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href="#Toulmin's_argumentation_framework"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Toulmin's argumentation framework</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toulmin's_argumentation_framework-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Similar_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Similar_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Similar theories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Similar_theories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Similar theories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Similar_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reductio_ad_absurdum" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reductio_ad_absurdum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Reductio ad absurdum</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reductio_ad_absurdum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Begging_the_question" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Begging_the_question"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Begging the question</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Begging_the_question-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ad_nauseam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ad_nauseam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Ad nauseam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ad_nauseam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Denialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Denialism"> <div 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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Appeal to the stone</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apel%C2%B7laci%C3%B3_a_la_pedra" title="Apel·lació a la pedra – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Apel·lació a la pedra" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumentum_ad_lapidem" title="Argumentum ad lapidem – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Argumentum ad lapidem" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF" title="استدلال از راه سنگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="استدلال از راه سنگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%98%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%A2" title="כשל הבעיטה בסלע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כשל הבעיטה בסלע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apodi%C3%B2xi" title="Apodiòxi – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Apodiòxi" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumentum_ad_lapidem" title="Argumentum ad lapidem – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Argumentum ad lapidem" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pälzisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumentum_ad_lapidem" title="Argumentum ad lapidem – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Argumentum ad lapidem" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumentum_ad_lapidem" title="Argumentum ad lapidem – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Argumentum ad lapidem" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Argumentum_ad_lapidem&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Argumentum ad lapidem">Argumentum ad lapidem</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Logical fallacy</div> <p><b>Appeal to the stone</b>, also known as <b>argumentum ad lapidem</b>, is a logical <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacy</a> that dismisses an argument as untrue or absurd. The dismissal is made by stating or reiterating that the argument is absurd, without providing further argumentation. This theory is closely tied to <a href="/wiki/Proof_by_assertion" title="Proof by assertion">proof by assertion</a> due to the lack of evidence behind the statement and its attempt to persuade without providing any evidence. </p><p>Appeal to the stone is a <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">logical fallacy</a>. Specifically, it is an <a href="/wiki/Fallacy#Informal_fallacy" title="Fallacy">informal fallacy</a>, which means that it relies on <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a> in an argument to justify an <a href="/wiki/Proof_by_assertion" title="Proof by assertion">assertion</a>. Informal fallacies contain erroneous reasoning in content of the argument and not the form or structure of it, as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Fallacy#Formal_fallacy" title="Fallacy">formal fallacies</a>, which contain erroneous reasoning in argument form. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Example">Example</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Example"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An example would be a conversation about the <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory of disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_denialism" title="Germ theory denialism">denialism of it</a>: </p> <dl><dd>Speaker A: Infectious diseases are caused by tiny organisms that are not visible to unaided eyesight.</dd> <dd>Speaker B: Your statement is false.</dd> <dd>Speaker A: Why do you think that it is false?</dd> <dd>Speaker B: It sounds like nonsense.</dd></dl> <p>Speaker B denies Speaker A's claim without providing evidence to support their denial. This may not be unreasonable if the claim is inherently self-contradictory ("I am not speaking to you right now") or too malformed to be a sensical claim at all. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin">Origin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samuel_Johnson_(1911)_Frontispiece.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of Dr.Samuel Johnson." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Samuel_Johnson_%281911%29_Frontispiece.png/170px-Samuel_Johnson_%281911%29_Frontispiece.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Samuel_Johnson_%281911%29_Frontispiece.png/255px-Samuel_Johnson_%281911%29_Frontispiece.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Samuel_Johnson_%281911%29_Frontispiece.png/340px-Samuel_Johnson_%281911%29_Frontispiece.png 2x" data-file-width="1209" data-file-height="1563" /></a><figcaption>Dr. Samuel Johnson. Originator of the appeal to the stone.</figcaption></figure> <p>The name "appeal to the stone" originates from an argument between <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Dr. Samuel Johnson</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">James Boswell</a> over <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">subjective idealism</a> (known previously as "immaterialism"). Subjective idealism states that reality is dependent on a person's perceptions of the world and that material objects are intertwined with one's perceptions of these material objects.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>After we came out of the church, we stood talking for some time together of Bishop Berkeley's ingenious sophistry to prove the non-existence of matter, and that every thing in the universe is merely ideal. I observed, that though we are satisfied his doctrine is not true, it is impossible to refute it. I never shall forget the alacrity with which Johnson answered, striking his foot with mighty force against a large stone, till he rebounded from it, "I refute it <i>thus</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>James Boswell, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Life_of_Samuel_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="The Life of Samuel Johnson">The Life of Samuel Johnson</a></i></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Johnson's intent, apparently,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was to imply that it was absurd of Berkeley to call such a stone "immaterial," when in fact Johnson could kick it with his foot. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Informal_logical_fallacies">Informal logical fallacies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Informal logical fallacies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Informal logical fallacies are misconceptions derived from faulty reasoning. Informal logical fallacies use <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">inductive reasoning</a> and thus can cause errors in reasoning by creating the illusion of a sound argument when it is not sound.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fallacy_of_irrelevance">Fallacy of irrelevance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Fallacy of irrelevance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Irrelevant_conclusion" title="Irrelevant conclusion">Irrelevant conclusions</a>, also known as <i>ignoratio elenchi</i> (Latin for ''ignoring the list" or "ignoring refutation'') or missing the point, follows a similar structure to appeal to the stone.  As an informal fallacy, it may not be valid or sound in its reasoning.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Irrelevant conclusions hold similarity to appeal to the stone because it provides evidence towards a conclusion that has already been formed about the subject matter being debated, instead of the original subject that was being discussed.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dr. Samuel Johnson’s refutation of Bishop Berkeley’s theory of immaterialism by kicking a stone did not actually address the theory, but rather asserted a conclusion incompatible with the theory and then echoed his conclusion without discussing the subject matter of the theory of immaterialism directly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inductive_reasoning">Inductive reasoning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Inductive reasoning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Appeal to the stone utilizes inductive reasoning to derive its argument. Formal fallacies use deductive reasoning and formal properties to structure an argument and inductive arguments do not use this structure. Inductive reasoning is reasoning with uncertain conclusions because of inferences made about a specific situation, object, or event.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the context of Appeal to the stone, inductive reasoning is asserted against an initial claim without further elaboration. Inductive arguments can be affected by the acquisition of new information or evidence that can debunk an inductive assumption.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inductive reasoning asserts that the probability of a conclusion being correct is adequate evidence to support the argument.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Inductive arguments are judged on the strength or weakness of an argument and an argument's strength is subjective to each participant based on preconceptions about the subject being discussed. </p><p>The weakness of inductive reasoning (in comparison to <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive reasoning</a>), lies in the inability to gauge the <a href="/wiki/Validity_(logic)" title="Validity (logic)">validity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Soundness" title="Soundness">soundness</a> of claims within an argument. Validity of an argument is based on whether the information presented is factual. However, if evidence presented to prove a conclusion are false, this can provide a valid argument based on false information to substantiate the conclusion. Therefore, soundness of an argument is deemed when the assumptions of an argument are factual. Unlike deductive reasoning, inductive arguments cannot prove their deductive validity and therefore lead to the problem of induction.   </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure_of_arguments">Structure of arguments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Structure of arguments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Arguments are typically structured by a claim being defended with reasoning and evidence. It typically consists of statements that provide premises to support a conclusion. In the case of appeal to the stone, there is an explicit conclusion but it is likely not substantiated with many premises to validate the conclusion being asserted.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the theory of argumentation, there must assumptions or premises that follow a method of reasoning or deduction to form the conclusion or point. An appeal to the stone's lack of evidence to substantiate the rejection of the initial claim puts the burden of proof on the other member of the argument and limits rebuttals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Restricted_debate">Restricted debate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Restricted debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Burden_of_proof_(philosophy)" title="Burden of proof (philosophy)">burden of proof</a>, appeal to the stone does not allow for debate past the dismissal of the first claim. Therefore, the burden of proof is placed upon the person who made the initial statement to prove it is correct. However, when appeal to the stone is used to argue, there is a diminished ability for a person to create a rebuttal due to lack of elaboration on why there has been a disagreement.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the appeal to the stone technique is often paired with other logical fallacies that restrict the ability to further dialogue.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Participants presenting an appeal to the stone argument may use ad-hominem attacks<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to avoid the discussion’s topic, or may pair it with a straw-man argument to discredit the other participant.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Two_systems_theory">Two systems theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Two systems theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The two systems theory, by Israeli psychologist <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kahneman" title="Daniel Kahneman">Daniel Kahneman</a> in his book <i><a href="/wiki/Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow" title="Thinking, Fast and Slow">Thinking, Fast and Slow</a></i>, explains the reasoning behind illogical fallacies. In the two systems theory, <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a> is categorized into system 1 and system 2. System 1 decision-making only uses quick and usually <a href="/wiki/Heuristics_in_judgment_and_decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Heuristics in judgment and decision making">heuristic</a> based interpretations to aid in low-engagement decisions. System 2 decision-making uses more deliberate and rational consideration when creating a conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many illogical fallacies employ quick judgement based on emotion to create conclusions in system 1 type decision-making. However, by having a skeptical mindset on one’s own conclusions and engaging in methodological thinking, one can avoid an illogical fallacy.