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<span>Effects on wine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_wine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oak_types_and_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oak_types_and_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Oak types and sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Oak_types_and_sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Oak types and sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Oak_types_and_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Differences_between_French_and_American_oak" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differences_between_French_and_American_oak"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Differences between French and American oak</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differences_between_French_and_American_oak-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wine_barrel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wine_barrel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Wine barrel</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Wine_barrel-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Wine barrel subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Wine_barrel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Barrel_construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barrel_construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Barrel construction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barrel_construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Barrel_alternatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barrel_alternatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Barrel alternatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barrel_alternatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_wood_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_wood_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Other wood types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_wood_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" 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mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Oak (wine)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrique" title="Barrique – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Barrique" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrica" title="Barrica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Barrica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Баррик – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Баррик" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrique" title="Barrique – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Barrique" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrique" title="Barrique – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Barrique" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrica_de_vino" title="Barrica de vino – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Barrica de vino" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinbarelo" title="Vinbarelo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vinbarelo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upel" title="Upel – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Upel" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B7_(%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C)" title="بلوط (شراب‌سازی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بلوط (شراب‌سازی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrique" title="Barrique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Barrique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%ED%81%AC%ED%86%B5" title="오크통 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오크통" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrique" title="Barrique – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Barrique" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrique" title="Barrique – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Barrique" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9F" title="חבית יין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חבית יין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrique" title="Barrique – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Barrique" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Барик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Барик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrique" title="Barrique – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Barrique" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrique" title="Barrique – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Barrique" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrique" title="Barrique – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Barrique" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrique" title="Barrique – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Barrique" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipa_(medida)" title="Pipa (medida) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pipa (medida)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baric" title="Baric – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Baric" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA_(%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Баррик (бочка) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Баррик (бочка)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vutti" title="Vutti – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Vutti" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrique_bordelaise" title="Barrique bordelaise – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Barrique bordelaise" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me%C5%9Fe_(%C5%9Farap)" title="Meşe (şarap) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Meşe (şarap)" 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Barrel used in wine making</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wine_Barrels.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Wine_Barrels.jpg/250px-Wine_Barrels.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Wine_Barrels.jpg/375px-Wine_Barrels.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Wine_Barrels.jpg/500px-Wine_Barrels.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3183" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption>Oak wine barrels</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Oak</b> is used in <a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">winemaking</a> to vary the color, flavor, <a href="/wiki/Tannins_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tannins (wine)">tannin</a> profile and texture of wine. It can be introduced in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Barrel" title="Barrel">barrel</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (wine)">fermentation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aging_barrel" class="mw-redirect" title="Aging barrel">aging</a> periods, or as free-floating chips or <a href="/wiki/Stave_(wood)" title="Stave (wood)">staves</a> added to wine fermented in a vessel like stainless steel. Oak barrels can impart other qualities to wine through <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> and low level exposure to <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_pg_91-93_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson_pg_91-93-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oak_(wine)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barrel_fermented_California_Chard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Barrel_fermented_California_Chard.jpg/220px-Barrel_fermented_California_Chard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Barrel_fermented_California_Chard.jpg/330px-Barrel_fermented_California_Chard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Barrel_fermented_California_Chard.jpg/440px-Barrel_fermented_California_Chard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>A California Chardonnay that shows on the label that it has been barrel fermented.</figcaption></figure> <p>In early <a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">wine history</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Amphora" title="Amphora">amphora</a> was the vessel of choice for the <a href="/wiki/Storage_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Storage (wine)">storage</a> and transportation of wine. Due to the perishable nature of wood material it is difficult to trace the usage of <a href="/wiki/Barrel" title="Barrel">barrels</a> in history. The Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> noted that ancient <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamians" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamians">Mesopotamians</a> used barrels made of <a href="/wiki/Palm_wood" class="mw-redirect" title="Palm wood">palm wood</a> to transport wine along the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>. Palm is a difficult material to bend and fashion into barrels, however, and wine merchants in different regions experimented with different wood styles to find a better wood source.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_pg_25-26_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_pg_25-26-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of oak has been prevalent in winemaking for at least two <a href="/wiki/Millennia" class="mw-redirect" title="Millennia">millennia</a>, first coming into widespread use during the time of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. In time, winemakers discovered that beyond just storage convenience, wine kept in oak barrels took on properties that improved it by making it softer and, in some cases, better-tasting.