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Law of obligations - Wikipedia
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id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contracts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contracts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Contracts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contracts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Delicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Delicts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quasi-contracts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quasi-contracts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Quasi-contracts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quasi-contracts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quasi-delicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quasi-delicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Quasi-delicts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quasi-delicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subject_matter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subject_matter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Subject matter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subject_matter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Law of obligations</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="قانون الالتزامات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قانون الالتزامات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96hd%C9%99lik_h%C3%BCququ" title="Öhdəlik hüququ – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Öhdəlik hüququ" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Абавязацельства – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Абавязацельства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Облигационно право – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Облигационно право" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%C4%83%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%C4%95%D1%85" title="Пăркаланмилĕх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пăркаланмилĕх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1vazkov%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Závazkové právo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Závazkové právo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligationsret" title="Obligationsret – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Obligationsret" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligation_(Recht)" title="Obligation (Recht) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Obligation (Recht)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B5la%C3%B5igus" title="Võlaõigus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Võlaõigus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%87%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%B4%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Ενοχικό δίκαιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ενοχικό δίκαιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_de_las_obligaciones" title="Derecho de las obligaciones – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Derecho de las obligaciones" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_des_obligations" title="Droit des obligations – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Droit des obligations" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B1%84%EA%B6%8C_(%EB%B2%95%EB%A5%A0)" title="채권 (법률) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="채권 (법률)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Պարտավորություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պարտավորություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obvezno_pravo" title="Obvezno pravo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Obvezno pravo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%B6fur%C3%A9ttur" title="Kröfuréttur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kröfuréttur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obbligazione_(diritto)" title="Obbligazione (diritto) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Obbligazione (diritto)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99_%D7%97%D7%99%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9D" title="דיני חיובים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דיני חיובים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ვალდებულება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ვალდებულება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dadweriya_deyndariy%C3%AA" title="Dadweriya deyndariyê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Dadweriya deyndariyê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligatio" title="Obligatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Obligatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saist%C4%ABbas" title="Saistības – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Saistības" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prievoli%C5%B3_teis%C4%97" title="Prievolių teisė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Prievolių teisė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6telmi_jog" title="Kötelmi jog – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kötelmi jog" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbintenissenrecht" title="Verbintenissenrecht – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Verbintenissenrecht" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%82%B5%E6%A8%A9" title="債権 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="債権" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligasjonsrett" title="Obligasjonsrett – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Obligasjonsrett" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majburiyat" title="Majburiyat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Majburiyat" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawo_zobowi%C4%85za%C5%84" title="Prawo zobowiązań – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prawo zobowiązań" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direito_das_obriga%C3%A7%C3%B5es" title="Direito das obrigações – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Direito das obrigações" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obliga%C8%9Bii_(drept)" title="Obligații (drept) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Obligații (drept)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Обязательство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Обязательство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligacijsko_pravo" title="Obligacijsko pravo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Obligacijsko pravo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Облигационо право – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Облигационо право" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obvezno_pravo" title="Obvezno pravo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Obvezno pravo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvoiteoikeus" title="Velvoiteoikeus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Velvoiteoikeus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligationsr%C3%A4tt" title="Obligationsrätt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Obligationsrätt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of private law</div> <p>The <b>law of obligations</b> is one branch of <a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> <a href="/wiki/Legal_system" title="Legal system">legal system</a> and so-called "mixed" legal systems. It is the body of rules that organizes and regulates the rights and duties arising between individuals. The specific rights and duties are referred to as <i>obligations</i>, and this area of law deals with their creation, effects and extinction. </p><p>An obligation is a legal bond (<i>vinculum iuris</i>) by which one or more parties (obligants) are bound to act or refrain from acting. An obligation thus imposes on the <i>obligor</i> a duty to perform, and simultaneously creates a corresponding right to demand performance by the <i>obligee</i> to whom performance is to be tendered. