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id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Glottochronology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">30 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE" title="علم مقارنة اللغة والتاريخ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم مقارنة اللغة والتاريخ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glotocronolox%C3%ADa" title="Glotocronoloxía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Glotocronoloxía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qlottoxronologiya" title="Qlottoxronologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qlottoxronologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%85%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Глотохронология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Глотохронология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glotocronologia" title="Glotocronologia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Glotocronologia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottochronologie" title="Glottochronologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Glottochronologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glotokronoloogia" title="Glotokronoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Glotokronoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%83%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%87%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Γλωσσοχρονολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γλωσσοχρονολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glotocronolog%C3%ADa" title="Glotocronología – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Glotocronología" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glotokronologia" title="Glotokronologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Glotokronologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottochronologie" title="Glottochronologie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Glottochronologie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glotocronolox%C3%ADa" title="Glotocronoloxía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Glotocronoloxía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%EC%97%B0%EB%8C%80%ED%95%99" title="언어연대학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="언어연대학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glotokronologi" title="Glotokronologi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Glotokronologi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottocronologia" title="Glottocronologia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Glottocronologia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94" title="גלוטוכרונולוגיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גלוטוכרונולוגיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="გლოტოქრონოლოგია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გლოტოქრონოლოგია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%85%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Глоттохронология – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Глоттохронология" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glotochronologija" title="Glotochronologija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Glotochronologija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottochronologie" title="Glottochronologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Glottochronologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E5%B9%B4%E4%BB%A3%E5%AD%A6" title="言語年代学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="言語年代学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottokronologi" title="Glottokronologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Glottokronologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottokronologi" title="Glottokronologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Glottokronologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottoxronologiya" title="Glottoxronologiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Glottoxronologiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glotocronologia" title="Glotocronologia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Glotocronologia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%85%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Глоттохронология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Глоттохронология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glotokronologija" title="Glotokronologija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Glotokronologija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottokronoloji" title="Glottokronoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Glottokronoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%AF_th%E1%BB%9Di_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Ngữ thời học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngữ thời học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AF%AD%E8%A8%80%E5%B9%B4%E4%BB%A3%E5%AD%A6" title="语言年代学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="语言年代学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q942552#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Part of lexicostatistics</div> <p><b>Glottochronology</b> (from <a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic Greek</a> γλῶττα <i>tongue, language</i> and χρόνος <i>time</i>) is the part of <a href="/wiki/Lexicostatistics" title="Lexicostatistics">lexicostatistics</a> which involves comparative linguistics and deals with the <a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">chronological</a> relationship between languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Embleton_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Embleton-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 131">: 131 </span></sup> </p><p>The idea was developed by <a href="/wiki/Morris_Swadesh" title="Morris Swadesh">Morris Swadesh</a> in the 1950s in his article on Salish internal relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He developed the idea under two assumptions: there indeed exists a relatively stable <i>basic vocabulary</i> (referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh lists</a></i>) in all languages of the world; and, any replacements happen in a way analogous to <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> in a constant percentage per time elapsed. Using mathematics and statistics, Swadesh developed an equation to determine when languages separated and give an approximate time of when the separation occurred. His methods aimed to aid linguistic anthropologists by giving them a definitive way to determine a separation date between two languages. The formula provides an approximate number of centuries since two languages were supposed to have separated from a singular common ancestor. His methods also purported to provide information on when ancient languages may have existed.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite multiple studies and literature containing the information of glottochronology, it is not widely used today and is surrounded with controversy.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glottochronology tracks language separation from thousands of years ago but many linguists are skeptical of the concept because it is more of a 'probability' rather than a 'certainty.' On the other hand, some linguists may say that glottochronology is gaining traction because of its relatedness to archaeological dates. Glottochronology is not as accurate as archaeological data, but some linguists still believe that it can provide a solid estimate.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over time many different extensions of the Swadesh method evolved; however, Swadesh's original method is so well known that 'glottochronology' is usually associated with him.