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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Teeth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teeth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Teeth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Teeth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Function_and_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function_and_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Function and formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Function_and_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth_and_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_and_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Growth and development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_and_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biomineralization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biomineralization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Biomineralization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biomineralization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strength" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strength"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span> <span>Strength</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strength-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_in_distributing_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_distributing_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.5</span> <span>Role in distributing stress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_in_distributing_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes_of_structure_degradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes_of_structure_degradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.6</span> <span>Causes of structure degradation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causes_of_structure_degradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crystal_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crystal_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.7</span> <span>Crystal structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crystal_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crystallization_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crystallization_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.8</span> <span>Crystallization process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crystallization_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characterizing_composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characterizing_composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.9</span> <span>Characterizing composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Characterizing_composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_dependency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_dependency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.10</span> <span>Regional dependency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_dependency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxonomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxonomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Taxonomy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Taxonomy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Taxonomy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Taxonomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Other_limpets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_limpets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Other limpets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_limpets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Marine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Marine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freshwater" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freshwater"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Freshwater</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freshwater-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Naming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Naming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Ecology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ecology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Symbiosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbiosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Symbiosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbiosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Homescars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homescars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Homescars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homescars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bio-erosion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bio-erosion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Bio-erosion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bio-erosion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>In culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> 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<div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Limpet</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">15 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B7%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B3" title="بطلينوس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بطلينوس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Марскія сподачкі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Марскія сподачкі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brennig" title="Brennig – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Brennig" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napfschnecken" title="Napfschnecken – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Napfschnecken" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eogastropoda" title="Eogastropoda – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Eogastropoda" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87%E2%80%8C%DA%86%D8%B3%D8%A8" title="خاره‌چسب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خاره‌چسب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patelle" title="Patelle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Patelle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bairneach" title="Bairneach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Bairneach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapa_(molusco)" title="Lapa (molusco) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lapa (molusco)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keong_caping" title="Keong caping – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Keong caping" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%BE" title="Морское блюдечко – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Морское блюдечко" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limpet" title="Limpet – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Limpet" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5" title="หอยทะเล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="หอยทะเล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Limpet%22">"Limpet"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Limpet%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Limpet%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Limpet%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Limpet%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Limpet%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the snails. For the wave power device, see <a href="/wiki/Islay_LIMPET" title="Islay LIMPET">Islay LIMPET</a>. For the underwater explosive device, see <a href="/wiki/Limpet_mine" title="Limpet mine">Limpet mine</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Common_limpets1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Common_limpets1.jpg/220px-Common_limpets1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Common_limpets1.jpg/330px-Common_limpets1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Common_limpets1.jpg/440px-Common_limpets1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/True_limpet" class="mw-redirect" title="True limpet">true limpet</a> species <i><a href="/wiki/Patella_vulgata" title="Patella vulgata">Patella vulgata</a></i> on a rock surface in <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Common_limpet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Common_limpet.jpg/220px-Common_limpet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Common_limpet.jpg/330px-Common_limpet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Common_limpet.jpg/440px-Common_limpet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728" /></a><figcaption>Underside of a <i>Patella vulgata</i> specimen</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Limpets</b> are a group of aquatic <a href="/wiki/Snail" title="Snail">snails</a> with a conical <a href="/wiki/Gastropod_shell" title="Gastropod shell">shell</a> shape (patelliform) and a strong, muscular foot. This general category of conical shell is known as "patelliform" (dish-shaped).