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aria-controls="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Physics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Epistemology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sense_perception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sense_perception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Sense perception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sense_perception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criterion_of_truth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criterion_of_truth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Criterion of truth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criterion_of_truth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pleasure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pleasure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Pleasure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pleasure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Desire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Desire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Desire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Desire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Politics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Friendship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Friendship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Friendship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Friendship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.5</span> <span>Death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.6</span> <span>Gods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epicurean_writings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epicurean_writings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Epicurean writings</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Epicurean_writings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Epicurean writings subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Epicurean_writings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-On_Nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_Nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>On Nature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_Nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Principal_doctrines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Principal_doctrines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Principal doctrines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Principal_doctrines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tetrapharmakos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tetrapharmakos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Tetrapharmakos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tetrapharmakos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Letters_of_Epicurus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letters_of_Epicurus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Letters of Epicurus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Letters_of_Epicurus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Letter_to_Herodotus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letter_to_Herodotus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Letter to Herodotus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Letter_to_Herodotus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Letter_to_Pythocles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letter_to_Pythocles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Letter to Pythocles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Letter_to_Pythocles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Letter_to_Menoeceus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letter_to_Menoeceus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Letter to Menoeceus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Letter_to_Menoeceus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epicurea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epicurea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Epicurea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epicurea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_ancient_testimonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_ancient_testimonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Other ancient testimonies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_ancient_testimonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Later_antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Later antiquity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages_and_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages_and_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Middle Ages and Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages_and_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_revival" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_revival"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Modern revival</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_revival-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Similarities_with_eastern_philosophies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Similarities_with_eastern_philosophies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Similarities with eastern philosophies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Similarities_with_eastern_philosophies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Misconceptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misconceptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Misconceptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Misconceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Primary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Secondary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Epicureanism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 58 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-58" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">58 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikureismus" title="Epikureismus – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Epikureismus" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="أبيقورية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أبيقورية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epik%C3%BCr%C3%A7%C3%BCl%C3%BCk" title="Epikürçülük – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Epikürçülük" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Эпікурэізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Эпікурэізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Епикурейство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Епикурейство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikuriezh" title="Epikuriezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Epikuriezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicureisme" title="Epicureisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Epicureisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikureismus" title="Epikureismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Epikureismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikureismus" title="Epikureismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Epikureismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikureism" title="Epikureism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Epikureism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicure%C3%ADsmo" title="Epicureísmo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Epicureísmo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikurismo" title="Epikurismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Epikurismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikureismo" title="Epikureismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Epikureismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%BE%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="اپیکوریسم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اپیکوریسم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89picurisme" title="Épicurisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Épicurisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicure%C3%ADsmo" title="Epicureísmo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Epicureísmo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%90%ED%94%BC%EC%BF%A0%EB%A1%9C%EC%8A%A4_%ED%95%99%ED%8C%8C" title="에피쿠로스 학파 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="에피쿠로스 학파" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%BA%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Էպիկուրականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էպիկուրականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikurejstvo" title="Epikurejstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Epikurejstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikurismo" title="Epikurismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Epikurismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikureanisme" title="Epikureanisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Epikureanisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epik%C3%BArismi" title="Epikúrismi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Epikúrismi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicureismo" title="Epicureismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Epicureismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%99%D7%AA" title="האסכולה האפיקוראית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האסכולה האפיקוראית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ეპიკურეიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეპიკურეიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Эпикуреизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Эпикуреизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Эпикуреизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Эпикуреизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epik%C5%ABrizmas" title="Epikūrizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Epikūrizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikureizmus" title="Epikureizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Epikureizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Епикурејство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Епикурејство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikorisma" title="Epikorisma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Epikorisma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87" title="ابيقوريه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ابيقوريه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurisme" title="Epicurisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Epicurisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%83%94%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B9%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="エピクロス主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エピクロス主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikurisme" title="Epikurisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Epikurisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurisme" title="Epicurisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Epicurisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikureizm" title="Epikureizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Epikureizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%BE%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="اپیکوریزم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اپیکوریزم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%BD%E1%9E%9A" title="អេពីគួរ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="អេពីគួរ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikureizm" title="Epikureizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Epikureizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicurismo" title="Epicurismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Epicurismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicureism" title="Epicureism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Epicureism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Эпикуреизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эпикуреизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikurizmi" title="Epikurizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Epikurizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Epicureanism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AA%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="ڪيوريائي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڪيوريائي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikureizmus" title="Epikureizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Epikureizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikurejstvo" title="Epikurejstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Epikurejstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8E%D9%BE%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA" title="ئێپیکۆرییەت – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئێپیکۆرییەت" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Епикурејство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Епикурејство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikurejstvo" title="Epikurejstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Epikurejstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikurolaisuus" title="Epikurolaisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Epikurolaisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikurism" title="Epikurism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Epikurism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epikureismo" title="Epikureismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Epikureismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epik%C3%BCrc%C3%BCl%C3%BCk" title="Epikürcülük – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Epikürcülük" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Епікурейство – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Епікурейство" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%BE%DB%8C_%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="ایپی قوریت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ایپی قوریت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%AF%94%E9%B3%A9%E9%AD%AF%E5%AD%B8%E6%B4%BE" title="伊比鳩魯學派 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="伊比鳩魯學派" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureans&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicureans">Epicureans</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Philosophical system</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Epicurean" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Epicurean_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Epicurean (disambiguation)">Epicurean (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg/220px-Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg/330px-Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg/440px-Epikouros_BM_1843.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2533" data-file-height="3800" /></a><figcaption>Roman <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> bust</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Epicureanism</b> is a system of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> founded 307 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE</a> based upon the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek philosopher">ancient Greek philosopher</a>. Epicurus was an <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Materialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Materialist">materialist</a>, following in the steps of <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>. His materialism led him to <a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">religious skepticism</a> and a general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Epicureanism was originally a challenge to <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a>, and its main opponent later became <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>. It is a form of <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonism</a> insofar as it declares pleasure to be its sole intrinsic goal. However, the concept that the absence of pain and fear constitutes the greatest pleasure, and its advocacy of a simple life, make it very different from hedonism as <a href="/wiki/Colloquially" class="mw-redirect" title="Colloquially">colloquially</a> understood. </p><p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrenaic">Cyrenaic</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a>, Epicurus believed that the greatest good was to seek modest, sustainable pleasure in the form of a state of <i><a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">ataraxia</a></i> (tranquility and freedom from fear) and <i>aponia</i> (the absence of bodily pain) through knowledge of the workings of the world and limiting desires. Correspondingly, Epicurus and his followers generally withdrew from politics because it could lead to frustrations and ambitions that would conflict with their pursuit of virtue and peace of mind.<sup id="cite_ref-worldcat.org_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldcat.org-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Few writings by Epicurus have survived. <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a> preserves three letters written by Epicurus, as well as a list of the <a href="/wiki/Principal_Doctrines" title="Principal Doctrines">Principal Doctrines</a> of Epicureanism; however, there are independent attestations of his ideas from his later disciples. The epic poem <i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> (Latin for "On the Nature of Things") by <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a> presents the core arguments and theories of Epicureanism in one unified work. Many Epicurean texts have also been found on scrolls unearthed at the <a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Papyri" title="Villa of the Papyri">Villa of the Papyri</a> in <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>, mostly works written by the Epicurean philosopher <a href="/wiki/Philodemus" title="Philodemus">Philodemus</a> or his teacher <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Sidon" title="Zeno of Sidon">Zeno of Sidon</a> along with fragments of works by Epicurus himself. <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Oenoanda" title="Diogenes of Oenoanda">Diogenes of Oenoanda</a>, a wealthy Epicurean in the 2nd century CE, had a portico wall inscribed with tenets of the philosophy erected in <a href="/wiki/Oenoanda" title="Oenoanda">Oenoanda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a> (present day Turkey). </p><p>Epicureanism flourished in the Late <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> and during the Roman era, and many Epicurean communities were established in places such as <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>. By the late 3rd century CE, Epicureanism all but died out, being opposed by other philosophies (mainly <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a>) that were then in the ascent. Interest in Epicureanism was resurrected in the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> and continues in the modern era. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> taught and gained followers in <a href="/wiki/Mytilene" title="Mytilene">Mytilene</a>, the capital of the island <a href="/wiki/Lesbos" title="Lesbos">Lesbos</a>, and then in <a href="/wiki/Lampsacus" title="Lampsacus">Lampsacus</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, Epicurus bought a property for his school called "Garden", which later became the name of Epicurus' school.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its members included <a href="/wiki/Hermarchus" title="Hermarchus">Hermarchus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Idomeneus_of_Lampsacus" title="Idomeneus of Lampsacus">Idomeneus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colotes" title="Colotes">Colotes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyaenus_of_Lampsacus" title="Polyaenus of Lampsacus">Polyaenus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_younger)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)">Metrodorus</a>. Epicurus emphasized friendship as an important ingredient of happiness, and the school seems to have been a moderately ascetic community which rejected the political limelight of Athenian philosophy. They were fairly <a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">cosmopolitan</a> by Athenian standards, including women and slaves. Community activities held some importance, particularly the observance of <a href="/wiki/Eikas" class="mw-redirect" title="Eikas">Eikas</a>, a monthly social gathering. Some members were also <a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">vegetarians</a> as, from slight evidence, Epicurus did not eat meat, although no prohibition against eating meat was made.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The school's popularity grew and it became, along with <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripateticism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a>, one of the dominant schools of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a>, lasting strongly through the later <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deciphered carbonized <a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">scrolls</a> obtained from the library at the <a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Papyri" title="Villa of the Papyri">Villa of the Papyri</a> in <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a> contain a large number of works by <a href="/wiki/Philodemus" title="Philodemus">Philodemus</a>, a late Hellenistic Epicurean, and Epicurus himself, attesting to the school's enduring popularity. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> also leaned considerably toward Epicureanism, which led to his plea against the death sentence during the trial against <a href="/wiki/Catiline" title="Catiline">Catiline</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Catilinarian_Conspiracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Catilinarian Conspiracy">Catiline conspiracy</a> where he spoke out against the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Younger" title="Cato the Younger">Cato</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His father-in-law, <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Calpurnius_Piso_Caesoninus_(consul_58_BC)" title="Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus (consul 58 BC)">Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus</a>, was also an adept of the school. In the 2nd century CE, comedian <a href="/wiki/Lucian_of_Samosata" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucian of Samosata">Lucian of Samosata</a> and wealthy promoter of philosophy <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Oenoanda" title="Diogenes of Oenoanda">Diogenes of Oenoanda</a> were prominent Epicureans. </p><p>By the late third century CE, however, there was little trace of its existence.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With growing dominance of <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peripateticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripateticism">Peripateticism</a>, and later, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, Epicureanism declined. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physics">Physics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his letter to <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, Epicurus presented three principles as to the nature of the physical world, i.e. that that which exists cannot come into being from that which does not exist, that which is destroyed does not cease to exist, and all that exists now always did exist and always will.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The object of these principles was to establish the fact that all that constitutes the world is permanent and unchanging.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epicurean physics held that the entire universe consisted of two things: matter and void.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Matter is made up of atoms, which are tiny bodies that have only the unchanging qualities of shape, size, and weight.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson-2015a_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-2015a-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Epicureans believed that atoms were unchanging because the world was ordered and that changes had to have specific and consistent sources, e.g. a plant species only grows from a seed of the same species,<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010j_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010j-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1998_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1998-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but that in order for the universe to persist, what it is ultimately made up of must not be able to be changed or else the universe would be essentially destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996b_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996b-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010j_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010j-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Epicurus holds that there must be an infinite supply of atoms, although only a finite number of types of atoms, as well as an infinite amount of void.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson-2015a_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-2015a-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epicurus explains this position in his letter to Herodotus: </p> <blockquote><p>Moreover, the sum of things is unlimited both by reason of the multitude of the atoms and the extent of the void. For if the void were infinite and bodies finite, the bodies would not have stayed anywhere but would have been dispersed in their course through the infinite void, not having any supports or counterchecks to send them back on their upward rebound. Again, if the void were finite, the infinity of bodies would not have anywhere to be.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> Because of the infinite supply of atoms, there are an infinite number of worlds, or <i>cosmoi</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson-2015a_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-2015a-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these worlds could be vastly different from our own, some quite similar, and all of the worlds were separated from each other by vast areas of void (<i>metakosmia</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson-2015a_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-2015a-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Epicureanism states that atoms are unable to be broken down into any smaller parts<sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996b_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996b-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because void is necessary for matter to move. Anything which consists of both void and matter can be broken down, while if something contains no void then it has no way to break apart because no part of the substance could be broken down into a smaller subsection of the substance.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010j_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010j-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atoms are constantly moving in one of four different ways.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson-2015b_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-2015b-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atoms can simply collide with each other and then bounce off of each other.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson-2015b_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-2015b-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When joined with each other and forming a larger object, atoms can vibrate as they collide into each other while still maintaining the overall shape of the larger object.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson-2015b_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-2015b-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When not prevented by other atoms, all atoms move at the same speed naturally downwards in relation to the rest of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson-2015b_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-2015b-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010k_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010k-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This downwards motion is natural for atoms; however, as their fourth means of motion, atoms can at times randomly swerve out of their usual downwards path.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010k_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010k-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This swerving motion is what allowed for the creation of the universe, since as more and more atoms swerved and collided with each other, objects were able to take shape as the atoms joined together. Without the swerve, the atoms would never have interacted with each other, and simply continued to move downwards at the same speed.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson-2015b_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-2015b-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010k_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010k-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epicurus also felt that the swerve was what accounted for humanity's free will.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996e_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996e-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If it were not for the swerve, humans would be subject to a never-ending chain of cause and effect.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996e_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996e-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a point which Epicureans often used to criticize <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>' <a href="/wiki/Democritean_theory_of_atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Democritean theory of atoms">atomic theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996e_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996e-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistemology">Epistemology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Epicurean philosophy employs an <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical</a> epistemology, one based on the senses.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010p_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010p-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sense_perception">Sense perception</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sense perception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Epicureans believed that senses also relied on atoms. Every object was continually emitting particles from itself that would then interact with the observer.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson-2015c_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-2015c-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All sensations, such as sight, smell, or sound, relied on these particles.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson-2015c_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-2015c-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the atoms that were emitted did not have the qualities that the senses were perceiving, the manner in which they were emitted caused the observer to experience those sensations, e.g. red particles were not themselves red but were emitted in a manner that caused the viewer to experience the color red.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson-2015c_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-2015c-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The atoms are not perceived individually, but rather as a continuous sensation because of how quickly they move.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson-2015c_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-2015c-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Epicureans believed that all sense perceptions were true,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010q_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010q-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that errors arise in how we judge those perceptions.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010q_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010q-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When we form judgments about things (<i>hupolepsis</i>), they can be verified and corrected through further sensory information.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010q_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010q-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bakalis-2005_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bakalis-2005-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if someone sees a tower from far away that appears to be round, and upon approaching the tower they see that it is actually square, they would come to realize that their original judgement was wrong and correct their wrong opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010r_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010r-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Criterion_of_truth">Criterion of truth</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Criterion of truth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Epicurus is said to have proposed three <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_the_criterion" title="Problem of the criterion">criteria of truth</a>: sensations (<i>aisthêsis</i>), preconceptions (<i>prolepsis</i>), and feelings (<i>pathê</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996f_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996f-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A fourth criterion called "presentational applications of the mind" (<i>phantastikai epibolai tês dianoias</i>) was said to have been added by later Epicureans.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996f_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996f-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Asmis-2009_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asmis-2009-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These criteria formed the method through which Epicureans thought we gained knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010p_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010p-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since Epicureans thought that sensations could not deceive, sensations are the first and main criterion of truth for Epicureans.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010q_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010q-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even in cases where sensory input seems to mislead, the input itself is true and the error arises from our judgments about the input. For example, when one places a straight oar in the water, it appears bent. The Epicurean would argue that the image of the oar, that is, the atoms traveling from the oar to the observer's eyes, has been shifted and thus really does arrive at the observer's eyes in the shape of a bent oar.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996c_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996c-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The observer makes the error in assuming that the image he or she receives correctly represents the oar and has not been distorted in some way.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996c_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996c-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to not make erroneous judgments about perceivable things and instead verify one's judgment, Epicureans believed that one needed to obtain "clear vision" (<i>enargeia</i>) of the perceivable thing by closer examination.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996d_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996d-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This acted as a justification for one's judgements about the thing being perceived.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996d_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996d-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Enargeia</i> is characterized as sensation of an object that has been unchanged by judgments or opinions and is a clear and direct perception of that object.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An individual's preconceptions are his or her concepts of what things are, e.g. what someone's idea of a horse is, and these concepts are formed in a person's mind through sensory input over time.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the word that relates to the preconception is used, these preconceptions are summoned up by the mind into the person's thoughts.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010m_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010m-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is through our preconceptions that we are able to make judgments about the things that we perceive.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010r_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010r-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Preconceptions were also used by Epicureans to avoid the paradox proposed by Plato in the <i><a href="/wiki/Meno" title="Meno">Meno</a></i> regarding learning.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010m_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010m-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plato argues that learning requires us to already have knowledge of what we are learning, or else we would be unable to recognize when we had successfully learned the information.