<sup id="cite_ref-Embleton_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Embleton-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 133">: 133 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology">Methodology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glottochronology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Methodology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The original method of glottochronology presumed that the core vocabulary of a language is replaced at a constant (or constant average) rate across all languages and cultures and so can be used to measure the passage of time. The process makes use of a list of lexical terms and morphemes which are similar to multiple languages. </p><p>Lists were compiled by Morris Swadesh and assumed to be resistant against borrowing (originally designed in 1952 as a list of 200 items (see, but the refined 100-word list in Swadesh (1955)<sup id="cite_ref-swadesh1955_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swadesh1955-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is much more common among modern day linguists). </p><p>The core vocabulary was designed to encompass concepts common to every human language such as personal pronouns, body parts, heavenly bodies and living beings, verbs of basic actions, numerals, basic adjectives, kin terms, and natural occurrences and events.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through a basic word list, one eliminates concepts that are specific to a particular culture or time period. It has been found through differentiating word lists that the ideal is really impossible and that the meaning set may need to be tailored to the languages being compared. Word lists are not homogenous throughout studies and they are often changed and designed to suit both languages being studied. Linguists find that it is difficult to find a word list where all words used are culturally unbiased.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many alternative word lists have been compiled by other linguists and often use fewer meaning slots. </p><p>The percentage of <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a> (words with a common origin) in the word lists is then measured. The larger the percentage of cognates, the more recently the two languages being compared are presumed to have separated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glottochronologic_constant">Glottochronologic constant</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glottochronology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Glottochronologic constant"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Determining word lists rely on morpheme decay or change in vocabulary. Morpheme decay must stay at a constant rate for glottochronology to be applied to a language. This leads to a critique of the glottochronologic formula because some linguists argue that the morpheme decay rate is not guaranteed to stay the same throughout history.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>American Linguist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lees_(linguist)" title="Robert Lees (linguist)">Robert Lees</a> obtained a value for the "glottochronological constant" (<b>r</b>) of words by considering the known changes in 13 pairs of languages using the 200 word list. He obtained a value of 0.8048 ± 0.0176 with 90% confidence. For his 100-word list Swadesh obtained a value of 0.86, the higher value reflecting the elimination of semantically unstable words. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Divergence_time">Divergence time</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glottochronology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Divergence time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The basic formula of glottochronology proposed by <a href="/wiki/Morris_Swadesh" title="Morris Swadesh">Morris Swadesh</a> is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t=-{\frac {\ln(c)}{2\ln(r)}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>t</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t=-{\frac {\ln(c)}{2\ln(r)}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1755a09da55284a713e3df1a623eca9fb4e863dc" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:12.929ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t=-{\frac {\ln(c)}{2\ln(r)}}}" /></span></dd></dl> <p><i>t</i> = a given period of time from one stage of the language to another (measured in millennia),<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>c</i> = proportion of wordlist items retained at the end of that period and <i>r</i> = rate of replacement for that word list. </p><p>By testing historically verifiable cases in which <i>t</i> is known by nonlinguistic data (such as the approximate distance from Classical Latin to modern Romance languages), Swadesh arrived at the empirical value of approximately 0.14 for <i>L</i>, (<i>c</i>?) which means that the rate of replacement constitutes around 14 words from the 100-wordlist per millennium. This is represented in the table below. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Glottochronology Time Scale </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Rough Median Dating</th> <th>Median Cognate Retention in 100-Word List </th></tr> <tr> <td>500 BP</td> <td>86% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1000 BP</td> <td>74% </td></tr> <tr> <td>1500 BP</td> <td>64% </td></tr> <tr> <td>2000 BP</td> <td>55% </td></tr> <tr> <td>2500 BP</td> <td>47% </td></tr> <tr> <td>3000 BP</td> <td>40% </td></tr> <tr> <td>4000 BP</td> <td>30% </td></tr> <tr> <td>5000 BP</td> <td>22% </td></tr> <tr> <td>6000 BP</td> <td>16% </td></tr> <tr> <td>7000 BP</td> <td>12% </td></tr> <tr> <td>8000 BP</td> <td>9% </td></tr> <tr> <td>9000 BP</td> <td>7% </td></tr> <tr> <td>10000 BP</td> <td>5% </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Results">Results</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glottochronology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Results"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Glottochronology was applied to a range of language families, including <a href="/wiki/Salishan" class="mw-redirect" title="Salishan">Salishan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European">Indo-European</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-q259_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-q259-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Japonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Japonic">Japonic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-b357_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b357-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Afro-Asiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Asiatic">Afro-Asiatic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-b524_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b524-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language"> Chinese</a><sup id="cite_ref-y152_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-y152-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Amerind_languages" title="Amerind languages">Mayan</a> and other American languages.<sup id="cite_ref-l956_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-l956-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For Amerind, correlations have been obtained with radiocarbon dating and blood groups<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (January 2022)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Glottochronology#Dubious" title="Talk:Glottochronology">discuss</a></i>]</sup> as well as archaeology.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Example_Wordlist">Example Wordlist</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glottochronology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Example Wordlist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Below is an example of a basic word list composed of basic Turkish words and their English translations.