<sup id="cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_40_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacNeil_pg_40-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_on_wine">Effects on wine</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oak_(wine)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Effects on wine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oakagingcolour.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Oakagingcolour.jpg/220px-Oakagingcolour.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Oakagingcolour.jpg/330px-Oakagingcolour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Oakagingcolour.jpg/440px-Oakagingcolour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1750" data-file-height="1263" /></a><figcaption>The effect of oak aging on two Penedès region Cabernet Sauvignon varietals, a two-year-old <i>cosecha</i> (left) and six-year-old <i>crianza</i> (right). As the wine matures, its color shifts from deep purple or crimson to a lighter brick-red, and takes on a more graduated appearance in the glass.</figcaption></figure> <p>The porous nature of an oak barrel allows evaporation and <a href="/wiki/Oxygenation_(environmental)" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygenation (environmental)">oxygenation</a> to occur in wine but typically not at levels that would cause <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wine_faults" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine faults">spoilage</a>. The typical 59-<a href="/wiki/Gallon" title="Gallon">gallon</a> (225-liter) barrel can lose anywhere from 5<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> to 6<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> gallons (21 to 25 liters) (of mostly <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">alcohol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>) in a year through evaporation. This allows the wine to concentrate its <a href="/wiki/Flavor_(taste)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavor (taste)">flavor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aroma_compounds_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aroma compounds (wine)">aroma compounds</a>. Small amounts of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> are allowed to pass through the barrel and act as a softening agent upon the wine's <a href="/wiki/Tannins_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tannins (wine)">tannins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_40_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacNeil_pg_40-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The chemical properties of oak can have a profound effect on wine. <a href="/wiki/Phenolic_content_in_wine" title="Phenolic content in wine">Phenols</a> within the wood interact to produce <a href="/wiki/Vanilla" title="Vanilla">vanilla</a> type flavors and can give the impression of tea notes or sweetness. The degree of "toast" on the barrel can also impart different properties affecting the tannin levels as well as the aggressive wood flavors.<sup id="cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_41_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacNeil_pg_41-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Hydrolyzable_tannin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrolyzable tannin">hydrolyzable tannins</a> present in wood, known as <a href="/wiki/Ellagitannins" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellagitannins">ellagitannins</a>, are derived from <a href="/wiki/Lignin" title="Lignin">lignin</a> structures in the wood. They help protect the wine from oxidation and <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reduction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_492_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_492-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FLOR-ValdiviaJerez59.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/FLOR-ValdiviaJerez59.jpg/220px-FLOR-ValdiviaJerez59.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/FLOR-ValdiviaJerez59.jpg/330px-FLOR-ValdiviaJerez59.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/FLOR-ValdiviaJerez59.jpg/440px-FLOR-ValdiviaJerez59.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Oak barrel aging <a href="/wiki/Sherry" title="Sherry">sherry</a>. It has a transparent front in order to show the process inside</figcaption></figure> <p>Characteristics of white wines fermented in oak include a pale color and extra silky texture. White wines fermented in steel and matured in oak will have a darker coloring due to heavy <a href="/wiki/Phenolic_content_in_wine" title="Phenolic content in wine">phenolic</a> compounds still present.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_pg_93_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson_pg_93-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flavor notes commonly used to describe wines exposed to oak include <a href="/wiki/Caramel" title="Caramel">caramel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cream" title="Cream">cream</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">smoke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spice</a> and vanilla. <a href="/wiki/Chardonnay" title="Chardonnay">Chardonnay</a> is a varietal with very distinct flavor profiles when fermented in oak, which include <a href="/wiki/Coconut" title="Coconut">coconut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cloves" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloves">cloves</a> notes. The "toastiness" of the barrel can bring out varying degrees of <a href="/wiki/Cafe_mocha" class="mw-redirect" title="Cafe mocha">mocha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toffee" title="Toffee">toffee</a> notes in red wine.<sup id="cite_ref-Spectator_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spectator-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a common misconception that oak imparts butter flavors to wine. The butter flavors come from <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic acid</a>, naturally present in the wine, converted during malolactic fermentation to <a href="/wiki/Diacetyl" title="Diacetyl">diacetyl</a>. This process reverses itself, although the addition of sulfur dioxide prevents this, and the diacetyl remains. </p><p>Wines can be <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (wine)">barrel fermented</a> in oak or placed in oak after fermentation for a period of aging or maturation. Wine matured in oak receives more oak flavors and properties than wine fermented in oak because <a href="/wiki/Yeast_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeast (wine)">yeast</a> cells present in fermentation interact with and "latch on" to oak components. When dead yeast cells are removed as <a href="/wiki/Lees_(fermentation)" title="Lees (fermentation)">lees</a> some oak properties go with them.<sup id="cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_45_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacNeil_pg_45-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The length of time a wine spends in the barrel is dependent on the <a href="/wiki/Varietal" title="Varietal">varietal</a> and finished style the winemaker desires. The majority of oak flavoring is imparted in the first few months the wine is in contact with oak, while longer term exposure adds light barrel <a href="/wiki/Aeration" title="Aeration">aeration</a>, which helps precipitate phenolic compounds and quickens the aging process.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_pg_93_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson_pg_93-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/New_World_wine" title="New World wine">New World</a> <a href="/wiki/Pinot_noir" title="Pinot noir">Pinot noir</a> may spend less than a year in oak. Premium <a href="/wiki/Cabernet_Sauvignon" title="Cabernet Sauvignon">Cabernet Sauvignon</a> may spend two years. The very tannic <a href="/wiki/Nebbiolo" title="Nebbiolo">Nebbiolo</a> grape may spend four or more years in oak. High end <a href="/wiki/Rioja_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rioja (wine)">Rioja</a> producers will sometimes <a href="/wiki/Age_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Age (wine)">age</a> their wines up to ten years in American oak to get a desired earthy cedar and herbal character.<sup id="cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_45_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacNeil_pg_45-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oak_types_and_sources">Oak types and sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oak_(wine)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Oak types and sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ch%C3%AAne_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Ch%C3%AAne_02.jpg/220px-Ch%C3%AAne_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Ch%C3%AAne_02.jpg/330px-Ch%C3%AAne_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Ch%C3%AAne_02.jpg/440px-Ch%C3%AAne_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The <i><a href="/wiki/Quercus_petraea" title="Quercus petraea">Quercus petraea</a></i> tree responsible for French oak.