<sup id="cite_ref-Jaeger_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jaeger-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Existing within the class <a href="/wiki/Gastropoda" title="Gastropoda">Gastropoda</a>, limpets are a <a href="/wiki/Polyphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphyletic">polyphyletic</a> group (its members descending from different immediate ancestors). </p><p>All species of <a href="/wiki/Patellogastropoda" title="Patellogastropoda">Patellogastropoda</a> are limpets, with the <a href="/wiki/Patellidae" title="Patellidae">Patellidae</a> family in particular often referred to as "true limpets". Examples of other clades commonly referred to as limpets include the <a href="/wiki/Vetigastropoda" title="Vetigastropoda">Vetigastropoda</a> family <a href="/wiki/Fissurellidae" title="Fissurellidae">Fissurellidae</a> ("keyhole limpet"), which use a siphon to pump water over their gills, and the <a href="/wiki/Siphonariidae" title="Siphonariidae">Siphonariidae</a> ("false limpets"), which have a <a href="/wiki/Pneumostome" title="Pneumostome">pneumostome</a> for breathing air like the majority of terrestrial Gastropoda. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The basic anatomy of a limpet consists of the usual molluscan organs and systems: </p> <ul><li>A nervous system centered around the paired <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">cerebral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foot" title="Foot">pedal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pleural" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleural">pleural</a> sets of <a href="/wiki/Ganglion" title="Ganglion">ganglia</a>. These ganglia create a ring around the limpet's <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a> called a <a href="/wiki/Circumesophageal_nerve_ring" title="Circumesophageal nerve ring">circumesophageal nerve ring</a> or nerve collar. Other nerves in the head/ snout are the optic nerves which connect to the two eye spots located at the base of the cerebral tentacles (these eyespots, when present, are only able to sense light and darkness and do not provide any imagery), as well as the labial and buccal ganglia which are associated with feeding and controlling the animal's <a href="/wiki/Odontophore" title="Odontophore">odontophore</a>, the muscular cushion used to support the limpet's <a href="/wiki/Radula" title="Radula">radula</a> (a kind of tongue) that scrapes algae off the surrounding rock for nutrition. Behind these ganglia lie the pedal nerve cords which control the movement of the foot, and the visceral ganglion which in limpets has been <a href="/wiki/Torsion_(gastropod)" title="Torsion (gastropod)">torted</a> during the course of evolution. This means, among other things, that the limpet's left <a href="/wiki/Osphradium" title="Osphradium">osphradium</a> and oshradial ganglion (an organ believed used to sense the time to produce gametes) is controlled by its right pleural ganglion and vice versa.<sup id="cite_ref-DavisFleure1903_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DavisFleure1903-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>For most limpets, the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory system</a> is based around a single triangular three-chambered <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> consisting of an <a href="/wiki/Atrium_(heart)" title="Atrium (heart)">atrium</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Ventricle_(heart)" title="Ventricle (heart)">ventricle</a>, and a bulbous <a href="/wiki/Aorta" title="Aorta">aorta</a>. Blood enters the atrium via the circumpallial vein (after being oxygenated by the ring of gills located around the edge of the shell) and through a series of small <a href="/wiki/Vesicle_(biology_and_chemistry)" title="Vesicle (biology and chemistry)">vesicles</a> that deliver more oxygenated blood from the nuchal cavity (the area above the head and neck). Many limpets still retain a <a href="/wiki/Ctenidium_(mollusc)" title="Ctenidium (mollusc)">ctenidium</a> (sometimes two) in this nuchal chamber instead of the circumpallial gills as a means for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide with the surrounding water or air (many limpets can breathe air during periods of low tide, but those limpet species which never leave the water do not have this ability and will suffocate if deprived of water). Blood moves from the atrium into the ventricle and into the aorta where it is then pumped out to the various lacunar blood spaces / sinuses in the <a href="/wiki/Hemocoel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemocoel">hemocoel</a>. The odontophore may play a large role in assisting with blood circulation as well.</li></ul> <p>The two kidneys are very different in size and location. This is a result of torsion. The left kidney is <a href="/wiki/Diminutive" title="Diminutive">diminutive</a> and in most limpets is barely functional. The right kidney, however, has taken over the majority of blood filtration and often extends over and around the entire mantle of the animal in a thin, almost-invisible layer.<sup id="cite_ref-DavisFleure1903_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DavisFleure1903-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The digestive system is extensive and takes up a large part of the animal's body. Food (algae) is collected by the radula and odontophore and enters via the downward-facing mouth. It then moves through the <a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">esophagus</a> and into the numerous loops of the <a href="/wiki/Intestines" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestines">intestines</a>. The large digestive gland helps break down the microscopic plant material, and the long <a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">rectum</a> helps compact used food which is then excreted through the <a href="/wiki/Anus" title="Anus">anus</a> located in the nuchal cavity. The anus of most molluscs and indeed many animals is located far from the head. In limpets and most gastropods, however, the evolutionary torsion which took place and allowed the gastropods to have a shell into which they could completely withdraw has caused the anus to be located near the head. Used food would quickly foul the nuchal cavity unless it was firmly compacted prior to being excreted. The torted condition of the limpets remains even though they no longer have a shell into which they can withdraw and even though the evolutionary advantages of torsion appear to therefore be negligible (some species of gastropod have subsequently <i>de-torted</i> and now have their anus located once again at the posterior end of the body; these groups no longer have a visceral twist to their nervous systems).<sup id="cite_ref-DavisFleure1903_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DavisFleure1903-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Gonad" title="Gonad">gonad</a> of a limpet is located beneath its digestive system just above its foot. It swells and eventually bursts, sending <a href="/wiki/Gametes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametes">gametes</a> into the right kidney which then releases them into the surrounding water on a regular schedule. Fertilized eggs hatch and the floating <a href="/wiki/Veliger" title="Veliger">veliger</a> <a href="/wiki/Larvae" class="mw-redirect" title="Larvae">larvae</a> are free-swimming for a period before settling to the bottom and becoming an adult animal.<sup id="cite_ref-DavisFleure1903_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DavisFleure1903-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saltwater_Limpet_Diagram-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Saltwater_Limpet_Diagram-en.svg/600px-Saltwater_Limpet_Diagram-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="600" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Saltwater_Limpet_Diagram-en.svg/900px-Saltwater_Limpet_Diagram-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Saltwater_Limpet_Diagram-en.svg/1200px-Saltwater_Limpet_Diagram-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2569" data-file-height="1481" /></a><figcaption>Detailed anatomy of <i><a href="/wiki/Patella_vulgata" title="Patella vulgata">Patella vulgata</a></i>, a common limpet</figcaption></figure> <p>True limpets in the family <a href="/wiki/Patellidae" title="Patellidae">Patellidae</a> live on hard surfaces in the <a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">intertidal zone</a>. