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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silicon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Silicon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silicon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Silicon_encapsulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silicon_encapsulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.1 Silicon encapsulation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silicon_encapsulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silicon_nanowire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silicon_nanowire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.2 Silicon nanowire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silicon_nanowire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Porous-silicon_inorganic-electrode_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Porous-silicon_inorganic-electrode_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.3 Porous-silicon inorganic-electrode design </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Porous-silicon_inorganic-electrode_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silicon_nanofiber" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silicon_nanofiber"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6.4 Silicon nanofiber </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silicon_nanofiber-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Tin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intermetallic_insertion_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intermetallic_insertion_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 Intermetallic insertion materials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intermetallic_insertion_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cu6Sn5" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cu6Sn5"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8.1 Cu6Sn5 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cu6Sn5-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copper_antimonide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copper_antimonide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8.2 Copper antimonide </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copper_antimonide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three-dimensional_nanostructure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three-dimensional_nanostructure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.9 Three-dimensional nanostructure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three-dimensional_nanostructure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semi-solid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semi-solid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10 Semi-solid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semi-solid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Redox-targeted_solids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Redox-targeted_solids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.11 Redox-targeted solids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Redox-targeted_solids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cathode" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cathode"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Cathode </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cathode-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Cathode subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Cathode-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vanadium_oxides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vanadium_oxides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Vanadium oxides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vanadium_oxides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disordered_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disordered_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Disordered materials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disordered_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Glasses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glasses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Glasses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glasses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sulfur" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sulfur"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Sulfur </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sulfur-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seawater" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seawater"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Seawater </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seawater-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lithium-based_cathodes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lithium-based_cathodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Lithium-based cathodes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lithium-based_cathodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lithium_nickel_manganese_cobalt_oxide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lithium_nickel_manganese_cobalt_oxide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.1 Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lithium_nickel_manganese_cobalt_oxide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lithium–iron_phosphate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lithium–iron_phosphate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.2 Lithium–iron phosphate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lithium–iron_phosphate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lithium_manganese_silicon_oxide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lithium_manganese_silicon_oxide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.3 Lithium manganese silicon oxide </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lithium_manganese_silicon_oxide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5.4 Air </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Air-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transition_Metal_Fluorides_(TMFs)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transition_Metal_Fluorides_(TMFs)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Transition Metal Fluorides (TMFs) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transition_Metal_Fluorides_(TMFs)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iron_Fluoride" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_Fluoride"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6.1 Iron Fluoride </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_Fluoride-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrolyte" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrolyte"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Electrolyte </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Electrolyte-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Electrolyte subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Electrolyte-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Perfluoropolyether" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perfluoropolyether"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Perfluoropolyether </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perfluoropolyether-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solid-state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solid-state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Solid-state </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solid-state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thiophosphate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thiophosphate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Thiophosphate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thiophosphate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glassy_electrolytes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glassy_electrolytes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Glassy