</figcaption></figure> <p>The species of oak typically used for American oak production is the <i><a href="/wiki/Quercus_alba" title="Quercus alba">Quercus alba</a></i> which is a white oak species that is characterized by its relatively fast growth, wider grains and lower wood tannins. It is found in most of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern United States</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a> where many wine barrels are from. In <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> the <i><a href="/wiki/Quercus_garryana" title="Quercus garryana">Quercus garryana</a></i> white oak has started to gain usage due to its closer similarities to European oak. </p><p>In France, both the <i><a href="/wiki/Quercus_robur" title="Quercus robur">Quercus robur</a></i> (English oak) and <i><a href="/wiki/Quercus_petraea" title="Quercus petraea">Quercus petraea</a></i> (sessile oak) are considered apt for wine making; however, the latter is considered far superior for its finer grain and richer contribution of aromatic components like <a href="/wiki/Vanillin" title="Vanillin">vanillin</a> and its derivates, methyl-octalactone and tannins, as well as phenols and volatile aldehydes. French oak typically comes from one or more primary forests: <a href="/wiki/Allier" title="Allier">Allier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Limousin_(r%C3%A9gion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Limousin (région)">Limousin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nevers" title="Nevers">Nevers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forest_of_Tron%C3%A7ais" title="Forest of Tronçais">Tronçais</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vosges" title="Vosges">Vosges</a>. The wood from each of these forests has slightly different characteristics. Many winemakers utilize barrels made from different cooperages, regions and degrees of toasting in blending their wines to enhance the complexity of the resulting wine.<sup id="cite_ref-Sotheby_pg_33-34_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sotheby_pg_33-34-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Altersvergleich.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Altersvergleich.jpg/220px-Altersvergleich.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Altersvergleich.jpg/330px-Altersvergleich.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Altersvergleich.jpg/440px-Altersvergleich.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>The tighter grain of French oak allows for a more gradual integration of flavors in the wine.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Italian_wine" title="Italian wine">Italian winemakers</a> have had a long history of using <a href="/wiki/Slavonia" title="Slavonia">Slavonian</a> oak from the <i><a href="/wiki/Quercus_robur" title="Quercus robur">Quercus robur</a></i> which is known for its tight grain, low aromatics and medium level tannins. Slavonian oak tends to be used in larger barrel sizes (with less surface area relative to volume) with the same barrels reused for many more years before replacement.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_(1917)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Revolution (1917)">Russian Revolution</a>, <i>Quercus petraea</i> oak from Hungary was the most highly sought after wood for <a href="/wiki/French_wine" title="French wine">French winemaking</a>. The trees in the Hungarian Zemplén Mountains grow more slowly and smaller in the volcanic soil, creating fine tight grain which sequentially lends itself to a very delicate extraction. </p><p>The hemicellulose in the Hungarian oak breaks down more easily, and conveys an exceptional selection of toasted, vanilla, sugary, woody, spicy and caramel-like flavors – imparting these aromas with less intensity, and more slowly than American or French oak. </p><p>Many winemakers favor the softer, smoother, creamier texture that Hungarian oak offers their wines. French winemakers preferred to use Hungarian barrels until the early 20th century, then – because of world wars, supply cut – the French wine industry was forced to find its own source in France, similar to the unique quality, legendary Hungarian Zemplén oak. </p><p>However, after the fall of the Iron Curtain, the cooperages from France again became major consumers of the exclusive <i>Quercus petraea</i>/Sessile Hungarian Oak trees originating in the Zemplén Mountain Forest.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_pg_92_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson_pg_92-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Russian oak from the <a href="/wiki/Adyghe_Autonomous_Oblast" title="Adyghe Autonomous Oblast">Adygey</a> region along the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> is being explored by French winemakers as a cheaper alternative to French and Hungarian oak.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Canadian_wine" title="Canadian wine">Canadian wineries</a> have been experimenting with the use of Canadian oak, which proponents describe as a middle ground between American and French oak even though it is the same species as American oak.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oak trees are typically between 80–120 years old prior to harvesting with the ideal conditions being a cool climate in a dense forest region that gives the trees opportunity to mature slowly and develop a tighter grain. Typically one tree can provide enough wood for two 225-litre (59 US gal) barrels. The trees are typically <a href="/wiki/Harvest" title="Harvest">harvested</a> in the winter months when there is less <a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">sap</a> in the trunk.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_pg_92_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson_pg_92-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differences_between_French_and_American_oak">Differences between French and American oak</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oak_(wine)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Differences between French and American oak"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:500_litres_oak_barrels_Bodegas_Casajus_Ribera_del_Duero.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/500_litres_oak_barrels_Bodegas_Casajus_Ribera_del_Duero.jpg/170px-500_litres_oak_barrels_Bodegas_Casajus_Ribera_del_Duero.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/500_litres_oak_barrels_Bodegas_Casajus_Ribera_del_Duero.jpg/255px-500_litres_oak_barrels_Bodegas_Casajus_Ribera_del_Duero.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/500_litres_oak_barrels_Bodegas_Casajus_Ribera_del_Duero.jpg/340px-500_litres_oak_barrels_Bodegas_Casajus_Ribera_del_Duero.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>500 <a href="/wiki/Litre" title="Litre">litre</a> French oak wine barrels in <a href="/wiki/Bodegas_Casaj%C3%BAs" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodegas Casajús">Bodegas Casajús</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Ribera_del_Duero" title="Ribera del Duero">Ribera del Duero</a></figcaption></figure> <p>American oak tends to be more intensely flavored than French oak with more sweet and <a href="/wiki/Vanillin" title="Vanillin">vanilla</a> overtones due to the American oak having two to four times as many <a href="/wiki/Lactones" class="mw-redirect" title="Lactones">lactones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Spectator_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spectator-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Winemakers choose American oak typically for bold, powerful reds, base wines for "assemblage", or for warm climate <a href="/wiki/Chardonnay" title="Chardonnay">Chardonnays</a>. Besides being derived from different species, a major difference between American and French oak comes from the preparation of the wood. The tighter <a href="/wiki/Woodgrain" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodgrain">grain</a> and less watertight nature of French oak obliges <a href="/wiki/Cooper_(profession)" title="Cooper (profession)">coopers</a> to split the wood along the grain. The wood is then aged or "seasoned" for 24 to 36 months in the open air, in a so-called wood-yard. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Toneleria-nacional-wood-yard.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Toneleria-nacional-wood-yard.png/220px-Toneleria-nacional-wood-yard.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Toneleria-nacional-wood-yard.png/330px-Toneleria-nacional-wood-yard.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Toneleria-nacional-wood-yard.png/440px-Toneleria-nacional-wood-yard.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="803" /></a><figcaption>Oak seasoning at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Toneler%C3%ADa_Nacional&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tonelería Nacional (page does not exist)">Tonelería Nacional</a> wood yard</figcaption></figure> <p>Even though American coopers may use a <a href="/wiki/Kiln" title="Kiln">kiln</a>-dry method to season the wood, almost all others will season American oak in exactly the same way as French.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_pg_92_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson_pg_92-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Open air seasoning has the advantage of leaching undesirable chemical components and bitter tannins, mellowing the oak in a manner that kiln-dry methods are incapable of replicating.