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toulmin's_argumentation_framework"><span id="Toulmin.27s_argumentation_framework"></span>Toulmin's argumentation framework</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Toulmin's argumentation framework"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Toulmin_Argumentation_Example.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Toulmin argumentation framework example involving a claim, grounds, warrant, qualifier, rebuttal, and backing." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Toulmin_Argumentation_Example.gif/373px-Toulmin_Argumentation_Example.gif" decoding="async" width="373" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Toulmin_Argumentation_Example.gif/560px-Toulmin_Argumentation_Example.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Toulmin_Argumentation_Example.gif/746px-Toulmin_Argumentation_Example.gif 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Toulmin argumentation framework example.</figcaption></figure> <p>As demonstrated in <a href="/wiki/Toulmin_map" class="mw-redirect" title="Toulmin map">Toulmin’s argumentation framework</a>, the grounds of an assumption require warrant and backing to legitimize the claim and prove the soundness of the conclusion. The framework involves a claim, grounds, warrant, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_modifier" title="Grammatical modifier">qualifier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rebuttal" title="Rebuttal">rebuttal</a>, and backing. The initial claim of an argument is the assertion that the arguer is trying to confirm to another member in an argument. The grounds of an argument are the evidence to support the initial assertion. The warrant are the assumptions that are being used to connect the grounds to the claim. Backing is any additional supporting evidence to prove a claim and to support the warrant. Qualifiers are used to show that a claim may not always be correct (such as: sometimes, rather, somewhat) to show that the claim may not always apply to every situation. Finally, a rebuttal provides another member in a discussion to propose another valid claim for the argument.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In an appeal to the stone, there is only grounds and claims without providing valid warrants or backing to substantiate their claim. Furthermore, appeals to the stone typically do not use qualifiers, limiting the scope of a rebuttal. Without providing valid evidence in an appeal to the stone, it is difficult to provide a rebuttal to the claim.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Similar_theories">Similar theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Similar theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reductio_ad_absurdum">Reductio ad absurdum</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Reductio ad absurdum"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Appeal to the stone shares similarities in structure to <i><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum" title="Reductio ad absurdum">reductio ad absurdum</a></i> (Latin for “reduction to absurdity”) which states that an argument's assumptions or methods will lead to absurd conclusions.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although appeal to the stone does not explicitly state that an initial statement is absurd, a rejection of the initial claim often times presumes that the initial claim is incorrect or absurd. <i>Reductio ad absurdum</i> makes the assertion that if an initial claim is true, then some other absurd conclusion must also be true.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Begging_the_question">Begging the question</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Begging the question"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">Begging the question</a>, also called <i>petitio principii</i>, is a conclusion based on an assumption that requires further proof or elaboration to be validated.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Begging the question, is more formally synonymous with “ignoring a question under the assumption it has already been answered.” Begging the question often creates further questioning and colloquial use of this theory has been repurposed to mean “a question that begs to be answered”.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ad_nauseam">Ad nauseam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Ad nauseam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_nauseam" title="Ad nauseam">Ad nauseam</a></i> is Latin and is associated with repeating something to a sickening or excessive degree. This fallacy can be used in arguments to by asserting an opinion on a subject matter to an excessive degree. In an appeal to the stone, with a lack of evidence to support a rejection of a claim, it can likely lead to an <i>ad nauseam</i> argument. If an argument with an appeal to the stone cannot be resolved, it will likely lead to both parties arguing until they are bored of the discussion and cannot come to a satisfactory conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Denialism">Denialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Denialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">Denialism</a> is a rejection of facts and reality even when there is strong evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those using denialism are likely using it with ulterior motives such as self-interests or to avoid an uncomfortable truth. The most common way to rebut a denial is through debunking by dissecting the root of the belief and providing evidence to disprove their idea, point by point. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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/></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">Ad hominem</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solvitur_ambulando" title="Solvitur ambulando">Solvitur ambulando</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignoratio_elenchi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ignoratio elenchi">Ignoratio elenchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_ridicule" title="Appeal to ridicule">Appeal to ridicule</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_baculum" title="Argumentum ad baculum">Argumentum ad baculum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_by_assertion" title="Proof by assertion">Proof by assertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27m_entitled_to_my_opinion" title="I'm entitled to my opinion">I'm entitled to my opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_herring" title="Red herring">Red herring</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Appeal_to_the_stone&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/subjective-idealism">"Subjective idealism | philosophy"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190607172044/https://www.britannica.com/topic/subjective-idealism">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Subjective+idealism+%7C+philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fsubjective-idealism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAppeal+to+the+stone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatey1986" class="citation journal cs1">Patey, Douglas Lane (January 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2709600">"Johnson's Refutation of Berkeley: Kicking the Stone Again"</a>. <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>47</b> (1): 139–145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2709600">10.2307/2709600</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2709600">2709600</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210310205335/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2709600">Archived</a> from the original on 10 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=Johnson%27s+Refutation+of+Berkeley%3A+Kicking+the+Stone+Again&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=139-145&rft.date=1986-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2709600&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2709600%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Patey&rft.aufirst=Douglas+Lane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2709600&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAppeal+to+the+stone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallett1947" class="citation journal cs1">Hallett, H. F. (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2250515">"Dr. Johnson's Refutation of Bishop Berkeley"</a>. <i>Mind</i>. <b>56</b> (222): 132–147. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmind%2FLVI.222.132">10.1093/mind/LVI.222.132</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-4423">0026-4423</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2250515">2250515</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20243642">20243642</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230829140451/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2250515">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mind&rft.atitle=Dr.+Johnson%27s+Refutation+of+Bishop+Berkeley&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=222&rft.pages=132-147&rft.date=1947&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20243642&rft.issn=0026-4423&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2250515%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fmind%2FLVI.222.132&rft.aulast=Hallett&rft.aufirst=H.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2250515&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAppeal+to+the+stone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAudi2015" class="citation book cs1">Audi, Robert, ed. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebooks.cambridge.org/ref/id/CBO9781139057509"><i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i></a> (3 ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9781139057509">10.1017/cbo9781139057509</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05750-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05750-9"><bdi>978-1-139-05750-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9781139057509&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05750-9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Febooks.cambridge.org%2Fref%2Fid%2FCBO9781139057509&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAppeal+to+the+stone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315253329-14">"Whately and the study of fallacious reasoning"</a>, <i>Historical Foundations of Informal Logic</i>, Routledge, pp. 109–123, 5 December 2016, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315253329-14">10.4324/9781315253329-14</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-25332-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-25332-9"><bdi>978-1-315-25332-9</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231007222652/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9781315253329-14/whately-study-fallacious-reasoning-douglas-walton-alan-brinton">archived</a> from the original on 7 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Foundations+of+Informal+Logic&rft.atitle=Whately+and+the+study+of+fallacious+reasoning&rft.pages=109-123&rft.date=2016-12-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315253329-14&rft.isbn=978-1-315-25332-9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.4324%2F9781315253329-14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAppeal+to+the+stone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNairDavies1917" class="citation journal cs1">McNair, G. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Philosophy%2C+Psychology+and+Scientific+Methods&rft.atitle=A+Text-book+on+Logic&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=109&rft.date=1917-02-15&rft.issn=0160-9335&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A60139391%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2012956%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2012956&rft.aulast=McNair&rft.aufirst=G.+H.&rft.au=Davies%2C+Arthur+Ernest&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2F2012956&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAppeal+to+the+stone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeeneyHeit2001" class="citation book cs1">Feeney, Aidan; Heit, Evan, eds. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch+der+Philosophie+online&rft.atitle=Reductio+ad+absurdum&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.24894%2Fhwph.3487&rft.aulast=Rescher&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.24894%2Fhwph.3487&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAppeal+to+the+stone" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarner2016" class="citation journal cs1">Garner, Bryan A. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780190491482.001.0001">"Garner's Modern English Usage"</a>. <i>Oxford Reference</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780190491482.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780190491482.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-049148-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-049148-2"><bdi>978-0-19-049148-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231007223201/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780190491482.001.0001/acref-9780190491482">Archived</a> from the original on 7 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Reference&rft.atitle=Garner%27s+Modern+English+Usage&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780190491482.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-049148-2&rft.aulast=Garner&rft.aufirst=Bryan+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780190491482.001.0001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAppeal+to+the+stone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffith2016" class="citation cs2">Griffith, Bryant (2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6300-642-2_3">"What Does it Mean to Question?"</a>, <i>NextGeners</i>, Rotterdam: SensePublishers, pp. 53–83, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-6300-642-2_3">10.1007/978-94-6300-642-2_3</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-6300-642-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-6300-642-2"><bdi>978-94-6300-642-2</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231007223158/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-6300-642-2_3">archived</a> from the original on 7 October 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NextGeners&rft.atitle=What+Does+it+Mean+to+Question%3F&rft.pages=53-83&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-6300-642-2_3&rft.isbn=978-94-6300-642-2&rft.aulast=Griffith&rft.aufirst=Bryant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2F978-94-6300-642-2_3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAppeal+to+the+stone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ad-nauseam">"AD NAUSEAM | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary"</a>. <i>dictionary.cambridge.