electrolytes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glassy_electrolytes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Salts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Superhalogen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Superhalogen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Superhalogen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Superhalogen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water-in-salt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water-in-salt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.2 Water-in-salt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water-in-salt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dual_anionic_liquid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dual_anionic_liquid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.3 Dual anionic liquid </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dual_anionic_liquid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Management </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Management subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Charging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Charging </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Durability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Durability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Durability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Durability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thermal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Thermal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flexibility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flexibility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Flexibility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flexibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Volume_expansion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volume_expansion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Volume expansion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volume_expansion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nanotechnology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nanotechnology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Nanotechnology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nanotechnology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Economy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Repurposing_and_reuse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Repurposing_and_reuse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Repurposing and reuse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Repurposing_and_reuse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" 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(January 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Synthesis plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ambox_question.svg/40px-Ambox_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ambox_question.svg/60px-Ambox_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ambox_question.svg/80px-Ambox_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article or section possibly contains original <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:SYNTH" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:SYNTH">synthesis</a>. Source material should <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verifiably mention</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Content_removal#Irrelevant_information" title="Wikipedia:Content removal">relate</a> to the main topic. Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries" title="Talk:Research in lithium-ion batteries">talk page</a>. (January 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Research in lithium-ion batteries has produced many proposed refinements of <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">lithium-ion batteries</a>. Areas of research interest have focused on improving <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a>, safety, rate capability, cycle durability, flexibility, and reducing cost. <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a> (AI) and <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> (ML) is becoming popular in many fields including using it for lithium-ion battery research. These methods have been used in all aspects of battery research including materials, manufacturing, characterization, and prognosis/diagnosis of batteries.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design">Design</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Design">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negative_electrode">Negative electrode</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Negative electrode">edit</a>]</div> Materials that are taken into consideration for the next generation lithium-ion battery (LIBs) negative electrode share common characteristics such as low cost, high theoretical specific capacity, and good electrical conductivity, etc. Carbon- and silicon- based materials have shown to be promising materials for the negative electrode. However, along with the desired characteristics from some of the materials, a number of weaknesses have also been shown. For example, although silicon has a theoretical specific capacity that is 10 times higher than graphite, it has low intrinsic electrical conductivity. Current research focuses on engineering materials so that their characteristics are retained and their weaknesses are accommodated.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Lithium-ion battery <a href="/w/index.php?title=Negative_electrode&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Negative electrode (page does not exist)">negative electrodes</a> are most commonly made of <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a>. Graphite anodes are limited to a theoretical capacity of 372 mAh/g for their fully lithiated state.<a href="#cite_note-SiOC-4">[4]</a> At this time, significant other types of lithium-ion battery anode materials have been proposed and evaluated as alternatives to graphite, especially in cases where niche applications require novel approaches. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Si@void@C_microreactor">Si@void@C microreactor</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Si@void@C microreactor">edit</a>]</div> Dr. Leon Shaw’s research group from Illinois Institute of Technology has developed the Si@void@C microreactors which show exceptional test results to be LIBs anode. The process of creating Si@void@C microreactors begins with the production of nanostructured silicon particles through a high-energy ball milling process with micron-sized silicon powder. The nanostructured Si particles are then encapsulated with carbon through <a href="/wiki/Carbonization" title="Carbonization">carbonization</a> of a carbon precursor containing nitrogen element. Finally, the particles are etched with NaOH to create voids with nano-channel morphology inside the Si core to form the Si@void@C microreactors.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Tests from the Si@void@C microreactors demonstrated high Coulombic Efficiency of 91% during the first lithiation process, which is significantly higher than other reported silicon anodes.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The design also enabled high Coulombic Efficiency of 100% after 5 cycles, indicating no discernible SEI layer formation beyond 5 cycles. Additionally, the specific capacity increased in subsequent cycles due to the activation of more electrode material, suggesting robust electrochemical stability.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The Si@void@C(N) electrode was tested to be capable of ultrafast charging and durability over 1000 cycles, the specific capacity maintained high levels (~800 mAh g−1) even at very high current densities (up to 8 A g−1). No lithium plating was observed for the Si@void@C(N) electrode even after 1000 cycles at 8 A g−1, indicating their capability for ultrafast charging without compromising safety and capacity retention. