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<span>Electronics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electronics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Finance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interdependent_cascading_failures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interdependent_cascading_failures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Interdependent cascading failures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interdependent_cascading_failures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Model_for_overload_cascading_failures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Model_for_overload_cascading_failures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Model for overload cascading failures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Model_for_overload_cascading_failures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Systemic risk of failure</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Networkfailure.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Networkfailure.gif/220px-Networkfailure.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Networkfailure.gif/330px-Networkfailure.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Networkfailure.gif/440px-Networkfailure.gif 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>An animation demonstrating how a single failure may result in other failures throughout a network.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>cascading failure</b> is a failure in a <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">system</a> of <a href="/wiki/Interconnection" title="Interconnection">interconnected</a> parts in which the failure of one or few parts leads to the failure of other parts, growing progressively as a result of <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a>. This can occur when a single part fails, increasing the probability that other portions of the system fail.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a failure may happen in many types of systems, including power transmission, computer networking, finance, transportation systems, organisms, the human body, and ecosystems. </p><p>Cascading failures may occur when one part of the system fails. When this happens, other parts must then compensate for the failed component. This in turn overloads these nodes, causing them to fail as well, prompting additional nodes to fail one after another. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_power_transmission">In power transmission</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: In power transmission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cascading failure is common in <a href="/wiki/Power_grid" class="mw-redirect" title="Power grid">power grids</a> when one of the elements fails (completely or partially) and shifts its load to nearby elements in the system. Those nearby elements are then pushed beyond their capacity so they become overloaded and shift their load onto other elements. Cascading failure is a common effect seen in <a href="/wiki/High_voltage" title="High voltage">high voltage</a> systems, where a <a href="/wiki/Single_point_of_failure" title="Single point of failure">single point of failure</a> (SPF) on a fully loaded or slightly overloaded system results in a sudden spike across all nodes of the system. This surge current can induce the already overloaded nodes into failure, setting off more overloads and thereby taking down the entire system in a very short time. </p><p>This failure process cascades through the elements of the system like a ripple on a pond and continues until substantially all of the elements in the system are compromised and/or the system becomes functionally disconnected from the source of its load. For example, under certain conditions a large power grid can collapse after the failure of a single transformer. </p><p>Monitoring the operation of a system, in <a href="/wiki/Real-time_computing" title="Real-time computing">real-time</a>, and judicious disconnection of parts can help stop a cascade. Another common technique is to calculate a safety margin for the system by computer simulation of possible failures, to establish safe operating levels below which none of the calculated scenarios is predicted to cause cascading failure, and to identify the parts of the network which are most likely to cause cascading failures.<sup id="cite_ref-chao_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chao-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the primary problems with preventing electrical grid failures is that the speed of the control signal is no faster than the speed of the propagating power overload, i.e. since both the control signal and the electrical power are moving at the same speed, it is not possible to isolate the outage by sending a warning ahead to isolate the element. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples">Examples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cascading failure caused the following <a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">power outages</a>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_blackout_of_1965" title="Northeast blackout of 1965">Blackout in Northeast America in 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1999_Southern_Brazil_blackout" title="1999 Southern Brazil blackout">Blackout in Southern Brazil in 1999</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_blackout_of_2003" title="Northeast blackout of 2003">Blackout in Northeast America in 2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_Italy_blackout" title="2003 Italy blackout">Blackout in Italy in 2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_London_blackout" title="2003 London blackout">Blackout in London in 2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_European_blackout" title="2006 European blackout">European Blackout in 2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_northern_India_power_grid_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="2012 northern India power grid failure">Blackout in Northern India in 2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_South_Australian_blackout" title="2016 South Australian blackout">Blackout in South Australia in 2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Argentina,_Paraguay_and_Uruguay_blackout" title="2019 Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay blackout">Blackout in southeast South America in 2019</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2022_Kenya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2022 Kenya (page does not exist)"> Countrywide blackout in Kenya 2022</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2023_Kenya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2023 Kenya (page does not exist)"> Countrywide blackout in Kenya 