<sup id="cite_ref-Spectator_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spectator-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though sun, rain, and wind may suffice in most cases to season oak, in drier climates coopers - such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Toneler%C3%ADa_Nacional&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tonelería Nacional (page does not exist)">Tonelería Nacional</a> - apply up to 2000 mm (80 in) of water a year to their wood stacks in order to facilitate the seasoning process. </p><p>Since French oak must be split, only 20 to 25% of the tree can be utilized; American oak may be sawn, which makes it at least twice as economical. Its more pronounced oxidation and a quicker release of aromas help wines to lose their astringency and harshness more quickly, which makes this the wood of choice for shorter maturations - six to ten months. Because of American oak’s modest tannin contribution, the perfect first fill is a wine with abundant tannins and good texture; it allows the fruit to interact harmoniously with the wood, which contributes a wide array of complex aromas and soft, yet very palatable tannins. </p><p>French oak, on the other hand, generates silky and transparent tannins, which transmit a sensation of light sweetness combined with fruity flavors that persist in the mouth. Spices and toasted almond are noteworthy, combined with flavors of ripe red fruit in red wines, and notes of peach, exotic fruits and floral aromas like jasmine and rose in whites, depending on the grape variety employed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wine_barrel">Wine barrel</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oak_(wine)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Wine barrel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aging_barrel" class="mw-redirect" title="Aging barrel">Aging barrel</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rutherford_Hill_Wine_Cave-1369.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Rutherford_Hill_Wine_Cave-1369.jpg/220px-Rutherford_Hill_Wine_Cave-1369.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Rutherford_Hill_Wine_Cave-1369.jpg/330px-Rutherford_Hill_Wine_Cave-1369.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Rutherford_Hill_Wine_Cave-1369.jpg/440px-Rutherford_Hill_Wine_Cave-1369.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3948" data-file-height="3948" /></a><figcaption>The "red band" on some wine barrels is the residue of spilt red wine. For aesthetics some wineries will paint this center portion of the barrel red for a cleaner look. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rutherford_Hill&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rutherford Hill (page does not exist)">Rutherford Hill</a> Winery, <a href="/wiki/Napa_Valley_AVA" title="Napa Valley AVA">Napa Valley AVA</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Wine barrels, especially those made of oak, have long been used as containers in which wine is aged. Aging in oak typically imparts desirable vanilla and spice flavors to wine. The size of the barrel plays a large role in determining the effects of oak on the wine by dictating the ratio of surface area to volume of wine with smaller containers having a larger impact. The most common barrels are the Bordeaux style barrel, which holds 225 litres (59 US gal), followed by the Burgundy style barrel, which holds 228 litres (60 US gal). Some New World winemakers are now also using the larger <a href="/wiki/Hogshead" title="Hogshead">hogshead</a> 300-litre (79 US gal) barrel.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_pg_93_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson_pg_93-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Larger barrels are also traditionally used in parts of Italy such as Barolo,<sup id="cite_ref-wheaver_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wheaver-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the south of France. </p><p>New barrels impart more flavors than do previously used barrels. Over time many of the oak properties get "leached" out of the barrel with layers of natural deposits left from the wine building up on the wood to where after 3 to 5 <a href="/wiki/Vintages" class="mw-redirect" title="Vintages">vintages</a> there may be little or no oak flavors imparted on the wine.<sup id="cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_41_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacNeil_pg_41-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, oxygen transport through the oak and into the wine, which is required for maturation, becomes severely limited after 3–5 years. The cost of barrels varies due to the <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a> market economy and can change with different features that a cooperage may offer. As of late 2007 the price for a standard American oak barrel was US$600 to 800, French oak US$1200 and up, and Eastern European US$600.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the expense of barrels, several techniques have been devised in an attempt to save money. One is to shave the inside of used barrels and insert new thin inner staves that have been toasted.<sup id="cite_ref-Sogg_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sogg-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Barrel_construction">Barrel construction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oak_(wine)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Barrel construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Preparando_una_Barrica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Preparando_una_Barrica.jpg/220px-Preparando_una_Barrica.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Preparando_una_Barrica.jpg/330px-Preparando_una_Barrica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Preparando_una_Barrica.jpg/440px-Preparando_una_Barrica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="907" data-file-height="887" /></a><figcaption>Barrel midway through construction.</figcaption></figure> <p>Barrels are constructed in <a href="/wiki/Cooperages" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperages">cooperages</a>. The traditional method of European coopers has been to hand-split the oak into staves (or strips) along the grain. After the oak is split, it is allowed to "season" or dry outdoors while exposed to the elements. This process can take anywhere from 10 to 36 months during which time the harshest tannins from the wood are leached out. These tannins are visible as dark gray and black residue left on the ground once the staves are removed. The longer the wood is allowed to season the softer the potential wine stored in the barrels may be but this can add substantially to the cost of the barrel. In some American cooperage the wood is dried in a <a href="/wiki/Kiln" title="Kiln">kiln</a> instead of outdoor seasoning. While this method is much faster, it does not soften the tannins quite as much as outdoor seasoning.<sup id="cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_42-43_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacNeil_pg_42-43-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The staves are then heated, traditionally over an open fire, and, when <a href="/wiki/Pliable" title="Pliable">pliable</a>, are bent into the desired shape of the barrel and held together with iron rings. Instead of fire, a cooper may use steam to heat up the staves but this tends to impart less "toastiness" and complexity to the resulting wine. Following the traditional, hand worked style, a cooper is typically able to construct one barrel in a day's time. Winemakers can order barrels with the wood on the inside of the barrel having been lightly charred or toasted with fire, medium toasted, or heavily toasted.<sup id="cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_42-43_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacNeil_pg_42-43-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically the "lighter" the toasting the more oak flavor and tannins that are imparted. Heavy toast or "charred" which is typical treatment of barrels in <a href="/wiki/Burgundy_wine" title="Burgundy wine">Burgundy wine</a> have an added dimension from the char that medium or light toasted barrels do not impart.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_pg_93_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson_pg_93-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heavy toasting dramatically reduces the coconut note lactones, even in American oak, but create a high <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> content that may reduce the coloring of some wines. During the process of toasting, the <a href="/wiki/Furanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Furanic">furanic</a> <a href="/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehydes</a> in the wood reach a higher level of concentration. This produces the "roasted" aroma in the wine. The toasting also enhances the presences of vanillin and the phenol <a href="/wiki/Eugenol" title="Eugenol">eugenol</a> which creates smokey and spicy notes that in some wines are similar to the aromatics of <a href="/wiki/Oil_of_cloves" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil of cloves">oil of cloves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sotheby_pg_33_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sotheby_pg_33-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Barrel_alternatives">Barrel alternatives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oak_(wine)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Barrel alternatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oak_chips_in_chardonnay.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Oak_chips_in_chardonnay.jpg/220px-Oak_chips_in_chardonnay.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Oak_chips_in_chardonnay.jpg/330px-Oak_chips_in_chardonnay.