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Glottochronological Turkish 100 Word List </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>hep (all) </td> <td>ateş (fire) </td> <td>boyun (neck) </td> <td>bu (that) </td></tr> <tr> <td>kül (ashes) </td> <td>balık (fish) </td> <td>yeni (new) </td> <td>şu (this) </td></tr> <tr> <td>kabuk (bark) </td> <td>uçmak (fly) </td> <td>gece (night) </td> <td>sen (thou) </td></tr> <tr> <td>karın (belly) </td> <td>ayak (foot) </td> <td>burun (nose) </td> <td>dil (tongue) </td></tr> <tr> <td>büyük (big) </td> <td>vermek (give) </td> <td>bir (one) </td> <td>diş (tooth) </td></tr> <tr> <td>kuş (bird) </td> <td>iyi (good) </td> <td>kişi (person) </td> <td>ağaç (tree) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ısırmak (bite) </td> <td>yeşil (green) </td> <td>yağmur (rain) </td> <td>iki (two) </td></tr> <tr> <td>kara (black) </td> <td>saç (hair) </td> <td>kızıl (red) </td> <td>yürümek (walk) </td></tr> <tr> <td>kan (blood) </td> <td>el (hand) </td> <td>yol (road) </td> <td>sıcak (warm) </td></tr> <tr> <td>kemik (bone) </td> <td>baş (head) </td> <td>kök (root) </td> <td>su (water) </td></tr> <tr> <td>yakmak (burn) </td> <td>duymak (hear) </td> <td>kum (sand) </td> <td>biz (we) </td></tr> <tr> <td>bulut (cloud) </td> <td>gönül (heart) </td> <td>demek (say) </td> <td>ne (what) </td></tr> <tr> <td>soğuk (cold) </td> <td>ben (I) </td> <td>görmek (see) </td> <td>beyaz (white) </td></tr> <tr> <td>gelmek (come) </td> <td>öldürmek (kill) </td> <td>tohum (seed) </td> <td>kim (who) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ölmek (die) </td> <td>bilmek (know) </td> <td>oturmak (sit) </td> <td>kadın (woman) </td></tr> <tr> <td>köpek (dog) </td> <td>yaprak (leaf) </td> <td>deri (skin) </td> <td>sarı (yellow) </td></tr> <tr> <td>içmek (drink) </td> <td>yalan (lie) </td> <td>uyumak (sleep) </td> <td>uzun (long) </td></tr> <tr> <td>kuru (dry) </td> <td>ciğer (liver) </td> <td>küçük (small) </td> <td>yok (not) </td></tr> <tr> <td>kulak (ear) </td> <td>bit (louse) </td> <td>duman (smoke) </td> <td>göğüş (breast) </td></tr> <tr> <td>yer (earth) </td> <td>erkek (man-male) </td> <td>ayaktakalmak (stand) </td> <td>hayvan tırnagı (claw) </td></tr> <tr> <td>yemek (eat) </td> <td>çok (many) </td> <td>yıldız (star) </td> <td>dolu (full) </td></tr> <tr> <td>yumurta (egg) </td> <td>et (meat-flesh) </td> <td>taş (stone) </td> <td>boynuz (horn) </td></tr> <tr> <td>göz (eye) </td> <td>dağ (mountain) </td> <td>güneş (sun) </td> <td>diz (knee) </td></tr> <tr> <td>yağ (fat-grease) </td> <td>ağız (mouth) </td> <td>yüzmek (swim) </td> <td>ay (moon) </td></tr> <tr> <td>tüy (feather) </td> <td>isim (name) </td> <td>kuyruk (tail) </td> <td>yuvarlak (round) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discussion">Discussion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glottochronology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Discussion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of language change is old, and its history is reviewed in Hymes (1973) and Wells (1973). In some sense, glottochronology is a reconstruction of history and can often be closely related to archaeology. Many linguistic studies find the success of glottochronology to be found alongside archaeological data.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glottochronology itself dates back to the mid-20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-swadesh1955_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swadesh1955-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An introduction to the subject is given in Embleton (1986)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in McMahon and McMahon (2005).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Glottochronology has been controversial ever since, partly because of issues of accuracy but also because of the question of whether its basis is sound (for example, Bergsland 1958; Bergsland and Vogt 1962; Fodor 1961; Chrétien 1962; Guy 1980). The concerns have been addressed by Dobson et al. (1972), Dyen (1973)<sup id="cite_ref-dyen1973_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dyen1973-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Kruskal, Dyen and Black (1973).<sup id="cite_ref-kruskal1973_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kruskal1973-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The assumption of a single-word replacement rate can distort the divergence-time estimate when borrowed words are included (Thomason and Kaufman 1988). </p><p>The presentations vary from "Why linguists don't do dates" to the one by <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Starostin" title="Sergei Starostin">Starostin</a> discussed below. <sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since its original inception, glottochronology has been rejected by many linguists, mostly Indo-Europeanists of the school of the traditional <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a>. Criticisms have been answered in particular around three points of discussion: </p> <ul><li>Criticism levelled against the higher stability of lexemes in Swadesh lists alone (Haarmann 1990) misses the point because a certain amount of losses only enables the computations (Sankoff 1970). The non-homogeneity of word lists often leads to lack of understanding between linguists. Linguists also have difficulties finding a completely unbiased list of basic cultural words. it can take a long time for linguists to find a viable word list which can take several test lists to find a usable list.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Traditional glottochronology presumes that language changes at a stable rate.</li></ul> <dl><dd>Thus, in Bergsland & Vogt (1962), the authors make an impressive demonstration, on the basis of actual language data verifiable by extralinguistic sources, that the "rate of change" for <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> constituted around 4% per millennium, but for closely connected <a href="/wiki/Riksmal" class="mw-redirect" title="Riksmal">Riksmal</a> (Literary Norwegian), it would amount to as much as 20% (Swadesh's proposed "constant rate" was supposed to be around 14% per millennium).</dd> <dd>That and several other similar examples effectively proved that Swadesh's formula would not work on all available material, which is a serious accusation since evidence that can be used to "calibrate" the meaning of <i>L</i> (language history recorded during prolonged periods of time) is not overwhelmingly large in the first place.</dd> <dd>It is highly likely that the chance of replacement is different for every word or feature ("each word has its own history", among hundreds of other sources:<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>).</dd> <dd>That global assumption has been modified and downgraded to single words, even in single languages, in many newer attempts (see below).</dd> <dd>There is a lack of understanding of Swadesh's mathematical/statistical methods. Some linguists reject the methods in full because the statistics lead to 'probabilities' when linguists trust 'certainties' more.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <ul><li>A serious argument is that language change arises from socio-historical events that are, of course, unforeseeable and, therefore, uncomputable.</li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modifications">Modifications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glottochronology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Somewhere in between the original concept of Swadesh and the rejection of glottochronology in its entirety lies the idea that glottochronology as a formal method of linguistic analysis becomes valid with the help of several important modifications. Thus, inhomogeneities in the replacement rate were dealt with by Van der Merwe (1966)<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by splitting the word list into classes each with their own rate, while Dyen, James and Cole (1967)<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allowed each meaning to have its own rate. Simultaneous estimation of divergence time and replacement rate was studied by Kruskal, Dyen and Black.