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_obligations&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word originally derives from the Latin "obligare" which comes from the root "lig" which suggests being bound, as one is to <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> for instance in "re-ligio".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmermann19961_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann19961-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This term first appears in Plautus' play <a href="/wiki/Truculentus" title="Truculentus">Truculentus</a> at line 214. </p><p>Obligations did not originally form part of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Law">Roman Law</a>, which mostly concerned issues of succession, property, and family relationships. It developed as a solution to a gap in the system, when one party committed a <a href="/wiki/Wrong" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrong">wrong</a> against another party. These situations were originally governed by a basic customary law of revenge.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This undesirable situation eventually developed into a system of liability where people were at first encouraged and then essentially forced to accept monetary compensation from the wrongdoer or their family instead of seeking vengeance. This signaled an important shift in the law away from vengeance and towards compensation. The state supported this effort by standardizing amounts for certain wrongs. Thus the earliest form of Obligation law derives out of what we would today call Delict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmermann19962–3_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann19962–3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, liability in this form did not yet include the idea that the debtor "owed" monetary compensation to the creditor, it was merely a means of avoiding punishment. If the debtor or his family didn't have the means to pay then the old rules still applied as outlined in the <i><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></i>, specifically Table III.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This section, despite how harsh it may appear to us, was originally developed as a means to protect debtors from the excessive abuses of creditors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmermann19963_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann19963-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_obligations&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian</a> first defines an obligation (<i>obligatio</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Institutes_(Justinian)" title="Institutes (Justinian)">Institutes</a></i>, Book 3, section 13 as "a legal bond, with which we are bound by necessity of performing some act according to the laws of our State."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He further separates the law of obligations into <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contracts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delict" title="Delict">delicts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quasi-contract" title="Quasi-contract">quasi-contracts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quasi-delict" title="Quasi-delict">quasi-delicts</a>. </p><p>Nowadays, obligation, as applied under civilian law, means a legal tie (<i>vinculum iuris</i>) by which one or more parties (obligants) are bound to perform or refrain from performing specified conduct (prestation).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus an obligation encompasses both sides of the equation, both the obligor's duty to render prestation and the obligee's right to receive prestation. It differs from the common-law concept of obligation which only encompasses the duty aspect. </p><p>Every obligation has four essential requisites otherwise known as the elements of obligation. They are: </p> <ol><li>the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/obligor" class="extiw" title="wikt:obligor">obligor</a>: obligant duty-bound to fulfill the obligation; he who has a duty.</li> <li>the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/obligee" class="extiw" title="wikt:obligee">obligee</a>: obligant entitled to demand the fulfillment of the obligation; he who has a right.</li> <li>the subject matter, the prestation: the performance to be tendered.</li> <li>a <a href="/wiki/Legal_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal bond">legal bond</a>, the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vinculum" class="extiw" title="wikt:vinculum">vinculum</a> juris: the cause that binds or connects the obligants to the prestation.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_in_Roman_Law">Classification in Roman Law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_obligations&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Classification in Roman Law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_obligations&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Obligations arising out of the will of the parties are called <i>voluntary</i>, and those imposed by operation of law are called <i>involuntary</i>. Sometimes these are called conventional and obediential. The events giving rise to obligations may be further distinguished into specified categories. </p> <ul><li>voluntary: <ul><li>unilateral promise (<i>pollicitatio</i>) - undertaking by promisor only to perform, not requiring the promisee's agreement</li> <li>contract</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-contract" title="Quasi-contract">quasi-contract</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Negotiorum_gestio" title="Negotiorum gestio">negotiorum gestio</a></i> - duty to repay an intervenor (<i>gestor</i>) who has managed the affairs or property of another (<i>dominus negotii</i>) who was unable to so</li> <li><i>solutio indebiti</i> - undue payment or delivery of a thing to another (<i>accipiens</i>), who is then obligated to return the thing to the payer (<i>solvens</i>)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>involuntary: <ul><li>delicts and quasi-delicts (equivalent to the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common-law</a> <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unjust_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Unjust enrichment">unjust enrichment</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Condictio_indebiti" title="Condictio indebiti">condictio indebiti</a></i>)</li></ul></li></ul> <p>One of the first known classifications was made by <a href="/wiki/Gaius_(jurist)" title="Gaius (jurist)">Gaius</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Institutes_(Gaius)" title="Institutes (Gaius)">Institutes</a></i>, who divided obligations into obligations <i>ex contractu</i> (obligations arising from legal actions) and