868ms1901_3&rft.aulast=Maalej&rft.aufirst=Z&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATunisian+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarpenter-Latiri2014" class="citation journal cs1">Carpenter-Latiri, D (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ojs.abo.fi/index.php/scripta/article/viewFile/349/781">"The Ghriba pilgrimage in the island of Jerba: the semantics of otherness"</a>. Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis. 22: 38–55. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30674%2Fscripta.67361">10.30674/scripta.67361</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scripta+Instituti+Donneriani+Aboensis&rft.atitle=The+Ghriba+pilgrimage+in+the+island+of+Jerba%3A+the+semantics+of+otherness&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=38-55&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.30674%2Fscripta.67361&rft.aulast=Carpenter-Latiri&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fojs.abo.fi%2Findex.php%2Fscripta%2Farticle%2FviewFile%2F349%2F781&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATunisian+Arabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> Khalfaoui, A. (2007). A cognitive approach to analyzing demonstratives in Tunisian Arabic. Amesterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science Series 4, 290, 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-embo-279">^ <a href="#cite_ref-embo_279-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-embo_279-1">b</a> Maalej, Z. (2008). The heart and cultural embodiment in Tunisian Arabic. Culture, body and language. Conceptualizations of internal body organs across cultures and languages, 395-428. </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> Maalej, Z. (2007). The embodiment of fear expressions in Tunisian Arabic. Applied cultural linguistics: Implications for second language learning and intercultural communication, 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> Maalej, Z. (2010). Addressing non-acquaintances in Tunisian Arabic: A cognitive-pragmatic account. </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> Guessoumi, M. (2012). The Grammars of the Tunisian Revolution. boundary 2, 39(1), 17-42. </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> (in Arabic) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alchourouk.com/15412/674/1/%D8%AD%D9%81%D9%84-%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AF%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AC:-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1-%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A8-%D9%84%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%84-%D8%A8%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%88.html">Hidri, N. (2013). The concert of Majda Al Roumi in Carthage: The public approved the Bardo leaving protest. Alchourouk, 07 August 2013</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> (in Arabic) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.essahafa.info.tn/index.php?id=59&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=48480&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=5&cHash=f0ecbd5943">Guidouz, R. (2013). Successful Concert of Nawel Ghachem and Hussain Al Jessmi. Assahafa, 17 August 2013</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924002403/http://www.essahafa.info.tn/index.php?id=59&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=48480&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=5&cHash=f0ecbd5943">Archived</a> 24 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> (in Arabic) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.turess.com/assabah/1719">Assabah Team (2007). Carthage gave to me the opportunity to access to all Arabic audience.... So, this is my present to Tunisian audience. Assabah, 17 July 2007</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> Kossmann, M. (2013). The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber. Brill. </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> Zammit, M. R. (2013). The Sfaxi (Tunisian) element in Maltese. Perspectives on Maltese Linguistics, 14, 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> (in French) Tardivel, L. (1991). Répertoire des emprunts du français aux langues étrangères (Vol. 27). Les éditions du Septentrion. </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContentP/18/129557/Books/VIDEO-Tunisian-writer-Shukri-Mabkhout-wins-Arabic-.aspx">Saad, M. (2015). Video: Tunisian writer Shukri Mabkhout wins Arabic Booker 2015. Al Ahram, 06 May 2015</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> (in Arabic) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alchourouk.com/113573/691/1/-%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B6%D9%88%D8%B1_%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%85_%D9%85%D9%86_%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D8%B3_%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86:_%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%8A_%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%85_%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%84%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A9_%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A9-.html">Aouini, F. (2015). In the presence of stars from Tunisia and Lebanon: Nabil El Karoui presents the Ramadhan Programmes of Nessma TV. alchourouk, 09 June 2015</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Tunisian_Arabic&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/aeb" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/aeb">Tunisian Arabic test</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wt/aeb" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wt/aeb">Tunisian Arabic test</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arabetunisien.com/">Tunisian Arabic Arabizi Dictionary</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tunisiya.org">McNeil Tunisian Arabic Corpus</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20160316005653/http://minerva.arz.oeaw.ac.at/vicav2/query/_settings/workspace/">Tunisian Arabic VICAV Dictionary</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Tunisian_Arabic_Swadesh_list">Tunisian Arabic Swadesh list</a> (from Wiktionary's <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists">Swadesh-list appendix</a>)</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Tunisian Arabic at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Tunisian_Arabic_language" class="extiw" title="wikt:Category:Tunisian Arabic language">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tunisian_Arabic_dialects" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Tunisian Arabic dialects">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/19px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/29px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/38px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic_phrasebook" class="extiw" title="voy:Tunisian Arabic phrasebook">Phrasebook</a> from Wikivoyage</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/21px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/32px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/42px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="ar:">Arabic edition</a> of Wikipedia</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q56240" class="extiw" title="d:Q56240">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Tunisia" title="Template:Languages of Tunisia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Tunisia" title="Template talk:Languages of Tunisia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Tunisia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Tunisia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Tunisia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Tunisia" title="Languages