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Oak_chips_in_chardonnay.jpg/440px-Oak_chips_in_chardonnay.jpg 2x" data-file-width="705" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption>Oak chips in fermenting <a href="/wiki/Chardonnay" title="Chardonnay">Chardonnay</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russian_river_chard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Russian_river_chard.jpg/220px-Russian_river_chard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Russian_river_chard.jpg/330px-Russian_river_chard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Russian_river_chard.jpg/440px-Russian_river_chard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1936" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>A Chardonnay from the Russian River Valley labeling itself as "unoaked" to differentiate itself from other oak-influenced Chardonnays.</figcaption></figure> <p>Although oak <a href="/wiki/Barrels" class="mw-redirect" title="Barrels">barrels</a> have long been used by <a href="/wiki/Winemaker" title="Winemaker">winemakers</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Wineries" class="mw-redirect" title="Wineries">wineries</a> now use oak wood chips for aging wine more quickly and also adding desired woody aromas along with vanilla flavors. Oak chips can be added during fermentation or during aging. In the latter case, they are generally placed into fabric sacks and placed into the aging wine. The diversity of chips available gives winemakers numerous options. Oak chips have the benefit of imparting intense oak flavoring in a matter of weeks while traditional oak barrels would need a year or more to convey similar intensity. Critics claim that the oak flavoring from chips tend to be one-dimensional and skewed towards the vanilla extract with the wines still lacking some of the physical benefits that barrel oak imparts.<sup id="cite_ref-Sogg_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sogg-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of oak powder is also less common than chips, although they are a very practical alternative if oak character is to be introduced during fermentation. Oak <a href="/wiki/Plank_(wood)" title="Plank (wood)">planks</a> or staves are sometimes used, either during fermentation or aging. Wines made from these barrel alternatives typically do not age as well as wines that are matured in barrels.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_pg_93_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson_pg_93-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Improvements in <a href="/wiki/Micro-oxygenation" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-oxygenation">micro-oxygenation</a> have allowed winemakers to better mimic the gentle aeration of oak barrels in stainless steel tanks with oak chips.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_491_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_491-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to 2006, the practice of using oak chips was outlawed in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1999, the Bordeaux court of appeals fined four wineries, including third growth <a href="/wiki/Chateau_Giscours" class="mw-redirect" title="Chateau Giscours">Chateau Giscours</a>, over $13,000 USD for the use of oak chips in their wine.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_wood_types">Other wood types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oak_(wine)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Other wood types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:W%26H-dsc02595.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/W%26H-dsc02595.jpg/220px-W%26H-dsc02595.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/W%26H-dsc02595.jpg/330px-W%26H-dsc02595.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/W%26H-dsc02595.jpg/440px-W%26H-dsc02595.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Weighing a sherry barrel</figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout history other wood types, including <a href="/wiki/Chestnut" title="Chestnut">chestnut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pine" title="Pine">pine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Redwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Redwood">redwood</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Black_locust" class="mw-redirect" title="Black locust">black locust</a>, have been used in crafting winemaking vessels, particularly large fermentation vats. However, none of these wood types possess the compatibility with wine that oak has demonstrated in combining its water tight, yet slightly porous, storage capabilities with the unique flavor and texture characteristic that it can impart to the wine that it is in contact with.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_pg_91_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson_pg_91-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chestnut is very high in tannins and is too porous as a storage barrel and must be coated with <a href="/wiki/Paraffin_wax" title="Paraffin wax">paraffin</a> to prevent excessive wine loss through evaporation. Redwood is too rigid to bend into the smaller barrel shapes and imparts an unpleasant flavor. Black Locust imparts a yellow tint to the wine. Other hardwoods like <a href="/wiki/Apple_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Apple tree">apple</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cherry_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherry tree">cherry wood</a> have an off putting smell.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Austrian_wine" title="Austrian wine">Austrian winemakers</a> have a history of using black locust barrels. Historically, chestnut was used by <a href="/wiki/Beaujolais" title="Beaujolais">Beaujolais</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_wine" title="Portuguese wine">Portuguese wine</a> makers.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_pg_775_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_pg_775-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne_wine" title="Rhône wine">Rhône winemakers</a> still use paraffin coated chestnut barrels but the coating minimizes any effect from the wood making its function similar to a neutral concrete vessel. In <a href="/wiki/Chilean_wine" title="Chilean wine">Chile</a> there are traditions for using barrels made of <a href="/wiki/Nothofagus_alpina" title="Nothofagus alpina">rauli</a> wood but it is beginning to fall out of favor due to the musky scent it imparts on wine.<sup id="cite_ref-Sotheby_pg_32_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sotheby_pg_32-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oak_(wine)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/15px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/22px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/30px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="948" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Wine" title="Portal:Wine">Wine portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barrel" title="Barrel">Barrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarification_and_stabilization_of_wine" title="Clarification and stabilization of wine">Clarification and stabilization of wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ullage_(wine)" title="Ullage (wine)">Ullage (wine)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oak_(wine)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Robinson_pg_91-93-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_pg_91-93_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Robinson <i>Jancis Robinson's Wine Course</i> Third Edition pg 91-93 Abbeville Press 2003 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7892-0883-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7892-0883-0">0-7892-0883-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnson_pg_25-26-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_pg_25-26_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Johnson <i>Vintage: The Story of Wine</i> pg 25-26 Simon and Schuster 1989 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-68702-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-68702-6">0-671-68702-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacNeil_pg_40-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_40_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_40_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">K. MacNeil <i>The Wine Bible</i> pg 40 Workman Publishing 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56305-434-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-56305-434-5">1-56305-434-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacNeil_pg_41-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_41_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_41_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">K. MacNeil <i>The Wine Bible</i> pg 41 Workman Publishing 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56305-434-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-56305-434-5">1-56305-434-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_pg_492-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_492_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Robinson (ed) <i>"The Oxford Companion to Wine"</i> Third Edition pg 492 Oxford University Press 2006 