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200602091351/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/ad-nauseam">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dictionary.cambridge.org&rft.atitle=AD+NAUSEAM+%7C+meaning+in+the+Cambridge+English+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fad-nauseam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAppeal+to+the+stone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/denialism">"Definition of DENIALISM"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201128092905/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/denialism">Archived</a> from the original on 28 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+DENIALISM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fdenialism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAppeal+to+the+stone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Common_fallacies_(list)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fallacies" title="Template:Fallacies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fallacies" title="Template talk:Fallacies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fallacies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fallacies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Common_fallacies_(list)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Common <a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacies</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Formal_fallacy" title="Formal fallacy">Formal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Propositional_calculus" title="Propositional calculus">propositional logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_a_disjunct" title="Affirming a disjunct">Affirming a disjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Affirming the consequent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denying_the_antecedent" title="Denying the antecedent">Denying the antecedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_fallacy" title="Argument from fallacy">Argument from fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masked-man_fallacy" title="Masked-man fallacy">Masked man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_fallacy" title="Mathematical fallacy">Mathematical fallacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">quantificational logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Illicit conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_by_example" title="Proof by example">Proof by example</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantifier_shift" title="Quantifier shift">Quantifier shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Syllogistic_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllogistic fallacy">Syllogistic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_conclusion_from_a_negative_premise" title="Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise">Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_conclusion_from_affirmative_premises" title="Negative conclusion from affirmative premises">Negative conclusion from affirmative premises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_exclusive_premises" title="Fallacy of exclusive premises">Exclusive premises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_scope_fallacy" title="Modal scope fallacy">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_four_terms" title="Fallacy of four terms">Four terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_major" title="Illicit major">Illicit major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_minor" title="Illicit minor">Illicit minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_undistributed_middle" title="Fallacy of the undistributed middle">Undistributed middle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">Informal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equivocation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equivocation" title="Equivocation">Equivocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_equivalence" title="False equivalence">False equivalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_attribution" title="False attribution">False attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loki%27s_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Loki's Wager">Loki's Wager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(fallacy)" title="Reification (fallacy)">Reification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Question-begging</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">Circular reasoning</a> / <a href="/wiki/Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">Begging the question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loaded_language" title="Loaded language">Loaded language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leading_question" title="Leading question">Leading question</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-barreled_question" title="Double-barreled question">Compound question</a> / <a href="/wiki/Loaded_question" title="Loaded question">Loaded question</a> / <a href="/wiki/Complex_question" title="Complex question">Complex question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Correlative-based_fallacies" title="Correlative-based fallacies">Correlative-based</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_fallacy" title="Nirvana fallacy">Perfect solution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denying_the_correlative" title="Denying the correlative">Denying the correlative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_correlative" title="Suppressed correlative">Suppressed correlative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fallacies_of_illicit_transference" title="Fallacies of illicit transference">Illicit transference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_composition" title="Fallacy of composition">Composition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_division" title="Fallacy of division">Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_fallacy" title="Ecological fallacy">Ecological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Secundum_quid" title="Secundum quid">Secundum quid</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accident_(fallacy)" title="Accident (fallacy)">Accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converse_accident" title="Converse accident">Converse accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Faulty_generalization" title="Faulty generalization">Faulty generalization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">Anecdotal evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling bias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McNamara_fallacy" title="McNamara fallacy">McNamara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_rate_fallacy" title="Base rate fallacy">Base rate</a> / <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_fallacy" title="Conjunction fallacy">Conjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_counting_(fallacy)" title="Double counting (fallacy)">Double counting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_analogy" title="Argument from analogy">False analogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slothful_induction" title="Slothful induction">Slothful induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overwhelming_exception" title="Overwhelming exception">Overwhelming exception</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_accent" title="Fallacy of accent">Accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_precision" title="False precision">False precision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moving_the_goalposts" title="Moving the goalposts">Moving the goalposts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorites_paradox" title="Sorites paradox">Sorites paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntactic_ambiguity" title="Syntactic