<sup id="cite_ref-kruskal1973_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kruskal1973-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Brainard (1970) allowed for chance cognation, and drift effects were introduced by Gleason (1959). Sankoff (1973) suggested introducing a borrowing parameter and allowed synonyms. </p><p>A combination of the various improvements is given in Sankoff's "Fully Parameterised Lexicostatistics". In 1972, Sankoff in a biological context developed a model of genetic divergence of populations. Embleton (1981) derives a simplified version of that in a linguistic context. She carries out a number of simulations using this which are shown to give good results. </p><p>Improvements in statistical methodology related to a completely different branch of science, <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetics</a>; the study of changes in DNA over time sparked a recent renewed interest. The new methods are more robust than the earlier ones because they calibrate points on the tree with known historical events and smooth the rates of change across them. As such, they no longer require the assumption of a constant rate of change (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120413143102/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/publications/index.php?pub=Gray_and_Atkinson2003Nature">Gray & Atkinson 2003</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Starostin's_method"><span id="Starostin.27s_method"></span>Starostin's method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glottochronology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Starostin's method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another attempt to introduce such modifications was performed by the Russian linguist <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Starostin" title="Sergei Starostin">Sergei Starostin</a>, who had proposed the following: </p> <ul><li>Systematic <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a>, borrowed from one language into another, are a disruptive factor and must be eliminated from the calculations; the one thing that really matters is the "native" replacement of items by items from the same language. The failure to notice that factor was a major reason in Swadesh's original estimation of the replacement rate at under 14 words from the 100-wordlist per millennium, but the real rate is much slower (around 5 or 6). Introducing that correction effectively cancels out the "Bergsland & Vogt" argument since a thorough analysis of the Riksmal data shows that its basic wordlist includes about 15 to 16 borrowings from other Germanic languages (mostly <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>), and the exclusion of those elements from the calculations brings the rate down to the expected rate of 5 to 6 "native" replacements per millennium.</li> <li>The rate of change is not really constant but depends on the time period during which the word has existed in the language (the chance of lexeme X being replaced by lexeme Y increases in direct proportion to the time elapsed, the so-called "aging of words" is empirically understood as gradual "erosion" of the word's primary meaning under the weight of acquired secondary ones).</li> <li>Individual items on the 100 word-list have different stability rates (for instance, the word "I" generally has a much lower chance of being replaced than the word "yellow").</li></ul> <p>The resulting formula, taking into account both the time dependence and the individual stability quotients, looks as follows: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t={\sqrt {\frac {\ln(c)}{-Lc}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>t</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>ln</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>c</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mi>L</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </msqrt> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t={\sqrt {\frac {\ln(c)}{-Lc}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b2d638fbfda561ece8029c9f24d82bf2117c4ae7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:11.853ex; height:7.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t={\sqrt {\frac {\ln(c)}{-Lc}}}}" /></span></dd></dl> <p>In that formula, −<i>Lc</i> reflects the gradual slowing down of the replacement process because of different individual rates since the least stable elements are the first and the quickest to be replaced, and the square root represents the reverse trend, the acceleration of replacement as items in the original wordlist "age" and become more prone to shifting their meaning. This formula is obviously more complicated than Swadesh's original one, but, it yields, as shown by Starostin, more credible results than the former and more or less agrees with all the cases of language separation that can be confirmed by historical knowledge. On the other hand, it shows that glottochronology can really be used only as a serious scientific tool on language families whose historical phonology has been meticulously elaborated (at least to the point of being able to distinguish between cognates and loanwords clearly). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glottochronology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_English" title="Basic English">Basic English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">Cognate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list" title="Dolgopolsky list">Dolgopolsky list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leipzig%E2%80%93Jakarta_list" title="Leipzig–Jakarta list">Leipzig–Jakarta list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicostatistics" title="Lexicostatistics">Lexicostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_lexical_comparison" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass lexical comparison">Mass lexical comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_comparative_linguistics" title="Quantitative comparative linguistics">Quantitative comparative linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh list</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glottochronology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Embleton-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Embleton_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Embleton_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sheila Embleton (1992). Historical Linguistics: Mathematical concepts. In W. Bright (Ed.), <i>International Encyclopedia of Linguistics</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSwadesh1950" class="citation journal cs1">Swadesh, Morris (Oct 1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1262898">"Salish Internal Relations"</a>. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>. <b>16</b>: <span class="nowrap">157–</span>167. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F464084">10.1086/464084</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1262898">1262898</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145122561">145122561</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Salish+Internal+Relations&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E157-%3C%2Fspan%3E167&rft.date=1950-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145122561%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1262898%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F464084&rft.aulast=Swadesh&rft.aufirst=Morris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1262898&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlottochronology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOttenheimer2006" class="citation book cs1">Ottenheimer, Harriet Joseph (2006). <i>The Anthropology of Language</i>. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. pp. <span class="nowrap">292–</span>293. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-50884-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-50884-7"><bdi>978-0-495-50884-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anthropology+of+Language&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E292-%3C%2Fspan%3E293&rft.pub=Wadsworth%2C+Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-495-50884-7&rft.aulast=Ottenheimer&rft.aufirst=Harriet+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlottochronology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrown2006" class="citation journal cs1">Brown, Cecil H. (Sep 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3804627">"Prehistoric Chronology of the Common Bean in the New World: The Linguistic Evidence"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>108</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">507–</span>516. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.2006.108.3.507">10.1525/aa.2006.108.3.507</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3804627">3804627</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Prehistoric+Chronology+of+the+Common+Bean+in+the+New+World%3A+The+Linguistic+Evidence&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E507-%3C%2Fspan%3E516&rft.date=2006-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.2006.108.3.507&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3804627%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Cecil+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3804627&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlottochronology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holm, Hans J. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09296170701378916">The new Arboretum of Indo-European 'Trees'; Can new algorithms reveal the Phylogeny and even Prehistory of IE?</a>. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 14-2:167–214</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-swadesh1955-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-swadesh1955_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-swadesh1955_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Swadesh, Morris. (1955). Towards greater accuracy in lexicostatistic dating. <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, <i>21</i>, 121–137</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lees, Robert. (1953). The basis of glottochronology. <i>Language</i>, <i>29</i> (2), 113–127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">van der Merwe, N. J. 1966 "New mathematics for glottochronology", Current Anthropology 7: 485–500</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcMahonMcMahon2005" class="citation book cs1">McMahon, April; McMahon, Robert (2005). <i>Language Classification by Numbers</i>. 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"A Glottochronological Study on Three Okinawan Dialects". <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>. <b>27</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">52–</span>62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F464603">10.1086/464603</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7071">0020-7071</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=A+Glottochronological+Study+on+Three+Okinawan+Dialects&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E52-%3C%2Fspan%3E62&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F464603&rft.issn=0020-7071&rft.aulast=Hattori&rft.aufirst=Shiro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlottochronology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b524-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-b524_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFleming1973" class="citation book cs1">Fleming, Harold C. 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(1978). "Glotto chronologic theory: Valid or not in Chinese languages?". <i>Canadian Journal of Linguistics/Revue canadienne de linguistique</i>. <b>23</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">55–</span>65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0008413100008707">10.1017/S0008413100008707</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-4131">0008-4131</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Linguistics%2FRevue+canadienne+de+linguistique&rft.atitle=Glotto+chronologic+theory%3A+Valid+or+not+in+Chinese+languages%3F&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E55-%3C%2Fspan%3E65&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0008413100008707&rft.issn=0008-4131&rft.aulast=Munro&rft.aufirst=Stanley+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlottochronology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-l956-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-l956_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStark1973" class="citation book cs1">Stark, Louisa R. (1973-12-31). "GLOTTOCHRONOLOGY AND THE PREHISTORY OF WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA". <i>Lexicostatistics in Genetic Linguistics</i>. De Gruyter. p. 100–107. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110880847-009">10.1515/9783110880847-009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-088084-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-088084-7"><bdi>978-3-11-088084-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=GLOTTOCHRONOLOGY+AND+THE+PREHISTORY+OF+WESTERN+SOUTH+AMERICA&rft.btitle=Lexicostatistics+in+Genetic+Linguistics&rft.pages=100-107&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=1973-12-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110880847-009&rft.isbn=978-3-11-088084-7&rft.aulast=Stark&rft.aufirst=Louisa+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlottochronology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPierce1996" class="citation journal cs1">Pierce, Joe E. (Feb 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1966.68.1.02a00150">"Glottochronology and the Turkish Basic Vocabulary"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>68</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">137–</span>143. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1966.68.1.02a00150">10.1525/aa.1966.68.1.02a00150</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/668071">668071</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Glottochronology+and+the+Turkish+Basic+Vocabulary&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E137-%3C%2Fspan%3E143&rft.date=1996-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1966.68.1.02a00150&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F668071%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Joe+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1966.68.1.02a00150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlottochronology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Swadesh, Morris (1972). What is glottochronology? In M. Swadesh, <i>The origin and diversification of languages</i> (pp. 271–284). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Embleton, Sheila M. (1986). <i>Statistics in Historical Linguistics</i> [Quantitative linguistics, vol. 30]. Bochum: Brockmeyer. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-88339-537-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-88339-537-4">3-88339-537-4</a>. – State of the art up to then.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McMahon, April and McMahon, Robert (2005) <i>Language Classification by Numbers</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press (particularly p. 95)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dyen1973-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dyen1973_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dyen, Isidore, ed. (1973). <i>Lexicostatistics in genetic linguistics: Proceedings of the Yale conference, April 3–4, 1971</i>. La Haye: Mouton.