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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Military_structure_and_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hoplite" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hoplite"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Hoplite</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hoplite-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_hoplite_phalanx" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_hoplite_phalanx"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>The hoplite phalanx</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_hoplite_phalanx-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hoplite_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hoplite_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Hoplite warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hoplite_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_elements_of_Greek_armies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_elements_of_Greek_armies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Other elements of Greek armies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_elements_of_Greek_armies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agricultural_and_economic_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agricultural_and_economic_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Agricultural and economic impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agricultural_and_economic_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Naval_tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naval_tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Naval tactics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Naval_tactics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Naval tactics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Naval_tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Battle_formations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_formations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Battle formations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_formations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diekplous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diekplous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span><i>Diekplous</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diekplous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Periplous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Periplous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span><i>Periplous</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Periplous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ramming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ramming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Ramming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ramming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shearing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shearing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Shearing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shearing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marines_and_archers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marines_and_archers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Marines and archers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marines_and_archers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Land tactics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Land_tactics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Land tactics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Land_tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hoplites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hoplites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Hoplites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hoplites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phalanx" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phalanx"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Phalanx</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phalanx-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Melee" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Melee"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Melee</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Melee-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ambuscade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ambuscade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Ambuscade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ambuscade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_campaigns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_campaigns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Military campaigns</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Military_campaigns-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Military campaigns subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Military_campaigns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Greco-Persian_Wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Greco-Persian_Wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>The Greco-Persian Wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Greco-Persian_Wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Peloponnesian_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Peloponnesian_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>The Peloponnesian War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Peloponnesian_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mercenaries_and_light_infantry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mercenaries_and_light_infantry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Mercenaries and light infantry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mercenaries_and_light_infantry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spartan_&_Theban_hegemonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spartan_&_Theban_hegemonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Spartan & Theban hegemonies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spartan_&_Theban_hegemonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_rise_of_Macedon_and_the_end_of_the_hoplite_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_rise_of_Macedon_and_the_end_of_the_hoplite_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>The rise of Macedon and the end of the hoplite era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_rise_of_Macedon_and_the_end_of_the_hoplite_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_innovations_of_Phillip_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_innovations_of_Phillip_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.1</span> <span>The innovations of Phillip II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_innovations_of_Phillip_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%93%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Военно дело в Древна Гърция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Военно дело в Древна Гърция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_a_l%27antiga_Gr%C3%A8cia" title="Guerra a l'antiga Grècia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Guerra a l'antiga Grècia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Hoplite_grave_relief.jpg/255px-Hoplite_grave_relief.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Hoplite_grave_relief.jpg/340px-Hoplite_grave_relief.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1848" /></a><figcaption>Ancient Greek marble relief (c. 330 BC) depicting a soldier in combat, holding his weapon in his hand as he prepares to strike a fallen enemy; the relief may have been part of an official Athenian state memorial; from the <a href="/wiki/Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek" title="Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek">Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek</a> collection, Copenhagen, Denmark</figcaption></figure> <p>Warfare occurred throughout the <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_Dark_Ages" title="Greek Dark Ages">Greek Dark Ages</a> onward. The Greek 'Dark Ages' drew to an end as a significant increase in population allowed urbanized <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> to be restored, which led to the rise of the <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a> (<i>Poleis</i>). These developments ushered in the period of <a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic Greece</a> (800–480 BC). They also restored the capability of organized warfare between these <i><a href="/wiki/Poleis" class="mw-redirect" title="Poleis">Poleis</a></i> (as opposed to small-scale raids to acquire livestock and grain, for example). The fractious nature of Ancient Greek society seems to have made continuous conflict on this larger scale inevitable. </p><p>Along with the rise of the city-<a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">states</a> evolved a new style of warfare: the <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplite</a> <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a>. Hoplites were armored <a href="/wiki/Infantrymen" class="mw-redirect" title="Infantrymen">infantrymen</a>, armed with <a href="/wiki/Spears" class="mw-redirect" title="Spears">spears</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shields" class="mw-redirect" title="Shields">shields</a>. Seen in media, the phalanx was a formation of these soldiers with their shields locked together and spears pointed forward. The <a href="/wiki/Chigi_vase" title="Chigi vase">Chigi vase</a>, dated to around 650 BC, is the earliest depiction of a hoplite in full battle array. With this evolution in warfare, battles seem to have consisted mostly of the clash of hoplite phalanxes from the city-states in conflict. Since the soldiers were citizens with other occupations, warfare was limited in distance, season and scale. Neither side could afford heavy casualties or sustained campaigns, so conflicts seem to have been resolved by a single <a href="/wiki/Pitched_battle" title="Pitched battle">set-piece battle</a>. </p><p>The scope and scale of warfare in Ancient Greece changed as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a>, which marked the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a> (480–323 BC). To battle the enormous armies of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> was effectively beyond the capabilities of a single city-state. The eventual triumph of the Greeks was achieved by alliances of many city-states, on a scale and scope never seen before. The rise of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Athens">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> during this conflict led directly to the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>, which saw diversification of warfare. Emphasis shifted to naval battles and strategies of attrition such as blockades and sieges. Following the defeat of the Athenians in 404 BC, and the disbandment of the Athenian-dominated <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> fell under the <a href="/wiki/Spartan_hegemony" title="Spartan hegemony">Spartan hegemony</a>. But this was unstable, and the Persian Empire sponsored a rebellion by the combined powers of Athens, <a href="/wiki/Thebes_(Greece)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thebes (Greece)">Thebes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese" title="Argos, Peloponnese">Argos</a>, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a> (395–387 BC). Persia switched sides, which ended the war, in return for the cities of <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a> and Spartan non-interference in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>. The Spartan hegemony would last another 16 years, until, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leuctra" title="Battle of Leuctra">Battle of Leuctra</a> (371) the Spartans were decisively defeated by the Theban general <a href="/wiki/Epaminondas" title="Epaminondas">Epaminondas</a>. </p><p>The Thebans acted with alacrity to establish a <a href="/wiki/Theban_hegemony" title="Theban hegemony">hegemony</a> of their own over Greece. However, <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a> lacked sufficient manpower and resources, and became overstretched. Following the death of Epaminondas and loss of manpower at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mantinea_(362_BC)" title="Battle of Mantinea (362 BC)">Battle of Mantinea</a>, the Theban hegemony ceased. The losses in the ten years of the Theban hegemony left all the Greek city-states weakened and divided. The city-states of southern Greece were too weak to resist the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian kingdom</a> in the north. With revolutionary tactics, <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">King Philip II</a> brought most of Greece under his sway, paving the way for the conquest of "the known world" by his son <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>. The rise of the Macedonian Kingdom is generally taken to signal the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, and certainly marked <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_armies" title="Hellenistic armies">the end of the distinctive hoplite battle in Ancient Greece</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_structure_and_methods">Military structure and methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Military structure and methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hoplite">Hoplite</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hoplite"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">Hoplite</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_hoplite.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Greek_hoplite.png/220px-Greek_hoplite.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Greek_hoplite.png/330px-Greek_hoplite.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Greek_hoplite.png 2x" data-file-width="331" data-file-height="267" /></a><figcaption>A hoplite armed with an <a href="/wiki/Aspis" title="Aspis">aspis</a> and a doru. It is usually agreed that the doru could not be used two-handed with the <a href="/wiki/Aspis" title="Aspis">Aspis</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Along with the rise of the city-state evolved a brand new style of warfare and the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">hoplite</a>. The hoplite was an infantryman, the central element of warfare in Ancient Greece. The word hoplite (Greek ὁπλίτης, hoplitēs) derives from hoplon (ὅπλον, plural hopla, ὅπλα) meaning the arms carried by a hoplite<sup id="cite_ref-Sekunda2000_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sekunda2000-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hoplites were the citizen-soldiers of the Ancient Greek City-states (except Spartans who were professional soldiers). They were primarily armed as spear-men and fought in a phalanx (see below). </p><p>Hoplite armor was extremely expensive for the average citizen, so it was commonly passed down from the soldier's father or relative. Alexander’s Macedonian army had spears called <a href="/wiki/Sarissa" title="Sarissa">sarissas</a> that were 18 feet long, far longer than the 6–9 foot Greek <a href="/wiki/Dory_(spear)" title="Dory (spear)">dory</a>. The secondary weapon of a hoplite was the <a href="/wiki/Xiphos" title="Xiphos">xiphos</a>, a short sword used when the soldier's spear was broken or lost while fighting. </p><p>The origins of the hoplite are obscure, and no small matter of contention amongst historians. Traditionally, this has been dated to the 8th century BC, and attributed to Sparta; but more recent views suggest a later date, towards the 7th century BC <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Certainly, by approximately 650 BC, as dated by the <a href="/wiki/Chigi_vase" title="Chigi vase">Chigi vase</a>, the 'hoplite revolution' was complete. The major innovation in the development of the hoplite seems to have been the characteristic circular shield (<i><a href="/wiki/Aspis" title="Aspis">aspis</a></i>), roughly 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter, and made of wood faced with bronze.<sup id="cite_ref-fire_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fire-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although comparatively heavy, the design of this shield was such that it could be supported on the shoulder. More importantly, it permitted the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Shield-wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Shield-wall">shield-wall</a> by an army, an impenetrable mass of men and shields. Men were also equipped with metal greaves and also a breastplate made of bronze, leather, or stiff cloth. When this was combined with the primary weapon of the hoplite, 2–3 m (6.6–9.8 ft) long spear (the <i><a href="/wiki/Dory_(spear)" title="Dory (spear)">doru</a></i>), it gave both offensive and defensive capabilities. </p><p>Regardless of where it developed, the model for the hoplite army evidently quickly spread throughout Greece. The persuasive qualities of the phalanx were probably its relative simplicity (allowing its use by a citizen militia), low fatality rate (important for small city-states), and relatively low cost (enough for each hoplite to provide his own equipment).<sup id="cite_ref-fire_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fire-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Phalanx also became a source of political influence because men had to provide their own equipment to be a part of the army. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_hoplite_phalanx">The hoplite phalanx</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The hoplite phalanx"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">Phalanx</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Phalanx.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Greek_Phalanx.jpg/220px-Greek_Phalanx.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Greek_Phalanx.jpg/330px-Greek_Phalanx.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Greek_Phalanx.jpg/440px-Greek_Phalanx.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of a Hoplite Phalanx formation</figcaption></figure> <p>The ancient Greek city-states developed a military formation called the <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a>, which were rows of shoulder-to-shoulder hoplites. The Hoplites would lock their shields together, and the first few ranks of soldiers would project their spears out over the first rank of shields. The Phalanx therefore presented a shield wall and a mass of spear points to the enemy, making frontal assaults much more difficult. It also allowed a higher proportion of the soldiers to be actively engaged in combat at a given time (rather than just those in the front rank). </p><p>The phalanx formed the core of ancient Greek militaries. Because hoplites were all protected by their own shield and others’ shields and spears, they were relatively safe as long as the formation didn't break. When advancing towards an enemy, the phalanx would break into a run that was sufficient to create momentum but not too much as to lose cohesion.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The opposing sides would collide viciously, possibly terrifying many of the hoplites of the front row. The battle would then rely on the valour of the men in the front line, while those in the rear maintained forward pressure on the front ranks with their shields. When in combat, the whole formation would consistently press forward trying to break the enemy formation; thus, when two phalanx formations engaged, the struggle essentially became a pushing match,<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson169_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson169-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which, as a rule, the deeper phalanx would almost always win, with few recorded exceptions. </p><p>When exactly the phalanx was developed is uncertain, but it is thought to have been developed by the Argives in their early clashes with the Spartans. The <a href="/wiki/Chigi_vase" title="Chigi vase">chigi vase</a>, dated to around 650 BC, is the earliest depiction of a hoplite in full battle array. The hoplite was a well-armed and armored citizen-soldier primarily drawn from the middle classes. Every man had to serve at least two years in the army.