2023</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_computer_networks">In computer networks</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: In computer networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cascading failures can also occur in <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer networks</a> (such as the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>) in which <a href="/wiki/Network_traffic_control" title="Network traffic control">network traffic</a> is severely impaired or halted to or between larger sections of the network, caused by failing or disconnected hardware or software. In this context, the cascading failure is known by the term <b>cascade failure</b>. A cascade failure can affect large groups of people and systems. </p><p>The cause of a cascade failure is usually the overloading of a single, crucial <a href="/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">router</a> or node, which causes the node to go down, even briefly. It can also be caused by taking a node down for maintenance or upgrades. In either case, traffic is <a href="/wiki/Routing" title="Routing">routed</a> to or through another (alternative) path. This alternative path, as a result, becomes overloaded, causing it to go down, and so on. It will also affect systems which depend on the node for regular operation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symptoms">Symptoms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Symptoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The symptoms of a cascade failure include: <a href="/wiki/Packet_loss" title="Packet loss">packet loss</a> and high <a href="/wiki/Network_latency" class="mw-redirect" title="Network latency">network latency</a>, not just to single systems, but to whole sections of a network or the internet. The high latency and packet loss is caused by the nodes that fail to operate due to <a href="/wiki/Congestion_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Congestion collapse">congestion collapse</a>, which causes them to still be present in the network but without much or any useful communication going through them. As a result, routes can still be considered valid, without them actually providing communication. </p><p>If enough routes go down because of a cascade failure, a complete section of the network or internet can become unreachable. Although undesired, this can help speed up the recovery from this failure as connections will time out, and other nodes will give up trying to establish connections to the section(s) that have become cut off, decreasing load on the involved nodes. </p><p>A common occurrence during a cascade failure is a <b>walking failure</b>, where sections go down, causing the next section to fail, after which the first section comes back up. This <b>ripple</b> can make several passes through the same sections or connecting nodes before stability is restored. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History">History</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cascade failures are a relatively recent development, with the massive increase in traffic and the high interconnectivity between systems and networks. The term was first applied in this context in the late 1990s by a Dutch IT professional and has slowly become a relatively common term for this kind of large-scale failure.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Example">Example</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Example"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Network failures typically start when a single network node fails. Initially, the traffic that would normally go through the node is stopped. Systems and users get errors about not being able to reach hosts. Usually, the redundant systems of an ISP respond very quickly, choosing another path through a different backbone. The routing path through this alternative route is longer, with more <a href="/wiki/Hop_(telecommunications)" title="Hop (telecommunications)">hops</a> and subsequently going through more systems that normally do not process the amount of traffic suddenly offered. </p><p>This can cause one or more systems along the alternative route to go down, creating similar problems of their own. </p><p>Related systems are also affected in this case. As an example, <a href="/wiki/Domain_name_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Domain name system">DNS</a> resolution might fail and what would normally cause systems to be interconnected, might break connections that are not even directly involved in the actual systems that went down. This, in turn, may cause seemingly unrelated nodes to develop problems, that can cause another cascade failure all on its own. </p><p>In December 2012, a partial loss (40%) of <a href="/wiki/Gmail" title="Gmail">Gmail</a> service occurred globally, for 18 minutes. This loss of service was caused by a routine update of load balancing software which contained faulty logic—in this case, the error was caused by logic using an inappropriate 'all' instead of the more appropriate 'some'.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cascading error was fixed by fully updating a single node in the network instead of partially updating all nodes at one time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cascading_structural_failure">Cascading structural failure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cascading structural failure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Certain load-bearing structures with discrete structural components can be subject to the "zipper effect", where the failure of a single structural member increases the load on adjacent members. In the case of the <a href="/wiki/Hyatt_Regency_walkway_collapse" title="Hyatt Regency walkway collapse">Hyatt Regency walkway collapse</a>, a suspended walkway (which was already overstressed due to an error in construction) failed when a single vertical suspension rod failed, overloading the neighboring rods which failed sequentially (i.e. like a <a href="/wiki/Zipper" title="Zipper">zipper</a>). A bridge that can have such a failure is called fracture critical, and numerous bridge collapses have been caused by the failure of a single part. Properly designed structures use an adequate <a href="/wiki/Factor_of_safety" title="Factor of safety">factor of safety</a> and/or alternate load paths to prevent this type of mechanical cascade failure.<sup id="cite_ref-petroski_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-petroski-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fracture_cascade">Fracture cascade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fracture cascade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sequential_fractures_-_Fracture_cascade_--_Smart-Servier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Sequential_fractures_-_Fracture_cascade_--_Smart-Servier.jpg/220px-Sequential_fractures_-_Fracture_cascade_--_Smart-Servier.