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Barnacle" title="Barnacle">barnacles</a> (which are not molluscs) and <a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">mussels</a> (which are bivalve molluscs that cement themselves to a substrate for their entire adult lives), limpets are capable of <a href="/wiki/Animal_locomotion" title="Animal locomotion">locomotion</a> instead of being permanently attached to a single spot. However, when they need to resist strong wave action or other disturbances, limpets cling extremely firmly to the surfaces on which they live, using their muscular foot to apply suction combined with the effect of adhesive <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a>. It often is very difficult to remove a true limpet from a rock without injuring or killing it. </p><p>All "true" limpets are <a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">marine</a>. The most primitive group have one pair of gills, in others only a single gill remains, the lepetids do not have any gills at all, while the patellids have evolved secondary gills as they have lost the original pair.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, because the adaptive feature of a simple conical shell has repeatedly arisen independently in gastropod evolution, limpets from many different evolutionary lineages occur in widely different environments. Some saltwater limpets such as <a href="/wiki/Trimusculidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Trimusculidae">Trimusculidae</a> breathe air, and some freshwater limpets are descendants of air-breathing land snails (e.g. the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Ancylus" title="Ancylus">Ancylus</a></i>) whose ancestors had a <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(mollusc)#The_mantle_cavity" title="Mantle (mollusc)">pallial cavity</a> serving as a lung. In these small freshwater limpets, that "lung" underwent secondary adaptation to allow the absorption of dissolved oxygen from water. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Teeth">Teeth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Teeth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Different_Limpet_Teeth_Structures.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Different_Limpet_Teeth_Structures.jpg/233px-Different_Limpet_Teeth_Structures.jpg" decoding="async" width="233" height="464" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/61/Different_Limpet_Teeth_Structures.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="598" /></a><figcaption>SEM images of the different shapes of teeth in the following limpet species: (A) <i>Nacella mytilina;</i> (B) <i>N. clypeater</i>; (C) <i>N. chiloensis</i>; (D) <i>N. deaurata;</i> (E) <i>N. delicatissima</i>; (F) <i>N. magellanica</i>; (G) <i>N. venosa</i></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Function_and_formation">Function and formation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Function and formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order to obtain food, limpets rely on an organ called the <a href="/wiki/Radula" title="Radula">radula</a>, which contains <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineralization (biology)">mineralized</a> <a href="/wiki/Teeth" class="mw-redirect" title="Teeth">teeth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although limpets contain over 100 rows of teeth, only the outermost 10 are used in feeding.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These teeth form via matrix-mediated <a href="/wiki/Biomineralization" title="Biomineralization">biomineralization</a>, a cyclic process involving the delivery of iron minerals to reinforce a polymeric <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a> matrix.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon being fully mineralized, the teeth reposition themselves within the radula, allowing limpets to scrape off algae from rock surfaces. As limpet teeth wear out, they are subsequently <a href="/wiki/Biodegradation" title="Biodegradation">degraded</a> (occurring anywhere between 12 and 48 hours)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and replaced with new teeth. Different limpet species exhibit different overall shapes of their teeth.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Growth_and_development">Growth and development</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Growth and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Development of limpet teeth occurs in <a href="/wiki/Conveyor_belt" title="Conveyor belt">conveyor belt</a> style, where teeth start growing at the back of the radula, and move toward the front of this structure as they mature.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The growth rate of the limpet's teeth is around 47 hours per row.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fully mature teeth are located in the scraping zone, the very front of the radula. The scraping zone is in contact with the substrate that the limpet feeds off of. As a result, the fully mature teeth are subsequently worn down until they are discarded – at a rate equal to the growth rate.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To counter this degradation, a new row of teeth begin to grow. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limpet_Teeth_Mechanism.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Limpet_Teeth_Mechanism.png/265px-Limpet_Teeth_Mechanism.png" decoding="async" width="265" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Limpet_Teeth_Mechanism.png 1.5x" data-file-width="301" data-file-height="339" /></a><figcaption>Schematic displaying the growth and development of limpet teeth, as well as their feeding mechanism</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biomineralization">Biomineralization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Biomineralization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The exact mechanism behind the biomineralization of limpet teeth is unknown. However, it is suggested that limpet teeth biomineralize using a dissolution-reprecipitation mechanism.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, this mechanism is associated with the dissolution of iron stored in <a href="/wiki/Epithelial_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithelial cells">epithelial cells</a> of the radula to create <a href="/wiki/Ferrihydrite" title="Ferrihydrite">ferrihydrite</a> <a href="/wiki/Ions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ions">ions</a>. These ferrihydrite ions are transported through <a href="/wiki/Ion_channels" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion channels">ion channels</a> to the tooth surface. The build-up of enough ferrihydrite ions leads to <a href="/wiki/Nucleation" title="Nucleation">nucleation</a>, the rate of which can be altered via changing the pH at the site of nucleation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After one to two days, these ions are converted to <a href="/wiki/Goethite" title="Goethite">goethite</a> crystals.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goethite_fibers.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/50/Goethite_fibers.png/343px-Goethite_fibers.png" decoding="async" width="343" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/50/Goethite_fibers.png/515px-Goethite_fibers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/50/Goethite_fibers.png 2x" data-file-width="649" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption>SEM images displaying the different orientations of goethite fibers (black) due to the chitin matrix (gray)</figcaption></figure><p>The unmineralized matrix consists of relatively well-ordered, densely packed arrays of <a href="/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a> fibers, with only a few nanometers between adjacent fibers.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lack of space leads to the absence of pre-formed compartments within the matrix that control goethite crystal size and shape. Because of this, the main factor influencing goethite crystal growth is the chitin fibers of the matrix. Specifically, goethite crystals nucleate on these chitin fibers and push aside or engulf the chitin fibers as they grow, influencing their resulting orientation. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Strength">Strength</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Strength"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Looking into limpet teeth of <i><a href="/wiki/Patella_vulgata" title="Patella vulgata">Patella vulgata</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Vickers_hardness_test" title="Vickers hardness test">Vickers hardness</a> values are between 268 and 646 kg⋅m<sup>−1</sup>⋅s<sup>−2</sup>,<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a> values range between 3.0 and 6.5 GPa.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Spider_silk" title="Spider silk">spider silk</a> has a tensile strength only up to 4.5 GPa, limpet teeth outperforms spider silk to be the strongest biological material.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These considerably high values exhibited by limpet teeth are due to the following factors: </p><p>The first factor is the <a href="/wiki/Nanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanometer">nanometer</a> length scale of goethite <a href="/wiki/Nanofibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanofibers">nanofibers</a> in limpet teeth;<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at this length scale, materials become insensitive to flaws that would otherwise decrease failure strength. As a result, goethite nanofibers are able to maintain substantial failure strength despite the presence of defects. </p><p>The second factor is the small critical fiber length of the goethite fibers in limpet teeth.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critical fiber length is a parameter defining the fiber length that a material must be to transfer stresses from the matrix to the fibers themselves during external loading. Materials with a large critical fiber length (relative to the total fiber length) act as poor reinforcement fibers, meaning that most stresses are still loaded on the matrix. Materials with small critical fiber lengths (relative to the total fiber length) act as effective reinforcement fibers that are able to transfer stresses on the matrix to themselves. Goethite nanofibers express a critical fiber length of around 420 to 800 nm,<sup id="cite_ref-:3_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is several orders of magnitude away from their estimated fiber length of 3.1 μm.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggests that the goethite nanofibers serve as effective reinforcement for the collagen matrix and significantly contribute to the load-bearing capabilities of limpet teeth. This is further supported by the large mineral volume fraction of elongated goethite nanofibers within limpet teeth, around 0.81.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Applications of limpet teeth involve structural designs requiring high strength and hardness, such as biomaterials used in next-generation dental restorations.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Role_in_distributing_stress">Role in distributing stress</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Role in distributing stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The structure, composition, and morphological shape of the teeth of the limpet allow for an even distribution of stress throughout the tooth.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The teeth have a self-sharpening mechanism which allows for the teeth to be more highly functional for longer periods of time. Stress wears preferentially on the front surface of the cusp of the teeth, allowing the back surface to stay sharp and more effective.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is evidence that different regions of the limpet teeth show different mechanical strengths.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Measurements taken from the tip of the anterior edge of the tooth show that the teeth can exhibit an <a href="/wiki/Elastic_modulus" title="Elastic modulus">elastic modulus</a> of around 140 GPa. Traveling down the anterior edge toward the anterior cusp of the teeth however, the elastic modulus decreases ending around 50 GPa at the edge of the teeth.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The orientation of the goethite fibers can be correlated to this decrease in elastic modulus, as towards the tip of the tooth the fibers are more aligned with each other, correlating to a high modulus and vice versa.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Critical length of the goethite fibers is the reason the structural chitin matrix has extreme support. The critical length of goethite fibers has been estimated to be around 420 to 800 nm and when compared with the actual length of the fibers found in the teeth, around 3.1 um, shows that the teeth have fibers much larger than the critical length. This paired with orientation of the fibers leads to effective stress distribution onto the goethite fibers and not onto the weaker chitin matrix in the limpet teeth.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_14-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Causes_of_structure_degradation">Causes of structure degradation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Causes of structure degradation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> The overall structure of the limpet teeth is relatively stable within most natural conditions given the limpet's ability to produce new teeth at a similar rate to the degradation.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individual teeth are subjected to shear stresses as the tooth is dragged along the rock. Goethite as a mineral is a relatively soft iron based material,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which increases the chance of physical damage to the structure. Limpet teeth and the radula have also been shown to experience greater levels of damage in CO<sub>2</sub> acidified water.</p><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goethite_morphology.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/da/Goethite_morphology.png/339px-Goethite_morphology.png" decoding="async" width="339" height="236" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/da/Goethite_morphology.png/509px-Goethite_morphology.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/da/Goethite_morphology.png 2x" data-file-width="678" data-file-height="472" /></a><figcaption>SEM and TEM images of the morphologies of goethite in limpet teeth. Different goethite morphologies result from limiting growth in certain crystal planes.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crystal_structure">Crystal structure</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Crystal structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Goethite crystals form at the start of the tooth production cycle and remain as a fundamental part of the tooth with intercrystal space filled with <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorphous silica">amorphous silica</a>. Existing in multiple morphologies, prisms with rhomb-shaped sections are the most frequent".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goethite crystals are stable and well formed for a biogenic crystal. The transport of the mineral to create the crystal structures has been suggested to be a dissolution-reprecipitation mechanism as of 2011. Limpet tooth structure is dependent upon the living depth of the specimen. While deep water limpets have been shown to have the same elemental composition as shallow water limpets, deep water limpets do not show crystalline phases of goethite.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Crystallization_process">Crystallization process</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Crystallization process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The initial event that takes place when the limpet creates a new row of teeth is the creation of the main macromolecular α-chitin component. The resulting organic matrix serves as framework for the crystallization of the teeth themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first mineral to be deposited is goethite (α-FeOOH), a soft iron oxide which forms crystals parallel to the chitin fibers.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goethite, however, has varying <a href="/wiki/Crystal_habit" title="Crystal habit">crystal habits</a>. The crystals arrange in various shapes and thicknesses throughout the chitin matrix.