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010m_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010m-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Preconceptions, Epicureans argue, provide individuals with that pre-knowledge required for learning.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010m_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010m-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Our feelings or emotions (<i>pathê</i>) are how we perceive pleasure and pain.<sup id="cite_ref-Asmis-2009_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asmis-2009-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are analogous to sensations in that they are a means of perception, but they perceive our internal state as opposed to external things.<sup id="cite_ref-Asmis-2009_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asmis-2009-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Diogenes Laertius, feelings are how we determine our actions. If something is pleasurable, we pursue that thing, and if something is painful, we avoid that thing.<sup id="cite_ref-Asmis-2009_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Asmis-2009-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea of "presentational applications of the mind" is an explanation for how we can discuss and inquire about things we cannot directly perceive.<sup id="cite_ref-Tsouna-2016_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tsouna-2016-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> We receive impressions of such things directly in our minds, instead of perceiving them through other senses.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996f_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996f-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of "presentational applications of the mind" may have been introduced to explain how we learn about things that we cannot directly perceive, such as the gods.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996f_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996f-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tsouna-2016_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tsouna-2016-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:18.0em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Hedonism" title="Category:Hedonism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:200%; font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">Hedonism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.3em;;color: var(--color-base)">Thinkers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus_of_Cyrene" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristippus of Cyrene">Aristippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus_the_Younger" title="Aristippus the Younger">Aristippus the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Feldman_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fred Feldman (philosopher)">Fred Feldman </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esperanza_Guis%C3%A1n" title="Esperanza Guisán">Esperanza Guisán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermarchus" title="Hermarchus">Hermarchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jovinian" title="Jovinian">Jovinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajita_Kesakambali" title="Ajita Kesakambali">Ajita Kesakambali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julien_Offray_de_La_Mettrie" title="Julien Offray de La Mettrie">Julien Offray de La Mettrie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_younger)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)">Metrodorus of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Onfray" title="Michel Onfray">Michel Onfray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Pearce_(philosopher)" title="David Pearce (philosopher)">David Pearce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torbj%C3%B6rn_T%C3%A4nnsj%C3%B6" title="Torbjörn Tännsjö">Torbjörn Tännsjö</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_the_Atheist" title="Theodorus the Atheist">Theodorus the Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Zhu" title="Yang Zhu">Yang Zhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Sidon" title="Zeno of Sidon">Zeno of Sidon</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.3em;;color: var(--color-base)">Schools of hedonism</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_hedonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiological hedonism">Axiological hedonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_hedonism" title="Christian hedonism">Christian hedonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_hedonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical hedonism">Ethical hedonism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Libertine" title="Libertine">Libertinage</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_hedonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological hedonism">Psychological hedonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.3em;;color: var(--color-base)">Key concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aponia" class="mw-redirect" title="Aponia">Aponia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">Ataraxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felicific_calculus" title="Felicific calculus">Felicific calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedone" title="Hedone">Hedone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">Pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">Pleasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensation_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensation (psychology)">Sensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrapharmakos" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapharmakos">Tetrapharmakos</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.3em;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hedonic_treadmill" title="Hedonic treadmill">Hedonic treadmill</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Joie_de_vivre" title="Joie de vivre">Joie de vivre</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_hedonism" title="Paradox of hedonism">Paradox of hedonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine,_women_and_song" title="Wine, women and song">"Wine, women and song"</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hedonism" title="Template:Hedonism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hedonism" title="Template talk:Hedonism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hedonism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hedonism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Epicureanism bases its ethics on a hedonistic set of values, seeing pleasure as the chief good in life.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010c_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010c-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence, Epicurus advocated living in such a way as to derive the greatest amount of pleasure possible during one's lifetime, yet doing so moderately in order to avoid the suffering incurred by overindulgence in such pleasure.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010c_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010c-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epicurus actively recommended against passionate love, and believed it best to avoid marriage altogether. He viewed recreational sex as a natural, but not necessary, desire that should be generally avoided.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the political life could give rise to desires that could disturb virtue and one's peace of mind, such as a lust for power or a desire for fame, participation in politics was discouraged.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, Epicurus sought to eliminate the fear of the gods and <a href="/wiki/Death_anxiety" title="Death anxiety">of death</a>, seeing those two fears as chief causes of strife in life.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pleasure">Pleasure</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Pleasure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>When we say ... that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do by some through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Epicurus, <i>"Letter to Menoeceus"</i><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Epicureans had a very specific understanding of what the greatest pleasure was, and the focus of their ethics was on the avoidance of pain rather than seeking out pleasure.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010l_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010l-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As evidence for this, Epicureans say that nature seems to command us to avoid pain, and they point out that all animals try to avoid pain as much as possible.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epicureanism divided pleasure into two broad categories: <i>pleasures of the body</i> and <i>pleasures of the mind</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010l_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010l-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Pleasures of the body</i> involve sensations of the body, such as the act of eating delicious food or of being in a state of comfort free from pain, and exist only in the present.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010l_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010l-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One can only experience pleasures of the body in the moment, meaning they only exist as a person is experiencing them.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010f_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010f-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Pleasures of the mind</i> involve mental processes and states; feelings of joy, the lack of fear, and pleasant memories are all examples of pleasures of the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010l_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010l-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These pleasures of the mind do not only exist in the present, but also in the past and future, since memory of a past pleasant experience or the expectation of some potentially pleasing future can both be pleasurable experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010f_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010f-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this, the pleasures of the mind are considered to be greater than those of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010f_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010f-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Emphasis was placed on pleasures of the mind rather than on physical pleasures.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010c_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010c-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Epicureans further divided each of these types of pleasures into two categories: <i>kinetic pleasure</i> and <i>katastematic pleasure</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010b_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010b-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Absence of pain, <a href="/wiki/Aponia" class="mw-redirect" title="Aponia">aponia</a>, and lack of disturbance of mind, <a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">ataraxia</a>, are two of the katastematic pleasures and often seen as the focal ones to <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Kinetic pleasure</i> is the physical or mental pleasures that involve action or change.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996a_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996a-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eating delicious food, as well as fulfilling desires and removing pain, which is itself considered a pleasurable act, are all examples of kinetic pleasure in the physical sense.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010b_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010b-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Warren-2002_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warren-2002-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Epicurus, feelings of joy would be an example of mental kinetic pleasure.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010b_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010b-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Katastematic pleasure</i> is the pleasure one feels while in a state without pain.<sup id="cite_ref-Warren-2002_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Warren-2002-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like kinetic pleasures, katastematic pleasures can also be physical, such as the state of not being thirsty, or mental, such as freedom from a state of fear.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010b_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010b-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sharples-1996a_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharples-1996a-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Complete physical katastematic pleasure is called <i><a href="/wiki/Aponia" class="mw-redirect" title="Aponia">aponia</a></i>, and complete mental katastematic pleasure is called <i><a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">ataraxia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010b_45-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010b-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the pursuit of pleasure formed the focal point of the philosophy, this was largely directed to the "static pleasures" of minimizing pain, anxiety and suffering. From this understanding, Epicureans concluded that the greatest pleasure a person could reach was the complete removal of all pain, both physical and mental.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010n_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010n-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ultimate goal then of Epicurean ethics was to reach a state of <i>aponia</i> and <i>ataraxia</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010n_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010n-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Desire">Desire</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Desire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I learn that your bodily inclination leans most keenly towards sexual intercourse. If you neither violate the laws nor disturb well established morals nor sadden someone close to you, nor strain your body, nor spend what is needed for necessities, use your own choice as you wish. It is sure difficult to imagine, however, that none of these would be a part of sex because sex never benefitted anyone.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Epicurus, <i>Vatican Sayings</i>, LI<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>In order to do this an Epicurean had to control their desires, because desire itself was seen as painful.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010g_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010g-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not only will controlling one's desires bring about <i>aponia</i>, as one will rarely suffer from not being physically satisfied, but controlling one's desires will also help to bring about <i>ataraxia</i> because one will not be anxious about becoming discomforted since one would have so few desires anyway.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010h_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010h-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Epicureans divide desires into three classes: natural and necessary, natural but not necessary, and vain and empty:<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010g_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010g-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><i>Natural and necessary</i>: These desires are limited desires that are innately present in all humans; it is part of human nature to have them.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010g_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010g-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are necessary for one of three reasons: necessary for happiness, necessary for freedom from bodily discomfort, and necessary for life.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010g_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010g-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clothing and shelter would belong to the first two categories, while something like food would belong to the third.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010g_54-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010g-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Natural but not necessary</i>: These desires are innate to humans, but they do not need to be fulfilled for their happiness or their survival.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010h_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010h-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wanting to eat delicious food when one is hungry is an example of a natural but not necessary desire.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010h_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010h-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main problem with these desires is that they fail to substantially increase a person's happiness, and at the same time require effort to obtain and are desired by people due to false beliefs that they are actually necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010h_55-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010h-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is for this reason that they should be avoided.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010h_55-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010h-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Vain and empty</i>: These desires are neither innate to humans nor required for happiness or health; indeed, they are also limitless and can never be fulfilled.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010i_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010i-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Desires of wealth or fame would fall in this class, and such desires are to be avoided because they will ultimately only bring about discomfort.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010i_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010i-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>If one follows only natural and necessary desires, then, according to Epicurus, one would be able to reach <i>aponia</i> and <i>ataraxia</i> and thereby the highest form of happiness.