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Sequential_fractures_-_Fracture_cascade_--_Smart-Servier.jpg/330px-Sequential_fractures_-_Fracture_cascade_--_Smart-Servier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Sequential_fractures_-_Fracture_cascade_--_Smart-Servier.jpg/440px-Sequential_fractures_-_Fracture_cascade_--_Smart-Servier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10240" data-file-height="5760" /></a><figcaption>Chain reaction of osteoporotic fractures</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Fracture cascade</b> is a phenomenon in the context of geology and describes triggering a chain reaction of subsequent fractures by a single fracture.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The initial fracture leads to the propagation of additional fractures, causing a cascading effect throughout the material. </p><p>Fracture cascades can occur in various materials, including rocks, ice, metals, and ceramics.<sup id="cite_ref-spaghetti_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spaghetti-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A common example is the bending of dry <a href="/wiki/Spaghetti" title="Spaghetti">spaghetti</a>, which in most cases breaks into more than 2 pieces, as first observed by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-spaghetti_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spaghetti-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the context of <a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">osteoporosis</a>, a fracture cascade is the increased risk of subsequent bone fractures after an initial one.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_examples">Other examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biology">Biology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biochemical_cascade" title="Biochemical cascade">Biochemical cascades</a> exist in biology, where a small reaction can have system-wide implications. One negative example is <a href="/wiki/Ischemic_cascade" title="Ischemic cascade">ischemic cascade</a>, in which a small <a href="/wiki/Ischemia" title="Ischemia">ischemic</a> attack releases <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a> which kill off far more cells than the initial damage, resulting in more toxins being released. Current research is to find a way to block this cascade in <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a> patients to minimize the damage. </p><p>In the study of extinction, sometimes the extinction of one species will cause many other extinctions to happen. Such a species is known as a <a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">keystone species</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electronics">Electronics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Electronics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another example is the <a href="/wiki/Cockcroft%E2%80%93Walton_generator" title="Cockcroft–Walton generator">Cockcroft–Walton generator</a>, which can also experience cascade failures wherein one failed <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diode</a> can result in all the diodes failing in a fraction of a second. </p><p>Yet another example of this effect in a scientific experiment was the <a href="/wiki/Implosion_(mechanical_process)" title="Implosion (mechanical process)">implosion</a> in 2001 of several thousand fragile glass photomultiplier tubes used in the <a href="/wiki/Super-Kamiokande" title="Super-Kamiokande">Super-Kamiokande</a> experiment, where the shock wave caused by the failure of a single detector appears to have triggered the implosion of the other detectors in a chain reaction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Finance">Finance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Finance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Systemic_risk" title="Systemic risk">Systemic risk</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cascades_in_financial_networks" title="Cascades in financial networks">Cascades in financial networks</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Finance" title="Finance">finance</a>, the risk of cascading failures of financial institutions is referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Systemic_risk" title="Systemic risk">systemic risk</a>:</i> the failure of one financial institution may cause other financial institutions (its <a href="/wiki/Counterparty" title="Counterparty">counterparties</a>) to fail, cascading throughout the system. Institutions that are believed to pose systemic risk are deemed either "<a href="/wiki/Too_big_to_fail" title="Too big to fail">too big to fail</a>" (TBTF) or "too interconnected to fail" (TICTF), depending on why they appear to pose a threat. </p><p>Note however that systemic risk is not due to individual institutions per se, but due to the interconnections. Frameworks to study and predict the effects of cascading failures have been developed in the research literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Acemoglu_Ozdaglar_Tahbaz-Salehi_2015_pp._564–608_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Acemoglu_Ozdaglar_Tahbaz-Salehi_2015_pp._564–608-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-EGJ_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EGJ-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A related (though distinct) type of cascading failure in finance occurs in the stock market, exemplified by the <a href="/wiki/2010_Flash_Crash" class="mw-redirect" title="2010 Flash Crash">2010 Flash Crash</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EGJ_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EGJ-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interdependent_cascading_failures">Interdependent cascading failures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Interdependent cascading failures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Interdependent_relationship_among_different_infrastructures.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/52/Interdependent_relationship_among_different_infrastructures.tif/lossless-page1-220px-Interdependent_relationship_among_different_infrastructures.tif.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/52/Interdependent_relationship_among_different_infrastructures.tif/lossless-page1-330px-Interdependent_relationship_among_different_infrastructures.tif.