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The varying formation of the chitin matrix has profound effects on the formation of the goethite crystals.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The space in between the crystals and the chitin matrix is filled with amorphous hydrated silica (SiO<sub>2</sub>).<sup id="cite_ref-:04_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Characterizing_composition">Characterizing composition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Characterizing composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most prominent metal by percent composition is iron in the form of <a href="/wiki/Goethite" title="Goethite">goethite</a>. Goethite has the chemical formula FeO(OH) and belongs to a group known as oxy-hydroxides. There exists amorphous silica between the goethite crystals; surrounding the goethite is a matrix of chitin.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chitin has a chemical formula of C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>13</sub>O<sub>5</sub>N. Other metals have been shown to be present with the relative percent compositions varying on geographic locations. The goethite has been reported to have a <a href="/wiki/Volume_fraction" title="Volume fraction">volume fraction</a> of approximately 80%.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Regional_dependency">Regional dependency</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Regional dependency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Limpets from different locations were shown to have different elemental ratios within their teeth. Iron is consistently most abundant however other metals such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and copper were all shown to be present to varying degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relative percentages of the elements have also been shown to differ from one geographic location to another. This demonstrates an environmental dependency of some kind; however the specific variables are currently undetermined. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Taxonomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gastropods that have limpet-like or patelliform shells are found in several different clades: </p> <ul><li>Clade <a href="/wiki/Patellogastropoda" title="Patellogastropoda">Patellogastropoda</a>, example <a href="/wiki/Patellidae" title="Patellidae">Patellidae</a>, the <a href="/wiki/True_limpet" class="mw-redirect" title="True limpet">true limpets</a>, all marine, in five living families and two fossil families</li> <li>Clade <a href="/wiki/Vetigastropoda" title="Vetigastropoda">Vetigastropoda</a>, examples <a href="/wiki/Fissurellidae" title="Fissurellidae">Fissurellidae</a>, (the <a href="/wiki/Keyhole_limpet" class="mw-redirect" title="Keyhole limpet">keyhole limpets</a> and slit limpets), and <a href="/wiki/Lepetelloidea" title="Lepetelloidea">Lepetelloidea</a>, small deepwater limpets</li> <li>Clade <a href="/wiki/Neritimorpha" title="Neritimorpha">Neritimorpha</a>, example <a href="/wiki/Phenacolepadidae" title="Phenacolepadidae">Phenacolepadidae</a>, small limpets related to <a href="/wiki/Nerite" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerite">nerites</a></li> <li>Clade <a href="/wiki/Heterobranchia" title="Heterobranchia">Heterobranchia</a>, group <a href="/wiki/Opisthobranchia" title="Opisthobranchia">Opisthobranchia</a>, example <a href="/wiki/Tylodinidae" title="Tylodinidae">Tylodinidae</a>, the umbrella slugs with a limpet-shaped shell</li> <li>Clade <a href="/wiki/Heterobranchia" title="Heterobranchia">Heterobranchia</a>, group <a href="/wiki/Pulmonata" title="Pulmonata">Pulmonata</a>, examples <a href="/wiki/Siphonariidae" title="Siphonariidae">Siphonariidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latiidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Latiidae">Latiidae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trimusculidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Trimusculidae">Trimusculidae</a>, all air-breathing limpets</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_limpets">Other limpets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other limpets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marine">Marine</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Marine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vent</a> limpets – <a href="/wiki/Neomphaloidea" title="Neomphaloidea">Neomphaloidea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lepetodriloidea" title="Lepetodriloidea">Lepetodriloidea</a></li> <li>The hoof snails – <i><a href="/wiki/Hipponix" title="Hipponix">Hipponix</a></i> and other <a href="/wiki/Hipponicidae" title="Hipponicidae">Hipponicidae</a></li> <li>Slipper snails – <i><a href="/wiki/Crepidula" title="Crepidula">Crepidula</a></i> species, which are sometimes known as slipper limpets</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Freshwater">Freshwater</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Freshwater"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The pulmonate river and lake limpets – <a href="/wiki/Ancylidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancylidae">Ancylidae</a></li></ul> <p>Some species of limpet live in fresh water,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but these are the exception. Most marine limpets have <a href="/wiki/Gill" title="Gill">gills</a>, whereas all freshwater limpets and a few marine limpets have a <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(mollusc)" title="Mantle (mollusc)">mantle</a> cavity adapted to breathe air and function as a <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lung</a> (and in some cases again adapted to absorb oxygen from water). All these kinds of snail are only very distantly related. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naming">Naming</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Naming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The common name "limpet" also is applied to a number of not very closely related groups of <a href="/wiki/Sea_snail" title="Sea snail">sea snails</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_snail" title="Freshwater snail">freshwater snails</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">aquatic</a> <a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropod</a> <a href="/wiki/Mollusk" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusk">mollusks</a>). Thus the common name "limpet" has very little taxonomic significance in and of itself; the name is applied not only to <a href="/wiki/True_limpets" class="mw-redirect" title="True limpets">true limpets</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Patellogastropoda" title="Patellogastropoda">Patellogastropoda</a>), but also to all snails that have a simple, broadly conical <a href="/wiki/Gastropod_shell" title="Gastropod shell">shell</a>, and either is not spirally coiled, or appears not to be coiled in the adult snail. In other words, the shell of all limpets is <i>patelliform</i>, which means the shell is shaped more or less like the shell of most true limpets. The term "false limpets" is used for some (but not all) of these other groups that have a conical shell. </p><p>Thus, the name limpet is used to describe various extremely diverse groups of gastropods that have independently evolved a shell of the same basic shape (see <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>). And although the name "limpet" is given on the basis of a limpet-like or patelliform shell, the several groups of snails that have a shell of this type are not at all closely related to one another. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Symbiosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Limpets have a <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualistic</a> relationship with several other beings. Clathromorphum, a type of algae, provides food to limpets, which clean the algae's surface and allow its persistence.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rough keyhole limpet (<i>Diodora aspera</i>) is host to the scale worm <a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">copepod</a> <i>Anthessius nortoni,</i> which bites predatory starfish to discourage them from eating the limpet.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homescars">Homescars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Homescars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Example_of_Limpet_Erosion_Bay_of_Skaill_Orkney.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Example_of_Limpet_Erosion_Bay_of_Skaill_Orkney.jpg/220px-Example_of_Limpet_Erosion_Bay_of_Skaill_Orkney.