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Fighting in the tight phalanx formation maximised the effectiveness of his armor, large shield and long spear, presenting a wall of armor and spear points to the enemy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hoplite_warfare">Hoplite warfare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Hoplite warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_of_Aristion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Stele_of_Aristion.jpg/220px-Stele_of_Aristion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Stele_of_Aristion.jpg/330px-Stele_of_Aristion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Stele_of_Aristion.jpg/440px-Stele_of_Aristion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3303" data-file-height="4274" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stele_of_Aristion" title="Stele of Aristion">Stele of Aristion</a>, heavy-infantryman or hoplite. 510 BC. Top of helmet and pointed beard missing.</figcaption></figure> <p>At least in the Archaic Period, the fragmentary nature of Ancient Greece, with many competing city-states, increased the frequency of conflict, but conversely limited the scale of warfare. Unable to maintain professional armies, the city-states relied on their citizens to fight. This inevitably reduced the potential duration of campaigns, as citizens would need to return to their jobs (especially in the case of farmers). Campaigns would therefore often be restricted to summer. Armies marched directly to their target, possibly agreed on by the protagonists. <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> was an exception to this rule, as every <a href="/wiki/Spartiate" title="Spartiate">Spartiate</a> was a professional soldier. Spartans instead relied on slaves called <a href="/wiki/Helots" title="Helots">helots</a> for civilian jobs such as farming. </p><p>If battle was refused by one side, it would retreat to the city, in which case the attackers generally had to content themselves with ravaging the countryside around, since the campaign season was too limited to attempt a siege.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> When battles occurred, they were usually set piece and intended to be decisive. These battles were short, bloody, and brutal, and thus required a high degree of discipline. At least in the early classical period, hoplites were the primary force; light troops and cavalry generally protected the flanks and performed <a href="/wiki/Skirmisher" title="Skirmisher">skirmishing</a>, acting as support troops for the core <a href="/wiki/Heavy_infantry" title="Heavy infantry">heavy infantry</a>. </p><p>The strength of hoplites was <a href="/wiki/Shock_combat" class="mw-redirect" title="Shock combat">shock combat</a>. The two phalanxes would smash into each other in hopes of quickly breaking the enemy force's line. Failing that, a battle degenerated into a pushing match, with the men in the rear trying to force the front lines through those of the enemy.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson169_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson169-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This maneuver was known as the <i>Othismos</i> or "push." Thucydides described hoplite warfare as <i>othismos aspidon</i> or "the push of shields".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Battles rarely lasted more than an hour.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once one of the lines broke, the troops would generally flee from the field, chased by peltasts or light cavalry if available. If a hoplite escaped, he would sometimes be forced to drop his cumbersome <a href="/wiki/Aspis" title="Aspis">aspis</a>, thereby disgracing himself to his friends and family. Casualties were slight compared to later battles, amounting to anywhere between 5 and 15% for the winning and losing sides respectively,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the slain often included the most prominent citizens and generals who led from the front. Thus, the whole war could be decided by a single field battle; victory was enforced by ransoming the dead back to the defeated, called the 'Custom of the Dead Greeks'.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (February 2013)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_elements_of_Greek_armies">Other elements of Greek armies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Other elements of Greek armies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Riace_bronzes_-_Statue_A-_Ancient_Greek_warrior.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Riace_bronzes_-_Statue_A-_Ancient_Greek_warrior.jpg/170px-Riace_bronzes_-_Statue_A-_Ancient_Greek_warrior.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Riace_bronzes_-_Statue_A-_Ancient_Greek_warrior.jpg/255px-Riace_bronzes_-_Statue_A-_Ancient_Greek_warrior.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Riace_bronzes_-_Statue_A-_Ancient_Greek_warrior.jpg/340px-Riace_bronzes_-_Statue_A-_Ancient_Greek_warrior.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1444" data-file-height="2370" /></a><figcaption>An Ancient Greek warrior, <a href="/wiki/Riace_bronzes" title="Riace bronzes">Riace bronzes</a>, c. 450 BC</figcaption></figure> <p>Greek armies also included significant numbers of light infantry, the <i><a href="/wiki/Psiloi" title="Psiloi">Psiloi</a></i>, as support troops for the heavy hoplites, who also doubled as baggage handlers for the heavy foot. These included javelin throwers (<i>akontistai</i>), stone throwers (<i>lithovoloi</i> and <i>petrovoloi</i>) and slingers (<i>sfendonitai</i>) while archers (<i><a href="/wiki/Toxotai" title="Toxotai">toxotai</a></i>) were rare, mainly from Crete, or mercenary non-Greek tribes (as at the crucial battle of Plataea 479 B.C.) Greek armies gradually downgraded the armor of the hoplites (to linen padded thorax and open helmets) to make the phalanx more flexible and upgraded the javelineers to lightly armored general purpose infantry (<i>thorakitai</i> and <i>thyreophoroi</i>) with javelins and sometimes spears. Eventually, these types effectively complemented the Macedonian style phalanx which prevailed throughout Greece after Alexander the Great. </p><p>Cavalry had always existed in Greek armies of the classical era but the cost of horses made it far more expensive than hoplite armor, limiting cavalrymen to nobles and the very wealthy (social class of <i>hippeis</i>). During the early hoplite era cavalry played almost no role whatsoever, mainly for social, but also tactical reasons, since the middle-class phalanx completely dominated the battlefield. Gradually, and especially during the Peloponnesian war, cavalry became more important acquiring every role that cavalry could play, except perhaps frontal attack. It scouted, screened, harassed, outflanked and pursued with the most telling moment being the use of Syracusan horse to harass and eventually destroy the retreating Athenian army of the disastrous Sicilian expedition 415-413 B.C. One of the most famous troop of Greek cavalry was the Tarantine cavalry, originating from the city-state of <a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Taras</a> in <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though ancient Greek historians made little mention of mercenaries, archeological evidence suggests that troops defending <a href="/wiki/Himera" title="Himera">Himera</a> were not strictly Greek in ancestry. Though the victory at Himera is widely seen as a defining event for Greek identity, analysis of the DNA of 54 corpses found in graves unearthed in Himera's west necropolis traced professional soldiers to regions near modern Ukraine, Latvia, and Bulgaria.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Agricultural_and_economic_impact">Agricultural and economic impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Agricultural and economic impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Campaigns were often timed with the agricultural season to impact the enemy's or enemies' crops and harvest. The timing had to be carefully arranged so that the invaders' enemy's harvest would be disrupted, but the invaders' harvest would not be affected. Late invasions were also possible in the hopes that the sowing season would be affected, but this, at best, would have minimal effects on the harvest. </p><p>One alternative to disrupting the harvest was to ravage the countryside by uprooting trees, burning houses and crops, and killing all who were not safe behind the walls of the city. Uprooting trees was especially effective given the Greek reliance on the olive crop and the long time it takes new olive trees to reach maturity. Ravaging the countryside took much effort and depended on the season because green crops do not burn as well as those nearer to harvest. </p><p>War also led to the acquisition of land and enslaved people, which would lead to a greater harvest that could support a larger army. Plunder was also a large part of the war, and this allowed for pressure to be taken off of the government finances and allowed for investments to be made that would strengthen the polis. War also stimulated production because of the sudden demand for weapons and armor. Shipbuilders would also experience sudden increases in their production demands. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Naval_tactics">Naval tactics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Naval tactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oared_vessel_tactics" title="Oared vessel tactics">oared vessel tactics</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_formations">Battle formations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Battle formations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In open sea, the Greek navy would sail in an upside-down ship formation, led by the commander's ship.<sup id="cite_ref-morrison212_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-morrison212-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, at first sight of enemy ships, the Greek navy would turn to starboard or port to form its line for battle.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The battle line consisted of ships lined up side by side, facing the enemy. This abreast formation acted as both an offensive and defensive tactic. Offensively, it allowed the ancient ships' main weapon, the ram, to be easily accessible. With the entire fleet alongside each other, there were more rams available to attack the opponent.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This formation also provided the Greek fleet with protection by shielding the most vulnerable parts of the ships, which were the sides and the stern.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The abreast formation was used in almost all of the naval battles, except during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Battle of Naupactus</a>. During this battle, the Athenian navy was attacked before it could transition into its battle formation.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This battle formation was also so successful for the Greek navy that their opponents began to utilize it as well. In order to continue being successful, the Greek navy had to create new tactics and technology to be able to conquer its opponents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diekplous"><i>Diekplous</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Diekplous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>diekplous</i> was an ancient Greek naval operation used to infiltrate the enemy's line-of-battle. The maneuver consisted of Greek ships, in line abreast, rowing through gaps between its enemy's ships.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">galley</a> successfully crossed the opponent's line, the Greek ships would turn around and attack the susceptible side of the opponent's vessel.<sup id="cite_ref-Lazenby_1987,_p._169_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lazenby_1987,_p._169-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the <i>diekplous</i> is considered to be one of the most effective maneuvers in naval warfare,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it was only successfully used in three battles: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lade" title="Battle of Lade">Lade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Chios</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eurymedon_(190_BC)" title="Battle of the Eurymedon (190 BC)">Side</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lazenby_1987,_p._169_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lazenby_1987,_p._169-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One reason why the tactic became less useful was that enemies quickly developed defensive tactics against it. One way opponents countered the <i>diekplous</i> was by retreating their fleet into a tight circle with the prows of their ships facing outward. This defensive maneuver was known as the hedgehog counter-formation. The tight circle prevented the Greek navy from infiltrating its opponent's squadron because if the navy used the <i>diekplous</i>, the galley would be encircled by its enemy and rammed.<sup id="cite_ref-casson932_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-casson932-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This counter formation was used by Themistocles in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Battle of Artemisium</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Periplous"><i>Periplous</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Periplous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another naval tactic used by the ancient Greeks was the <i>periplous.</i> The <i>periplous</i> consisted of the Greek navy "sailing around" the enemy's line.<sup id="cite_ref-casson912_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-casson912-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the <i>diekplous</i>, the <i>periplous'</i> purpose was to expose the enemy's stern for an easy ramming target.<sup id="cite_ref-morrison232_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-morrison232-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of this tactic is described by Thucydides during the second battle between the Athenians and Peloponnesians in the Gulf of Corinth. During this engagement, a single Athenian galley was being pursued by a Peloponnesian ship until the Athenian ship circled around a merchant ship and rammed the Peloponnesian vessel and sank it.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Athenian ship was successful in this maneuver because it was the faster of the two ships, which is a key element in the <i>periplous</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Olympias.1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Olympias.1.JPG/220px-Olympias.1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Olympias.1.JPG/330px-Olympias.1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Olympias.1.JPG/440px-Olympias.1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a></i>, a reconstruction of an ancient Athenian trireme, with <a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">bronze bow ram</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ramming">Ramming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ramming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ram on the <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">trireme</a> was the Greek navy's most successful weapon. A trireme was equipped with a large piece of timber sheathed in an envelope of bronze, located in the front of the ship.<sup id="cite_ref-casson892_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-casson892-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although each ship had a ram, the ship needed to have a skilled crew to be successful with this tactic. The oarsman rowing the ship needed to accurately hit the target, and then be able to quickly dislodge the weapon before the enemy ship sank.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The usual target during this attack was the stern, where the steering oars were located, or the side of the ship where the rowing oars were.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the ramming itself may have caused only a few casualties to the enemy, the majority of the casualties occurred later as the vessel began to sink, forcing its crew into the water.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shearing">Shearing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Shearing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During an attack using the ram, the crew also sheared the enemy. Shearing occurred when the oars of one ship collided with any part of the opposing ship. During the collision, the wooden paddles shattered and often skewered the rower and the men surrounding him.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to maiming, if not immediately killing, the enemy, the attacker was given another advantage to ram the opponent. This opportunity occurred while the attacked vessel stopped rowing to evaluate the strength of each side of oarsman, leaving it in a standstill. The temporarily inoperative ship would become victim to more ramming and spearing attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marines_and_archers">Marines and archers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Marines and archers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Marines, or <i>epibatai</i>, were the secondary weapon for the Greek navy after the ram. During battles, marines were responsible for both attacking the enemy's ship,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and preventing their own ship from being boarded.<sup id="cite_ref-casson902_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-casson902-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of marines on the trireme fluctuated based on each battle. For example, during the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>, there were 4 archers and 10 marines on the deck of a vessel.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Cimon had forty marines aboard each ship during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Eurymedon" title="Battle of the Eurymedon">battle of Eurymedon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difference in numbers between these two battles is because commanders used the marines for different purposes based on the circumstance of the battles. If the battle was being fought in confined waters, there would be more marines on the trireme. The ships would require more marines because the constricted water would prevent the use of typical tactics, and would increase the risk of the ship being boarded by the enemy.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Archers were also important in naval battles. The arrows of the seagoing archers were deadly and efficient and could decrease the enemy’s fighting power considerably by picking off officers and men on the enemy ship.<sup id="cite_ref-jordan2082_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jordan2082-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The arrows had an effective range of 160–170 meters. When fired from a ship executing a <i>diekplous</i> or a ramming blow, the arrows had a greater velocity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Land_tactics">Land tactics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Land tactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hoplites">Hoplites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hoplites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Soldiers of the Greek army were called <a href="/wiki/Hoplites" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoplites">hoplites</a>. They were known for their courage and strength. Stories like the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Battle of Thermopylae</a> demonstrate the strength and skill Greeks had in land battle. From the moment Greeks started fighting with "bronze shields and in the <i>phalanx</i>," they must have regularly been drawn up in rank and file and not just crowded together.<sup id="cite_ref-anderson942_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anderson942-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had a specific formation in order to execute all of their military maneuvers. The Athenian army was typically divided into ten <i>taxeis</i>, or tribal regiments, and subdivided into <i>lochoi</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-anderson972_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anderson972-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These subunits worked as smaller pieces of an overall picture of military power. Trained thoroughly, the hoplites were as skilled at their melee combat as the Athenian oarsmen were at their precision ramming and rowing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phalanx">Phalanx</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Phalanx"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a> was an army tactic the Greeks performed with shields. Each soldier carried a shield in his left arm, which he used to protect both himself and the man on his left.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The depth of the phalanx differed depending on the battle and commander, but the width of the formation was considerably greater than its depth.