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/52/Interdependent_relationship_among_different_infrastructures.tif/lossless-page1-440px-Interdependent_relationship_among_different_infrastructures.tif.png 2x" data-file-width="852" data-file-height="824" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of the interdependent relationship among different infrastructures</figcaption></figure><p>Diverse <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructures</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transportation" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation">transportation</a>, fuel and <a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">power stations</a> are coupled together and depend on each other for functioning, see Fig. 1. Owing to this coupling, interdependent networks are extremely sensitive to random failures, and in particular to <a href="/wiki/Targeted_threat" title="Targeted threat">targeted attacks</a>, such that a failure of a small fraction of nodes in one network can trigger an iterative cascade of failures in several interdependent networks.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">Electrical blackouts</a> frequently result from a cascade of failures between interdependent networks, and the problem has been dramatically exemplified by the several large-scale blackouts that have occurred in recent years. Blackouts are a fascinating demonstration of the important role played by the dependencies between networks. For example, the <a href="/wiki/2003_Italy_blackout" title="2003 Italy blackout">2003 Italy blackout</a> resulted in a widespread failure of the <a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">railway network</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">health care systems</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Financial_services" title="Financial services">financial services</a> and, in addition, severely influenced the <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication network">telecommunication networks</a>. The partial failure of the communication system in turn further impaired the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">electrical grid</a> management system, thus producing a positive feedback on the power grid.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This example emphasizes how inter-dependence can significantly magnify the damage in an interacting network system. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Model_for_overload_cascading_failures">Model for overload cascading failures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Model for overload cascading failures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A model for cascading failures due to overload propagation is the Motter–Lai model.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">Blackouts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brittle_system" title="Brittle system">Brittle system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butterfly_effect" title="Butterfly effect">Butterfly effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine failure">Byzantine failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascading_rollback" class="mw-redirect" title="Cascading rollback">Cascading rollback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction">Chain reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">Chaos theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cache_stampede" title="Cache stampede">Cache stampede</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congestion_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Congestion collapse">Congestion collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_effect" title="Domino effect">Domino effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/For_Want_of_a_Nail_(proverb)" class="mw-redirect" title="For Want of a Nail (proverb)">For Want of a Nail (proverb)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_science" title="Network science">Network science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_theory" title="Network theory">Network theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interdependent_networks" title="Interdependent networks">Interdependent networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kessler_Syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Kessler Syndrome">Kessler Syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percolation_theory" title="Percolation theory">Percolation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_collapse" title="Progressive collapse">Progressive collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtuous_circle_and_vicious_circle" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtuous circle and vicious circle">Virtuous circle and vicious circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicked_problem" title="Wicked problem">Wicked problem</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/cascading-failure">"Cascading Failure - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"</a>. <i>www.sciencedirect.com</i>.</cite><span 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jaist.ac.jp/library/thesis/ks-master-2005/abstract/tmiyazak/abstract.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2009-02-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comparison+of+defense+strategies+for+cascade+breakdown+on+SF+networks+with+degree+correlations&rft.date=2005-03-01&rft.au=Toshiyuki+Miyazaki&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jaist.ac.jp%2Flibrary%2Fthesis%2Fks-master-2005%2Fabstract%2Ftmiyazak%2Fabstract.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACascading+failure" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuss_Cooper2005" class="citation web cs1">Russ Cooper (1 June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928164525/http://redmondmag.com/columns/print.asp?EditorialsID=1000">"(In)Secure Shell?"</a>. RedmondMag.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://redmondmag.com/columns/print.asp?EditorialsID=1000">the original</a> on 2007-09-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%28In%29Secure+Shell%3F&rft.pub=RedmondMag.com&rft.date=2005-06-01&rft.au=Russ+Cooper&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fredmondmag.com%2Fcolumns%2Fprint.asp%3FEditorialsID%3D1000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACascading+failure" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUS_Department_of_Homeland_Security2007" class="citation web cs1">US Department of Homeland Security (5 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081228044520/http://www.chds.us/?research%2Fsoftware&d=list">"Cascade Net (simulation program)"</a>. Center for Homeland Defense and Security. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chds.us/?research/software&d=list">the original</a> on 2008-12-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-09-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cascade+Net+%28simulation+program%29&rft.pub=Center+for+Homeland+Defense+and+Security&rft.date=2007-02-05&rft.au=US+Department+of+Homeland+Security&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chds.us%2F%3Fresearch%2Fsoftware%26d%3Dlist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACascading+failure" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cascading_failure&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060827050151/http://www.windows.ucar.edu/spaceweather/blackout.html">Space Weather: Blackout — Massive Power Grid Failure</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071022110507/http://vlab.infotech.monash.edu.au/simulations/networks/cascading-failure/">Cascading failure demo applet</a> (Monash University's Virtual Lab)</li> <li>A. E. Motter and Y.