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Example_of_Limpet_Erosion_Bay_of_Skaill_Orkney.jpg/330px-Example_of_Limpet_Erosion_Bay_of_Skaill_Orkney.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Example_of_Limpet_Erosion_Bay_of_Skaill_Orkney.jpg/440px-Example_of_Limpet_Erosion_Bay_of_Skaill_Orkney.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1984" data-file-height="1488" /></a><figcaption>Limpet homescar found at the <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Skaill" title="Bay of Skaill">Bay of Skaill</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Limpets wander over the surface of the rocks during high tide and tend to return to their favourite spot by following a trail of mucus left whilst grazing. Over a period of time the edges of the limpet's shell wear a shallow hollow in the rock called a homescar. The homescar helps the limpet to stay attached to the rock and not to dry out during low tide periods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bio-erosion">Bio-erosion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bio-erosion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Limpets are known to cause bio-erosion on sedimentary rocks by the formation of homescars and by ingesting tiny particles of rock through the action of feeding. C.Andrews & R.B.G. Williams <sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in their research paper titled <i>Limpet erosion of chalk shore platforms in southeast England</i> from Oct 2000 estimate from the amount of calcium carbonate deposits in faeces of captive limpets, that an adult limpet will ingest around 4.9 g of chalk per year. Suggesting that limpets are on average responsible for 12% of the chalk platform erosion in areas that they frequent, potentially rising to 35% + in areas where the limpet population has reached its maximum. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_culture">In culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: In culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some species of limpet may have been used historically to feed pigs.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Limpet_mine" title="Limpet mine">Limpet mines</a> are a type of naval mine attached to a target by magnets. They are named after the tenacious grip of the limpet. </p><p>The humorous author <a href="/wiki/Edward_Lear" title="Edward Lear">Edward Lear</a> wrote "Cheer up, as the limpet said to the weeping willow" in one of his letters.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simon Grindle wrote the 1964 illustrated children's book of nonsense poetry <i>The Loving Limpet and Other Peculiarities,</i> said to be "in the great tradition of Edward Lear and <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Carroll" title="Lewis Carroll">Lewis Carroll</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his book <i><a href="/wiki/South_(book)" title="South (book)">South</a></i>, Sir Ernest Shackleton relates the stories of his twenty-two men left behind on <a href="/wiki/Elephant_Island" title="Elephant Island">Elephant Island</a> harvesting limpets from the icy waters on the shore of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>. Near the end of their four-month stay on the island, as their stocks of seal and penguin meat dwindled, they derived a major portion of their sustenance from limpets. </p><p>The light-hearted comedy film <i><a href="/wiki/The_Incredible_Mr._Limpet" title="The Incredible Mr. Limpet">The Incredible Mr. Limpet</a></i> is about a patriotic but weak American who desperately clings to the idea of joining the U.S. military to serve his country; by the end of the film, having been transformed into a fish, he is able to use his new body to save U.S. naval vessels from disaster. Although he does not become a snail but a fish, his name limpet hints at his tenacity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Jaeger-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jaeger_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJaeger,_Edmund_Carroll1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Jaeger" title="Edmund Jaeger">Jaeger, Edmund Carroll</a> (1959). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sourcebookofbiol0000jaeg"><i>A Source-book of Biological Names and Terms</i></a></span>. Springfield, IL: Thomas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0398061791" title="Special:BookSources/978-0398061791"><bdi>978-0398061791</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Source-book+of+Biological+Names+and+Terms&rft.place=Springfield%2C+IL&rft.pub=Thomas&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-0398061791&rft.au=Jaeger%2C+Edmund+Carroll&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsourcebookofbiol0000jaeg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimpet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DavisFleure1903-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DavisFleure1903_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DavisFleure1903_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DavisFleure1903_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DavisFleure1903_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJames_Richard_Ainsworth_DavisHerbert_John_Fleure1903" class="citation book cs1">James Richard Ainsworth Davis; Herbert John Fleure (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/patellacommonlim00davi"><i>Patella, the Common Limpet</i></a>. Williams & Norgate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patella%2C+the+Common+Limpet&rft.pub=Williams+%26+Norgate&rft.date=1903&rft.au=James+Richard+Ainsworth+Davis&rft.au=Herbert+John+Fleure&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpatellacommonlim00davi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimpet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTruemanClarke2013" class="citation book cs1">Trueman, E. R.; Clarke, M. R. (22 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RU_gBAAAQBAJ&dq=Patellids+have+lost+both+ctenidia+secondary+lepetids+no+gills&pg=PA188"><i>Evolution</i></a>. Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781483289366" title="Special:BookSources/9781483289366"><bdi>9781483289366</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2013-10-22&rft.isbn=9781483289366&rft.aulast=Trueman&rft.aufirst=E.+R.&rft.au=Clarke%2C+M.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRU_gBAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DPatellids%2Bhave%2Blost%2Bboth%2Bctenidia%2Bsecondary%2Blepetids%2Bno%2Bgills%26pg%3DPA188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimpet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShawMaceyBrookerClode2010" class="citation journal cs1">Shaw, Jeremy A.; Macey, David J.; Brooker, Lesley R.; Clode, Peta L. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Identifying+British+freshwater+snails%3A+Ancylidae&rft.pub=The+Conchological+Society+of+Great+Britain+and+Ireland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.conchsoc.org%2Faids_to_id%2FAncylidae.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimpet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vd7KkAKSIiA"><i>Limpet fights off a starfish - The Secret Life of Rock Pools - Preview - BBC Four</i></a>, 12 April 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2022</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Limpet+fights+off+a+starfish+-+The+Secret+Life+of+Rock+Pools+-+Preview+-+BBC+Four&rft.date=2013-04-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dvd7KkAKSIiA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimpet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAndrewsWilliams2000" class="citation journal cs1">Andrews, C.; Williams, R. B. G. (2000). "Limpet erosion of chalk shore platforms in southeast England". <i>Earth Surface Processes and Landforms</i>. <b>25</b> (12): <span class="nowrap">1371–</span>1381. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000ESPL...25.1371A">2000ESPL...25.1371A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F1096-9837%28200011%2925%3A12%3C1371%3A%3AAID-ESP144%3E3.0.CO%3B2-%23">10.1002/1096-9837(200011)25:12<1371::AID-ESP144>3.0.CO;2-#</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth+Surface+Processes+and+Landforms&rft.atitle=Limpet+erosion+of+chalk+shore+platforms+in+southeast+England&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1371-%3C%2Fspan%3E1381&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F1096-9837%28200011%2925%3A12%3C1371%3A%3AAID-ESP144%3E3.0.CO%3B2-%23&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000ESPL...25.1371A&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Williams%2C+R.+B.