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, during the battle of Syracuse, the depth of the Athenian army's phalanx was 8 men, while its opponent, the Syracusan army, had a depth of 16 men.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Melee">Melee</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Melee"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Melee, or <a href="/wiki/Hand-to-hand_combat" title="Hand-to-hand combat">hand-to-hand combat</a>, occurred most often after the tight formation of the phalanx dispersed. This fighting was also often referred to as dorarismos, meaning "spear-fighting" because the hoplites would use small swords in the fighting.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_2000,_p._47_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson_2000,_p._47-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One example of melee combat is described by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> during a battle at Thermopylae. Herodotus reports that after the <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Spartans</a> had lost their spears and swords during the dorarismos, they continued fighting "with their hands and teeth."<sup id="cite_ref-Hanson_2000,_p._47_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanson_2000,_p._47-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ambuscade">Ambuscade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ambuscade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An uncommon tactic of Ancient Greek warfare, during the hoplite battles, was the use of ambush.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When light-armed forces began to be used, ambushing became a recognized scheme. The most known version of this tactic occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dyme" title="Battle of Dyme">Battle of Dyme</a> in 218 BC, when one side pretended to retreat from the fighting and enticed their enemy to follow them into an ambush.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This tactic became so well known that in 217 BC the <a href="/wiki/Stratia" title="Stratia">Stratian</a> army declined to pursue the <a href="/wiki/Acarnania" title="Acarnania">Akarnanians</a> during their retreat in fear that they would face an ambush.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_campaigns">Military campaigns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Military campaigns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Greco-Persian_Wars">The Greco-Persian Wars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: The Greco-Persian Wars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a></div> <p>The scale and scope of warfare in Ancient Greece changed dramatically as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a>. To fight the enormous armies of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> was effectively beyond the capabilities of a single city-state. The eventual triumph of the Greeks was achieved by alliances of many city-states (the exact composition changing over time), allowing the pooling of resources and division of labour. Although alliances between city states occurred before this time, nothing on this scale had been seen before. </p><p>The Greco-Persian Wars (499–448 BC) were the result of attempts by the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I of Persia">Darius the Great</a>, and then his successor <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes I of Persia">Xerxes I</a> to subjugate Ancient Greece. Darius was already ruler of the cities of <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a>, and the wars are taken to start when they rebelled in 499 BC. The revolt was crushed by 494 BC, but Darius resolved to bring mainland Greece under his dominion. Many city-states made their submission to him, but others did not, notably including <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Darius thus sent his commanders Datis and Artaphernes to attack <a href="/wiki/Attica" title="Attica">Attica</a>, to punish Athens for her intransigence. After burning <a href="/wiki/Eretria" title="Eretria">Eretria</a>, the Persians landed at <a href="/wiki/Marathon,_Greece" title="Marathon, Greece">Marathon</a>. </p><p>An Athenian army of c. 10,000 hoplites marched to meet the Persian army of about 25,000 troops<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. The Athenians were at a significant disadvantage both strategically and tactically. Raising such a large army had denuded Athens of defenders, and thus any attack in the Athenian rear would cut off the Army from the City. Tactically, the hoplites were very vulnerable to attacks by cavalry<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, and the Athenians had no cavalry to defend the flanks. After several days of stalemate at Marathon, the Persian commanders attempted to take strategic advantage by sending their cavalry (by ship) to raid Athens itself.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This gave the Athenian army a small window of opportunity to attack the remainder of the Persian Army. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Marathon_Greek_Double_Envelopment.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Early interpretation of the Greek Double Envelopment with Greek wings (blue) enveloping the Persians (red)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Battle_of_Marathon_Greek_Double_Envelopment.png/300px-Battle_of_Marathon_Greek_Double_Envelopment.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Battle_of_Marathon_Greek_Double_Envelopment.png/450px-Battle_of_Marathon_Greek_Double_Envelopment.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Battle_of_Marathon_Greek_Double_Envelopment.png/600px-Battle_of_Marathon_Greek_Double_Envelopment.png 2x" data-file-width="704" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption>The Greek wings (blue) envelop the Persian wings (red)</figcaption></figure> <p>This was the first true <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon" title="Battle of Marathon">engagement</a> between a hoplite army and a non-Greek army.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Persians had acquired a reputation for invincibility, but the Athenian hoplites proved crushingly superior in the ensuing infantry battle. To counter the massive numbers of Persians, the Greek general <a href="/wiki/Miltiades_the_Younger" class="mw-redirect" title="Miltiades the Younger">Miltiades</a> ordered the troops to be spread across an unusually wide front, leaving the centre of the Greek line undermanned. However, the lightly armored Persian infantry proved no match for the heavily armored hoplites, and the Persian wings were quickly routed. The Greek wings then turned against the elite troops in the Persian centre, which had held the Greek centre until then. Marathon demonstrated to the Greeks the lethal potential of the hoplite, and firmly demonstrated that the Persians were not, after all, invincible. </p><p>The revenge of the Persians was postponed 10 years by internal conflicts in the Persian Empire, until Darius's son Xerxes returned to Greece in 480 BC with a staggeringly large army (modern estimates suggest between 150,000 and 250,000 men). Many Greeks city-states, having had plenty of warning of the forthcoming invasion, formed an anti-Persian league; though as before, other city-states remained neutral or allied with Persia. Although alliances between city-states were commonplace, the scale of this league was a novelty, and the first time that the Greeks had united in such a way to face an external threat. </p><p>This allowed diversification of the allied armed forces, rather than simply mustering a very large hoplite army. The visionary Athenian politician <a href="/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles">Themistocles</a> had successfully persuaded his fellow citizens to build a huge fleet in 483/82 BC to combat the Persian threat (and thus to effectively abandon their hoplite army, since there were not men enough for both). Amongst the allies therefore, Athens was able to form the core of a navy, whilst other cities, including Sparta, provided the army. This alliance thus removed the constraints on the type of armed forces that the Greeks could use. The use of such a large navy was also a novelty to the Greeks. </p><p>The second Persian invasion is famous for the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae" title="Battle of Thermopylae">Thermopylae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a>. As the massive Persian army moved south through Greece, the allies sent a small holding force (c. 10,000) men under the Spartan king <a href="/wiki/Leonidas" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonidas">Leonidas</a>, to block the pass of <a href="/wiki/Thermopylae" title="Thermopylae">Thermopylae</a> whilst the main allied army could be assembled. The allied navy extended this blockade at sea, blocking the nearby straits of <a href="/wiki/Artemisium" title="Artemisium">Artemisium</a>, to prevent the huge Persian navy landing troops in Leonidas's rear. Famously, Leonidas's men held the much larger Persian army at the pass (where their numbers were less of an advantage) for three days, the hoplites again proving their superiority. </p><p>Only when a Persian force managed to outflank them by means of a mountain track was the allied army overcome; but by then Leonidas had dismissed the majority of the troops, remaining with a rearguard of 300 Spartans (and perhaps 2000 other troops), in the process making one of history's great last stands. The Greek navy, despite their lack of experience, also proved their worth holding back the Persian fleet whilst the army still held the pass. </p><p>Thermopylae provided the Greeks with time to arrange their defences, and they dug in across the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Corinth" title="Isthmus of Corinth">Isthmus of Corinth</a>, an impregnable position; although an evacuated Athens was thereby sacrificed to the advancing Persians. In order to outflank the isthmus, Xerxes needed to use this fleet, and in turn therefore needed to defeat the Greek fleet; similarly, the Greeks needed to neutralise the Persian fleet to ensure their safety. To this end, the Greeks were able to lure the Persian fleet into the straits of <a href="/wiki/Salamis_Island" title="Salamis Island">Salamis</a>; and, in a battleground where Persian numbers again counted for nothing, they won a decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">victory</a>, justifying Themistocles' decision to build the Athenian fleet. Demoralised, Xerxes returned to Asia Minor with much of his army, leaving his general <a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardonius (general)">Mardonius</a> to campaign in Greece the following year (479 BC). </p><p>However, a united Greek army of c. 40,000 hoplites decisively defeated Mardonius at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plataea" title="Battle of Plataea">Battle of Plataea</a>, effectively ending the invasion. Almost simultaneously, the allied fleet defeated the remnants of the Persian navy at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a>, thus destroying the Persian hold on the islands of the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a>. </p><p>The remainder of the wars saw the Greeks take the fight to the Persians. The Athenian dominated <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> of cities and islands extirpated Persian garrisons from <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>, before eventually freeing the Ionian cities from Persian rule. At one point, the Greeks even attempted an invasion of Cyprus and Egypt (which proved disastrous), demonstrating a major legacy of the Persian Wars: warfare in Greece had moved beyond the seasonal squabbles between city-states, to coordinated international actions involving huge armies. After the war, ambitions of many Greek states dramatically increased. Tensions resulting from this, and the rise of <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> as pre-eminent powers during the war led directly to the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a>, which saw further development of the nature of warfare, strategy and tactics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Peloponnesian_War">The Peloponnesian War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The Peloponnesian War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Peloponnesian War</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pelopennesian_War,_Key_Actions_in_each_Phase,_431_-_404_B.C..JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pelopennesian_War%2C_Key_Actions_in_each_Phase%2C_431_-_404_B.C..JPG/300px-Pelopennesian_War%2C_Key_Actions_in_each_Phase%2C_431_-_404_B.C..JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="464" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Pelopennesian_War%2C_Key_Actions_in_each_Phase%2C_431_-_404_B.C..JPG/450px-Pelopennesian_War%2C_Key_Actions_in_each_Phase%2C_431_-_404_B.C..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Pelopennesian_War%2C_Key_Actions_in_each_Phase%2C_431_-_404_B.C..JPG 2x" data-file-width="482" data-file-height="746" /></a><figcaption>The key actions of each phase</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agrianian3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Agrianian3.jpg/220px-Agrianian3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="362" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Agrianian3.jpg/330px-Agrianian3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Agrianian3.jpg/440px-Agrianian3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="874" data-file-height="1440" /></a><figcaption>Agrianian peltast holding three javelins, one in his throwing hand and two in his <a href="/wiki/Peltarion_(Shield)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peltarion (Shield)">pelte</a> hand as additional ammunition</figcaption></figure> <p>The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), was fought between the Athenian dominated <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> and the Spartan dominated <a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_League" title="Peloponnesian League">Peloponnesian League</a>. The increased manpower and financial resources increased the scale, and allowed the diversification of warfare. Set-piece battles during this war proved indecisive and instead there was increased reliance on naval warfare, and strategies of attrition such as blockades and sieges. These changes greatly increased the number of casualties and the disruption of Greek society. </p><p>Whatever the proximal causes of the war, it was in essence a conflict between Athens and Sparta for supremacy in Greece. The war (or wars, since it is often divided into three periods) was for much of the time a stalemate, punctuated with occasional bouts of activity. Tactically the Peloponnesian war represents something of a stagnation; the strategic elements were most important as the two sides tried to break the deadlock, something of a novelty in Greek warfare. </p><p>Building on the experience of the Persian Wars, the diversification from core hoplite warfare, permitted by increased resources, continued. There was increased emphasis on navies, sieges, mercenaries and economic warfare. Far from the previously limited and formalized form of conflict, the Peloponnesian War transformed into an all-out struggle between city-states, complete with atrocities on a large scale; shattering religious and cultural taboos, devastating vast swathes of countryside and destroying whole cities.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the start, the mismatch in the opposing forces was clear. The Delian League (hereafter 'Athenians') were primarily a naval power, whereas the Peloponnesian League (hereafter 'Spartans') consisted of primarily land-based powers. The Athenians thus avoided battle on land, since they could not possibly win, and instead dominated the sea, blockading the Peloponnesus whilst maintaining their trade. Conversely, the Spartans repeatedly invaded <a href="/wiki/Attica" title="Attica">Attica</a>, but only for a few weeks at a time; they remained wedded to the idea of hoplite-as-citizen. Although both sides suffered setbacks and victories, the first phase essentially ended in stalemate, as neither league had the power to neutralise the other. The second phase, an Athenian expedition to attack <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Syracuse, Italy">Syracuse</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> achieved no tangible result other than a large loss of Athenian ships and men. </p><p>In the third phase of the war however the use of more sophisticated stratagems eventually allowed the Spartans to force Athens to surrender. Firstly, the Spartans permanently garrisoned a part of Attica, removing from Athenian control the silver mine which funded the war effort. Forced to squeeze even more money from her allies, the Athenian league thus became heavily strained. After the loss of Athenian ships and men in the Sicilian expedition, Sparta was able to foment rebellion amongst the Athenian league, which therefore massively reduced the ability of the Athenians to continue the war. </p><p>Athens in fact partially recovered from this setback between 410 and 406 BC, but a further act of economic war finally forced her defeat. Having developed a navy that was capable of taking on the much-weakened Athenian navy, the Spartan general <a href="/wiki/Lysander" title="Lysander">Lysander</a> seized the <a href="/wiki/Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellespont">Hellespont</a>, the source of Athens' grain. The remaining Athenian fleet was thereby forced to confront the Spartans, and were decisively defeated. Athens had little choice but to surrender; and was stripped of her city walls, overseas possessions and navy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mercenaries_and_light_infantry">Mercenaries and light infantry</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Mercenaries and light infantry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although tactically there was little innovation in the Peloponessian War, there does appear to have been an increase in the use of light infantry, such as <a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">peltasts</a> (javelin throwers) and archers. Many of these would have been mercenary troops, hired from outlying regions of Greece. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Agrianes" title="Agrianes">Agrianes</a> from <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a> were well-renowned peltasts, whilst <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> was famous for its archers. Since there were no decisive land-battles in the Peloponnesian War, the presence or absence of these troops was unlikely to have affected the course of the war. Nevertheless, it was an important innovation, one which was developed much further in later conflicts. <a href="/wiki/Sileraioi" title="Sileraioi">Sileraioi</a> were also a group of ancient mercenaries most likely employed by the tyrant <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_I_of_Syracuse" title="Dionysius I of Syracuse">Dionysius I of Syracuse</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spartan_&_Theban_hegemonies"><span id="Spartan_.26_Theban_hegemonies"></span>Spartan & Theban hegemonies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Spartan & Theban hegemonies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spartan_hegemony" title="Spartan hegemony">Spartan hegemony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theban_hegemony" title="Theban hegemony">Theban hegemony</a></div> <p>Following the eventual defeat of the Athenians in 404 BC, and the disbandment of the Athenian-dominated <a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a>, Ancient Greece fell under the <a href="/wiki/Spartan_hegemony" title="Spartan hegemony">hegemony</a> of Sparta. The peace treaty which ended the Peloponnesian War left Sparta as the <i>de facto</i> ruler of Greece (<i>hegemon</i>). Although the Spartans did not attempt to rule all of Greece directly, they prevented alliances of other Greek cities, and forced the city-states to accept governments deemed suitable by Sparta. </p><p>However, from the very beginning, it was clear that the Spartan hegemony was shaky; the Athenians, despite their crushing defeat, restored their democracy but just one year later, ejecting the Sparta-approved <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>. The Spartans did not feel strong enough to impose their will on a shattered Athens. Undoubtedly part of the reason for the weakness of the hegemony was a <a href="/wiki/Spartiate#Decline_of_Spartiates" title="Spartiate">decline in the Spartan population</a>. </p><p>This did not go unnoticed by the Persian Empire, which sponsored a rebellion by the combined powers of Athens, <a href="/wiki/Thebes_(Greece)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thebes (Greece)">Thebes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Argos,_Peloponnese" title="Argos, Peloponnese">Argos</a>, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a> (395–387 BC). This was the first major challenge Sparta faced. </p><p>The early encounters, at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nemea" title="Battle of Nemea">Nemea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Coronea_(394_BC)" title="Battle of Coronea (394 BC)">Coronea</a> were typical engagements of hoplite phalanxes, resulting in Spartan victories. However, the Spartans suffered a large setback when their fleet was wiped out by a Persian Fleet at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cnidus" title="Battle of Cnidus">Battle of Cnidus</a>, undermining the Spartan presence in Ionia. The war petered out after 394 BC, with a stalemate punctuated with minor engagements. One of these is particularly notable however; at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lechaeum" title="Battle of Lechaeum">Battle of Lechaeum</a>, an Athenian force composed mostly of light troops (e.g. peltasts) defeated a Spartan regiment... </p><p>The Athenian general <a href="/wiki/Iphicrates" title="Iphicrates">Iphicrates</a> had his troops make repeated hit and run attacks on the Spartans, who, having neither peltasts nor cavalry, could not respond effectively. The defeat of a hoplite army in this way demonstrates the changes in both troops and tactic which had occurred in Greek Warfare. </p><p>The war ended when the Persians, worried by the allies' successes, switched to supporting the Spartans, in return for the cities of <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a> and Spartan non-interference in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>. This brought the rebels to terms, and restored the Spartan hegemony on a more stable footing. The <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Antalcidas" title="Peace of Antalcidas">peace treaty</a> which ended the war, effectively restored the <i>status quo ante bellum</i>, although Athens was permitted to retain some of the territory it had regained during the war. The Spartan hegemony would last another 16 years... </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Leuctra,_371_BC_-_Decisive_action.