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-kruskal1973-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kruskal1973_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-kruskal1973_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Some Results From the Vocabulary Method of Reconstructing Language Trees, Joseph B. Kruskal, Isidore Dyen and Paul Black, Lexicostatistics in Genetic Linguistics, Isidore Dyen (editor), Mouton, The Hague, 1973, pp. 30–55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPereltsvaigLewis2015" class="citation book cs1">Pereltsvaig, Asya; Lewis, Martin W. (5 May 2015). "8 - Why linguists don't do dates? – Or do they? from Part III - Searching for Indo-European origins". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/indoeuropean-controversy/why-linguists-dont-do-dates-or-do-they/1E25F02F0EC1783AD087ADC527A08DBF"><i>The Indo-European Controversy Facts and Fallacies in Historical Linguistics</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 159+<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"A Lexicostatistical classification of the Austronesian languages." <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>, Memoir 19.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120413143102/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/publications/index.php?pub=Gray_and_Atkinson2003Nature">Gray, R.D. & Atkinson, Q.D. (2003): "Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin." <i>Nature</i> 426–435–439.</a></li> <li>Gudschinsky, Sarah. (1956). The ABC's of lexicostatistics (glottochronology). <i>Word</i>, <i>12</i>, 175–210.</li> <li>Haarmann, Harald. (1990). "Basic vocabulary and language contacts; the disillusion of glottochronology. In <i>Indogermanische Forschungen </i> 95:7ff.</li> <li>Hockett, Charles F. (1958). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/bitstream/1/20411/1/46174.pdf">A course in modern linguistics</a></i> (Chap. 6). New York: Macmillan.</li> <li>Hoijer, Harry. (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/410652">Lexicostatistics: A critique</a>. <i>Language</i>, <i>32</i>, 49–60.</li> <li>Holm, Hans J. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/indo.2003.108.issue-1/9783110243482.38/9783110243482.38.xml">The Proportionality Trap. Or: What is wrong with lexicostatistical Subgrouping</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190602013708/https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/indo.2003.108.issue-1/9783110243482.38/9783110243482.38.xml">Archived</a> 2019-06-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.<i>Indogermanische Forschungen</i>, <i>108</i>, <i>38–46</i>.</li> <li>Holm, Hans J. (2005). Genealogische Verwandtschaft. Kap. 45 in <i>Quantitative Linguistik; ein internationales Handbuch. Herausgegeben von R.Köhler, G. Altmann, R. Piotrowski</i>, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.</li> <li>Holm, Hans J. (2007). The new Arboretum of Indo-European 'Trees'; Can new algorithms reveal the Phylogeny and even Prehistory of IE?. <i>Journal of Quantitative Linguistics</i> 14-2:167–214</li> <li>Hymes, Dell H. (1960). Lexicostatistics so far. <i>Current Anthropology</i>, <i>1</i> (1), 3–44.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McWhorter" title="John McWhorter">McWhorter, John</a>. (2001). <i>The power of Babel</i>. New York: Freeman. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4473-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-4473-3">978-0-7167-4473-3</a>.</li> <li>Nettle, Daniel. (1999). Linguistic diversity of the Americas can be reconciled with a recent colonization. in <i>PNAS</i> 96(6):3325–9.</li> <li>Sankoff, David (1970). "On the Rate of Replacement of Word-Meaning Relationships." <i>Language</i> 46.564–569.</li> <li>Sjoberg, Andree; & Sjoberg, Gideon. (1956). Problems in glottochronology. <i>American Anthropologist</i>, <i>58</i> (2), 296–308.</li> <li>Starostin, Sergei. Methodology Of Long-Range Comparison. 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/method.pdf">pdf</a></li> <li>Thomason, Sarah Grey, and Kaufman, Terrence. (1988). <i>Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press.</li> <li>Tischler, Johann, 1973. Glottochronologie und Lexikostatistik [Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft 11]; Innsbruck.</li> <li>Wittmann, Henri (1969). "A lexico-statistic inquiry into the diachrony of Hittite." <i>Indogermanische Forschungen</i> 74.1–10.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.nou-la.org/ling/1969a-lexstatHitt.pdf">[1]</a></li> <li>Wittmann, Henri (1973). "The lexicostatistical classification of the French-based Creole languages." <i>Lexicostatistics in genetic linguistics: Proceedings of the Yale conference, April 3–4, 1971</i>, dir. Isidore Dyen, 89–99. La Haye: Mouton.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.nou-la.org/ling/1973f-lexstatFC.pdf">[2]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kingsley_Zipf" title="George Kingsley Zipf">Zipf, George K.</a> (1965). <i>The Psychobiology of Language: an Introduction to Dynamic Philology.</i> Cambridge, MA: M.I.T.Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glottochronology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Swadesh_list" class="extiw" title="wikt:Swadesh list">Swadesh list</a> in Wiktionary.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linguistlist.org/issues/5/5-1168/">Discussion with some statistics</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.specgram.com/CLIV.1/08.phlogiston.cartoon.jiu.html">A simplified explanation of the difference between glottochronology and lexicostatistics.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elinguistics.net/">Queryable experiment: quantification of the genetic proximity between 110 languages with trees and discussion</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Long-range_comparative_linguistics354" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Long-range_comparative_linguistics" title="Template:Long-range comparative linguistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Long-range_comparative_linguistics" title="Template talk:Long-range comparative linguistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Long-range_comparative_linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Long-range comparative linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Long-range_comparative_linguistics354" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Long-range <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">comparative linguistics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">Comparative method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymological_dictionary" title="Etymological dictionary">Etymological dictionary</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Glottochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicostatistics" title="Lexicostatistics">Lexicostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">Linguistic reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_reconstruction" title="Internal reconstruction">Internal reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_universal" title="Linguistic universal">Linguistic universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrofamily" title="Macrofamily">Macrofamily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_comparison" title="Mass comparison">Mass comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolinguistics" title="Paleolinguistics">Paleolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list" title="Dolgopolsky list">Dolgopolsky list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leipzig%E2%80%93Jakarta_list" title="Leipzig–Jakarta