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010i_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010i-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unnecessary and, especially, artificially produced desires were to be suppressed.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Politics">Politics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Politics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly, and it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life.<sup id="cite_ref-classics_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-classics-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Epicurean understanding of <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a> was inherently self-interested. Justice was deemed good because it was seen as mutually beneficial.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010e_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010e-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals would not act unjustly even if the act was initially unnoticed because of possibly being caught and punished.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010d_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010d-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both punishment and fear of punishment would cause a person disturbance and prevent them from being happy.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010d_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010d-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Epicurus was also an early thinker to develop the notion of justice as a <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a>, and in part attempts to address issues with the society described in <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010a_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010a-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The social contract theory established by Epicureanism is based on mutual agreement, not divine decree.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010a_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010a-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He defined justice as an agreement made by people not to harm each other.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010e_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010e-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The point of living in a society with laws and punishments is to be protected from harm so that one is free to pursue happiness.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010a_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010a-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this, laws that do not contribute to promoting human happiness are not just.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010a_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010a-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He gave his own unique version of the <a href="/wiki/Ethic_of_reciprocity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethic of reciprocity">ethic of reciprocity</a>, which differs from other formulations by emphasizing minimizing harm and maximizing happiness for oneself and others: </p><p>Epicurean ideas on politics disagree with other philosophical traditions, namely the Stoic, Platonist and <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To Epicureans all our social relations are a matter of how we perceive each other, of customs and traditions. No one is inherently of higher value or meant to dominate another.<sup id="cite_ref-worldcat.org_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldcat.org-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is because there is no metaphysical basis for the superiority of one kind of person, all people are made of the same atomic material and are thus naturally equal.<sup id="cite_ref-worldcat.org_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldcat.org-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epicureans also discourage political participation and other involvement in politics.<sup id="cite_ref-worldcat.org_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-worldcat.org-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However Epicureans are not <a href="/wiki/Apolitical" class="mw-redirect" title="Apolitical">apolitical</a>, it is possible that some political association could be seen as beneficial by some Epicureans.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some political associations could lead to certain benefits to the individual that would help to maximize pleasure and avoid physical or mental distress.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Friendship">Friendship</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Friendship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>of all the things which wisdom has contrived which contribute to a blessed life, none is more important, more fruitful, than friendship</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>quoted by Cicero<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Epicurus laid great emphasis on developing friendships as the basis of a satisfying life. The avoidance or freedom from hardship and fear is ideal to the Epicureans.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While this avoidance or freedom could conceivably be achieved through political means, it was insisted by Epicurus that involvement in politics would not release one from fear and he advised against a life of politics.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epicurus also discouraged contributing to political society by starting a family, as the benefits of a wife and children are outweighed by the trouble brought about by having a family.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead Epicurus encouraged a formation of a community of friends outside the traditional political state. This community of virtuous friends would focus on internal affairs and justice.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Epicureanism is adaptable to circumstance as is the Epicurean approach to politics.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same approaches will not always work in protection from pain and fear. In some situations it will be more beneficial to have a family and in other situations it will be more beneficial to participate in politics. It is ultimately up to the Epicurean to analyse their circumstance and take whatever action befits the situation.<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Death">Death</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Epicureanism rejects <a href="/wiki/Immortality" title="Immortality">immortality</a>. It believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is mortal and material, just like the body.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epicurus rejected any possibility of an afterlife, while still contending that one need not fear death: "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this doctrine arose the Epicurean Epitaph: <i>Non fui, fui, non sum, non curo</i> ("I was not; I have been; I am not; I do not mind."), which is inscribed on the gravestones of his followers and seen on many ancient gravestones of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gods">Gods</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Epicureanism does not deny the existence of the gods; rather it denies their involvement in the world. According to Epicureanism, the gods do not interfere with human lives or the rest of the universe in any way<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010o_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010o-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – thus, it shuns the idea that frightening weather events are divine retribution.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the fears the Epicurean ought to be freed from is fear relating to the actions of the gods.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The manner in which the Epicurean gods exist is still disputed. Some scholars say that Epicureanism believes that the gods exist outside the mind as material objects (the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realist</a> position), while others assert that the gods only exist in our minds as ideals (the <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealist</a> position).<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010o_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010o-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sedley-2011_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sedley-2011-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Konstan-2011_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Konstan-2011-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The realist position holds that Epicureans understand the gods as existing as physical and immortal beings made of atoms that reside somewhere in reality.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010o_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Keefe-2010o-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Konstan-2011_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Konstan-2011-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the gods are completely separate from the rest of reality; they are uninterested in it, play no role in it, and remain completely undisturbed by it.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, the gods live in what is called the <i>metakosmia</i>, or the space between worlds.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contrarily, the idealist (sometimes called the "non-realist position" to avoid confusion) position holds that the gods are just idealized forms of the best human life,<sup id="cite_ref-Sedley-2011_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sedley-2011-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it is thought that the gods were emblematic of the life one should aspire towards.<sup id="cite_ref-Sedley-2011_70-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sedley-2011-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The debate between these two positions was revived by A. A. Long and David Sedley in their 1987 book, <i>The Hellenistic Philosophers</i>, in which the two argued in favour of the idealist position.<sup id="cite_ref-Sedley-2011_70-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sedley-2011-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Konstan-2011_71-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Konstan-2011-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While a scholarly consensus has yet to be reached, the realist position remains the prevailing viewpoint at this time.<sup id="cite_ref-Sedley-2011_70-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sedley-2011-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Konstan-2011_71-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Konstan-2011-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epicurean_writings">Epicurean writings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Epicurean writings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_translations_of_De_rerum_natura" title="List of English translations of De rerum natura">List of English translations of De rerum natura</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_Nature">On Nature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: On Nature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On Nature (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Περὶ φύσεως</span>) is the name of a philosophical treatise in 37 books consisting of lectures written by Epicurus,<sup id="cite_ref-Long_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Long-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Konstan_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Konstan-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which can be considered his main work, however, it has mostly been lost. Some excerpts have survived compiled from <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum_papyri" title="Herculaneum papyri">burnt papyri scrolls</a> found in the <a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Papyri" title="Villa of the Papyri">Villa of the Papyri</a> at <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>. Most of the surviving papyri are kept in the <a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Nazionale_Vittorio_Emanuele_III" title="Biblioteca Nazionale Vittorio Emanuele III">National Library of Naples</a>. Important parts of Book II are preserved in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Long_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Long-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Konstan_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Konstan-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since most of the 37 books "On Nature" are lost,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Principal Doctrines and Epicurus' Letters to Herodotus, Menoeceus, and Pythocles are the most authoritative writings on Epicureanism. Similarly, Lucretius' poem <i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> probably follows Epicurus' work.<sup id="cite_ref-Konstan_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Konstan-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Principal_doctrines">Principal doctrines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Principal doctrines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Principal_Doctrines" title="Principal Doctrines">Principal Doctrines</a></div> <p>The Principal Doctrines are forty authoritative conclusions set up as official doctrines by Epicurus, <a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_younger)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)">Metrodorus of Lampsacus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hermarchus" title="Hermarchus">Hermarchus</a> of Mitilene and <a href="/wiki/Polyaenus_of_Lampsacus" title="Polyaenus of Lampsacus">Polyaenus of Lampsacus</a>. The Principal Doctrines exemplify the Epicurean philosophers' practice of publishing summaries and outlines of their teachings for easy memorization. However, they are so concise and short that it's difficult to understand them in depth without the context of additional commentaries and writings by ancient sources or by modern Epicurean practitioners, whenever possible. They are often cited as "PDs" in English. </p><p>Some of the Principal Doctrines are organized into groups and are meant to be studied together. The first four doctrines make up the Tetrapharmakos (Four Cures). PD's 10-13 discuss the Epicurean philosophy of science. PD's 18-21 explain the natural limits of desires and in time, and how the flesh is unable to learn these limits but the mind can. PD's 22-25 deal with the importance of the canon, or the Epicurean standard of truth. PD's 31-38 explain the Epicurean doctrines on justice based on mutual advantage and contractarianism.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PD's 39-40 call for an intimate society of friends. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tetrapharmakos">Tetrapharmakos</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Tetrapharmakos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetrapharmakos_PHerc_1005_col_5.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Tetrapharmakos_PHerc_1005_col_5.png/220px-Tetrapharmakos_PHerc_1005_col_5.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Tetrapharmakos_PHerc_1005_col_5.png/330px-Tetrapharmakos_PHerc_1005_col_5.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Tetrapharmakos_PHerc_1005_col_5.png/440px-Tetrapharmakos_PHerc_1005_col_5.png 2x" data-file-width="467" data-file-height="179" /></a><figcaption>Part of Herculaneum Papyrus 1005 (P.Herc.1005), col. 5. Contains Epicurean tetrapharmakos from Philodemus' Adversus Sophistas.</figcaption></figure> <p>Tetrapharmakos, or "The four-part cure", is <a href="/wiki/Philodemus_of_Gadara" class="mw-redirect" title="Philodemus of Gadara">Philodemus of Gadara</a>'s basic guideline as to how to live the happiest possible life, based on the first four of the doctrines. This poetic doctrine was handed down by an anonymous Epicurean who summed up Epicurus' philosophy on happiness in four simple lines: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Don't fear god,<br />Don't worry about death;<br />What is good is easy to get, and<br />What is terrible is easy to endure.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Philodemus" title="Philodemus">Philodemus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a> Papyrus, 1005, 4.9–14</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Letters_of_Epicurus">Letters of Epicurus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Letters of Epicurus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Three letters of Epicurus are preserved by Diogenes Laertius. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Letter_to_Herodotus">Letter to Herodotus</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Letter to Herodotus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Epicurus' <i>Letter to Herodotus</i> (not the historian)<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was written as an introduction to <a href="/wiki/Epicurean" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicurean">Epicurean</a> philosophy and method of studying nature. It included the most complete detail of the ancient conversations that led to the development of atomist theory, a doctrine of innumerable worlds, and an explanation of the phenomenon of time that posits an early form of relativism.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epicurus' <i><a href="/wiki/Letter_to_Herodotus" class="mw-redirect" title="Letter to Herodotus">Letter to Herodotus</a></i> appears to be a summary of <i>On Nature</i>, books I–XIII.