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-860990-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-860990-6">0-19-860990-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robinson_pg_93-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_pg_93_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_pg_93_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_pg_93_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_pg_93_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_pg_93_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Robinson <i>Jancis Robinson's Wine Course</i> Third Edition pg 93 Abbeville Press 2003 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7892-0883-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7892-0883-0">0-7892-0883-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spectator-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spectator_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spectator_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spectator_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Sogg "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.winespectator.com/Wine/Archives/Show_Article/0,1275,3302,00.html">White Wines, New Barrels: The taste of new oak gains favor worldwide</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081122140514/http://www.winespectator.com/Wine/Archives/Show_Article/0,1275,3302,00.html">Archived</a> 2008-11-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" Wine Spectator July 31, 2001</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacNeil_pg_45-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_45_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_45_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">K. MacNeil <i>The Wine Bible</i> pg 45 Workman Publishing 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56305-434-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-56305-434-5">1-56305-434-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sotheby_pg_33-34-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sotheby_pg_33-34_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. Stevenson <i>"The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia"</i> pg 33-34 Dorling Kindersley 2005 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7566-1324-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7566-1324-8">0-7566-1324-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.castellobanfi.com/tastroom/glossary.php">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101017190607/http://www.castellobanfi.com/tastroom/glossary.php">Archived</a> October 17, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robinson_pg_92-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_pg_92_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_pg_92_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_pg_92_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Robinson <i>Jancis Robinson's Wine Course</i> Third Edition pg 92 Abbeville Press 2003 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7892-0883-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7892-0883-0">0-7892-0883-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Sogg "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.winespectator.com/Wine/Archives/Show_Article/0,1275,2904,00.html">French Barrelmaker Turns to Russian Oak</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080829122819/http://www.winespectator.com/Wine/Archives/Show_Article/0,1275,2904,00.html">Archived</a> 2008-08-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" Wine Spectator October 15, 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K. Ebjich "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.winespectator.com/Wine/Daily/News/0,1145,2249,00.html">Canadian Oak Barrels Get the Nod From Winemakers</a>" Wine Spectator November 11, 2003 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041010143103/http://www.winespectator.com/Wine/Daily/News/0,1145,2249,00.html">Archived</a> October 10, 2004, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wheaver-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wheaver_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J Wheaver '<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.barol.org.uk/barriques.htm">[2]</a>" 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">World Cooperage <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcooperage.com/pages/product_barrels_trad.html">Product Information</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070828121600/http://www.worldcooperage.com/pages/product_barrels_trad.html">Archived</a> August 28, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sogg-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sogg_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sogg_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">D. Sogg "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.winespectator.com/Wine/Archives/Show_Article/0,1275,3820,00.html">Oak Flavorings</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040813061257/http://www.winespectator.com/Wine/Archives/Show_Article/0,1275,3820,00.html">Archived</a> 2004-08-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" Wine Spectator Sept.20th, 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacNeil_pg_42-43-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_42-43_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacNeil_pg_42-43_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">K. MacNeil <i>The Wine Bible</i> pg 42-43 Workman Publishing 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56305-434-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-56305-434-5">1-56305-434-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sotheby_pg_33-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sotheby_pg_33_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. Stevenson <i>"The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia"</i> pg 33 Dorling Kindersley 2005 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7566-1324-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7566-1324-8">0-7566-1324-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_pg_491-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_491_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Robinson (ed) <i>"The Oxford Companion to Wine"</i> Third Edition pg 491 Oxford University Press 2006 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-860990-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-860990-6">0-19-860990-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJancis_Robinson2006" class="citation web cs1">Jancis Robinson (May 4, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/05/04/WIGJIIJG561.DTL&hw=wine&sn=004&sc=506">"Giant 'teabags' of oak chips now legal in Europe"</a>. San Francisco Chronicle.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Giant+%27teabags%27+of+oak+chips+now+legal+in+Europe&rft.pub=San+Francisco+Chronicle&rft.date=2006-05-04&rft.au=Jancis+Robinson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfgate.com%2Fcgi-bin%2Farticle.cgi%3Ff%3D%2Fc%2Fa%2F2006%2F05%2F04%2FWIGJIIJG561.DTL%26hw%3Dwine%26sn%3D004%26sc%3D506&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOak+%28wine%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.winespectator.com/articles/bordeaux-chbteaus-fined-for-use-of-wood-chips-20471">"Bordeaux Châteaus Fined for Use of Wood Chips"</a>. <i>winespectator.com/</i>. Wine Spectator<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=winespectator.com%2F&rft.atitle=Bordeaux+Ch%C3%A2teaus+Fined+for+Use+of+Wood+Chips&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.winespectator.com%2Farticles%2Fbordeaux-chbteaus-fined-for-use-of-wood-chips-20471&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOak+%28wine%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robinson_pg_91-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Robinson_pg_91_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Robinson <i>Jancis Robinson's Wine Course</i> Third Edition pg 91 Abbeville Press 2003 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7892-0883-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7892-0883-0">0-7892-0883-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Ross "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-13619651.html">Rethinking American vs. French oak</a>" Wines & Vines November 1, 1992 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090213221853/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-13619651.html">Archived</a> February 13, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_pg_775-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_pg_775_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Robinson (ed) <i>"The Oxford Companion to Wine"</i> Third Edition pg 775 Oxford University Press 2006 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-860990-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-860990-6">0-19-860990-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sotheby_pg_32-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sotheby_pg_32_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. Stevenson <i>"The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia"</i> pg 32 Dorling Kindersley 2005 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7566-1324-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7566-1324-8">0-7566-1324-8</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oak_(wine)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ancient <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicians_and_wine" title="Phoenicians and wine">Phoenicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece_and_wine" title="Ancient Greece and wine">Ancient Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_in_China" title="Wine in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_wine" title="Noah's