-C. Lai, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chaos1.la.asu.edu/~yclai/papers/PRE_02_ML_3.pdf"><i>Cascade-based attacks on complex networks,</i></a> Physical Review E (Rapid Communications) 66, 065102 (2002).</li> <li>P. Crucitti, V. Latora and M. Marchiori, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170424085950/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/aeda/97ccce03a5979dd4196fb7544ee0dc546f18.pdf"><i>Model for cascading failures in complex networks,</i></a> Physical Review E (Rapid Communications) 69, 045104 (2004).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040704132003/http://www.epri.com/programHigh.asp?objid=261741">Protection Strategies for Cascading Grid Failures — A Shortcut Approach</a></li> <li>I. Dobson, B. A. Carreras, and D. E. Newman, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060222073252/http://eceserv0.ece.wisc.edu/~dobson/PAPERS/dobsonPEIS05.pdf">preprint</a> A loading-dependent model of probabilistic cascading failure, Probability in the Engineering and Informational Sciences, vol. 19, no. 1, January 2005, pp. 15–32.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3105_aircrash.html">Nova: Crash of Flight 111</a> on September 2, 1998. <a href="/wiki/Swissair_Flight_111" title="Swissair Flight 111">Swissair Flight 111</a> flying from New York to Geneva slammed into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Nova Scotia with 229 people aboard. Originally believed a terrorist act. After $39 million investigation, insurance settlement of $1.5 billion and more than four years, investigators unravel the puzzle: cascading failure. What is the legacy of Swissair 111? "We have a window into the internal structure of design, checks and balances, protection, and safety." -David Evans, Editor-in-Chief of Air Safety Week.</li> <li>PhysicsWeb story: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physicsweb.org/articles/news/5/11/9">Accident grounds neutrino lab</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necsi.edu/affiliates/braha/StructureandDynamics.htm">The Structure and Dynamics of Large Scale Organizational Networks (Dan Braha, New England Complex Systems Institute)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://havlin.biu.ac.il/Pdf/Bremen070715a.pdf">From Single Network to Network of Networks</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151114085329/http://havlin.biu.ac.il/Pdf/Bremen070715a.pdf">Archived</a> 2015-11-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electricity_delivery" title="Template:Electricity delivery"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electricity_delivery" title="Template talk:Electricity delivery"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electricity_delivery" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electricity delivery"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Electricity_delivery" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Electricity_delivery" title="Electricity delivery">Electricity delivery</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_generation_control" title="Automatic generation control">Automatic generation control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backfeeding" title="Backfeeding">Backfeeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_load" title="Base load">Base load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_factor" title="Demand factor">Demand factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droop_speed_control" title="Droop speed control">Droop speed control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_quality" title="Electric power quality">Electric power quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_fault" title="Electrical fault">Electrical fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_demand_management" title="Energy demand management">Energy demand management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_return_on_investment" title="Energy return on investment">Energy return on investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_code" title="Grid code">Grid code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">Grid energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Grid strength">Grid strength</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_energy_storage" title="Home energy storage">Home energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load-following_power_plant" title="Load-following power plant">Load-following</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_order" title="Merit order">Merit order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nameplate_capacity" title="Nameplate capacity">Nameplate capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_demand" title="Peak demand">Peak demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_factor" title="Power factor">Power factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power-flow_study" title="Power-flow study">Power-flow study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repowering" title="Repowering">Repowering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_frequency" title="Utility frequency">Utility frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">Variability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle-to-grid" title="Vehicle-to-grid">Vehicle-to-grid</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Abspannportal.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal pylons of Kriftel substation near Frankfurt"><img alt="Portal pylons of Kriftel substation near Frankfurt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/120px-Abspannportal.