list">Leipzig–Jakarta list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Language families</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-human_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-human language">Proto-human</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borean_languages" title="Borean languages">Borean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerind_languages" title="Amerind languages">Amerind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nostratic_languages" title="Nostratic languages">Nostratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamo-Dravidian_languages" title="Elamo-Dravidian languages">Elamo-Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasiatic_languages" title="Eurasiatic languages">Eurasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural-Altaic_languages" title="Ural-Altaic languages">Ural-Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Uralic_languages" title="Indo-Uralic languages">Indo-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Uralic_languages" title="Sino-Uralic languages">Sino-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Caucasian_languages" title="Dené–Caucasian languages">Dené–Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages" title="North Caucasian languages">North Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austric_languages" title="Austric languages">Austric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pacific_languages" title="Indo-Pacific languages">Indo-Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Bengtson" title="John Bengtson">John Bengtson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Bla%C5%BEek" title="Václav Blažek">Václav Blažek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_R._Bomhard" title="Allan R. Bomhard">Allan R. Bomhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Burlak" title="Svetlana Burlak">Svetlana Burlak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aharon_Dolgopolsky" title="Aharon Dolgopolsky">Aharon Dolgopolsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Dybo" title="Vladimir Dybo">Vladimir Dybo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_C._Fleming" title="Harold C. Fleming">Harold C. Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Helimski" title="Eugene Helimski">Eugene Helimski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladislav_Illich-Svitych" title="Vladislav Illich-Svitych">Vladislav Illich-Svitych</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Kortlandt" title="Frederik Kortlandt">Frederik Kortlandt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_Manaster_Ramer" title="Alexis Manaster Ramer">Alexis Manaster Ramer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Nikolaev_(linguist)" title="Sergei Nikolaev (linguist)">Sergei Nikolaev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorin_Paliga" title="Sorin Paliga">Sorin Paliga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holger_Pedersen_(linguist)" title="Holger Pedersen (linguist)">Holger Pedersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilia_Peiros" title="Ilia Peiros">Ilia Peiros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martine_Robbeets" title="Martine Robbeets">Martine Robbeets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merritt_Ruhlen" title="Merritt Ruhlen">Merritt Ruhlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Shevoroshkin" title="Vitaly Shevoroshkin">Vitaly Shevoroshkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgiy_Starostin" title="Georgiy Starostin">Georgiy Starostin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Starostin" title="Sergei Starostin">Sergei Starostin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_Trombetti" title="Alfredo Trombetti">Alfredo Trombetti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Language_Relationship" title="Journal of Language Relationship">Journal of Language Relationship</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mother_Tongue_(journal)" title="Mother Tongue (journal)">Mother Tongue</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Etymological_Dictionary_of_the_Altaic_Languages" title="Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages">Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Languages_of_Africa" title="The Languages of Africa">The Languages of Africa</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions and schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Human_Languages" title="Evolution of Human Languages">Evolution of Human Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Linguistics_of_the_Russian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences">Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_School_of_Comparative_Linguistics" title="Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics">Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_State_University_for_the_Humanities" title="Russian State University for the Humanities">Russian State University for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_Institute" title="Santa Fe Institute">Santa Fe Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Linguistics portal</a> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Long-range_comparative_linguistics" title="Category:Long-range comparative linguistics">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link 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title="Time">Time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periods</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Era" title="Era">Eras</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Epoch_(reference_date)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch (reference date)">Epochs</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Calendar_era" title="Calendar era">Calendar eras</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_calendar" title="Holocene calendar">Human Era</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita" title="Ab urbe condita">Ab urbe condita</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anno_Domini" title="Anno Domini">Anno Domini</a> / <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anno_Mundi" title="Anno Mundi">Anno Mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosporan_era" title="Bosporan era">Bosporan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bostran_era" title="Bostran era">Bostran era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_calendar" title="Byzantine calendar">Byzantine era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_era" title="Seleucid era">Seleucid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Caesar_(Iberian_Peninsula)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era of Caesar (Iberian Peninsula)">Era of Caesar (Iberia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Before_present" class="mw-redirect" title="Before present">Before present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Hijri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sothic_cycle" title="Sothic cycle">Sothic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_units_of_time" title="Hindu units of time">Hindu units of time</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yuga" title="Yuga">Yuga</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar" title="Mesoamerican Long Count calendar">Long Count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar#Short_Count" title="Maya calendar">Short Count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzolk%27in" class="mw-redirect" title="Tzolk'in">Tzolk'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haab%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Haab'">Haab'</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">Regnal year</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anka_year" title="Anka year">Anka year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_of_Kings" title="Canon