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Battle_of_Leuctra%2C_371_BC_-_Decisive_action.png/250px-Battle_of_Leuctra%2C_371_BC_-_Decisive_action.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Battle_of_Leuctra%2C_371_BC_-_Decisive_action.png/375px-Battle_of_Leuctra%2C_371_BC_-_Decisive_action.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Battle_of_Leuctra%2C_371_BC_-_Decisive_action.png/500px-Battle_of_Leuctra%2C_371_BC_-_Decisive_action.png 2x" data-file-width="742" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption>The Battle of Leuctra, 371 BC, showing <a href="/wiki/Epaminondas" title="Epaminondas">Epaminondas</a>'s tactical advances</figcaption></figure> <p>The second major challenge Sparta faced was fatal to its hegemony, and even to its position as a first-rate power in Greece. As the Thebans attempted to expand their influence over <a href="/wiki/Boeotia" title="Boeotia">Boeotia</a>, they inevitably incurred the ire of Sparta. After they refused to disband their army, an army of approximately 10,000 Spartans and Pelopennesians marched north to challenge the Thebans. At the decisive <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leuctra" title="Battle of Leuctra">Battle of Leuctra</a> (371 BC), the Thebans routed the allied army. The battle is famous for the tactical innovations of the Theban general <a href="/wiki/Epaminondas" title="Epaminondas">Epaminondas</a>. </p><p>Defying convention, he strengthened the left flank of the phalanx to an unheard of depth of 50 ranks, at the expense of the centre and the right. The centre and right were staggered backwards from the left (an 'echelon' formation), so that the phalanx advanced obliquely. The Theban left wing was thus able to crush the elite Spartan forces on the allied right, whilst the Theban centre and left avoided engagement; after the defeat of the Spartans and the death of the Spartan king, the rest of the allied army routed. This is one of the first known examples of both the tactic of local concentration of force, and the tactic of 'refusing a flank'. </p><p>Following this victory, the Thebans first secured their power-base in Boeotia, before marching on Sparta. As the Thebans were joined by many erstwhile Spartan allies, the Spartans were powerless to resist this invasion. The Thebans marched into <a href="/wiki/Messenia" title="Messenia">Messenia</a>, and freed it from Sparta; this was a fatal blow to Sparta, since Messenia had provided most of the <a href="/wiki/Helots" title="Helots">helots</a> which supported the Spartan warrior society. These events permanently reduced Spartan power and prestige, and replaced the Spartan hegemony with a <a href="/wiki/Theban_hegemony" title="Theban hegemony">Theban</a> one. The Theban hegemony would be short-lived however. </p><p>Opposition to it throughout the period 369–362 BC caused numerous clashes. In an attempt to bolster the Thebans' position, Epaminondas again marched on the Pelopennese in 362 BC. At the Battle of Mantinea, the largest battle ever fought between the Greek city-states occurred; most states were represented on one side or the other. Epaminondas deployed tactics similar to those at Leuctra, and again the Thebans, positioned on the left, routed the Spartans, and thereby won the battle. However, such were the losses of Theban manpower, including Epaminondas himself, that Thebes was thereafter unable to sustain its hegemony. Conversely, another defeat and loss of prestige meant that Sparta was unable to regain its primary position in Greece. Ultimately, Mantinea, and the preceding decade, severely weakened many Greek states, and left them divided and without the leadership of a dominant power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_rise_of_Macedon_and_the_end_of_the_hoplite_era">The rise of Macedon and the end of the hoplite era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: The rise of Macedon and the end of the hoplite era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Macedonian_soldiers,_from_the_tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios,_Greece.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Ancient_Macedonian_soldiers%2C_from_the_tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios%2C_Greece.jpg/220px-Ancient_Macedonian_soldiers%2C_from_the_tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios%2C_Greece.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="410" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Ancient_Macedonian_soldiers%2C_from_the_tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios%2C_Greece.jpg/330px-Ancient_Macedonian_soldiers%2C_from_the_tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios%2C_Greece.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Ancient_Macedonian_soldiers%2C_from_the_tomb_of_Agios_Athanasios%2C_Greece.jpg 2x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Paintings of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Macedonia">Ancient Macedonian</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">soldiers</a>, arms, and armaments, from the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Agios_Athanasios,_Thessaloniki" title="Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki">Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki</a> in Greece, 4th century BC</figcaption></figure> <p>Although by the end of the Theban hegemony the cities of southern Greece were severely weakened, they might have risen again had it not been for the ascent to power of the <a href="/wiki/Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedon">Macedonian</a> kingdom in northern Greece. Unlike the fiercely independent (and small) city-states, Macedon was a tribal kingdom, ruled by an autocratic king, and importantly, covering a larger area. Once firmly unified, and then expanded, by <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II</a>, Macedon possessed the resources that enabled it to dominate the weakened and divided states in southern Greece. Between 356 and 342 BC Phillip conquered all city states in the vicinity of Macedon, then <a href="/wiki/Thessaly" title="Thessaly">Thessaly</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Thrace" title="Thrace">Thrace</a>. </p><p>Finally Phillip sought to establish his own hegemony over the southern Greek city-states, and after defeating the combined forces of Athens and Thebes, the two most powerful states, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaeronea_(338_BC)" title="Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)">Battle of Chaeronea</a> in 338 BC, succeeded. Now unable to resist him, Phillip compelled most of the city states of southern Greece (including Athens, Thebes, Corinth and Argos; but not Sparta) to join the <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Corinthian League">Corinthian League</a>, and therefore become allied to him. </p><p>This established a lasting Macedonian hegemony over Greece, and allowed Phillip the resources and security to launch a war against the Persian Empire. After his assassination, this war was prosecuted by his son <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, and resulted in the takeover of the whole Achaemenid Empire by the Macedonians. A united Macedonian empire did not long survive Alexander's death, and soon split into the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> kingdoms of the <a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a> (Alexander's generals). However, these kingdoms were still enormous states, and continued to fight in the same manner as Phillip and Alexander's armies had. The rise of Macedon and her successors thus sounded the death knell for the distinctive way of war found in Ancient Greece; and instead contributed to the 'superpower' warfare which would dominate the ancient world between 350 and 150 BC. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_innovations_of_Phillip_II">The innovations of Phillip II</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: The innovations of Phillip II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Ancient Macedonian army</a></div> <p>One major reason for Phillip's success in conquering Greece was the break with Hellenic military traditions that he made. With more resources available, he was able to assemble a more diverse army, including strong cavalry components. He took the development of the phalanx to its logical completion, arming his 'phalangites' (for they were assuredly not hoplites) with a fearsome 6 m (20 ft) pike, the '<a href="/wiki/Sarissa" title="Sarissa">sarissa</a>'. Much more lightly armored, the Macedonian phalanx was not so much a shield-wall as a spear-wall. The <a href="/wiki/Army_of_Macedon#Phalanx" class="mw-redirect" title="Army of Macedon">Macedonian phalanx</a> was a supreme defensive formation, but was not intended to be decisive offensively; instead, it was used to pin down the enemy infantry, whilst more mobile forces (such as cavalry) outflanked them. This '<a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">combined arms</a>' approach was furthered by the extensive use of <a href="/wiki/Skirmisher" title="Skirmisher">skirmishers</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">peltasts</a>. </p><p>Tactically, Phillip absorbed the lessons of centuries of warfare in Greece. He echoed the tactics of <a href="/wiki/Epaminondas" title="Epaminondas">Epaminondas</a> at Chaeronea, by not engaging his right wing against the Thebans until his left wing had routed the Athenians; thus in course outnumbering and outflanking the Thebans, and securing victory. Alexander's fame is in no small part due to his success as a battlefield tactician; the unorthodox gambits he used at the battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Issus" title="Battle of Issus">Issus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela" title="Battle of Gaugamela">Gaugamela</a> were unlike anything seen in Ancient Greece before. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physical_training_and_fitness" title="History of physical training and fitness">History of physical training and fitness</a></li> <li>Title <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polemarch" title="Polemarch">Polemarch</a></li></ul></li> <li>Units and formation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ekdromoi" title="Ekdromoi">Ekdromoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistates" title="Epistates">Epistates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lochos" title="Lochos">Lochos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promachos" title="Promachos">Promachos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protostates" title="Protostates">Protostates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psiloi" title="Psiloi">Psiloi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield_bearer" title="Shield bearer">Shield bearer</a></li></ul></li> <li>Weapon <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aspis" title="Aspis">Aspis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clipeus" title="Clipeus">Clipeus</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Sekunda2000-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sekunda2000_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNicholas_Sekunda2000" class="citation book cs1">Nicholas Sekunda (25 December 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iRRzF4x1XRwC&q=%22hoplon%22"><i>Greek Hoplite 480–323 BC</i></a>. Bloomsbury USA. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-867-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85532-867-9"><bdi>978-1-85532-867-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+Hoplite+480%E2%80%93323+BC&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+USA&rft.date=2000-12-25&rft.isbn=978-1-85532-867-9&rft.au=Nicholas+Sekunda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiRRzF4x1XRwC%26q%3D%2522hoplon%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fire-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fire_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fire_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolland2006" class="citation book cs1">Holland, T. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/persianfirefirst00tomh/page/69"><i>Persian Fire</i></a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/persianfirefirst00tomh/page/69">69–70</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-349-11717-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-349-11717-1"><bdi>978-0-349-11717-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persian+Fire&rft.pages=69-70&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-349-11717-1&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpersianfirefirst00tomh%2Fpage%2F69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson1989" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Victor (1989). <i>The Western Way of War</i>. University of California Press. pp. 139–141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26009-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26009-2"><bdi>978-0-520-26009-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+Way+of+War&rft.pages=139-141&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26009-2&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hanson169-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson169_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson169_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson1989" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Victor (1989). <i>The Western Way of War</i>. University of California Press. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26009-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26009-2"><bdi>978-0-520-26009-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+Way+of+War&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26009-2&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson1989" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Victor (1989). <i>The Western Way of War</i>. University of California Press. p. 173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26009-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26009-2"><bdi>978-0-520-26009-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+Way+of+War&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26009-2&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson1989" class="citation book cs1">Hanson, Victor (1989). <i>The Western Way of War</i>. University of California Press. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26009-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26009-2"><bdi>978-0-520-26009-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+Way+of+War&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26009-2&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSage2002" class="citation book cs1">Sage, Michael (2002). <i>Warfare in Ancient Greece: A Sourcebook</i>. Routledge. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/113476331X" title="Special:BookSources/113476331X"><bdi>113476331X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+Ancient+Greece%3A+A+Sourcebook&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=113476331X&rft.aulast=Sage&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUeda-Sarson" class="citation web cs1">Ueda-Sarson, Luke. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ne.jp/asahi/luke/ueda-sarson/Tarantines.html">"Tarantine Cavalry"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tarantine+Cavalry&rft.aulast=Ueda-Sarson&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ne.jp%2Fasahi%2Fluke%2Fueda-sarson%2FTarantines.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReitsema2022" class="citation journal cs1">Reitsema, Laurie (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9564095">"The diverse greek origins of a Classical period Greek army"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>119</b> (41): e2205272119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2205272119">10.1073/pnas.2205272119</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9564095">9564095</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36191217">36191217</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=The+diverse+greek+origins+of+a+Classical+period+Greek+army&rft.volume=119&rft.issue=41&rft.pages=e2205272119&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9564095%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36191217&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.2205272119&rft.aulast=Reitsema&rft.aufirst=Laurie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9564095&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-morrison212-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-morrison212_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morrison 1974, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_11-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lazenby 1987, p. 170</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lazenby 1987, p. 171</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lazenby_1987,_p._169-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lazenby_1987,_p._169_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lazenby_1987,_p._169_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Lazenby 1987, p. 169</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Polybius 2011, 1.51.9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-casson932-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-casson932_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Casson 1991, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-casson912-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-casson912_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Casson 1991, p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-morrison232-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-morrison232_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitehead 1987, p. 185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitehead 1987, p. 180-1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitehead 1987, p. 179</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-casson892-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-casson892_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Casson 1991, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rawlings 2007, p. 122</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_22-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rawlings 2007, p.123</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-casson902-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-casson902_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Casson 1991, p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hanson 2006, p. 242</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jordan2082-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jordan2082_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jordan 1975, p. 208.