obligations <i>ex delicto</i> (obligations arising from illegal, unlawful actions). However, since this classification was too vague, in his work <i>Res cottidinanae</i> Gaius classified all obligations into the aforementioned obligations <i>ex contractu</i> and obligations <i>ex delicto</i>, as well as obligations <i>ex variis causarum figuris</i>, which was a <a href="/wiki/Heterogeneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogeneous">heterogeneous</a> category that was supposed to include all the cases of obligations not arising from delicts or contracts. </p><p>The most precise Roman classification of obligations was featured in <a href="/wiki/Institutes_(Justinian)" title="Institutes (Justinian)">Justinian's <i>Institutes</i></a> (not to be confused by Gaius' <i>Institutes</i>), which classified them as obligations arising from contracts (<i>ex contractu</i>), those arising from delicts (<i>ex maleficio</i>), those arising from quasi-contracts (<i>quasi ex contractu</i>), and those arising from quasi-delicts (<i>quasi ex maleficio</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contracts">Contracts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_obligations&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Contracts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></div> <p>A contract can be broadly defined as an agreement that is enforceable at law. <a href="/wiki/Gaius_(jurist)" title="Gaius (jurist)">Gaius</a> classified contracts into four categories which are: contracts <i><a href="/wiki/Obligatio_consensu" title="Obligatio consensu">consensu</a></i>, verbal contracts, contracts <i><a href="/wiki/Real_contracts_in_Roman_law" title="Real contracts in Roman law">re</a></i>, and contracts <i><a href="/wiki/Literal_contracts_in_Roman_law" title="Literal contracts in Roman law">litteris</a></i>. But this classification cannot cover all the contracts, such as pacts and innominate contracts; thus, it is no longer used. According to many modern legal scholars, the most important classification of contracts is that of contracts <i>consensu,</i> which only require the consent of wills to create obligations, and formal contracts, which have to be concluded in a specific form in order to be valid (for example, in many European countries a contract regulating the purchase of <a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a> must be concluded in a special written form that is validated by a <a href="/wiki/Notary_public" title="Notary public">public notary</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Delicts">Delicts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_obligations&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Delicts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Obligatio_ex_delicto" title="Obligatio ex delicto">Obligatio ex delicto</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quasi-contracts">Quasi-contracts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_obligations&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Quasi-contracts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Quasi-contracts are supposed to be sources of obligations very similar to contracts, but the main difference is that they are not created by an agreement of wills. The main cases are <i>negotiorum gestio</i> (conducting of another person's affairs without their authorization), <a href="/wiki/Unjust_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Unjust enrichment">unjust enrichment</a>, and <i>solutio indebiti</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This Roman classification is quite controversial for today's standards, since many of these cases would be considered as completely different from contracts (most notably unjust enrichment), and would instead be classified as delicts or special sources of obligations. They are formed by implication from circumstances regardless of the assent or dissent of parties. They are called quasi-contracts. The following are the examples of quasi-contractual obligations under the Roman law; </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quasi-delicts">Quasi-delicts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_obligations&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Quasi-delicts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Obligatio_ex_delicto#Obligationes_quasi_ex_delicto" title="Obligatio ex delicto">Obligatio ex delicto § Obligationes quasi ex delicto</a></div> <p>The designation comprised a group of actions that are very similar to delicts, but lacking one of key elements of delicts. It includes <i>res suspensae</i>, responsibility for things poured or thrown out of buildings, responsibility of shippers/innkeepers/stablekeepers, and erring judges. For example, the responsibility of <a href="/wiki/Inn" title="Inn">inn</a>keepers creates obligations when certain things left by guests in the lodging are destroyed, damaged or lost by the innkeeper's assistants or <a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">employees</a>. In this case, the innkeeper is responsible for the damages to the guest's property, even though he did not cause them personally.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subject_matter">Subject matter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_obligations&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Subject matter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Obligations are classified according to the nature of the performance (prestation): </p> <ul><li>real obligation - related somehow to immovable property<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>obligation to give - obligations to give or possession, or enjoyment<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>specific obligation - delivery of a determinate thing when it is particularly designated or physically separated from all others of the same class<sup id="cite_ref-lawaspect_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lawaspect-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>generic obligation - delivery of a generic thing<sup id="cite_ref-lawaspect_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lawaspect-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>personal obligations - undertakings either to do or not do all kinds of work or service <ul><li>positive personal obligation - undertaking or obligation to do</li> <li>negative personal obligation - forbearance or obligation to not do</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_obligations&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right" class="mw-redirect" title="Right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solidary_obligations" title="Solidary obligations">Solidary obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Code_of_Obligations" title="Swiss Code of Obligations">Swiss Code of Obligations</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_obligations&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_obligations&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann19961-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmermann19961_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZimmermann1996">Zimmermann 1996</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see for example: Exodus 21.23-25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann19962–3-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmermann19962–3_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZimmermann1996">Zimmermann 1996</a>, pp. 2–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">XII tables, specifically Table III "Debt"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZimmermann19963-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZimmermann19963_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZimmermann1996">Zimmermann 1996</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albanese, Bernardo. "Papimano e la definizione di obligatio in J, 3, 13, pr." (1984) 50 SDHI 166 sqq.