wine">Noah's wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French_wine" title="History of French wine">France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_French_Wine_Blight" title="Great French Wine Blight">Great French Wine Blight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_wine#History" title="Georgian wine">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_wine" title="New World wine">New World</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_of_Paris_(wine)" title="Judgment of Paris (wine)">Judgment of Paris</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Styles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_wine" title="Red wine">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_wine" title="White wine">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sparkling_wine" title="Sparkling wine">Sparkling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ros%C3%A9" title="Rosé">Rosé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_wine" title="Orange wine">Orange</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dessert_wine" title="Dessert wine">Dessert</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fortified_wine" title="Fortified wine">Fortified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_wine" title="Ice wine">Ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromatised_wine" title="Aromatised wine">Aromatized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_wine" title="Fruit wine">Fruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_rot" title="Noble rot">Noble rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straw_wine" title="Straw wine">Straw</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Other <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_wine" title="Table wine">Table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_wine" title="Natural wine">Natural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodynamic_wine" title="Biodynamic wine">Biodynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_wine" title="Organic wine">Organic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kosher_wine" title="Kosher wine">Kosher</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Top <a href="/wiki/List_of_grape_varieties" title="List of grape varieties">grape varieties</a><br />by acreage</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_wine" title="White wine">White</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air%C3%A9n" title="Airén">Airén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aligot%C3%A9" title="Aligoté">Aligoté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catarratto" title="Catarratto">Catarratto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayetana_blanca" title="Cayetana blanca">Cayetana blanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chardonnay" title="Chardonnay">Chardonnay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chenin_blanc" title="Chenin blanc">Chenin blanc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombard" title="Colombard">Colombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glera_(grape)" title="Glera (grape)">Glera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%BCner_Veltliner" title="Grüner Veltliner">Grüner Veltliner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macabeo" title="Macabeo">Macabeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCller-Thurgau" title="Müller-Thurgau">Müller-Thurgau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat_Blanc_%C3%A0_Petits_Grains" title="Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains">Muscat blanc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat_of_Alexandria" title="Muscat of Alexandria">Muscat of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palomino_(grape)" title="Palomino (grape)">Palomino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riesling" title="Riesling">Riesling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rkatsiteli" title="Rkatsiteli">Rkatsiteli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sauvignon_blanc" title="Sauvignon blanc">Sauvignon blanc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9millon" title="Sémillon">Sémillon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trebbiano" title="Trebbiano">Trebbiano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welschriesling" title="Welschriesling">Welschriesling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Red_wine" title="Red wine">Red</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alicante_Bouschet" title="Alicante Bouschet">Alicante Bouschet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbera" title="Barbera">Barbera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobal" title="Bobal">Bobal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabernet_Franc" title="Cabernet Franc">Cabernet Franc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabernet_Sauvignon" title="Cabernet Sauvignon">Cabernet Sauvignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carignan" title="Carignan">Carignan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinsaut" title="Cinsaut">Cinsaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douce_noir" title="Douce noir">Douce noir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamay" title="Gamay">Gamay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenache" title="Grenache">Grenache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isabella_(grape)" title="Isabella (grape)">Isabella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malbec" title="Malbec">Malbec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merlot" title="Merlot">Merlot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montepulciano_(grape)" title="Montepulciano (grape)">Montepulciano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mourv%C3%A8dre" title="Mourvèdre">Mourvèdre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinot_noir" title="Pinot noir">Pinot noir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangiovese" title="Sangiovese">Sangiovese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrah" title="Syrah">Syrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempranillo" title="Tempranillo">Tempranillo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinfandel" title="Zinfandel">Zinfandel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_wine-producing_regions" title="List of wine-producing regions">Major regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_World_wine" title="Old World wine">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_wine" title="New World wine">New World</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Packaging, <a href="/wiki/Wine_accessory" title="Wine accessory">accessories</a>,<br />and <a href="/wiki/Storage_of_wine" title="Storage of wine">storage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_wine_closure" title="Alternative wine closure">Alternative wine closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Box_wine" title="Box wine">Box wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corkscrew" title="Corkscrew">Corkscrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decanter" title="Decanter">Decanter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jug_wine" title="Jug wine">Jug wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kvevri" title="Kvevri">Kvevri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muselet" title="Muselet">Muselet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_tongs" title="Port tongs">Port tongs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screw_cap_(wine)" title="Screw cap (wine)">Screw cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_bottle" title="Wine bottle">Wine bottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_cave" title="Wine cave">Wine cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_cellar" title="Wine cellar">Wine cellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_cork" title="Wine cork">Wine cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_dispenser" title="Wine dispenser">Wine dispenser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_glass" title="Wine glass">Wine glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_label" title="Wine label">Wine label</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_rack" title="Wine rack">Wine rack</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wine_chemistry" title="Wine chemistry">Wine chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aroma_of_wine" title="Aroma of wine">Aroma of wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acids_in_wine" title="Acids in wine">Acids in wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenolic_content_in_wine" title="Phenolic content in wine">Phenolic content in wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteins_in_wine" title="Proteins in wine">Proteins in wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugars_in_wine" title="Sugars in wine">Sugars in wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Industry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_wine" title="Classification of wine">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oenophilia" title="Oenophilia">Oenophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sommelier" title="Sommelier">Sommelier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_and_food_pairing" title="Wine and food pairing">Wine and food pairing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_fault" title="Wine fault">Wine fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_fraud" title="Wine fraud">Wine fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winemaker" title="Winemaker">Winemaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wine_personalities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of wine personalities">Wine personalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_tasting" title="Wine tasting">Wine tasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_tasting_descriptors" title="Wine tasting descriptors">Wine tasting descriptors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/8px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/13px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/17px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="948" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Wine" title="Portal:Wine">Wine portal</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_wine" title="Outline of wine">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_wine_terms" title="Glossary of wine terms">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Winemaking" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Winemaking" title="Template:Winemaking"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Winemaking" title="Template talk:Winemaking"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Winemaking" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Winemaking"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Winemaking" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">Winemaking</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvest_(wine)" title="Harvest (wine)">Harvest</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_harvest_wine" title="Late harvest wine">Late harvest wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_rot" title="Noble rot">Noble rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vintage" title="Vintage">Vintage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pressing_(wine)" title="Pressing (wine)">Pressing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acids_in_wine" title="Acids in wine">Deacidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destemming" class="mw-redirect" title="Destemming">Destemming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaptalization" title="Chaptalization">Chaptalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_press" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine press">Wine press</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maceration_(wine)" title="Maceration (wine)">Maceration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbonic_maceration" title="Carbonic maceration">Carbonic maceration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fermentation_in_winemaking" title="Fermentation in winemaking">Fermentation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malolactic_fermentation" title="Malolactic fermentation">Malolactic fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sparkling_wine_production" title="Sparkling wine production">Sparkling wine production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugars_in_wine" title="Sugars in wine">Sugars in wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCssreserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Süssreserve">Süssreserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_method" title="Traditional method">Traditional method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeast_assimilable_nitrogen" title="Yeast assimilable nitrogen">Yeast assimilable nitrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeast_in_winemaking" title="Yeast in winemaking">Yeast in winemaking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_wine" title="Aging of wine">Aging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solera" title="Solera">Solera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_cellar" title="Wine cellar">Wine cellar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other steps</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clarification_and_stabilization_of_wine" title="Clarification and stabilization of wine">Clarification and stabilization of wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winery" title="Winery">Winery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_bottle" title="Wine bottle">Wine bottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_viticulture_terms" title="Glossary of viticulture terms">Glossary of viticulture terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_winemaking_terms" title="Glossary of winemaking terms">Glossary of winemaking terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_tasting_descriptors" title="Wine tasting descriptors">Wine tasting descriptors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_wine_press" title="History of the wine press">History of the wine press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">History of wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terroir" title="Terroir">Terroir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/8px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/13px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/17px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="948" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Wine" title="Portal:Wine">Wine portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Winemaking" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Winemaking" title="Template:Winemaking"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Winemaking" title="Template talk:Winemaking"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Winemaking" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Winemaking"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Winemaking" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">Winemaking</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvest_(wine)" title="Harvest (wine)">Harvest</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_harvest_wine" title="Late harvest wine">Late harvest wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_rot" title="Noble rot">Noble rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vintage" title="Vintage">Vintage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pressing_(wine)" title="Pressing (wine)">Pressing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acids_in_wine" title="Acids in wine">Deacidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destemming" class="mw-redirect" title="Destemming">Destemming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaptalization" title="Chaptalization">Chaptalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_press" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine press">Wine press</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maceration_(wine)" title="Maceration (wine)">Maceration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbonic_maceration" title="Carbonic maceration">Carbonic maceration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fermentation_in_winemaking" title="Fermentation in winemaking">Fermentation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malolactic_fermentation" title="Malolactic fermentation">Malolactic fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sparkling_wine_production" title="Sparkling wine production">Sparkling wine production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugars_in_wine" title="Sugars in wine">Sugars in wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCssreserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Süssreserve">Süssreserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_method" title="Traditional method">Traditional method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeast_assimilable_nitrogen" title="Yeast assimilable nitrogen">Yeast assimilable nitrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeast_in_winemaking" title="Yeast in winemaking">Yeast in winemaking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_wine" title="Aging of wine">Aging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Oak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solera" title="Solera">Solera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_cellar" title="Wine cellar">Wine cellar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other steps</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clarification_and_stabilization_of_wine" title="Clarification and stabilization of wine">Clarification and stabilization of wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winery" title="Winery">Winery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_bottle" title="Wine bottle">Wine bottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_viticulture_terms" title="Glossary of viticulture terms">Glossary of viticulture terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_winemaking_terms" title="Glossary of winemaking terms">Glossary of winemaking terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_tasting_descriptors" title="Wine tasting descriptors">Wine tasting descriptors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_wine_press" title="History of the wine press">History of the wine press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">History of wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terroir" title="Terroir">Terroir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/8px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/13px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg/17px-A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="948" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Wine" title="Portal:Wine">Wine portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" 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