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-anderson942-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-anderson942_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson 1970, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-anderson972-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-anderson972_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson 1970, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pritchett 1971, p. 152</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pritchett 1971, p. 134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pritchett 1971, p. 135</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hanson_2000,_p._47-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_2000,_p._47_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hanson_2000,_p._47_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hanson 2000, p. 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pritchett 1974, p. 185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pritchett 1974, p. 186</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolland2005" class="citation book cs1">Holland, Tom (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/persianfirefirst00tomh/page/178"><i>Persian Fire</i></a>. Abacus. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/persianfirefirst00tomh/page/178">178–9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780349117171" title="Special:BookSources/9780349117171"><bdi>9780349117171</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persian+Fire&rft.pages=178-9&rft.pub=Abacus&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780349117171&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpersianfirefirst00tomh%2Fpage%2F178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolland2005" class="citation book cs1">Holland, Tom (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/persianfirefirst00tomh/page/192"><i>Persian Fire</i></a>. Abacus. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/persianfirefirst00tomh/page/192">192</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780349117171" title="Special:BookSources/9780349117171"><bdi>9780349117171</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Persian+Fire&rft.pages=192&rft.pub=Abacus&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780349117171&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpersianfirefirst00tomh%2Fpage%2F192&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKagan" class="citation book cs1">Kagan. <i>The Peloponnesian War</i>. pp. XXIII–XXIV.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Peloponnesian+War&rft.pages=XXIII-XXIV&rft.au=Kagan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+Greek+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Adcock, Frank E., The Greek and Macedonian Art of War, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1962.</li> <li>Anderson, J. K., Ancient Greek Horsemanship, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1961.</li> <li>Anderson, J. K., Military Theory and Practice in the Age of Xenophon, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1970.</li> <li>Anderson, J.K. 1969. Review of <i>Greek Oared Ships 900-322 B.C.</i> by J. S. Morrison. <i>Classical Philology</i> 64: 180-183.</li> <li>Best, Jan G. P., Thracian Peltasts and their Influence on the Greek Warfare, Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff, 1969.</li> <li>Brouwers, Josho, Henchmen of Ares: Warriors and Warfare in Early Greece, Rotterdam: Karwansaray Publishers, 2013.</li> <li>Cartledge, Paul, The Spartans: The World of the Warrior-Heroes of Ancient Greece, from Utopia to Crisis and Collapse, New York, NY: Vintage, 2004.</li> <li>Casson, Lionel. 1991. <i>The Ancient Mariners: Seafarers and Sea Fighters of the Mediterranean in Ancient Times</i>, 89-96. Princeton: Princeton University Press.</li> <li>Connolly, Peter, Greece and Rome at War, London: Greenhill Books, 1998.</li> <li>Delbruck, Hans, Warfare in Antiquity, History of the Art of War, Volume 1, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1990.</li> <li>Echeverría, Fernando, "Hoplite and Phalanx in Archaic and Classical Greece: A Reassessment", Classical Philology, Vol. 107, No. 4, 2012, pp. 291-318.</li> <li>Engels, Donald, Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978.</li> <li>Fisher, Nick, "Hybris, Revenge and Stasis in the Greek City-States," in Hans van Wees, War and Violence in Ancient Greece, London and Swansea: Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales, 2000, pp. 83–124.</li> <li>Hammond, Nicholas G. L., A History of Greece to 322 B.C., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959.</li> <li>Hanson, Victor Davis (2000). <i>The Western Way of War: Infantry Battle in Classical Greece</i>. University of California Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-21911-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-21911-2">0-520-21911-2</a>.</li> <li>Hanson, Victor D., "Hoplite Battle as Ancient Greek Warfare: When, Where, and Why?" in Hans van Wees, War and Violence in Ancient Greece, London and Swansea: Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales, 2000, pp. 201–232.</li> <li>Hodkinson, Stephen, "Warfare, Wealth, and the Crisis of Spartiate Society," in John Rich and Graham Shipley, (eds.), War and Society in the Greek World, London: Routledge, 1993, pp. 146–176.</li> <li>Holladay, A.J. 1988. "Further Thoughts on Trireme Tactics." <i>Greece and Rome</i>Second Series 35: 149-151.</li> <li>Hornblower, Simon, "Sticks, Stones, and Spartans: The Sociology of Spartan Violence," in Hans van Wees, War and Violence in Ancient Greece, London and Swansea: Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales, 2000, pp. 57–82.</li> <li>Jordan, Boromir. 1975. <i>The Athenian Navy in the Classical Period: A Study of Athenian Naval Administration and Military Organization in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B.C.</i> University of California Publications: Classical Studies 13. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.</li> <li>Kagan, Donald, The Peloponnesian War, New York, NY: Penguin Books, 2004.</li> <li>Konijnendijk, Roel, Classical Greek Tactics: A Cultural History. (Mnemosyne, Supplements 409). Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2018.</li> <li>Krentz, Peter, "Deception in Archaic and Classical Greek Warfare," in Hans van Wees, War and Violence in Ancient Greece, London and Swansea: Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales, 2000, pp. 167–200.</li> <li>Lazenby, John F., "The Killing Zone," in Victor D. Hanson, (ed.), Hoplites: The Classical Greek Battle Experience, London: Routledge, 1993.</li> <li>Lazenby, John F., "Hoplite Warfare," in John Hackett, (ed.), Warfare in the Ancient World, pp. 54–81.</li> <li>Lazenby, John F., Spartan Army, Warminster, Wiltshire: Aris & Phillips, 1985.</li> <li>Lazenby, J.F. (1987-10-01). "The Diekplous." <i>Greece & Rome</i>. Second Series 34(2): 169-177.</li> <li>Lazenby, John F., The Peloponnesian War: A Military Study, London: Routledge, 2004.</li> <li>Lendon, J.E., Soldiers & Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2005.</li> <li>Morrison, J.S. 1974. "Greek Naval Tactics in the 5th century BC." <i>International Journal of Nautical Archaeology and Underwater Exploration</i> 3: 21-26.</li> <li>Parke, Herbert W., Greek Mercenary Soldiers: From the Earliest Times to the Battle of Ipsus, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970.</li> <li>Pritchett, Kendrick W., The Greek State at War, 5 Vols., Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1975–1991.</li> <li>Polybius (2011). <i>The Histories.</i> Translated by W.R. Paton. Harvard University Press.</li> <li>Rawlings, Louis (2007). <i>The Ancient Greeks at War</i>. Manchester University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B7190%2B56574" title="Special:BookSources/978+0+7190+56574">978 0 7190 56574</a>.</li> <li>Rawlings, Louis, "Alternative Agonies: Hoplite Martial and Combat Experiences beyond the Phalanx," in Hans van Wees, War and Violence in Ancient Greece, London and Swansea: Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales, 2000, pp. 233–260.</li> <li>Sekunda, Nick, Elite 7: The Ancient Greeks, Oxford: Osprey, 1986.</li> <li>Sekunda, Nick, Elite 66: The Spartan Army, Oxford: Osprey, 1998.</li> <li>Sekunda, Nick, Warrior 27: Greek Hoplite 480–323 BC, Oxford: Osprey, 2000.</li> <li>Snodgrass, A., "The Hoplite Reform and History," Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 85, 1965, pp. 110–122.</li> <li>Strauss, Barry S. 2000. "Democracy, Kimon, and the Evolution of the Athenian Naval Tactics in the Fifth Century BC." In <i>Polis & Politics: Studies in Ancient Greek History</i>, ed. By Pernille Flensted-Jensen, Thomas Heine Nielsen, and <a href="/wiki/Lene_Rubinstein" title="Lene Rubinstein">Lene Rubinstein</a>, 315-326. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, University of Copenhagen.*Van Crefeld, Martin, Technology and War: From 2000 B.C. to the Present, New York, NY: Free Press, 1989.</li> <li>Van der Heyden, A. A. M. and Scullard, H. H., (eds.), Atlas of the Classical World, London: Nelson, 1959.</li> <li>Van Wees, Hans, Greek Warfare: Myths and Realities, London: Duckworth, 2005.</li> <li>Van Wees, Hans, "The Development of the Hoplite Phalanx: Iconography Reality in the Seventh Century," in Hans van Wees, War and Violence in Ancient Greece, London and Swansea: Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales, 2000, pp. 125–166.</li> <li>Wheeler, E., "The General as Hoplite," in Hanson, Victor D., (ed.), Hoplites, London: 1991, pp.</li> <li>Whitehead, Ian (1987-10-01). "The Periplous". <i>Greece & Rome</i>. Second Series <b>34</b> (2): 178–185.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_warfare&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Ancient Greek warfare</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+Greek+warfare&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+Greek+warfare">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Ancient+Greek+warfare&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/classicsfacpub/9/">The Place of Archery in Greek Warfare</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071226094924/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7343618077473282887"><i>The Five Great Battles of Antiquity</i></a> by David L. 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Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greece_in_the_Roman_era" title="Greece in the Roman era">Roman Greece</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_ancient_Greece" title="Regions of ancient Greece">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeolis" title="Aeolis">Aeolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Hexapolis" title="Doric Hexapolis">Doris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus" title="Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_Sea" title="Ionian Sea">Ionian Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(region)" title="Macedonia (region)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontus_(region)" title="Pontus (region)">Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Taurica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Ancient Greek colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="City_statesPoliticsMilitary" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">City states</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Politics</a></li><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Military</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">City states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Argos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Argos">Argos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcis" title="Chalcis">Chalcis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretria" title="Eretria">Eretria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfu" title="Corfu">Kerkyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larissa" title="Larissa">Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megalopolis,_Greece" title="Megalopolis, Greece">Megalopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megara" title="Megara">Megara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lissus_(Crete)" title="Lissus (Crete)">Lissus (Crete)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bithynia" title="Kingdom of Bithynia">Bithynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus_(ancient_state)" title="Epirus (ancient state)">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pergamon" title="Kingdom of Pergamon">Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">Federations</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Confederation" title="Confederation">Confederations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Hexapolis" title="Doric Hexapolis">Doric Hexapolis</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1100</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 560 BC</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italiotes#Italiote_League" title="Italiotes">Italiote League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800</span>–389 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_League" title="Ionian League">Ionian League</a> (c. 650–404 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_League" title="Peloponnesian League">Peloponnesian League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span>–366 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphictyonic_League" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphictyonic League">Amphictyonic League</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 595</span>–279 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acarnanian_League" title="Acarnanian League">Acarnanian League</a> (c. 500–31 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Hellenic League</a> (499–449 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delian_League" title="Delian League">Delian League</a> (478–404 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcidian_League" title="Chalcidian League">Chalcidian League</a> (430–348 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeotia#Boeotian_League" title="Boeotia">Boeotian League</a> (c. 424–c. 395 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aetolian_League" title="Aetolian League">Aetolian League</a> (c. 400–188 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Athenian_League" title="Second Athenian League">Second Athenian League</a> (378–355 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thessalian_League" title="Thessalian League">Thessalian League</a> (374–196 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcadian_League" title="Arcadian League">Arcadian League</a> (370–c. 230 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirote_League" title="Epirote League">Epirote League</a> (370–168 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Corinth" title="League of Corinth">League of Corinth</a> (338–322 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euboean_League" title="Euboean League">Euboean League</a> (c. 300 BC–c. 300 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaean_League" title="Achaean League">Achaean League</a> (280–146 BC)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">Boule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_city_(classical_antiquity)" title="Free city (classical antiquity)">Free city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koinon" title="Koinon">Koinon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxeny" title="Proxeny">Proxeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stasis_(ancient_Greece)" title="Stasis (ancient Greece)">Stasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagus_(title)" title="Tagus (title)">Tagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">Tyrant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Athenian_democracy" title="Athenian democracy">Athenian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agora" title="Agora">Agora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areopagus" title="Areopagus">Areopagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecclesia (ancient Athens)">Ecclesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphe_paranomon" title="Graphe paranomon">Graphe paranomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliaia" title="Heliaia">Heliaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostracism" title="Ostracism">Ostracism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Spartan_Constitution" title="Spartan Constitution">Spartan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesia_(Sparta)" title="Ecclesia (Sparta)">Ekklesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephor" title="Ephor">Ephor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerousia" title="Gerousia">Gerousia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synedrion" title="Synedrion">Synedrion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koinon_of_Macedonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinon of Macedonians">Koinon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Greece" title="List of wars involving Greece">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_military" title="Athenian military">Athenian military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_archers" title="Scythian archers">Scythian archers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonid_Macedonian_army" title="Antigonid Macedonian army">Antigonid Macedonian army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_army" title="Ancient Macedonian army">Army of Macedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_archers" title="Cretan archers">Cretan archers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_armies" title="Hellenistic armies">Hellenistic armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippeis" title="Hippeis">Hippeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoplite" title="Hoplite">Hoplite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companion_cavalry" title="Companion cavalry">Hetairoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_phalanx" title="Macedonian phalanx">Macedonian phalanx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Mycenaean_Greece" title="Military of Mycenaean Greece">Military of Mycenaean Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">Phalanx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peltast" title="Peltast">Peltast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pezhetairos" title="Pezhetairos">Pezhetairos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarissa" title="Sarissa">Sarissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Band_of_Thebes" title="Sacred Band of Thebes">Sacred Band of Thebes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciritae" title="Sciritae">Sciritae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_army" title="Seleucid army">Seleucid army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartan_army" title="Spartan army">Spartan army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">Strategos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxotai" title="Toxotai">Toxotai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiphos" title="Xiphos">Xiphos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xyston" title="Xyston">Xyston</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="People" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greeks" title="Category:Ancient Greeks">People</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="List_of_ancient_Greeks"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greeks" title="List of ancient Greeks">List of ancient Greeks</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_rulers_of_Greece#Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Lists of rulers of Greece">Rulers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Argos" title="List of kings of Argos">Kings of Argos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eponymous_archon" title="Eponymous archon">Archons of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Athens" title="List of kings of Athens">Kings of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Commagene" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Commagene">Kings of Commagene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diadochi" title="Diadochi">Diadochi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Macedonia" title="List of kings of Macedonia">Kings of Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Thrace_and_Dacia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia">Kings of Paionia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attalid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Attalid