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Letter_to_Pythocles">Letter to Pythocles</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Letter to Pythocles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Epicurus' <i>Letter to Pythocles</i> is the second letter preserved by <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_Laertius" title="Diogenes Laertius">Diogenes Laertius</a> in The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Letter to Pythocles, Epicurus treats the things for which there is uncertainty in how they occur. His train of thought is explicated through meteorological phenomena: various weather events as well as celestial phenomena in space such as asteroids, the creation and destruction of cosmoi, and the paths of planetary bodies through space. In Epicurus' time, long before any modern technological advances such as microscopes or telescopes which allow us to establish greater knowledge of these phenomena, these were all examples of things that, as far as the limits of human knowledge extended, it was impossible to establish certainty with regards to their causes, or how they occurred. Epicurus elaborates on how one may reason regarding such things so as to come to reasonable conclusions without undue certainty, so as to maintain <a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">Ataraxia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Letter_to_Menoeceus">Letter to Menoeceus</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Letter to Menoeceus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Epicurus' <i>Letter to Menoeceus</i> is a summary of his ethical teachings written in the epistolary literary style, and addressed to a student. It addresses theology, the hierarchies of desires, how to carry choices and avoidances in order to achieve net pleasure, and other aspects of <a href="/wiki/Epicurean" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicurean">Epicurean</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epicurea">Epicurea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Epicurea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Epicurea is a collection of texts, fragments, and testimonies by <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> that was collected by <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Usener" title="Hermann Usener">Hermann Usener</a> in 1887. This work features a collection of writings by Epicurus that explain the values and beliefs of Ancient Epicurian philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_ancient_testimonies">Other ancient testimonies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Other ancient testimonies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> writers espousing Epicureanism was <a href="/wiki/Amafinius" title="Amafinius">Amafinius</a>, although his work has not survived. Other adherents to the teachings of Epicurus included <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>, who wrote the poem <i>De rerum natura</i> about the tenets of the philosophy. The Epicurean philosopher <a href="/wiki/Philodemus_of_Gadara" class="mw-redirect" title="Philodemus of Gadara">Philodemus of Gadara</a>, until the 18th century only known as a poet of minor importance, rose to prominence as much of his work, along with other Epicurean material such as the lectures of <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Sidon" title="Zeno of Sidon">Zeno of Sidon</a>, was discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Papyri" title="Villa of the Papyri">Villa of the Papyri</a>. Another major source of information is the Roman politician and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, although he was highly critical, denouncing the Epicureans as unbridled <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonists</a>, devoid of a sense of <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> and duty, and guilty of withdrawing from public life. Another ancient source is <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Oenoanda" title="Diogenes of Oenoanda">Diogenes of Oenoanda</a>, who composed a large inscription at <a href="/wiki/Oenoanda" title="Oenoanda">Oenoanda</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a> reports slanderous stories, circulated by Epicurus' opponents.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_antiquity">Later antiquity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Later antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early Christian writer <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a> criticizes Epicurus at several points throughout his <i>Divine Institutes</i> and preserves the <i>Riddle of Epicurus</i>, or <i><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></i>, a famous argument against the existence of an all-powerful and providential God or gods.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of <i><a href="/wiki/Trilemma" title="Trilemma">trilemma</a></i> argument (God is omnipotent, God is good, but Evil exists) was one favoured by the ancient Greek <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">skeptics</a>, and this argument may have been wrongly attributed to Epicurus by Lactantius, who, from his Christian perspective, regarded Epicurus as an <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-larrimore_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-larrimore-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Reinhold_F._Glei" title="Reinhold F. Glei">Reinhold F. Glei</a>, it is settled that the argument of <i><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">theodicy</a></i> is from an academical source which is not only not Epicurean, but even anti-Epicurean.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest extant version of this <i>trilemma</i> appears in the writings of the <a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonist</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Epikoros is a Jewish term figuratively meaning "a heretic", cited in the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a>, referring to one who does not have a share in the <a href="/wiki/World_to_come" title="World to come">world to come</a><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">rabbinic literature</a> does not make any specific reference to the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>, it is apparent that the term is derived from the philosopher's name,<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in reference to his views which contradicted Jewish scripture, the strictly <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheistic</a> conception of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God in Judaism</a> and the Jewish belief in <a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology#World_to_come" title="Jewish eschatology">the world to come</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lucretius,_De_rerum_natura.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Lucretius%2C_De_rerum_natura.jpg/220px-Lucretius%2C_De_rerum_natura.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Lucretius%2C_De_rerum_natura.jpg/330px-Lucretius%2C_De_rerum_natura.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Lucretius%2C_De_rerum_natura.jpg/440px-Lucretius%2C_De_rerum_natura.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1005" data-file-height="1521" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> manuscript, copied by an Augustinian friar for Pope <a href="/wiki/Sixtus_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixtus IV">Sixtus IV</a>, c. 1483, after the discovery of an early manuscript in 1417 by the humanist and papal secretary <a href="/wiki/Poggio_Bracciolini" title="Poggio Bracciolini">Poggio Bracciolini</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages_and_Renaissance">Middle Ages and Renaissance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Middle Ages and Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a></i>, the Epicureans are depicted as <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretics</a> suffering in the <a href="/wiki/Inferno_(Dante)#Sixth_Circle" title="Inferno (Dante)">sixth circle of hell</a>. In fact, Epicurus appears to represent the ultimate heresy.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a> wrote an <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/apothegm" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:apothegm">apothegm</a> related to Epicureanism: </p> <blockquote><p>There was an Epicurean vaunted, that divers of other sects of philosophers did after turn Epicureans, but there was never any Epicurean that turned to any other sect. Whereupon a philosopher that was of another sect, said; The reason was plain, for that cocks may be made <a href="/wiki/Capon" title="Capon">capons</a>, but capons could never be made cocks.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>This echoed what the <a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic skeptic</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a> had said when asked "why it was that pupils from all the other schools went over to Epicurus, but converts were never made from the Epicureans?" to which he responded: "Because men may become <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a>, but a eunuch never becomes a man."<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_revival">Modern revival</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Modern revival"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 17th century, the French Franciscan priest, scientist and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a> wrote two books forcefully reviving Epicureanism. Shortly thereafter, and clearly influenced by Gassendi, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Charleton" title="Walter Charleton">Walter Charleton</a> published several works on Epicureanism in English. Attacks by Christians continued, most forcefully by the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Platonists" title="Cambridge Platonists">Cambridge Platonists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> In modern times <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> referred to himself as an Epicurean:</p><blockquote><p>If I had time I would add to my little book the Greek, Latin and French texts, in columns side by side. And I wish I could subjoin a translation of Gassendi's Syntagma of the doctrines of Epicurus, which, notwithstanding the calumnies of the Stoics and caricatures of Cicero, is the most rational system remaining of the philosophy of the ancients, as frugal of vicious indulgence, and fruitful of virtue as the hyperbolical extravagances of his rival sects.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Other modern-day Epicureans were <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Gassendi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Charleton" title="Walter Charleton">Walter Charleton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Bernier" title="François Bernier">François Bernier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Saint-%C3%89vremond" title="Charles de Saint-Évremond">Saint-Évremond</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ninon_de_l%27Enclos" title="Ninon de l'Enclos">Ninon de l'Enclos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frances_Wright" title="Frances Wright">Frances Wright</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>. </p><p>In France, where perfumer/restaurateur Gérald Ghislain refers to himself as an Epicurean,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Michel_Onfray" title="Michel Onfray">Michel Onfray</a> is developing a <a href="/wiki/Post-modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-modern">post-modern</a> approach to Epicureanism.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his 2011 book titled <i><a href="/wiki/The_Swerve" title="The Swerve">The Swerve</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Greenblatt" title="Stephen Greenblatt">Stephen Greenblatt</a> identified himself as strongly sympathetic to Epicureanism and Lucretius. <a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic Judaism</a> as a denomination also claims the Epicurean label. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Similarities_with_eastern_philosophies">Similarities with eastern philosophies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Similarities with eastern philosophies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some scholars have drawn parallels between Epicureanism and some eastern philosophies that similarly emphasize atomism or a lack of divine interference, such as <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epicureanism also resembles <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> in its belief that great excess leads to great dissatisfaction.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Clayman33_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clayman33-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Misconceptions">Misconceptions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Misconceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In modern popular usage, an Epicurean is a connoisseur of the arts of life and the refinements of sensual pleasures; <i>Epicureanism</i> implies a love or knowledgeable enjoyment especially of good food and drink. </p><p>Because Epicureanism posits that pleasure is the ultimate good (<i><a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos">telos</a></i>), it has been commonly misunderstood since ancient times as a doctrine that advocates the partaking in fleeting pleasures such as sexual excess and decadent food. This is not the case. Epicurus regarded <i><a href="/wiki/Ataraxia" title="Ataraxia">ataraxia</a></i> (tranquility, freedom from fear) and <i><a href="/wiki/Aponia" class="mw-redirect" title="Aponia">aponia</a></i> (absence of pain) as the height of happiness. He also considered prudence an important virtue and perceived excess and overindulgence to be contrary to the attainment of ataraxia and aponia.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epicurus preferred "the good", and "even wisdom and culture", to the "pleasure of the stomach".<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Epicurus sought moderation at meals, he was also not averse to moderation in moderation, that is, to occasional luxury.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Called "The Garden" for being based in what would have been a kitchen garden, his community also became known for its Eikas (Greek εἰκάς from εἴκοσῐ <i>eíkosi</i>, "twenty"),<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> feasts of the twentieth (of the Greek month),<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was otherwise considered sacred to the god <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a>, and also corresponding to the final day of the rites of initiation to the mysteries of <a href="/wiki/Demeter" title="Demeter">Demeter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-worldcat.org-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-worldcat.org_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-worldcat.org_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-worldcat.org_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-worldcat.org_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2015">Wilson 2015</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Konstan2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">David Konstan (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epicurus/">"Epicurus"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epicurus&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2018&rft.au=David+Konstan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fepicurus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/explore/savingearth/the-hidden-history-of-greco-roman-vegetarianism">"The Hidden History of Greco-Roman Vegetarianism"</a>. <i>Saving Earth | Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. 10 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Saving+Earth+%26%23124%3B+Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=The+Hidden+History+of+Greco-Roman+Vegetarianism&rft.date=2010-08-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fexplore%2Fsavingearth%2Fthe-hidden-history-of-greco-roman-vegetarianism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDombrowski1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dombrowski" title="Daniel Dombrowski">Dombrowski, Daniel</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nSLoTGecabsC&pg=PA81"><i>The Philosophy of Vegetarianism</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Press" title="University of Massachusetts Press">University of Massachusetts Press</a>. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87023-431-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87023-431-6"><bdi>978-0-87023-431-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Vegetarianism&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=University+of+Massachusetts+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-87023-431-6&rft.aulast=Dombrowski&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnSLoTGecabsC%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacGillivray2012" class="citation journal cs1">MacGillivray, Erlend D (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3333818">"The Popularity of Epicureanism in Late-Republic Roman Society"</a>. <i>The Ancient World</i>. <b>XLIII</b>: <span class="nowrap">151–</span>172.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Ancient+World&rft.atitle=The+Popularity+of+Epicureanism+in+Late-Republic+Roman+Society&rft.volume=XLIII&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E151-%3C%2Fspan%3E172&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=MacGillivray&rft.aufirst=Erlend+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3333818&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. <a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a>, <i>The War With Catiline</i>, Caesar's speech: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Sallust/Bellum_Catilinae*.html#51.20">51.29</a> & Cato's reply: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Sallust/Bellum_Catilinae*.html#52.13">52.13</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_Frede1999" class="citation book cs1">Michael Frede (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/the-cambridge-history-of-hellenistic-philosophy/epilogue/360761D427CCAD70EA98919BEA3C4F67">"Epilogue"</a>. <i>The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy</i>. The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy. pp. <span class="nowrap">795–</span>96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521250283.024">10.1017/CHOL9780521250283.024</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521250283" title="Special:BookSources/9780521250283"><bdi>9780521250283</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epilogue&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Hellenistic+Philosophy&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E795-%3C%2Fspan%3E96&rft.pub=The+Cambridge+History+of+Hellenistic+Philosophy&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521250283.024&rft.isbn=9780521250283&rft.au=Michael+Frede&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fthe-cambridge-history-of-hellenistic-philosophy%2Fepilogue%2F360761D427CCAD70EA98919BEA3C4F67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Epicurus, Letter to Herodotus 38-39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Long, A.A.; Sedley, D.N. (1987). The Hellenistic Philosophers. Vol. 1. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 11–13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilson-2015a-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson-2015a_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson-2015a_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson-2015a_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson-2015a_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2015">Wilson 2015</a>, p. page=9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010j-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010j_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010j_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010j_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 18–20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharples-1998-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1998_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharples1998" class="citation book cs1">Sharples, R. W. (1998). <i>Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy</i>. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">34–</span>35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stoics%2C+Epicureans%2C+and+Sceptics%3A+An+Introduction+to+Hellenistic+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E34-%3C%2Fspan%3E35&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Sharples&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharples-1996b-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996b_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996b_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharples1996" class="citation book cs1">Sharples, R. W. (1996). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar"><i>Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy</i></a></span>. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar/page/n48">35</a>–37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stoics%2C+Epicureans%2C+and+Sceptics%3A+An+introduction+to+Hellenistic+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=35-37&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Sharples&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoicsepicureans0000shar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiogenes1925" class="citation book cs1">Diogenes, Laertius (1925). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loebclassics.com/view/diogenes_laertius-lives_eminent_philosophers_book_x_epicurus/1925/pb_LCL185.573.xml"><i>Lives of Eminent Philosophers: Volume II: Books 6-10</i></a></span>. Translated by Hicks, R. D. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">573–</span>575.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lives+of+Eminent+Philosophers%3A+Volume+II%3A+Books+6-10&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E573-%3C%2Fspan%3E575&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Diogenes&rft.aufirst=Laertius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loebclassics.com%2Fview%2Fdiogenes_laertius-lives_eminent_philosophers_book_x_epicurus%2F1925%2Fpb_LCL185.573.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilson-2015b-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson-2015b_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson-2015b_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson-2015b_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson-2015b_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson-2015b_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2015">Wilson 2015</a>, p. =11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010k-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010k_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010k_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010k_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 25–28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharples-1996e-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996e_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996e_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996e_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharples1996" class="citation book cs1">Sharples, R. W. (1996). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar"><i>Stoics, Epicurus, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy</i></a></span>. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar/page/n78">64</a>–66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stoics%2C+Epicurus%2C+and+Sceptics%3A+An+Introduction+to+Hellenistic+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=64-66&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Sharples&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoicsepicureans0000shar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010p-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010p_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010p_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, p. 85</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilson-2015c-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson-2015c_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson-2015c_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson-2015c_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson-2015c_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2015">Wilson 2015</a>, pp. 54–55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsmis2009" class="citation book cs1">Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00warr_995"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00warr_995/page/n93">84</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epicurean+empiricism&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Epicureanism&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Asmis&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgecompani00warr_995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010q-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010q_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010q_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010q_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010q_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 97–98</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bakalis-2005-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bakalis-2005_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakalis2005" class="citation book cs1">Bakalis, Nikolaos (2005). <i>Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments</i>. Canada: Trafford Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">193–</span>197.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Greek+Philosophy%3A+From+Thales+to+the+Stoics+Analysis+and+Fragments&rft.place=Canada&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E193-%3C%2Fspan%3E197&rft.pub=Trafford+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Bakalis&rft.aufirst=Nikolaos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKonstan2011" class="citation book cs1">Konstan, David (2011). Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epicurusepicurea00fish"><i>Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epicurusepicurea00fish/page/n75">62</a>–63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521194785" title="Special:BookSources/9780521194785"><bdi>9780521194785</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epicurus+and+the+Epicurean+Tradition&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=62-63&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780521194785&rft.aulast=Konstan&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fepicurusepicurea00fish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010r-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010r_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010r_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 103–104</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharples-1996f-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996f_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996f_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996f_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996f_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharples1996" class="citation book cs1">Sharples, R. W. (1996). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar"><i>Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics</i></a></span>. New York, NY: Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar/page/n32">19</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stoics%2C+Epicureans+and+Sceptics&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Sharples&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoicsepicureans0000shar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Asmis-2009-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Asmis-2009_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asmis-2009_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asmis-2009_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Asmis-2009_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsmis2009" class="citation book cs1">Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00warr_995"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00warr_995/page/n102">93</a>–94.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epicurean+empiricism&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Epicureanism&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=93-94&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Asmis&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgecompani00warr_995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharples-1996c-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996c_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996c_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharples1996" class="citation book cs1">Sharples, R. W. (1996). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar"><i>Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy</i></a></span>. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar/page/n25">12</a>–13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stoics%2C+Epicureans%2C+and+Sceptics%3A+An+Introduction+to+Hellenistic+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=12-13&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Sharples&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoicsepicureans0000shar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharples-1996d-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996d_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996d_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharples1996" class="citation book cs1">Sharples, R. W. (1996). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar"><i>Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy</i></a></span>. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar/page/n25">12</a>–16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stoics%2C+Epicureans%2C+and+Sceptics%3A+An+Introduction+to+Hellenistic+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=12-16&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Sharples&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoicsepicureans0000shar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsmis2009" class="citation book cs1">Asmis, Elizabeth (2009). "Epicurean empiricism". In Warren, James (ed.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00warr_995"><i>The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00warr_995/page/n94">85</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epicurean+empiricism&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Epicureanism&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Asmis&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgecompani00warr_995&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharples1996" class="citation book cs1">Sharples, R. W. 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New York, NY: Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar/page/n31">18</a>–19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stoics%2C+Epicureans%2C+and+Sceptics%3A+An+Introduction+to+Hellenistic+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=18-19&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Sharples&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoicsepicureans0000shar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010m-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010m_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010m_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010m_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010m_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 101–103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tsouna-2016-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tsouna-2016_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tsouna-2016_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsouna2016" class="citation journal cs1">Tsouna, Voula (2016). 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W. (1996). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar"><i>Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy</i></a></span>. New York, NY: Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar/page/n97">84</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stoics%2C+Epicureans%2C+and+Sceptics%3A+An+Introduction+to+Hellenistic+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Sharples&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoicsepicureans0000shar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2015">Wilson 2015</a>, pp. 95–96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2015">Wilson 2015</a>, pp. 84–85</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, p. 145</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 155–171</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, <i>Lives of Eminent Philosophers</i>, Book X</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010l-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010l_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010l_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010l_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010l_42-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 117–121</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2015">Wilson 2015</a>, p. 93</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010f-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010f_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010f_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010f_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 118–119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010b-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010b_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010b_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010b_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010b_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010b_45-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 119–120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Konstan, David, "Epicurus", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2013 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/epicurus/">http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/epicurus/</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J. C. B. Gosling and C. C. W. Taylor. Katastematic and Kinetic Pleasures, in The Greeks On Pleasure. Eds. J. C. B. Gosling and C. C. W. Taylor. Clarendon Press, 1982</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero, De Fin i 37-38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSplawn2002" class="citation journal cs1">Splawn, Clay (2002). "Updating Epicurus's Concept of <i>Katastematic</i> Pleasure". <i>Journal of Value Inquiry</i>. <b>36</b> (4): 473. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1021997823870">10.1023/A:1021997823870</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146146475">146146475</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Value+Inquiry&rft.atitle=Updating+Epicurus%27s+Concept+of+Katastematic+Pleasure&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=473&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1021997823870&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146146475%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Splawn&rft.aufirst=Clay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sharples-1996a-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996a_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sharples-1996a_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharples1996" class="citation book cs1">Sharples, R. W. (1996). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar"><i>Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics: An Introduction to Hellenistic Philosophy</i></a></span>. New York, NY: Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stoicsepicureans0000shar/page/n104">91</a>–92.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stoics%2C+Epicureans%2C+and+Sceptics%3A+An+Introduction+to+Hellenistic+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=91-92&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Sharples&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoicsepicureans0000shar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Warren-2002-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Warren-2002_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Warren-2002_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren2002" class="citation book cs1">Warren, James (2002). <i>Epicurus and Democritean Ethics: An Archaeology of Ataraxia</i>. New York, NY: University of Cambridge. p. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epicurus+and+Democritean+Ethics%3A+An+Archaeology+of+Ataraxia&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010n-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010n_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010n_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, p. 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wiki.epicurism.info/Vatican_Saying_51/">Vatican Saying 51</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010g-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010g_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010g_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010g_54-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010g_54-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010g_54-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 124–125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010h-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010h_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010h_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010h_55-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010h_55-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010h_55-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 126–127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010i-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010i_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010i_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010i_56-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 125–126</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 125–127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-classics-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-classics_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Epicurus/princdoc.html">"Epicurus Principal Doctrines 5 and 31 transl. by Robert Drew Hicks"</a>. 1925.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Epicurus+Principal+Doctrines+5+and+31+transl.+by+Robert+Drew+Hicks&rft.date=1925&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FEpicurus%2Fprincdoc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span>("Justly" here means to prevent a "person from harming or being harmed by another".)