of Tunisia">Languages of Tunisia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">Official languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernacular language">Vernacular languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tunisian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jerba_Berber" title="Jerba Berber">Jerba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matmata_Berber" title="Matmata Berber">Matmata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Sign_Language" title="Tunisian Sign Language">Tunisian Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_language" title="Historical language">Historical languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Romance" title="African Romance">African Romance</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Lingua_Franca" title="Mediterranean Lingua Franca">Mediterranean Lingua Franca</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic language</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician language</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numidian_language" title="Numidian language">Numidian language</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic language</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Turkish language">Ottoman Turkish</a>†</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">Main liturgical languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_language" title="Foreign language">Main foreign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_the_Maghreb" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_the_Maghreb" title="Template:Languages of the Maghreb"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_the_Maghreb" title="Template talk:Languages of the Maghreb"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_the_Maghreb" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of the Maghreb"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_the_Maghreb" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Languages of the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vernacular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">Pre-Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Urban_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects">Urban</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Tunis">North-Eastern Tunisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_pre-Hilalian_Village_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern pre-Hilalian Village dialects">Eastern Village</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Sahil">Sahel</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Sfax">Sfaxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jijel_Arabic" title="Jijel Arabic">Lesser Kabylia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_pre-Hilalian_Village_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Western pre-Hilalian Village dialects">Western Village</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Traras_Arabic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Traras Arabic (page does not exist)">Traras-Msirda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebli_Arabic" title="Jebli Arabic">Mountain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Maghrebi_Arabic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judeo-Maghrebi Arabic (page does not exist)">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hilalian_dialects" title="Hilalian dialects">Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulaym_Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulaym Arabic dialects">Sulaym</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan koiné</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Hilalian Arabic dialects">Eastern Hilal</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tunisian koiné</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Hilalian Arabic dialects">Central Hilal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian koiné</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saharan_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Saharan Arabic">Central and Saharan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_Algeria_Arabic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eastern Algeria Arabic (page does not exist)">Eastern Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Algeria_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Algeria Arabic">Western Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maqil_Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Maqil Arabic dialects">Maqil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Morocco_Arabic" title="Western Morocco Arabic">Western Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Morocco_Arabic" title="Eastern Morocco Arabic">Eastern Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan koiné</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassānīya</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Berber_languages" title="Eastern Berber languages">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awjila_language" title="Awjila language">Awjila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fezzan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Fezzan language">Fezzan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghadam%C3%A8s_language" title="Ghadamès language">Ghadamès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kufra_Berber" class="mw-redirect" title="Kufra Berber">Kufra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafusi_language" title="Nafusi language">Nafusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siwa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Siwa language">Siwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Berber_languages" title="Northern Berber languages">Northern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Non-Zenatic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlas_languages" title="Atlas languages">Atlas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabyle_language" title="Kabyle language">Kabyle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenati_languages" title="Zenati languages">Zenatic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Middle_Atlas_Berber" title="Eastern Middle Atlas Berber">Eastern Middle Atlas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mzab%E2%80%93Wargla_languages" title="Mzab–Wargla languages">Northern Saharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riffian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Riffian language">Riffian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawiya_language" title="Shawiya language">Shawiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Zenati_languages" title="East Zenati languages">Tunisian-Zuwara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Algerian_Zenatic_dialects" title="Western Algerian Zenatic dialects">Western Algerian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tuareg_languages" title="Tuareg languages">Tuareg</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamahaq_language" title="Tamahaq language">Tamahaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamasheq_language" title="Tamasheq language">Tamashek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawellemmet_language" title="Tawellemmet language">Tawellemmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Tamajeq_language" title="Air Tamajeq language">Tayart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Berber_languages" title="Western Berber languages">Southwestern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetserret_language" title="Tetserret