dynasty">Attalid kings of Pergamon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Pontus" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Pontus">Kings of Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_dynasty" title="Seleucid dynasty">Seleucid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Sparta" title="List of kings of Sparta">Kings of Sparta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tyrants_of_Syracuse" title="List of tyrants of Syracuse">Tyrants of Syracuse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists & scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_astronomers" title="List of ancient Greek astronomers">Astronomers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_historians" title="List of ancient Greek historians">Historians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_mathematicians" title="List of ancient Greek mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_philosophers" title="List of ancient Greek philosophers">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_playwrights" title="List of ancient Greek playwrights">Playwrights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_poets" title="List of ancient Greek poets">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_Greece" title="Seven Sages of Greece">Seven Sages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_writers" title="List of ancient Greek writers">Writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes of Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Authors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeschylus" title="Aeschylus">Aeschylus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesop" title="Aesop">Aesop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcaeus_of_Mytilene" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcaeus of Mytilene">Alcaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archilochus" title="Archilochus">Archilochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacchylides" title="Bacchylides">Bacchylides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesiod" title="Hesiod">Hesiod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipponax" title="Hipponax">Hipponax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibycus" title="Ibycus">Ibycus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander" title="Menander">Menander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimnermus" title="Mimnermus">Mimnermus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyassis" title="Panyassis">Panyassis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philocles" title="Philocles">Philocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pindar" title="Pindar">Pindar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sappho" title="Sappho">Sappho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simonides_of_Ceos" title="Simonides of Ceos">Simonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophocles" title="Sophocles">Sophocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stesichorus" title="Stesichorus">Stesichorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theognis_of_Megara" title="Theognis of Megara">Theognis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timocreon" title="Timocreon">Timocreon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrtaeus" title="Tyrtaeus">Tyrtaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Athenian_statesmen" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ancient Athenian statesmen">Athenian statesmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_lawgivers" title="List of ancient Greek lawgivers">Lawgivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Olympic_victors" title="List of ancient Olympic victors">Olympic victors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_tyrants" title="List of ancient Greek tyrants">Tyrants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_tribes" title="List of ancient Greek tribes">Ancient Greek tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Thracian_Greeks" title="List of Thracian Greeks">Thracian Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Macedonians" title="List of ancient Macedonians">Ancient Macedonians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="SocietyCulture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Greece" title="Culture of Greece">Culture</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece#Politics_and_society" title="Ancient Greece">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Greece" title="Agriculture in ancient Greece">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_calendars" title="Ancient Greek calendars">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Greece" title="Clothing in ancient Greece">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_coinage" title="Ancient Greek coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_cuisine" title="Ancient Greek cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emporium_(antiquity)" title="Emporium (antiquity)">Emporium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euergetism" title="Euergetism">Euergetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_festivals" title="Athenian festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_folklore" title="Ancient Greek folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_ancient_Greece" title="Homosexuality in ancient Greece">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_law" title="Ancient Greek law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Olympic_Games" title="Ancient Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pederasty_in_ancient_Greece" title="Pederasty in ancient Greece">Pederasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_ancient_Greece" title="Prostitution in ancient Greece">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Slavery</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Greece" title="Marriage in ancient Greece">Wedding customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece_and_wine" title="Ancient Greece and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Arts</a> and science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture" title="Ancient Greek architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Revival_architecture" title="Greek Revival architecture">Greek Revival architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Greece" title="Music of ancient Greece">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musical_system_of_ancient_Greece" title="Musical system of ancient Greece">Musical system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece" title="Pottery of ancient Greece">Pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture" title="Ancient Greek sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Greece" title="Theatre of ancient Greece">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_funeral_and_burial_practices" title="Ancient Greek funeral and burial practices">Funeral and burial practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Mythology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_mythological_figures" title="List of Greek mythological figures">mythological figures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Olympians" title="Twelve Olympians">Twelve Olympians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_underworld" title="Greek underworld">Underworld</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;text-align:left;">Sacred places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleusis" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleusis">Eleusis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dion,_Pieria" title="Dion, Pieria">Dion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dodona" title="Dodona">Dodona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Olympus" title="Mount Olympus">Mount Olympus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympia,_Greece" title="Olympia, Greece">Olympia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Athenian_Treasury" title="Athenian Treasury">Athenian Treasury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lion_Gate" title="Lion Gate">Lion Gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walls" title="Long Walls">Long Walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippeion" title="Philippeion">Philippeion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Dionysus" title="Theatre of Dionysus">Theatre of Dionysus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_of_Eupalinos" title="Tunnel of Eupalinos">Tunnel of Eupalinos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">Temples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Aphaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple of Aphaea">Aphaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Artemis" title="Temple of Artemis">Artemis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Athena_Nike" title="Temple of Athena Nike">Athena Nike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erechtheion" title="Erechtheion">Erechtheion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hephaestus" title="Temple of Hephaestus">Hephaestus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hera,_Olympia" title="Temple of Hera, Olympia">Hera, Olympia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Zeus,_Olympia" title="Temple of Zeus, Olympia">Zeus, Olympia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeric_Greek" title="Homeric Greek">Homeric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_dialects" title="Ancient Greek dialects">Dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeolic_Greek" title="Aeolic Greek">Aeolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcadocypriot_Greek" title="Arcadocypriot Greek">Arcadocypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doric_Greek" title="Doric Greek">Doric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirote_Greek" title="Epirote Greek">Epirote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionic_Greek" title="Ionic Greek">Ionic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locrian_Greek" title="Locrian Greek">Locrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language" title="Ancient Macedonian language">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamphylian_Greek" title="Pamphylian Greek">Pamphylian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Greek_alphabet" title="History of the Greek alphabet">Writing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot syllabary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic numerals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Greek_colonisation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">Greek colonisation</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mainland<br />Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lecce" title="Lecce">Alision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brindisi" title="Brindisi">Brentesion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caulonia_(ancient_city)" title="Caulonia (ancient city)">Caulonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casabona" title="Casabona">Chone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crotone" title="Crotone">Croton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumae" title="Cumae">Cumae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velia" title="Velia">Elea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Lucania" title="Heraclea Lucania">Heraclea Lucania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibo_Valentia" title="Vibo Valentia">Hipponion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otranto" title="Otranto">Hydrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krimisa" title="Krimisa">Krimisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La%C3%BCs" title="Laüs">Laüs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locri" title="Locri">Locri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medma" title="Medma">Medma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metauros" title="Metauros">Metauros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapontum" title="Metapontum">Metapontion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Neápolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandosia_(Lucania)" title="Pandosia (Lucania)">Pandosia (Lucania)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paestum" title="Paestum">Poseidonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policastro_Bussentino" title="Policastro Bussentino">Pixous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reggio_Calabria" title="Reggio Calabria">Rhegion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scylletium" title="Scylletium">Scylletium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siris_(Magna_Graecia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siris (Magna Graecia)">Siris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybaris" title="Sybaris">Sybaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sybaris_on_the_Traeis" title="Sybaris on the Traeis">Sybaris on the Traeis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Taras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terina_(ancient_city)" title="Terina (ancient city)">Terina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurii" title="Thurii">Thurii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrigento" title="Agrigento">Akragas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrai" title="Akrai">Akrai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akrillai" title="Akrillai">Akrillai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Sicily)" title="Apollonia (Sicily)">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caronia" title="Caronia">Calacte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casmenae" title="Casmenae">Casmenae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catania" title="Catania">Catana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gela" title="Gela">Gela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helorus" title="Helorus">Helorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enna" title="Enna">Henna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Minoa" title="Heraclea Minoa">Heraclea Minoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himera" title="Himera">Himera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybla_Gereatis" title="Hybla Gereatis">Hybla Gereatis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybla_Heraea" title="Hybla Heraea">Hybla Heraea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamarina,_Sicily" title="Kamarina, Sicily">Kamarina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentini" title="Lentini">Leontinoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megara_Hyblaea" title="Megara Hyblaea">Megara Hyblaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naxos_(Sicily)" title="Naxos (Sicily)">Naxos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segesta" title="Segesta">Segesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selinunte" title="Selinunte">Selinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taormina" title="Taormina">Tauromenion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sciacca" title="Sciacca">Thermae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tindari" title="Tindari">Tyndaris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aeolian_Islands" title="Aeolian Islands">Aeolian Islands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salina,_Sicily" title="Salina, Sicily">Didyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panarea" title="Panarea">Euonymos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alicudi" title="Alicudi">Ereikousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basiluzzo" title="Basiluzzo">Hycesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipari" title="Lipari">Lipara/Meligounis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filicudi" title="Filicudi">Phoenicusa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stromboli" title="Stromboli">Strongyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcano" title="Vulcano">Therassía</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bayda,_Libya" title="Bayda, Libya">Balagrae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barca_(ancient_city)" title="Barca (ancient city)">Barca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benghazi" title="Benghazi">Berenice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene</a> (<a href="/wiki/Apollonia,_Cyrenaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollonia, Cyrenaica">Apollonia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais,_Cyrenaica" title="Ptolemais, Cyrenaica">Ptolemais</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lucentum" title="Lucentum">Akra Leuke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villajoyosa" title="Villajoyosa">Alonis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emp%C3%BAries" title="Empúries">Emporion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elche" title="Elche">Helike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9nia" title="Dénia">Hemeroscopion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aljaraque" title="Aljaraque">Kalathousa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mart%C3%AD_d%27Emp%C3%BAries" title="Sant Martí d'Empúries">Kypsela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainake_(Greek_settlement)" title="Mainake (Greek settlement)">Mainake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Puerto_de_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa" title="El Puerto de Santa María">Menestheus's Limin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Pola" title="Santa Pola">Illicitanus Limin/Portus Illicitanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roses,_Girona" class="mw-redirect" title="Roses, Girona">Rhode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salou" title="Salou">Salauris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagunto" title="Sagunto">Zacynthos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Illyria" title="Illyria">Illyria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aspalathos" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspalathos">Aspalathos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Illyria)" title="Apollonia (Illyria)">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vlor%C3%AB#Early_history" title="Vlorë">Aulon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidamnos" title="Epidamnos">Epidamnos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidaurum" title="Epidaurum">Epidauros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issa_(polis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Issa (polis)">Issa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melaina_Korkyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Melaina Korkyra">Melaina Korkyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nymphaeum_(Illyria)" title="Nymphaeum (Illyria)">Nymphaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oricum" title="Oricum">Orikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharos_(polis)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharos (polis)">Pharos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragurion" class="mw-redirect" title="Tragurion">Tragurion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thronion_(Illyria)" title="Thronion (Illyria)">Thronion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a><br />basin</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North<br />coast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akra_(Crimmerian_Bosporus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Akra (Crimmerian Bosporus)">Akra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berezan_Island" title="Berezan Island">Borysthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charax,_Crimea" title="Charax, Crimea">Charax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chersonesus" title="Chersonesus">Chersonesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukhumi" title="Sukhumi">Dioscurias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapa" title="Anapa">Gorgippia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tmutarakan" title="Tmutarakan">Hermonassa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalos_Limen" title="Kalos Limen">Kalos Limen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kepoi" title="Kepoi">Kepoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevpatoria" title="Yevpatoria">Kerkinitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimmerikon" title="Kimmerikon">Kimmerikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrmekion" class="mw-redirect" title="Myrmekion">Myrmekion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikonion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikonion">Nikonion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nymphaion_(Crimea)" title="Nymphaion (Crimea)">Nymphaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olbia_(Pontic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Olbia (Pontic)">Olbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantikapaion" title="Pantikapaion">Pantikapaion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phanagoria" title="Phanagoria">Phanagoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitsunda" title="Pitsunda">Pityus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanais" title="Tanais">Tanais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feodosia" title="Feodosia">Theodosia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyras" title="Tyras">Tyras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyritake" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyritake">Tyritake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South<br />coast</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abonoteichos" title="Abonoteichos">Abonoteichos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samsun" title="Samsun">Amisos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomorie" title="Pomorie">Anchialos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozopol" title="Sozopol">Apollonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazar,_Rize" title="Pazar, Rize">Athina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batumi" title="Batumi">Bathus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balchik" title="Balchik">Dionysopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordu" title="Ordu">Cotyora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytorus" title="Cytorus">Cytorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eupatoria_(Pontus)" title="Eupatoria (Pontus)">Eupatoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Pontica" title="Heraclea Pontica">Heraclea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giresun" title="Giresun">Kerasous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nesebar" title="Nesebar">Mesambria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Odessos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cnye" title="Ünye">Oinòe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phasis_(town)" title="Phasis (town)">Phasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatsa" title="Fatsa">Polemonion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rize" title="Rize">Rhizos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C4%B1y%C4%B1k%C3%B6y" title="Kıyıköy">Salmydessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amasra" title="Amasra">Sesamus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinop,_Turkey" title="Sinop, Turkey">Sinope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terme" title="Terme">Thèrmae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tium" title="Tium">Tium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trabzon" title="Trabzon">Trapezous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripolis_(Pontus)" title="Tripolis (Pontus)">Tripolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaliche" title="Zaliche">Zaliche</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Lists" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Lists</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_cities" title="List of ancient Greek cities">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_ancient_Epirus" title="List of cities in ancient Epirus">in Epirus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greeks" title="List of ancient Greeks">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_place_names" title="List of Greek place names">Place names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stoae" title="List of stoae">Stoae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ancient_Greek_temples" title="List of Ancient Greek temples">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_theatres" title="List of ancient Greek theatres">Theatres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Greece" title="Category:Ancient Greece">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Greece" title="Portal:Ancient Greece">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Greece" title="Outline of ancient Greece">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greek_wars" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greek_wars" title="Template:Ancient Greek wars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greek_wars" title="Template talk:Ancient Greek wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greek_wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greek wars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greek_wars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient Greek wars</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Messenian_War" title="First Messenian War">First Messenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lelantine_War" title="Lelantine War">Lelantine War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Messenian_War" title="Second Messenian War">Second Messenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian%E2%80%93Milesian_War" title="Lydian–Milesian War">Lydian–Milesian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sacred_War" title="First Sacred War">First Sacred War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Wars" title="Sicilian Wars">Sicilian Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeginetan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeginetan War">Aeginetan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Delian_League" title="Wars of the Delian League">Wars of the Delian League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Messenian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Messenian War">Third Messenian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Peloponnesian_War" title="First Peloponnesian War">First Peloponnesian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sacred_War" title="Second Sacred War">Second Sacred War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samian_War" title="Samian War">Samian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peloponnesian_War" title="Peloponnesian War">Second Peloponnesian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyle_Campaign" title="Phyle Campaign">Phyle Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corinthian_War" title="Corinthian War">Corinthian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeotian_War" title="Boeotian War">Boeotian War</a></li> <li>Wars of the <a href="/wiki/Theban_hegemony" title="Theban hegemony">Theban hegemony</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theban%E2%80%93Spartan_War" title="Theban–Spartan War">Theban–Spartan War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_War_(357%E2%80%93355_BC)" title="Social War (357–355 BC)">Social War <span style="font-size:85%;">(357–355 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Sacred_War" title="Third Sacred War">Third Sacred War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_War" title="Foreign War">Foreign War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_Macedonia_under_Philip_II" title="Expansion of Macedonia under Philip II">Expansion of Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamian_War" title="Lamian War">Lamian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Diadochi" title="Wars of the Diadochi">Wars of the <i>Diadochi</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigonid%E2%80%93Nabataean_confrontations" title="Antigonid–Nabataean confrontations">Antigonid–Nabataean confrontations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Mauryan_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid–Mauryan war">Seleucid–Mauryan war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_War" title="Pyrrhic War">Pyrrhic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Syrian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus%27_invasion_of_the_Peloponnese" title="Pyrrhus' invasion of the Peloponnese">Pyrrhus' invasion of the Peloponnese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chremonidean_War" title="Chremonidean War">Chremonidean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Seleucid–Parthian Wars">Seleucid–Parthian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleomenean_War" title="Cleomenean War">Cleomenean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyttian_War" title="Lyttian War">Lyttian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_War_(220%E2%80%93217_BC)" title="Social War (220–217 BC)">Social War <span style="font-size:85%;">(220–217 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Wars" title="Macedonian Wars">Macedonian Wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Macedonian_War" title="First Macedonian War">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Macedonian_War" title="Second Macedonian War">Second</a>, <a href="/wiki/Third_Macedonian_War" title="Third Macedonian War">Third</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Macedonian_War" title="Fourth Macedonian War">Fourth</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_War_(205%E2%80%93200_BC)" title="Cretan War (205–200 BC)">Cretan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Seleucid_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman–Seleucid War">Roman–Seleucid War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aetolian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Aetolian War">Aetolian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_against_Nabis" title="War against Nabis">War against Nabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_War" title="Galatian War">Galatian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Dynastic_Wars" title="Seleucid Dynastic Wars">Seleucid Dynastic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaean_War" title="Achaean War">Achaean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithridatic_Wars" title="Mithridatic Wars">Mithridatic Wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">First</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Mithridatic_War" title="Second Mithridatic War">Second</a>, <a href="/wiki/Third_Mithridatic_War" title="Third Mithridatic War">Third</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Actium" title="War of Actium">War of Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_seafaring" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template talk:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_seafaring" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_seafaring" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient seafaring">Ancient seafaring</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Vessels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Vessels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">Balangay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_(boat)" title="Bangka (boat)">Bangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">Beden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coracle" title="Coracle">Coracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">Dhow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_boat" title="Dragon boat">Dragon boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_canoe" title="Dugout canoe">Dugout canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ship" title="Fire ship">Fire ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">Galley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penteconter" title="Penteconter">Penteconter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27unlun_po" class="mw-redirect" title="K'unlun po">Kunlun ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburna" title="Liburna">Liburna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multihull" title="Multihull">Multihull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria" title="Navis lusoria">Navis lusoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_ship" title="Obelisk ship">Obelisk ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrigger_boat" title="Outrigger boat">Outriggers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Sakman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-outrigger" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-outrigger">Single-outrigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catamaran" title="Catamaran">Catamaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimaran" title="Trimaran">Trimaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Polyremes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">Bireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">Oared warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">Trireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrireme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrireme">Quadrireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">Quinquereme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexareme" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexareme">Hexareme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessarakonteres" title="Tessarakonteres">Tessarakonteres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raft" title="Raft">Raft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">Reed boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">Sailing ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_ships" title="Ancient Egyptian royal ships">Solar ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">Tomol</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81kitimu" title="Tākitimu">Tākitimu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uru_(boat)" title="Uru (boat)">Uru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">by region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_vessels#History" title="Austronesian vessels">Austronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_propulsion" title="Marine propulsion">Propulsion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paddling" title="Paddling">Paddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towpath" title="Towpath">Towing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poling (watercraft)">Poling </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)" title="Bow (watercraft)">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabin_(ship)" title="Cabin (ship)">Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deck_(ship)" title="Deck (ship)">Deck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurehead_(object)" title="Figurehead (object)">Figurehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building#Construction_materials_and_methods" title="Boat building">Planking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">Keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">Mast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddle" title="Paddle">Paddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#History_of_the_rudder" title="Rudder">Steering oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sail_components" title="Sail components">Sail components</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_(ship)" title="Stem (ship)">Stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternpost" title="Sternpost">Sternpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake" title="Strake">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_boat#Boat_design_/_steering" title="Nile boat">Tiller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">Boat building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careening" title="Careening">Careening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" title="Carvel (boat building)">Carvel built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">Clinker built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_(boat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dugout (boat)">Dugout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques#Framed_boat" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Framing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques#Frame-first" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Frame-first</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques#Shell-first" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Shell-first</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joinery" title="Joinery">Joinery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat" title="Lashed-lug boat">Lashed-lug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">Mortise and tenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_joints" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenician joints">Phoenician joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scarf_joint" title="Scarf joint">Scarf joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewn_boat" title="Sewn boat">Sewn-plank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology#Navigation_and_ship_building" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Egypt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigging" title="Rigging">Rigging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab_claw_sail" title="Crab claw sail">Crab claw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig" title="Fore-and-aft rig">Fore-and-aft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">Lateen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settee_(sail)" title="Settee (sail)">Settee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanja_sail" title="Tanja sail">Tanja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triangular_sail_rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triangular sail rig (page does not exist)">Triangular sail</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_rig" title="Junk rig">Junk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast-aft_rig" title="Mast-aft rig">Mast-aft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spritsail" title="Spritsail">Spritsail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_rig" title="Square rig">Square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armaments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">Corvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_(weapon)" title="Dolphin (weapon)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ship" title="Fire ship">Fire ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpax" title="Harpax">Harpax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">Sambuca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Navigation,_and_ports_and_harbors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Navigation, and ports and harbors</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Charts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal navigation">Coastal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)#Navigation" title="Swell (ocean)">Ocean swell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands_stick_chart" title="Marshall Islands stick chart">Stick chart</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplus" title="Periplus">Periplus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piloting" title="Piloting">Piloting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_boat" title="Pilot boat">Pilot boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_pilot" title="Maritime pilot">Maritime pilot</a></li></ul></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_navigation" title="Inuit navigation">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_navigation" title="Micronesian navigation">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Port#Historical_ports" title="Port">Ports</a> and<br />harbors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_(Gulf_of_Suez)" title="Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)">Arsinoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarikon" title="Barbarikon">Barbarikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Giao Chỉ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godavaya" title="Godavaya">Godavaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Guangzhou" title="Port of Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Jambukola" title="Port of Jambukola">Jambukola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhar,_Mayiladuthurai" title="Puhar, Mayiladuthurai">Kaveri Poompattinam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothal#Dockyard" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manthai" title="Manthai">Manthai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersa_Gawasis" title="Mersa Gawasis">Mersa Gawasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonburi_province" title="Chonburi province">Mueang Phra Rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93c_Eo" title="Óc Eo">Óc Eo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cattigara" title="Cattigara">Cattigara</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piraeus#Ancient_and_medieval_times" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosphorion_Harbour" title="Prosphorion Harbour">Prosphorion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qal%27at_al-Bahrain" title="Qal'at