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimpet" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGray2013" class="citation web cs1">Gray, William (18 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wanderlust.co.uk/content/the-isles-of-scilly-united-kingdom/">"Escape to the Isles of Scilly"</a>. <i>Wanderlust</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wanderlust&rft.atitle=Escape+to+the+Isles+of+Scilly&rft.date=2013-09-18&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wanderlust.co.uk%2Fcontent%2Fthe-isles-of-scilly-united-kingdom%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimpet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLear,_Edward1907" class="citation book cs1">Lear, Edward (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924030664258#page/n231/mode/2up"><i>Letters of Edward Lear</i></a>. T. Fisher Unwin. p. 165.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Letters+of+Edward+Lear&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=T.+Fisher+Unwin&rft.date=1907&rft.au=Lear%2C+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fcu31924030664258%23page%2Fn231%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimpet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrindle,_Simon1964" class="citation book cs1">Grindle, Simon (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abebooks.co.uk/LOVING-LIMPET-peculiarities-Simon-Grindle-drawings/6244635953/bd"><i>The Loving Limpet and Other Peculiarities</i></a>. Illustrated by Alan Todd. Newcastle: Oriel Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Loving+Limpet+and+Other+Peculiarities&rft.place=Newcastle&rft.pub=Oriel+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.au=Grindle%2C+Simon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abebooks.co.uk%2FLOVING-LIMPET-peculiarities-Simon-Grindle-drawings%2F6244635953%2Fbd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimpet" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limpet&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geochembio.com/biology/organisms/lottia/"><i>Lottia gigantea</i>: taxonomy, facts, life cycle, bibliography</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090627080913/http://www.geochembio.com/biology/organisms/lottia/">Archived</a> 27 June 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Tree&id=57876&lvl=3&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock">Acmaeidae at the NCBI taxonomy website</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Edible_mollusks135" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Edible_molluscs" title="Template:Edible molluscs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Edible_molluscs" title="Template talk:Edible molluscs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Edible_molluscs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Edible molluscs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Edible_mollusks135" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Edible mollusks</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bivalvia" title="Bivalvia">Bivalves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clam" title="Clam">Clams</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_jackknife_clam" title="Atlantic jackknife clam">Atlantic jackknife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_surf_clam" title="Atlantic surf clam">Atlantic surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoduck" title="Geoduck">Geoduck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grooved_carpet_shell" title="Grooved carpet shell">Grooved carpet shell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_clam" title="Hard clam">Hard clam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_clam" class="mw-redirect" title="Horse clam">Horse</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mactra_stultorum" title="Mactra stultorum">Mactra stultorum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mya_truncata" title="Mya truncata">Blunt gaper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctica_islandica" title="Arctica islandica">Ocean quahog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_razor_clam" title="Pacific razor clam">Pacific razor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruditapes_largillierti" title="Ruditapes largillierti">Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxidomus_nuttalli" title="Saxidomus nuttalli">California butterclam</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Senilia_senilis" class="mw-redirect" title="Senilia senilis">Senilia senilis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smooth_clam" class="mw-redirect" title="Smooth clam">Smooth clam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft-shell_clam" title="Soft-shell clam">Soft-shell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crassula_aequilatera" title="Crassula aequilatera">Triangle shell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuatua" title="Tuatua">Tuatua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venerupis_philippinarum" class="mw-redirect" title="Venerupis philippinarum">Japanese littleneck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razor_shell" title="Razor shell">Razor clam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pod_razor" title="Pod razor">Pod razor</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ensis" title="Ensis">Ensis</a></i> (razor genus)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paphies" title="Paphies">Paphies</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cockle_(bivalve)" title="Cockle (bivalve)">Cockles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_cockle" title="Common cockle">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tegillarca_granosa" title="Tegillarca granosa">Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebidonax_deltoides" title="Plebidonax deltoides">Goolwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrovenus_stutchburyi" title="Austrovenus stutchburyi">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_cockle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sydney cockle">Sydney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinocardium" title="Dinocardium">Giant Atlantic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">Mussels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_mussel" title="Blue mussel">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_mussel" title="Mediterranean mussel">Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perna_canaliculus" title="Perna canaliculus">New Zealand green-lipped</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_mussel" title="California mussel">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perna_perna" title="Perna perna">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perna_viridis" title="Perna viridis">Asian/Philippine green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithophaga_lithophaga" title="Lithophaga lithophaga"> Date</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mytilidae" title="Mytilidae">Mytilidae</a> (mussel family)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oyster" title="Oyster">Oysters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_oyster" title="Eastern oyster">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrea_lurida" title="Ostrea lurida">Olympia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrea_angasi" title="Ostrea angasi">Southern mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrea_edulis" title="Ostrea edulis">Colchester native</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_oyster" title="Pacific oyster">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_oyster" title="Portuguese oyster">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windowpane_oyster" title="Windowpane oyster">Windowpane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_oyster" title="Rock oyster">Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_rock_oyster" class="mw-redirect" title="Sydney rock oyster">Sydney rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiostrea_chilensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiostrea chilensis"><i>Ostra chilena</i>/Bluff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillardeau_oysters" title="Gillardeau oysters">Gillardeau oysters</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Crassostrea" title="Crassostrea">Crassostrea</a></i> ("true oyster" genus)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scallop" title="Scallop">Scallops</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argopecten_irradians" title="Argopecten irradians">Atlantic bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pecten_maximus" title="Pecten