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/180px-Abspannportal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/240px-Abspannportal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_station" title="Fossil fuel power station">Fossil fuel power station</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_current_power" title="Marine current power">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmotic_power" title="Osmotic power">Osmotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_biofuel" title="Sustainable biofuel">Sustainable biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Power_station_technology" title="Category:Power station technology">Generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AC_power" title="AC power">AC power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">Cogeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle_power_plant" title="Combined cycle power plant">Combined cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_tower" title="Cooling tower">Cooling tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_generator" title="Induction generator">Induction generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro_combined_heat_and_power" title="Micro combined heat and power">Micro CHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankine_cycle" title="Rankine cycle">Rankine cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-phase_electric_power" title="Three-phase electric power">Three-phase electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_power_plant" title="Virtual power plant">Virtual power plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Transmission</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">distribution</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_response" title="Demand response">Demand response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_generation" title="Distributed generation">Distributed generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_demand_(electric_power)" title="Dynamic demand (electric power)">Dynamic demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">Electric power distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_system" title="Electric power system">Electric power system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Electric power transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_busbar_system" title="Electrical busbar system">Electrical busbar system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">Electrical grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_substation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical substation">Electrical substation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_retailing" title="Electricity retailing">Electricity retailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-voltage_direct_current" title="High-voltage direct current">High-voltage direct current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-voltage_shore_connection" title="High-voltage shore connection">High-voltage shore connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interconnector" title="Interconnector">Interconnector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_management" title="Load management">Load management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mains_electricity_by_country" title="Mains electricity by country">Mains electricity by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">Power station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">Pumped hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-wire_earth_return" title="Single-wire earth return">Single-wire earth return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_grid" title="Super grid">Super grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_system_operator" title="Transmission system operator">Transmission system operator</a> (TSO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_tower" title="Transmission tower">Transmission tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_pole" title="Utility pole">Utility pole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Failure modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_start" title="Black start">Black start</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brownout_(electricity)" title="Brownout (electricity)">Brownout</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cascading failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">Power outage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_blackout" title="Rolling blackout">Rolling blackout</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Protective<br />devices</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arc-fault_circuit_interrupter" title="Arc-fault circuit interrupter">Arc-fault circuit interrupter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_breaker" title="Circuit breaker">Circuit breaker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth-leakage_circuit_breaker" title="Earth-leakage circuit breaker">Earth-leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_hexafluoride_circuit_breaker" title="Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker">Sulfur hexafluoride</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generator_interlock_kit" title="Generator interlock kit">Generator interlock kit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_relay" title="Numerical relay">Numerical relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_system_protection" title="Power system protection">Power system protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protective_relay" title="Protective relay">Protective relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residual-current_device" title="Residual-current device">Residual-current device</a> (GFI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Economics<br />and policies</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Availability_factor" title="Availability factor">Availability factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">Capacity factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_subsidy" title="Energy subsidy">Energy subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_tax" title="Environmental tax">Environmental tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed-in_tariff" title="Feed-in tariff">Feed-in tariff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_factor_(electrical)" title="Load factor (electrical)">Load factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_metering" title="Net metering">Net metering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigouvian_tax" title="Pigouvian tax">Pigouvian tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Certificate_(United_States)" title="Renewable Energy Certificate (United States)">Renewable Energy Certificates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable energy commercialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Payments" title="Renewable Energy Payments">Renewable Energy Payments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spark_spread" title="Spark spread">Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Statistics and<br />production</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_energy_consumption" title="Electric energy consumption">Electric energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electricity_sectors" title="List of electricity sectors">List of electricity sectors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Electric_power_distribution" title="Category:Electric power distribution">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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