of Kings">Canon of Kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnal_years_of_English_and_British_monarchs" title="Regnal years of English and British monarchs">English and British regnal year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Regnal_lists" title="Category:Regnal lists">Lists of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limmu" title="Limmu">Limmu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">Era names</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_era_name" title="Chinese era name">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_era_name" title="Japanese era name">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_era_name" title="Korean era name">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_era_name" title="Vietnamese era name">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">Calendars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Pre-Julian / Julian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Pre-Julian Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Original Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proleptic_Julian_calendar" title="Proleptic Julian calendar">Proleptic Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revised_Julian_calendar" title="Revised Julian calendar">Revised Julian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Gregorian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proleptic_Gregorian_calendar" title="Proleptic Gregorian calendar">Proleptic Gregorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">Old Style and New Style dates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_the_Gregorian_calendar" title="Adoption of the Gregorian calendar">Adoption of the Gregorian calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_dating" title="Dual dating">Dual dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">Lunisolar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_calendar" title="Solar calendar">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">Lunar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_year_numbering" title="Astronomical year numbering">Astronomical year numbering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexagenary_cycle" title="Sexagenary cycle">Chinese sexagenary cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_Calendar" title="Geologic Calendar">Geologic Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_calendars" title="Iranian calendars">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_week_date" title="ISO week date">ISO week date</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_calendar" title="Aztec calendar">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_count" title="Winter count">Winter count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Earth_Time" title="New Earth Time">New Earth Time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_chronology" title="Astronomical chronology">Astronomic time</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#fff;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Calendar" title="Cosmic Calendar">Cosmic Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephemeris" title="Ephemeris">Ephemeris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_year" title="Galactic year">Galactic year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metonic_cycle" title="Metonic cycle">Metonic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles" title="Milankovitch cycles">Milankovitch cycles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_time" title="Deep time">Deep time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale#Terminology" title="Geologic time scale">Geological time units</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Standard_Stratigraphic_Age" title="Global Standard Stratigraphic Age">Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Section_and_Point" title="Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point">Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronostratigraphy" title="Chronostratigraphy">Chronostratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_geochemistry" title="Isotope geochemistry">Isotope geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_superposition" title="Law of superposition">Law of superposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">Luminescence dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarium%E2%80%93neodymium_dating" title="Samarium–neodymium dating">Samarium–neodymium dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">Chronological<br />dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Absolute_dating" title="Absolute dating">Absolute dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_dating" title="Amino acid dating">Amino acid racemisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeomagnetic_dating" title="Archaeomagnetic dating">Archaeomagnetic dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrochronology" title="Dendrochronology">Dendrochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">Ice core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incremental_dating" title="Incremental dating">Incremental dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichenometry" title="Lichenometry">Lichenometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleomagnetism" title="Paleomagnetism">Paleomagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Lead–lead dating">Lead–lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E2%80%93Ar_dating" title="K–Ar dating">Potassium–argon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Uranium–lead dating">Uranium–lead</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephrochronology" title="Tephrochronology">Tephrochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">Luminescence dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoluminescence_dating" title="Thermoluminescence dating">Thermoluminescence dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Relative_dating" title="Relative dating">Relative dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluorine_absorption_dating" title="Fluorine absorption dating">Fluorine absorption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dating" title="Nitrogen dating">Nitrogen dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsidian_hydration_dating" title="Obsidian hydration dating">Obsidian hydration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seriation_(archaeology)" title="Seriation (archaeology)">Seriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy_(archaeology)" title="Stratigraphy (archaeology)">Stratigraphy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Genetic methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">Molecular clock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Linguistic methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Glottochronology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">Chronicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Chronology_(Fomenko)" class="mw-redirect" title="New Chronology (Fomenko)">New Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronoptic_view" title="Synchronoptic view">Synchronoptic view</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline" title="Timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_zero" title="Year zero">Year zero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floruit" title="Floruit">Floruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminus_post_quem" title="Terminus post quem">Terminus post quem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASPRO_chronology" title="ASPRO chronology">ASPRO chronology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glottochronology&oldid=1282879378">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glottochronology&oldid=1282879378</a>"</div></div> <div 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