maximus">Great/king</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pecten_novaezelandiae" title="Pecten novaezelandiae">New Zealand</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pecten_jacobaeus" title="Pecten jacobaeus">Pecten jacobaeus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argopecten_purpuratus" title="Argopecten purpuratus">Peruvian calico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizuhopecten_yessoensis" title="Mizuhopecten yessoensis">Yesso</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Placopecten_magellanicus" title="Placopecten magellanicus">Placopecten magellanicus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gastropoda" title="Gastropoda">Gastropods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abalone" title="Abalone">Abalone</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haliotis_sorenseni" title="Haliotis sorenseni">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haliotis_rufescens" title="Haliotis rufescens">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haliotis_cracherodii" title="Haliotis cracherodii">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haliotis_fulgens" title="Haliotis fulgens">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haliotis_corrugata" title="Haliotis corrugata">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haliotis_rubra" title="Haliotis rubra">Blacklip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haliotis_laevigata" title="Haliotis laevigata">Greenlip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_ormer" title="Green ormer">Green ormer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ua" title="Pāua">Pāua</a> (group of four species)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haliotis_midae" title="Haliotis midae">South African abalone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concholepas_concholepas" title="Concholepas concholepas">Chilean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conch" title="Conch">Conches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lobatus_gigas" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobatus gigas">Queen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentigo_pipus" title="Lentigo pipus">Elegant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laevistrombus_canarium" title="Laevistrombus canarium">Dog</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Limpets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellana_exarata" title="Cellana exarata">Black-foot opihi/Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellana_talcosa" title="Cellana talcosa">Turtle/talc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellana_sandwicensis" title="Cellana sandwicensis">Yellow-foot opihi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patella_ulyssiponensis" title="Patella ulyssiponensis">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patella_vulgata" title="Patella vulgata">Common European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patella_caerulea" title="Patella caerulea">Rayed Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patella_ferruginea" title="Patella ferruginea">Ribbed Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patella_rustica" title="Patella rustica">Rustic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Littorinidae" title="Littorinidae">Periwinkles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_periwinkle" title="Common periwinkle">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrolittorina_antipodum" title="Austrolittorina antipodum">Banded</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Littorina_sitkana" title="Littorina sitkana">Littorina sitkana</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Whelk" title="Whelk">Whelks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Busycotypus_canaliculatus" title="Busycotypus canaliculatus">Channeled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buccinum_undatum" title="Buccinum undatum">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelletia_kelletii" title="Kelletia kelletii">Kellet's</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kelletia_lischkei" title="Kelletia lischkei">Kelletia lischkei</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knobbed_whelk" title="Knobbed whelk">Knobbed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulguropsis_spirata" title="Fulguropsis spirata">Pear whelk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinistrofulgur_perversum" title="Sinistrofulgur perversum">Lightning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Snail" title="Snail">Other snails</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_snail" title="Sea snail">Sea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibola_crenata" title="Amphibola crenata">Mud-flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullacta_exarata" title="Bullacta exarata">Korean mud</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chorus_giganteus" title="Chorus giganteus">Chorus giganteus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melo_melo" title="Melo melo">Bailer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Land_snail" title="Land snail">Land</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cornu_aspersum" title="Cornu aspersum">Cornu aspersum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Helix_lucorum" title="Helix lucorum">Helix lucorum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Helix_pomatia" title="Helix pomatia">Helix pomatia</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_snail" title="Freshwater snail">Freshwater</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apple_snail" title="Apple snail">Apple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritidae" title="Neritidae">Nerites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inkfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Inkfish">Inkfish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cuttlefish" title="Cuttlefish">Cuttlefish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sepiella_inermis" title="Sepiella inermis">Spineless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepiadarium_kochi" title="Sepiadarium kochi">Bottletail</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Octopus" title="Octopus">Octopus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_octopus" title="Common octopus">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callistoctopus_macropus" title="Callistoctopus macropus">Atlantic white-spotted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octopus_cyanea" title="Octopus cyanea">Big blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteroctopus_dofleini" class="mw-redirect" title="Enteroctopus dofleini">Pacific giant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteroctopus_megalocyathus" class="mw-redirect" title="Enteroctopus megalocyathus">Southern red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimic_octopus" title="Mimic octopus">Mimic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Amphioctopus_fangsiao" title="Amphioctopus fangsiao">Amphioctopus fangsiao</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">Squid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nototodarus_sloanii" title="Nototodarus sloanii">New Zealand arrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_flying_squid" title="Japanese flying squid">Japanese flying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_squid" title="Humboldt squid">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon_flying_squid" title="Neon flying squid">Neon flying</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chiton" title="Chiton">Chitons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chiton_magnificus" title="Chiton magnificus">Chiton magnificus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Acanthopleura_echinata" class="mw-redirect" title="Acanthopleura echinata">Acanthopleura echinata</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Acanthopleura_granulata" title="Acanthopleura granulata">Acanthopleura granulata</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_farming" title="Oyster farming">Oyster farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliciculture" title="Heliciculture">Land snail farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastropoda#Anatomy" title="Gastropoda">Gastropod anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bivalvia#Anatomy" title="Bivalvia">Bivalve anatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Category:Edible_molluscs" title="Category:Edible molluscs">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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