language">Tetserret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenaga_language" title="Zenaga language">Zenaga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages">Nilo-Saharan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korandje_language" title="Korandje language">Korandje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teda_language" title="Teda language">Teda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger-Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wolof_language" title="Wolof language">Wolof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soninke_language" title="Soninke language">Soninké</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaar_language" title="Pulaar language">Pulaar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bambara_language" title="Bambara language">Bambara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Berber_language" title="Proto-Berber language">Proto-Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Numidian_language" title="Numidian language">Numidian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africitas" title="Africitas">African Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Romance" title="African Romance">African Romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Lingua_Franca" title="Mediterranean Lingua Franca">Sabir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish" title="Ottoman Turkish">Ottoman Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arabic_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arabic_language" title="Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arabic_language" title="Template talk:Arabic language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arabic_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> language</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabic_alphabet" title="History of the Arabic alphabet">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages" title="Influence of Arabic on other languages">Influence on other languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Ancient South Arabian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabic_numerals" title="Eastern Arabic numerals">Eastern numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">Diacritics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#I‘jām_(phonetic_distinctions_of_consonants)" title="Arabic diacritics">i‘jām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Tashkil_(marks_used_as_phonetic_guides)" title="Arabic diacritics">Tashkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Harakat_(short_vowel_marks)" title="Arabic diacritics">Harakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">Nunation</a> (tanwin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaddah" title="Shaddah">Shaddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">Hamza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagger_alif" title="Dagger alif">Dagger alif</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese alphabet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Letters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleph#Arabic_ʼAlif" title="Aleph">ʾAlif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)#Arabic_bāʾ" title="Bet (letter)">Bāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taw#Arabic_tāʾ" title="Taw">Tāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">Ṯāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimel#Arabic_ǧīm" title="Gimel">Ǧīm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heth#Arabic_ḥāʾ" title="Heth">Ḥāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">Ḫāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalet#Arabic_dāl" title="Dalet">Dāl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">Ḏāl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resh#Arabic_rāʼ" title="Resh">Rāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin">Zāy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_sīn" title="Shin (letter)">Sīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_shīn" title="Shin (letter)">Šīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsade#Arabic_Ṣād" title="Tsade">Ṣād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">Ḍād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teth#Arabic_Ṭāʾ" title="Teth">Ṭāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">Ẓāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayin#Arabic_ʿAyn" title="Ayin">ʿAyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn">Ġayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)">Fāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoph#Arabic_qāf" title="Qoph">Qāf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaph#Arabic_kāf" title="Kaph">Kāf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamedh#Arabic_lām" title="Lamedh">Lām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mem#Arabic_mīm" title="Mem">Mīm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)#Arabic_nūn" title="Nun (letter)">Nūn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)#Arabic_hāʾ" title="He (letter)">Hāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)#Arabic_wāw" title="Waw (letter)">Wāw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yodh#Arabic_yāʾ" title="Yodh">Yāʾ</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Islamic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Hijazi_Arabic" title="Old Hijazi Arabic">Old Hijazi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern spoken</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">Pre-Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Sicilian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltralian" title="Maltralian">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottonera_dialect" title="Cottonera dialect">Cottenera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozitan_dialects" title="Gozitan dialects">Gozitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qormi_dialect" title="Qormi dialect">Qormi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBejtun_dialect" title="Żejtun dialect">Żejtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurrieq_dialect" title="Zurrieq dialect">Żurrieqi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Urban_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects">Urban</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Tunis">Tunis</a> (North-Eastern Tunisian)</li></ul></li> <li>Village <ul><li>Eastern <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Sahil">Sahili</a> (Sahel)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Sfax">Sfaxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jijel_Arabic" title="Jijel Arabic">Jijel</a> (Lesser Kabylia)</li></ul></li> <li>Western <ul><li>Traras-Msirda</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebli_Arabic" title="Jebli Arabic">Jebli</a> (Mountain)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Judeo-Maghrebi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hilalian_dialects" title="Hilalian dialects">Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Central Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Saharan_Arabic" title="Algerian Saharan Arabic">Algerian Saharan</a></li> <li>Eastern Algerian</li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Hilal <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tunisian koiné</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maqil <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemadi_dialect" title="Nemadi dialect">Nemadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Morocco_Arabic" title="Eastern Morocco Arabic">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Morocco_Arabic" title="Western Morocco Arabic">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Algerian_Arabic" title="Western