ambiguity">Syntactic ambiguity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animistic_fallacy" title="Animistic fallacy">Animistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Furtive_fallacy" title="Furtive fallacy">Furtive</a></li></ul></li> <li>Correlation implies causation <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Cum hoc</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Post_hoc_ergo_propter_hoc" title="Post hoc ergo propter hoc">Post hoc</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Gambler's fallacy">Gambler's</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_gambler%27s_fallacy" title="Inverse gambler's fallacy">Inverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_fallacy" title="Regression fallacy">Regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_the_single_cause" title="Fallacy of the single cause">Single cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy" title="Texas sharpshooter fallacy">Texas sharpshooter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Appeals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_the_law" title="Appeal to the law">Law/Legality</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Stone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Proof_by_assertion" title="Proof by assertion">Proof by assertion</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_consequences" title="Appeal to consequences">Consequences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_baculum" title="Argumentum ad baculum">Argumentum ad baculum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wishful_thinking" title="Wishful thinking">Wishful thinking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_emotion" title="Appeal to emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Think_of_the_children" title="Think of the children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_fear" title="Appeal to fear">Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_flattery" title="Appeal to flattery">Flattery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_pity" title="Appeal to pity">Pity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_ridicule" title="Appeal to ridicule">Ridicule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group favoritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invented_here" title="Invented here">Invented here</a> / <a href="/wiki/Not_invented_here" title="Not invented here">Not invented here</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_mentality" title="Island mentality">Island mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_loyalty" title="Appeal to loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parade_of_horribles" title="Parade of horribles">Parade of horribles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_spite" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal to spite">Spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag-waving" title="Flag-waving">Stirring symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom_of_repugnance" title="Wisdom of repugnance">Wisdom of repugnance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genetic_fallacy" title="Genetic fallacy">Genetic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ad_hominem" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">Ad hominem</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_motive" title="Appeal to motive">Appeal to motive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_fallacy" title="Association fallacy">Association</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_Hitlerum" title="Reductio ad Hitlerum">Reductio ad Hitlerum</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godwin%27s_law" title="Godwin's law">Godwin's law</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Red-baiting" title="Red-baiting">Reductio ad Stalinum</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulverism" title="Bulverism">Bulverism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning_the_well" title="Poisoning the well">Poisoning the well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tone_policing" title="Tone policing">Tone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tu_quoque" title="Tu quoque">Tu quoque</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_authority" title="Argument from authority">Authority</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_accomplishment" title="Appeal to accomplishment">Accomplishment</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ipse_dixit" title="Ipse dixit">Ipse dixit</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_lazarum" title="Argumentum ad lazarum">Poverty</a> / <a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_crumenam" title="Argumentum ad crumenam">Wealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymological_fallacy" title="Etymological fallacy">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_nature" title="Appeal to nature">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_tradition" title="Appeal to tradition">Tradition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_snobbery" title="Chronological snobbery">Chronological snobbery</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_relevance" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of relevance">fallacies<br /> of relevance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Arguments" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Arguments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ad_nauseam" title="Ad nauseam">Ad nauseam</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sealioning" title="Sealioning">Sealioning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_anecdote" title="Argument from anecdote">Argument from anecdote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_silence" title="Argument from silence">Argument from silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_to_moderation" title="Argument to moderation">Argument to moderation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">Argumentum ad populum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clich%C3%A9" title="Cliché">Cliché</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Four_Great_Errors" title="The Four Great Errors">The Four Great Errors</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%27m_entitled_to_my_opinion" title="I'm entitled to my opinion">I'm entitled to my opinion</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Irrelevant_conclusion" title="Irrelevant conclusion">Ignoratio elenchi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invincible_ignorance_fallacy" title="Invincible ignorance fallacy">Invincible ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moralistic_fallacy" title="Moralistic fallacy">Moralistic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">Naturalistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motte-and-bailey_fallacy" title="Motte-and-bailey fallacy">Motte-and-bailey fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychologist%27s_fallacy" title="Psychologist's fallacy">Psychologist's fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology)" title="Rationalization (psychology)">Rationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_herring" title="Red herring">Red herring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two_wrongs_make_a_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Two wrongs make a right">Two wrongs make a right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_pleading" title="Special pleading">Special pleading</a></li> <li><a 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