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010e-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010e_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010e_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 139–140</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010d-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010d_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010d_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 142–145</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010a-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010a_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010a_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010a_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010a_61-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 139–142</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cambridge_University_Press-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cambridge_University_Press_62-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren2009" class="citation book cs1">Warren, James, ed. (2009). <i>The Cambridge companion to epicureanism</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Catholic+Exchange&rft.atitle=Death+is+Not+the+End&rft.date=2015-06-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcatholicexchange.com%2Fdeath-is-not-the-end%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Keefe-2010o-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010o_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010o_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-O'Keefe-2010o_67-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 155–156</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Warren (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism</i>, p. 124</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Warren (ed.), <i>The Cambridge companion to Epicureanism</i>, p. 105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sedley-2011-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sedley-2011_70-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sedley-2011_70-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sedley-2011_70-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sedley-2011_70-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sedley-2011_70-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSedley2011" class="citation book cs1">Sedley, David (2011). "Epicurus' theological innatism". In Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epicurusepicurea00fish"><i>Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition</i></a></span>. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epicurusepicurea00fish/page/n42">29</a>–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521194785" title="Special:BookSources/9780521194785"><bdi>9780521194785</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epicurus%27+theological+innatism&rft.btitle=Epicurus+and+the+Epicurean+Tradition&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pages=29-30&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780521194785&rft.aulast=Sedley&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fepicurusepicurea00fish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Konstan-2011-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Konstan-2011_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Konstan-2011_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Konstan-2011_71-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Konstan-2011_71-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKonstan2011" class="citation book cs1">Konstan, David (2011). "Epicurus on the gods". In Fish, Jeffrey; Sanders, Kirk R. (eds.). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epicurusepicurea00fish"><i>Epicurus and the Epicurean Tradition</i></a></span>. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epicurusepicurea00fish/page/n66">53</a>–54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521194785" title="Special:BookSources/9780521194785"><bdi>9780521194785</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epicurus+on+the+gods&rft.btitle=Epicurus+and+the+Epicurean+Tradition&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pages=53-54&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780521194785&rft.aulast=Konstan&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fepicurusepicurea00fish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMansfeld1993" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jaap_Mansfeld" title="Jaap Mansfeld">Mansfeld, Jaap</a> (1993). "Aspects of Epicurean Theology". <i>Mnemosyne</i>. <b>46</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">176–</span>178. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156852593X00484">10.1163/156852593X00484</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mnemosyne&rft.atitle=Aspects+of+Epicurean+Theology&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E176-%3C%2Fspan%3E178&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156852593X00484&rft.aulast=Mansfeld&rft.aufirst=Jaap&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuchheit2007" class="citation book cs1">Buchheit, Vinzenz (2007). "Epicurus' Triumph of the Mind". In Gale, Monica R. (ed.). <i>Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Lucretius</i>. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">110–</span>111.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epicurus%27+Triumph+of+the+Mind&rft.btitle=Oxford+Readings+in+Classical+Studies%3A+Lucretius&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E110-%3C%2Fspan%3E111&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Buchheit&rft.aufirst=Vinzenz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Keefe2010">O'Keefe 2010</a>, pp. 158–159</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Long-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Long_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Long_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLong1986" class="citation book cs1">Long, A. A. (1986). <i>Hellenistic Philosophy</i> (2. ed.). University of California Press. p. 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hellenistic+Philosophy&rft.pages=18&rft.edition=2.&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=A.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Konstan-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Konstan_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Konstan_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Konstan_76-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epicurus/">"Epicurus"</a> entry by David Konstans in the <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>, 16 April 2018</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Keefe2002" class="citation journal cs1">O'Keefe, Tim (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/4182694">"The Reductionist and Compatibilist Argument of Epicurus' <i>On Nature</i>, Book 25"</a>. <i>Phronesis</i>. <b>47</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">153–</span>186. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15685280260028377">10.1163/15685280260028377</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4182694">4182694</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phronesis&rft.atitle=The+Reductionist+and+Compatibilist+Argument+of+Epicurus%27+On+Nature%2C+Book+25&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E153-%3C%2Fspan%3E186&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15685280260028377&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4182694%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=O%27Keefe&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4182694&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epicurism.info/etexts/ier.html">"Epicurus.info : E-Texts : Introduction to the Epicurus Reader"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Epicurus.info+%3A+E-Texts+%3A+Introduction+to+the+Epicurus+Reader&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epicurism.info%2Fetexts%2Fier.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.johnjthrasher.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Reconciling-Justice-and-Pleasure-in-Epicurean-Contractarianism.pdf">Reconciling Justice and Pleasure in Epicurean Contractarianism</a> johnjthrasher.com October 2012</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaragon" class="citation web cs1">Naragon, S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://users.manchester.edu/Facstaff/SSNaragon/Online/texts/316/Epicurus,%20LetterHerodotus.pdf">"Letter to Herodotus"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>manchester.edu</i>. Manchester University, Indiana<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=manchester.edu&rft.atitle=Letter+to+Herodotus&rft.aulast=Naragon&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fusers.manchester.edu%2FFacstaff%2FSSNaragon%2FOnline%2Ftexts%2F316%2FEpicurus%2C%2520LetterHerodotus.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._A._Long1974" class="citation cs2">A. A. Long (1974), "Review: The Letter to Herodotus", <i><a href="/wiki/The_Classical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="The Classical Review">The Classical Review</a></i>, <b>24</b>: <span class="nowrap">46–</span>48, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0009840X00241723">10.1017/S0009840X00241723</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/709864">709864</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161797217">161797217</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Review&rft.atitle=Review%3A+The+Letter+to+Herodotus&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E46-%3C%2Fspan%3E48&rft.date=1974&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161797217%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F709864%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0009840X00241723&rft.au=A.+A.+Long&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSedley1998" class="citation book cs1">Sedley, David (1998). "Theophrastus and Epicurean Physics". In van Ophuijsen, J. M.; van Raalte, Marlein (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mcfVtYsaGmIC&pg=PA346"><i>Theophrastus: Reappraising the sources</i></a>. Transaction Publishers. p. 346. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1560003286" title="Special:BookSources/1560003286"><bdi>1560003286</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Theophrastus+and+Epicurean+Physics&rft.btitle=Theophrastus%3A+Reappraising+the+sources&rft.pages=346&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1560003286&rft.aulast=Sedley&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmcfVtYsaGmIC%26pg%3DPA346&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYonge" class="citation web cs1">Yonge, Charles Duke. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/57342/57342-h/57342-h.htm#Page_455">"Letter to Pythocles"</a>. <i>Gutenberg.org</i>. G. BELL AND SONS, LTD<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gutenberg.org&rft.atitle=Letter+to+Pythocles&rft.aulast=Yonge&rft.aufirst=Charles+Duke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F57342%2F57342-h%2F57342-h.htm%23Page_455&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.the-philosophy.com/epicurus-letter-menoeceus-summary">"Epicurus: Letter to Menoeceus (Summary)"</a>. <i>The-Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 December</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The-Philosophy&rft.atitle=Epicurus%3A+Letter+to+Menoeceus+%28Summary%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-philosophy.com%2Fepicurus-letter-menoeceus-summary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEpicurus2010" class="citation book cs1">Epicurus (2010). Usener, Hermann (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/epicurea/63908DB47471737969F39CA156D7B9B1"><i>Epicurea</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511711077">10.1017/CBO9780511711077</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780511711077" title="Special:BookSources/9780511711077"><bdi>9780511711077</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epicurea&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511711077&rft.isbn=9780511711077&rft.au=Epicurus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fepicurea%2F63908DB47471737969F39CA156D7B9B1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">God either wants to eliminate bad things and cannot, or can but does not want to, or neither wishes to nor can, or both wants to and can. If he wants to and cannot, then he is weak – and this does not apply to God. If he can but does not want to, then he is spiteful – which is equally foreign to god's nature. If he neither wants to nor can, he is both weak and spiteful, and so not a god. If he wants to and can, which is the only thing fitting for a god, where then do bad things come from? Or why does he not eliminate them?|Lactantius|De Ira DeorumLactantius, <i>De Ira Deorum</i>, 13.19 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150912180840/http://www.epicurus.info/etexts/epicurea.html">Epicurus, Frag. 374, Usener</a>). <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> paraphrased this passage in his <i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i>: "EPICURUS's old questions are yet unanswered. Is he willing to prevent evil, but not able? then is he impotent. Is he able, but not willing? then is he malevolent. Is he both able and willing? whence then is evil?"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-larrimore-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-larrimore_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark Joseph Larrimore, (2001), <i>The Problem of Evil</i>, pp. xix–xxi. Wiley-Blackwell</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlei1988" class="citation journal cs1">Glei, Reinhold F. (1988). "Et invidus et inbecillus. Das angebliche Epikurfragment bei Laktanz, De ira dei 13, 20–21". <i>Vigiliae Christianae</i>. <b>42</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">47–</span>58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1584470">10.2307/1584470</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1584470">1584470</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vigiliae+Christianae&rft.atitle=Et+invidus+et+inbecillus.+Das+angebliche+Epikurfragment+bei+Laktanz%2C+De+ira+dei+13%2C+20%E2%80%9321&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E47-%3C%2Fspan%3E58&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1584470&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1584470%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Glei&rft.aufirst=Reinhold+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sextus Empiricus, <i>Outlines of Pyrrhonism</i>, 175: "those who firmly maintain that god exists will be forced into impiety; for if they say that he [God] takes care of everything, they will be saying that god is the cause of evils, while if they say that he takes care of some things only or even nothing, they will be forced to say that he is either malevolent or weak"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a>, Seder <a href="/wiki/Nezikin" title="Nezikin">Nezikin</a>, tractate <a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin_(Talmud)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanhedrin (Talmud)">Sanhedrin</a>, 10a</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1640-apikoros">"Jewish Encyclopedia"</a>. Funk and Wagnalls<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Funk+and+Wagnalls&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F1640-apikoros&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trans. Robert Pinsky, The Inferno of Dante, p. 320 n. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Francis Bacon, Apothegms 280, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Works_of_Francis_Bacon,_Volume_1/Apophthegms" class="extiw" title="wikisource:The Works of Francis Bacon, Volume 1/Apophthegms">The Works of Francis Bacon, Volume 1/Apophthegms</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_Laertius" title="Diogenes Laertius">Diogenes Laertius</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Lives of the Eminent Philosophers">Lives of the Eminent Philosophers</a></i> Book IV, Chapter 6, section 45 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D6">http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cambridge-Platonists">"Cambridge Platonists | Seventeenth-Century, Rationalism, Theology | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Cambridge+Platonists+%7C+Seventeenth-Century%2C+Rationalism%2C+Theology+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FCambridge-Platonists&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/writingsofthomas10jeffiala/writingsofthomas10jeffiala_djvu.txt">"Full text of "The writings of Thomas Jefferson;"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>archive.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archive.org&rft.atitle=Full+text+of+%22The+writings+of+Thomas+Jefferson%3B%22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fwritingsofthomas10jeffiala%2Fwritingsofthomas10jeffiala_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Michel_Onfray" title="Michel Onfray">Michel Onfray</a>, <i>La puissance d'exister: Manifeste hédoniste</i>, Grasset, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScharfstein1998" class="citation book cs1">Scharfstein, Ben-Ami (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iZQy2lu70bwC&pg=PA202"><i>A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant</i></a>. SUNY Press. p. 202. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791436837" title="Special:BookSources/9780791436837"><bdi>9780791436837</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comparative+History+of+World+Philosophy%3A+From+the+Upanishads+to+Kant&rft.pages=202&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780791436837&rft.aulast=Scharfstein&rft.aufirst=Ben-Ami&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiZQy2lu70bwC%26pg%3DPA202&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooperJames2017" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, David E.; James, Simon P. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AD4rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT105"><i>Buddhism, Virtue and Environment</i></a>. Routledge. p. 105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351954310" title="Special:BookSources/9781351954310"><bdi>9781351954310</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism%2C+Virtue+and+Environment&rft.pages=105&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781351954310&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft.au=James%2C+Simon+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAD4rDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clayman33-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clayman33_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dee L. Clayman (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ceLUAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA33"><i>Berenice II and the Golden Age of Ptolemaic Egypt</i></a>, Oxford University Press, p.33</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cyril Bailey, Epicurus: The Extant Remains, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1926, p.131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a>, <i>Lives of the Eminent Philosophers,</i> Book X, Section 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/poetry/philodemus.html#11.44">"Philodemus: Epigrams (excerpted from The Greek Anthology 11.44)"</a>. Attalus.