Algerian Arabic">Western Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sulaym <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Egyptian_Bedawi_Arabic" title="Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic">Western Egyptian Bedawi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nile Valley</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Levantine_Arabic" title="North Levantine Arabic">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_Arabic" title="Cilician Arabic">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Levantine_Arabic" title="South Levantine Arabic">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gilit_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Gilit Mesopotamian Arabic">Gilit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Arabic" title="Baghdadi Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabic" title="Khuzestani Arabic">Khuzestani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawi_Arabic" title="Shawi Arabic">Shawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">South</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North</a> (Qeltu)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Arabic" title="Anatolian Arabic">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrani_Arabic" title="Bahrani Arabic">Bahrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bareqi_Arabic" title="Bareqi Arabic">Bareqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Bedawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofari_Arabic" title="Dhofari Arabic">Dhofari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahraini_Gulf_Arabic" title="Bahraini Gulf Arabic">Bahraini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirati_Arabic" title="Emirati Arabic">Emirati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Arabic" title="Kuwaiti Arabic">Kuwaiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihhi_Arabic" title="Shihhi Arabic">Shihhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Hadhrami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San%CA%BDani_Arabic" title="Sanʽani Arabic">Sanʽani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BDizzi-Adeni_Arabic" title="Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic">Taʽizzi-Adeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tihamiyya_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihamiyya Arabic">Tihami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian</a> <ul><li>Bakhtiari</li> <li>Bukhara</li> <li>Kashkadarya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabic" title="Khorasani Arabic">Khorasani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian Arabic">Nigerian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedouin_Arabic" title="Bedouin Arabic">Bedouin Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a> <ul><li>Kjal</li> <li>Wqal</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a> <ul><li>Tunisene</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a> <ul><li>Adeni</li> <li>Beda</li> <li>Habban</li> <li>Sanʽani</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic-based_creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic-based creole languages">Creoles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pidgin_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin Arabic">pidgins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bimbashi_Arabic" title="Bimbashi Arabic">Bimbashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Gulf Pidgin Arabic">Gulf Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Bengali_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Jordanian Bengali Pidgin Arabic">Jordanian Bengali Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juba_Arabic" title="Juba Arabic">Juba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maridi_Arabic" title="Maridi Arabic">Maridi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubi_language" title="Nubi language">Nubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin_madam" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin madam">Pidgin madam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turku_Arabic" title="Turku Arabic">Turku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bongor_Arabic" title="Bongor Arabic">Bongor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_name" title="Arabic name">Names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Phonology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters" title="Sun and moon letters">Sun and moon letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajwid" title="Tajwid">Tajwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Im%C4%81la" title="Imāla">Imāla</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BEI%CA%BFrab" title="ʾIʿrab">ʾIʿrāb (case)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Triliteral root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">Mater lectionis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_Arabic_Corpus" title="Quranic Arabic Corpus">Quranic Arabic Corpus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Script</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajami_script" title="Ajami script">Ajami script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diwani" title="Diwani">Diwani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hijazi_script" title="Hijazi script">Hijazi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawi_script" title="Jawi script">Jawi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeli_Thuluth" title="Jeli Thuluth">Jeli Thuluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairouani_calligraphy" title="Kairouani calligraphy">Kairouani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_script" title="Maghrebi script">Maghrebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashq" title="Mashq">Mashq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhaqqaq" title="Muhaqqaq">Muhaqqaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskh_(script)" title="Naskh (script)">Naskh (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastaliq" title="Nastaliq">Nastaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasm" title="Rasm">Rasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruq%CA%BFah_script" title="Ruqʿah script">Ruqʿah script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahmukhi" title="Shahmukhi">Shahmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sini_(script)" title="Sini (script)">Sini (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taliq_script" title="Taliq script">Taliq script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawqi" title="Tawqi">Tawqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuluth" title="Thuluth">Thuluth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_keyboard" title="Arabic keyboard">Arabic keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script_in_Unicode" title="Arabic script in Unicode">Arabic script in Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-6" title="ISO/IEC 8859-6">ISO/IEC 8859-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows-1256" title="Windows-1256">Windows-1256</a></li> <li>MS-DOS codepages <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_708" title="Code page 708">708</a></li> <li>709</li> <li>710</li> <li>711</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_720" title="Code page 720">720</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_864" title="Code page 864">864</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacArabic_encoding" title="MacArabic encoding">MacArabic encoding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Islam and Arabic language</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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