al-Bahrain">Qal'at al-Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qandala" title="Qandala">Qandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhacotis" title="Rhacotis">Rhacotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district" title="Sathing Phra district">Satingpra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonargaon" title="Sonargaon">Sounagoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Jarf" title="Wadi al-Jarf">Wadi al-Jarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zanzibar" title="History of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maritime_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime prehistory">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_timeline#Prehistory" title="Maritime timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceania#Prehistory_of_Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huỳnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom" title="Sunda Kingdom">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan Civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilmun" title="Dilmun">Dilmun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian civilization">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_city-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-states">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Migration and<br />exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Australia">Peopling of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Micronesia">Peopling of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Migration_from_Taiwan" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenician_maritime_expansion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenician maritime expansion (page does not exist)">Phoenician maritime expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician%E2%80%93Punic_Sardinia" title="Phoenician–Punic Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_II#Phoenician_expedition" title="Necho II">Circumnavigation of Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas#Voyage_to_Britain" title="Pytheas">Pytheas' voyage to Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Roman circumnavigation of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mariners and<br />explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henenu_(high_steward)" title="Henenu (high steward)">Henenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthymenes" title="Euthymenes">Euthymenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himilco" title="Himilco">Himilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sataspes" title="Sataspes">Sataspes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androsthenes_of_Thasos" title="Androsthenes of Thasos">Androsthenes of Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archias_of_Pella" title="Archias of Pella">Archias of Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megasthenes" title="Megasthenes">Megasthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fu" title="Xu Fu">Xu Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippalus" title="Hippalus">Hippalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus" title="Eudoxus of Cyzicus">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maes_Titianus" title="Maes Titianus">Maes Titianus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Navies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Naval_tactics">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles" title="List of naval battles">Battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Mediterranean:</b>   <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Alashiya" title="Battles of Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Delta" title="Battle of the Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eurymedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Eurymedon">Eurymedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Naupactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olpae" title="Battle of Olpae">Olpae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Expedition" title="Sicilian Expedition">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Cynossema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mytilene_(406_BC)" title="Battle of Mytilene (406 BC)">Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hellespont">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Echinades_(322_BC)" title="Battle of the Echinades (322 BC)">Echinades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">Salamis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Mylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Hermaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Hermaeum">Cape Hermaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecnomus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ecnomus">Ecnomus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">Drepana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates" title="Battle of the Aegates">Aegates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Lake Trasimene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myonessus" title="Battle of Myonessus">Myonessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus" title="Battle of Naulochus">Naulochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">Grappling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oared_vessel_tactics" title="Oared vessel tactics">Oared vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship_tactics" title="Sailing ship tactics">Sailing ships</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Naval_tactics">Greek navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">Ramming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_exploration" title="Chinese exploration">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha" title="Maritime history of Odisha">Odisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Japan" title="Naval history of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maritime_history_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maritime history of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_rafts" title="Pre-Columbian rafts">Rafts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Economy_and_trade" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy and <a href="/wiki/Trade#Ancient_history" title="Trade">trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_whaling" title="History of whaling">Whaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fishing" title="History of fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo–Mesopotamia relations">Indo–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Maritime Jade Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times#Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin sources and trade in ancient times">Tin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Early_historical_era" title="History of Southeast Asia">Austronesian network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Huynh-Kalanay_Interaction_Sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere">Sa Huynh-Kalanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_trade_route" title="Incense trade route">Incense trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade_in_the_Maya_civilization" title="Maritime trade in the Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece#Trade" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece%E2%80%93Ancient_India_relations#Trade" title="Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations">Greco–Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_shipping" title="Greek shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Indo–Roman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Piracy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy#History" title="Piracy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Mediterranean piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameinias_the_Phocian" title="Ameinias the Phocian">Ameinias the Phocian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates#Piracy_in_the_ancient_world:_pirates_of_Joppa" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar#Kidnapping_by_pirates" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Kidnapping of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_campaign_against_the_pirates" title="Pompey's campaign against the pirates">Pompey's campaign against the pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Research_and_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Research and education</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Blackman" title="David Blackman">David Blackman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Casson" title="Lionel Casson">Lionel Casson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fik_Meijer" title="Fik Meijer">Fik Meijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sinclair_Morrison" title="John Sinclair Morrison">John Sinclair Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ledyard_Rodgers" title="William Ledyard Rodgers">William L. Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_G._Starr" title="Chester G. Starr">Chester G. Starr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Yves_Empereur" title="Jean-Yves Empereur">Jean-Yves Empereur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Rankov" title="Boris Rankov">Boris Rankov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Steffy" title="J. Richard Steffy">J. Richard Steffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shelley_Wachsmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelley Wachsmann (page does not exist)">Shelley Wachsmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br />and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence and fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_art" title="Marine art">Marine art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Marine navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare#Mediterranean_Sea" title="Naval warfare">Naval warfare</a></li> <li>Maritime temples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isthmia" title="Temple of Isthmia">Temple of Isthmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Poseidon,_Sounion" title="Temple of Poseidon, Sounion">Temple of Poseidon, Sounion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace temple complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantao_Maritime_Trading_and_Communication_Network" title="Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network">Nusantao network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Phoenician discovery of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Pre-Columbian theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden#Shells" title="Midden">Shell middens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">Ship burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacking_(sailing)" title="Tacking (sailing)">Tacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Wrecks<br />and relics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_before_Anno_Domini" title="List of shipwrecks before Anno Domini">Earliest</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufuna_canoe" title="Dufuna canoe">Dufuna canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abydos_boats" title="Abydos boats">Abydos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moor_Sand_site" title="Moor Sand site">Moor Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokos_shipwreck" title="Dokos shipwreck">Dokos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufu_ship" title="Khufu ship">Khufu ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat" title="Dover Bronze Age Boat">Dover Bronze Age Boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uluburun_shipwreck" title="Uluburun shipwreck">Uluburun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shipwreck" title="Canaanite shipwreck">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Gelidonya#Bronze_Age_shipwreck" title="Cape Gelidonya">Cape Gelidonya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_of_Rochelongue" title="Wreck of Rochelongue">Rochelongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjortspring_boat" title="Hjortspring boat">Hjortspring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontian_boat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pontian boat (page does not exist)">Pontian boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Butuan_boats" title="Balangay">Butuan boats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Black_Sea_shipwrecks" title="Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks">Black Sea‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinop_D" title="Sinop D">Sinop D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala</a></li> <li>Greek: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkelon_shipwrecks" title="Ashkelon shipwrecks">Ashkelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leontophoros" title="Leontophoros">Leontophoros</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Syracusia" title="Syracusia">Syracusia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Phoenician: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Gozo Phoenician shipwreck">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajo_de_la_Campana_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Bajo de la Campana Phoenician shipwreck">Bajo de la Campana</a></li></ul></li> <li>Punic: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala Punic shipwreck</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman: <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alkedo" title="Alkedo">Alkedo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_Rh%C3%B4ne_3" title="Arles Rhône 3">Arles Rhône 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_shipwrecks" title="Blackfriars shipwrecks">Blackfriars I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula%27s_Giant_Ship" title="Caligula's Giant Ship">Caligula's Giant Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ships_of_De_Meern" title="The Ships of De Meern">De Meern ships</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(ship)" title="Isis (ship)">Isis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madrague_de_Giens_(shipwreck)" title="Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)">Madrague de Giens</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemi_ships" title="Nemi ships">Nemi ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_ship_of_Marausa" title="Roman ship of Marausa">Marausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassi_Ada" title="Yassi Ada">Yassi Ada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lists: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_surviving_ships" title="List of oldest surviving ships">Oldest surviving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museum_ships" title="List of museum ships">Museum ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surviving_ancient_ships" title="List of surviving ancient ships">Surviving ancient ships</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H3_(Kuwait)" title="H3 (Kuwait)">H3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qal%27at_al-Bahrain" title="Qal'at al-Bahrain">Qal'at al-Bahrain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental<br />archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ship_replica" title="Ship replica">Ship replica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Heyerdahl expeditions</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kon-Tiki_expedition" title="Kon-Tiki expedition">Kon-Tiki</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl#Boats_Ra_and_Ra_II" title="Thor Heyerdahl"><i>Ra</i> and <i>Ra II</i></a></li></ul></li> <li>Austronesian replicas <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dk%C5%ABle%CA%BBa" title="Hōkūleʻa">Hōkūleʻa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarimanok_(vinta)" title="Sarimanok (vinta)">Sarimanok</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Te_Au_o_Tonga" title="Te Au o Tonga">Te Au o Tonga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBiloa#Canoe" title="Hawaiʻiloa">Hawaiʻiloa canoe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samudra_Raksa" title="Samudra Raksa">Samudra Raksa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alingano_Maisu" title="Alingano Maisu">Alingano Maisu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Saina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Balangay_Voyage" title="Balangay">Balangay Voyage</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa%CA%BBafaite" title="Faʻafaite">Faʻafaite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gaualofa" title="Gaualofa">Gaualofa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marumaru_Atua" title="Marumaru Atua">Marumaru Atua</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Mediterranean <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria#Other_reconstructions" title="Navis lusoria">Regina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_Ship_Expedition" title="Phoenician Ship Expedition">Phoenician Ship Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking replicas</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vital_Alsar_Pacific_raft_expeditions" title="Vital Alsar Pacific raft expeditions">Vital Alsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivlia_(ship)" title="Ivlia (ship)"><i>Ivlia</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abora_(expeditions)" title="Abora (expeditions)">Abora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viracocha_expedition" title="Viracocha expedition">Viracocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangaroa_Expedition" title="Tangaroa Expedition">Tangaroa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and <br />conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_on_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology">Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Archaeologists" title="European Association of Archaeologists">European Association of Archaeologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Nautical_Archaeology" title="Institute of Nautical Archaeology">Institute of Nautical Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Maritime_Museums" title="International Congress of Maritime Museums">International Congress of Maritime Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RPM_Nautical_Foundation" title="RPM Nautical Foundation">RPM Nautical Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums and<br />memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_Museum,_Kolkata" title="Boat Museum, Kolkata">Boat Museum, Kolkata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodrum_Castle#Museum_of_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Bodrum Castle">Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_Solar_boat_museum" title="Giza Solar boat museum">Giza Solar boat museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museum" title="Grand Egyptian Museum">Grand Egyptian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_Castle#Shipwreck_museum" title="Kyrenia Castle">Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Seafaring" title="Museum of Ancient Seafaring">Museum of Ancient Seafaring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Ships,_Pisa" title="Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa">Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Subaquatic_Archaeology" title="National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology">National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology</a></li> <li>Viking ship museums: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Oslo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Roskilde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Legend_and_literature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Legend and literature</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">Legend</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ark_of_bulrushes" title="Ark of bulrushes">Ark of bulrushes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flood_myths" title="List of flood myths">Flood myths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative" title="Genesis flood narrative">Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh_flood_myth" title="Gilgamesh flood myth">Gilgamesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_flood_myths" title="Ancient Greek flood myths">Greek</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)"><i>The Histories</i> (Herodotus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Ocean_(Pytheas)" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Ocean (Pytheas)">On the Ocean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argonautica" title="Argonautica">Argonautica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)"><i>The Histories</i> (Polybius)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography 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