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Philodemus%3A+Epigrams+%28excerpted+from+The+Greek+Anthology+11.44%29&rft.pub=Attalus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.attalus.org%2Fpoetry%2Fphilodemus.html%2311.44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frischer, Bernard (1982), The Sculpted Word: Epicureanism and Philosophical Recruitment in Ancient Greece, Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCicero" class="citation book cs1">Cicero. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cicero/de_Finibus/2*.html"><i>De Finibus Bonorum Et Malorum</i></a>. p. II.101.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Finibus+Bonorum+Et+Malorum&rft.pages=II.101&rft.au=Cicero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FCicero%2Fde_Finibus%2F2%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">DeWitt, Norman Wentworth (1964), Epicurus and His Philosophy, Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 104-105</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary">Primary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Primary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaërtius1925" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Laërtius, Diogenes</a> (1925). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Lives of the Eminent Philosophers/Book X"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers/Book_X">"Epicurus" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Lives of the Eminent Philosophers">Lives of the Eminent Philosophers</a></i>. Vol. 2:10. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Drew_Hicks" title="Robert Drew Hicks">Hicks, Robert Drew</a> (Two volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epicurus&rft.btitle=Lives+of+the+Eminent+Philosophers&rft.edition=Two+volume&rft.pub=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=La%C3%ABrtius&rft.aufirst=Diogenes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._A._Long" title="A. A. Long">Long, A.A</a>. & <a href="/wiki/David_Sedley" title="David Sedley">Sedley, D.N.</a> <i>The Hellenistic Philosophers</i>, Volume 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-27556-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-27556-3">0-521-27556-3</a>)</li> <li>Martin Ferguson Smith (ed.), <i>Diogenes of Oinoanda. The Epicurean inscription</i>, edited with introduction, translation, and notes, Naples: Bibliopolis, 1993.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary">Secondary</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Secondary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnnas1995" class="citation cs2">Annas, Julia (1995), <i>The Morality of Happiness</i>, Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Morality+of+Happiness&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Annas&rft.aufirst=Julia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFurley1999" class="citation cs2">Furley, David J. (1999), <i>Routledge History of Philosophy, Volume II. From Aristotle to Augustine</i>, Routledge</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+History+of+Philosophy%2C+Volume+II.+From+Aristotle+to+Augustine&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Furley&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Keefe2010" class="citation book cs1">O'Keefe, Tim (2010). <i>Epicureanism</i>. University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epicureanism&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=O%27Keefe&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReale1985" class="citation cs2">Reale, Giovanni (1985), <i>A History of Ancient Philosophy: The Systems of the Hellenistic Age</i>, SUNY Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Philosophy%3A+The+Systems+of+the+Hellenistic+Age&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Reale&rft.aufirst=Giovanni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2015" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Catherine (2015). <i>Epicureanism: a very short introduction</i>. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199688326" title="Special:BookSources/9780199688326"><bdi>9780199688326</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/917374685">917374685</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epicureanism%3A+a+very+short+introduction&rft.place=Oxford%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F917374685&rft.isbn=9780199688326&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Emily A. Austin, <i>Living for Pleasure: An Epicurean Guide to Life</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, 2022.</li> <li>Dane R. Gordon and David B. Suits, <i>Epicurus: His Continuing Influence and Contemporary Relevance</i>. Rochester, New York: RIT Cary Graphic Arts Press, 2003.</li> <li>Brooke Holmes and W. H. Shearin, <i>Dynamic Reading: Studies in the Reception of Epicureanism</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.</li> <li>Howard Jones, <i>The Epicurean Tradition</i>. New York: Routledge, 1989.</li> <li>Neven Leddy and Avi S. Lifschitz, <i>Epicurus in the Enlightenment</i>. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2009.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasiMorelVerde2023" class="citation book cs1">Masi, Francesca; Morel, Pierre-Marie; Verde, Francesco (2023). <i>Epicureanism and scientific debates. Antiquity and late reception, volume I: language, medicine, meteorology</i>. Leuven: Leuven University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epicureanism+and+scientific+debates.+Antiquity+and+late+reception%2C+volume+I%3A+language%2C+medicine%2C+meteorology&rft.place=Leuven&rft.pub=Leuven+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Masi&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rft.au=Morel%2C+Pierre-Marie&rft.au=Verde%2C+Francesco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSigl2023" class="citation book cs1">Sigl, Alexander (2023). <i>Die Modellierung epikureischer "personae" in der römischen Literatur</i>. Tübingen: Narr Francke Attempto. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783823385035" title="Special:BookSources/9783823385035"><bdi>9783823385035</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Modellierung+epikureischer+%22personae%22+in+der+r%C3%B6mischen+Literatur&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.pub=Narr+Francke+Attempto&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9783823385035&rft.aulast=Sigl&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpicureanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Martin Ferguson Smith, <i>Supplement to Diogenes of Oinoanda: The Epicurean Inscription</i>. Naples: Bibliopolis, 2003.</li> <li>Christian Vassallo <i>The Presocratics at Herculaneum: A Study of Early Greek Philosophy in the Epicurean Tradition</i>. Berlin–Boston: De Gruyter, 2021.</li> <li>James Warren (ed.), <i>The Cambridge Companion to Epicureanism</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Wilson_(philosopher)" title="Catherine Wilson (philosopher)">Catherine Wilson</a>, <i>Epicureanism at the Origins of Modernity</i>. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.</li> <li>———, <i>How to Be an Epicurean: The Ancient Art of Living Well</i>. New York: Basic Books (Hachette Book Group), 2019.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epicureanism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greek_schools_of_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greek schools of philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greek_schools_of_philosophy198" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek schools of philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proto-philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epimenides_of_Knossos" class="mw-redirect" title="Epimenides of Knossos">Epimenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pherecydes_of_Syros" title="Pherecydes of Syros">Pherecydes</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Seven_Sages37" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_Greece" title="Seven Sages of Greece">Seven Sages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solon_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="Solon of Athens">Solon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pittacus_of_Mytilene" title="Pittacus of Mytilene">Pittacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_of_Priene" title="Bias of Priene">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periander_of_Corinth" class="mw-redirect" title="Periander of Corinth">Periander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleobulus_of_Lindos" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleobulus of Lindos">Cleobulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilon_of_Sparta" title="Chilon of Sparta">Chilon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Pre-Socratic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ionian37" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Milesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cratylus" title="Cratylus">Cratylus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Apollonia" title="Diogenes of Apollonia">Diogenes</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Italian105" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagorean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippasus" title="Hippasus">Hippasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archytas" title="Archytas">Archytas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamiskos" title="Lamiskos">Lamiskos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton" title="Alcmaeon of Croton">Alcmaeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brontinus" title="Brontinus">Brontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theano_(philosopher)" title="Theano (philosopher)">Theano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damo_(philosopher)" title="Damo (philosopher)">Damo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calliphon_of_Croton" title="Calliphon of Croton">Calliphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermotimus_of_Clazomenae" title="Hermotimus of Clazomenae">Hermotimus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Cos" title="Metrodorus of Cos">Metrodorus of Cos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arignote" title="Arignote">Arignote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myia" title="Myia">Myia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurytus_(Pythagorean)" title="Eurytus (Pythagorean)">Eurytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pythagoreans" title="Category:Pythagoreans">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skeptic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeniades" title="Xeniades">Xeniades</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melissus_of_Samos" title="Melissus of Samos">Melissus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippo_(philosopher)" title="Hippo (philosopher)">Hippo</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">Pluralist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archelaus_(philosopher)" title="Archelaus (philosopher)">Archelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_elder)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the elder)">Metrodorus of Lampsacus</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acron" title="Acron">Acron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_of_Sicily" title="Pausanias of Sicily">Pausanias</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(philosophy)" title="Ionian school (philosophy)">Ionian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prodicus" title="Prodicus">Prodicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippias" title="Hippias">Hippias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus" title="Thrasymachus">Thrasymachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damon_of_Athens" title="Damon of Athens">Damon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sophists" title="Category:Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italian_school_(philosophy)" title="Italian school (philosophy)">Italian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callicles" title="Callicles">Callicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophron_(sophist)" title="Lycophron (sophist)">Lycophron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysodorus_(sophist)" title="Dionysodorus (sophist)">Dionysodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_of_Chios" title="Euthydemus of Chios">Euthydemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sophists" title="Category:Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Greek philosophy">Classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Category:Pupils_of_Socrates" title="Category:Pupils of Socrates">students</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Thebes" title="Crates of Thebes">Crates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menippus" title="Menippus">Menippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Cynic_philosophers" title="List of Cynic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus_the_Younger" title="Aristippus the Younger">Aristippus the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_the_Atheist" title="Theodorus the Atheist">Theodorus the Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegesias_of_Cyrene" title="Hegesias of Cyrene">Hegesias of Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anniceris" title="Anniceris">Anniceris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cyrenaic_philosophers" title="Category:Cyrenaic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phaedo_of_Elis" title="Phaedo of Elis">Phaedo of Elis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menedemus" title="Menedemus">Menedemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepiades_of_Phlius" title="Asclepiades of Phlius">Asclepiades of Phlius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euclid_of_Megara" title="Euclid of Megara">Euclid of Megara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyas" title="Ichthyas">Ichthyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus_of_Corinth" title="Thrasymachus of Corinth">Thrasymachus of Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eubulides" title="Eubulides">Eubulides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilpo" title="Stilpo">Stilpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicarete_of_Megara" title="Nicarete of Megara">Nicarete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasicles_of_Thebes" title="Pasicles of Thebes">Pasicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryson_of_Achaea" title="Bryson of Achaea">Bryson</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dialecticians33" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Dialecticians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinomachus" title="Clinomachus">Clinomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_Cronus" title="Apollonius Cronus">Apollonius Cronus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphantus" title="Euphantus">Euphantus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Chalcedon" title="Dionysius of Chalcedon">Dionysius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Cronus" title="Diodorus Cronus">Diodorus Cronus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_the_Dialectician" title="Philo the Dialectician">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexinus" title="Alexinus">Alexinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthoides" title="Panthoides">Panthoides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peripatetic_philosophers" title="Category:Peripatetic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Phlius" title="Timon of Phlius">Timon of Phlius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aenesidemus" title="Aenesidemus">Aenesidemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrippa_the_Skeptic" title="Agrippa the Skeptic">Agrippa the Skeptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Skeptic_philosophers" title="Category:Ancient Skeptic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panaetius" title="Panaetius">Panaetius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Annaeus_Cornutus" title="Lucius Annaeus Cornutus">Lucius Annaeus Cornutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musonius_Rufus" class="mw-redirect" title="Musonius Rufus">Musonius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Stoic_philosophers" title="List of Stoic philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Epicurean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_younger)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)">Metrodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Sidon" title="Zeno of Sidon">Zeno of Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philodemus" title="Philodemus">Philodemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Oenoanda" title="Diogenes of Oenoanda">Diogenes of Oenoanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Epicurean_philosophers" title="List of Epicurean philosophers">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic Skeptic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carneades" title="Carneades">Carneades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudorus_of_Alexandria" title="Eudorus of Alexandria">Eudorus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_the_Platonist" title="Gaius the Platonist">Gaius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcinous_(philosopher)" title="Alcinous (philosopher)">Alcinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagorean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigidius_Figulus" title="Nigidius Figulus">Nigidius Figulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyana" title="Apollonius of Tyana">Apollonius of Tyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderatus_of_Gades" title="Moderatus of Gades">Moderatus of Gades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachus" title="Nicomachus">Nicomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Neo-Pythagoreans" title="Category:Neo-Pythagoreans">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Saccas" title="Ammonius Saccas">Ammonius Saccas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_students_of_Plotinus" title="List of students of Plotinus">students</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch_of_Athens" title="Plutarch of Athens">Plutarch of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrianus" title="Syrianus">Syrianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Hermiae" title="Ammonius Hermiae">Ammonius Hermiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascius" title="Damascius">Damascius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Platonists" title="List of ancient Platonists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicetes_of_Smyrna" title="Nicetes of Smyrna">Nicetes of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dio_Chrysostom" title="Dio Chrysostom">Dio Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favorinus" title="Favorinus">Favorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Roman-era_Sophists" title="Category:Roman-era Sophists">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy269" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Edit this 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href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a 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