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Justinian. "Institute." Trans. John B. Moyle. (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1889) at 132</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.-L. Baudouin, P.-G. Jobin, & N. Vézina, <i>Les Obligations</i>, 6th edn. (Cowansville: Yvon Blais, 2005), 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBujuklić2015" class="citation book cs1">Bujuklić, Žika (2015). <i>Rimsko privatno pravo</i>. Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu. pp. <span class="nowrap">350–</span>351. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-86-7630-579-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-86-7630-579-7"><bdi>978-86-7630-579-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rimsko+privatno+pravo&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E350-%3C%2Fspan%3E351&rft.pub=Pravni+fakultet+Univerziteta+u+Beogradu&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-86-7630-579-7&rft.aulast=Bujukli%C4%87&rft.aufirst=%C5%BDika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+obligations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerović1980" class="citation book cs1">Perović, Slobodan (1980). <i>Obligaciono pravo</i>. Privredna štampa.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Obligaciono+pravo&rft.pub=Privredna+%C5%A1tampa&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Perovi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Slobodan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+obligations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBujuklić2015" class="citation book cs1">Bujuklić, Žika (2015). <i>Rimsko privatno pravo</i>. Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu. p. 425. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-86-7630-579-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-86-7630-579-7"><bdi>978-86-7630-579-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rimsko+privatno+pravo&rft.pages=425&rft.pub=Pravni+fakultet+Univerziteta+u+Beogradu&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-86-7630-579-7&rft.aulast=Bujukli%C4%87&rft.aufirst=%C5%BDika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+obligations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBujuklić2015" class="citation book cs1">Bujuklić, Žika (2015). <i>Rimsko privatno pravo</i>. Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu. pp. <span class="nowrap">430–</span>432. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-86-7630-579-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-86-7630-579-7"><bdi>978-86-7630-579-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rimsko+privatno+pravo&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E430-%3C%2Fspan%3E432&rft.pub=Pravni+fakultet+Univerziteta+u+Beogradu&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-86-7630-579-7&rft.aulast=Bujukli%C4%87&rft.aufirst=%C5%BDika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+obligations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legal-glossary.org/real-obligation/">"Legal definition of Real obligation"</a>. legal-glossary.org. 9 March 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-03-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Legal+definition+of+Real+obligation&rft.pub=legal-glossary.org&rft.date=2014-03-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legal-glossary.org%2Freal-obligation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+obligations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.icnl.org/resources/research/ijnl/gifts-and-nations-the-obligation-to-give-recieve-and-repay">"Gifts and Nations: The Obligation to Give, Receive [<i>sic</i>], and Repay"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gifts+and+Nations%3A+The+Obligation+to+Give%2C+Receive%26%2332%3B%26%2391%3Bsic%26%2393%3B%2C+and+Repay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.icnl.org%2Fresources%2Fresearch%2Fijnl%2Fgifts-and-nations-the-obligation-to-give-recieve-and-repay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+obligations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lawaspect-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lawaspect_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lawaspect_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lawaspect.com/laws-obligation-contracts/">"Laws on Obligation and Contracts - Contract Law Essays"</a>. 30 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Laws+on+Obligation+and+Contracts+-+Contract+Law+Essays&rft.date=2020-05-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flawaspect.com%2Flaws-obligation-contracts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+obligations" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources_2">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_obligations&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmermann1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Zimmermann" title="Reinhard Zimmermann">Zimmermann, Reinhard</a> (1996). <i>The Law of Obligations: Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradition</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198764267.001.0001">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198764267.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198764267" title="Special:BookSources/9780198764267"><bdi>9780198764267</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Law+of+Obligations%3A+Roman+Foundations+of+the+Civilian+Tradition&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198764267.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780198764267&rft.aulast=Zimmermann&rft.aufirst=Reinhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+obligations" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law519" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_civil_law_(common_law)" title="Outline of civil law (common law)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_doctrine" title="Legal doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Law of obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">Private law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_law" title="Procedural law">Procedure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">Public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">Corporal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restitution_and_unjust_enrichment" title="Restitution and unjust enrichment">Restitution and unjust enrichment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_law" title="Agricultural law">Agricultural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_law" title="Amnesty law">Amnesty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_law" class="mw-redirect" title="IT law">Cyberlaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drugs law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Energy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a> (Media law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Maritime law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man-made_law" title="Man-made law">Man-made law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense 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