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intercalation_oxides">Intercalation oxides</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Intercalation oxides">edit</a>]</div> Several types of metal oxides and sulfides can reversibly intercalate lithium cations at voltages between 1 and 2 V against <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> metal with little difference between the charge and discharge steps. Specifically the mechanism of insertion involves lithium cations filling crystallographic vacancies in the host lattice with minimal changes to the bonding within the host lattice. This differentiates intercalation negative electrode from conversion negative electrode that store lithium by complete disruption and formation of alternate phases, usually as <a href="/wiki/Lithium_oxide" title="Lithium oxide">lithia</a>. Conversion systems typically disproportionate to lithia and a metal (or lower metal oxide) at low voltages, < 1 V vs Li, and reform the metal oxide at voltage > 2 V, for example, CoO + 2Li -> Co+Li2O. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Titanium_dioxide">Titanium dioxide</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Titanium dioxide">edit</a>]</div> In 1984, researchers at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> reported the synthesis and evaluation of a series of lithiated titanates. Of specific interest were the <a href="/wiki/Anatase" title="Anatase">anatase</a> form of titanium dioxide and the lithium <a href="/wiki/Spinel" title="Spinel">spinel</a> LiTi2O4<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anatase" title="Anatase">Anatase</a> has been observed to have a maximum capacity of 150 mAh/g (0.5Li/Ti) with the capacity limited by the availability of crystallographic vacancies in the framework. The TiO2 polytype <a href="/wiki/Brookite" title="Brookite">brookite</a> has also been evaluated and found to be electrochemically active when produced as nanoparticles with a capacity approximately half that of anatase (0.25Li/Ti). In 2014, researchers at <a href="/wiki/Nanyang_Technological_University" title="Nanyang Technological University">Nanyang Technological University</a> used a materials derived from a titanium dioxide gel derived from naturally spherical titanium dioxide particles into <a href="/wiki/Non-carbon_nanotube" title="Non-carbon nanotube">nanotubes</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> In addition, a non-naturally occurring electrochemically active titanate referred to as TiO2(B) can be made by ion-exchange followed by dehydration of the potassium titanate K2Ti4O9.<a href="#cite_note-Fujishima-12">[12]</a> This layered oxide can be produced in multiple forms including nanowires, nanotubes, or oblong particles with an observed capacity of 210 mAh/g in the voltage window 1.5–2.0 V (vs Li). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Niobates">Niobates</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Niobates">edit</a>]</div> In 2011, Lu et al., reported reversible electrochemical activity in the porous niobate KNb5O13.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> This material inserted approximately 3.5Li per formula unit (about 125 mAh/g) at a voltage near 1.3 V (vs Li). This lower voltage (compared to titantes) is useful in systems where higher energy density is desirable without significant SEI formation as it operates above the typical electrolyte breakdown voltage. A high rate titanium niobate (TiNb2O7) was reported in 2011 by Han, Huang, and <a href="/wiki/John_B._Goodenough" title="John B. Goodenough">John B. Goodenough</a> with an average voltage near 1.3 V (vs Li).<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transition-metal_oxides">Transition-metal oxides</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Transition-metal oxides">edit</a>]</div> In 2000, researchers from the Université de Picardie Jules Verne examined the use of nano-sized transition-metal oxides as conversion anode materials. The metals used were cobalt, nickel, copper, and iron, which proved to have capacities of 700 mAh/g and maintain full capacity for 100 cycles. The materials operate by reduction of the metal cation to either metal nanoparticles or to a lower oxidation state oxide. These promising results show that transition-metal oxides may be useful in ensuring the integrity of the lithium-ion battery over many discharge-recharge cycles.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lithium">Lithium</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Lithium">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a> anodes were used for the first lithium-ion batteries in the 1960s, based on the TiS 2/Li cell chemistry, but were eventually replaced due to dendrite formation which caused internal short-circuits and was a fire hazard.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Effort continued in areas that required lithium, including charged cathodes such as <a href="/wiki/Manganese_dioxide" title="Manganese dioxide">manganese dioxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanadium_pentoxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanadium pentoxide">vanadium pentoxide</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum_oxide" title="Molybdenum oxide">molybdenum oxide</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Polymer_electrolyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymer electrolyte">polymer electrolyte</a> based cell designs. The interest in lithium metal anodes was re-established with the increased interest in high capacity <a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">lithium–air battery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Lithium–sulfur battery">lithium–sulfur battery</a> systems. Research to inhibit dendrite formation has been an active area. <a href="/wiki/Doron_Aurbach" title="Doron Aurbach">Doron Aurbach</a> and co-workers at <a href="/wiki/Bar-Ilan_University" title="Bar-Ilan University">Bar-Ilan University</a> have extensively studied the role of solvent and salt in the formation of films on the lithium surface. Notable observations were the addition of LiNO3, <a href="/wiki/Dioxolane" title="Dioxolane">dioxolane</a>, and hexafluoroarsenate salts. They appeared to create films that inhibit dendrite formation while incorporating reduced Li3As as a lithium-ion conductive component.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> In 2021, researchers announced the use of thin (20 <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micron</a>) lithium metal strips. They were able to achieve energy density of 350 Wh/kg over 600 charge/discharge cycles.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information on the American battery technology innovator and entrepreneur: <a href="/wiki/Hany_Eitouni" title="Hany Eitouni">Hany Eitouni</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-graphitic_carbon">Non-graphitic carbon</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Non-graphitic carbon">edit</a>]</div> Various forms of carbon are used in lithium-ion battery cell configurations. Besides graphite poorly or non-electrochemically active types of carbon are used in cells such as CNTs, carbon black, <a href="/wiki/Graphene" title="Graphene">graphene</a>, graphene oxides, or MWCNTs. Recent work includes efforts in 2014 by researchers at <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University" title="Northwestern University">Northwestern University</a> who found that metallic single-walled <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a> (SWCNTs) accommodate lithium much more efficiently than their semiconducting counterparts. If made denser, semiconducting SWCNT films take up lithium at levels comparable to metallic SWCNTs.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Hydrogen treatment of <a href="/wiki/Graphene" title="Graphene">graphene</a> <a href="/wiki/Nanofoam" title="Nanofoam">nanofoam</a> electrodes in LIBs was shown to improve their capacity and transport properties. Chemical synthesis methods used in standard anode manufacture leave significant amounts of atomic <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>. Experiments and multiscale calculations revealed that low-temperature hydrogen treatment of defect-rich graphene can improve rate capacity. The hydrogen interacts with the graphene defects to open gaps to facilitate lithium penetration, improving transport. Additional reversible capacity is provided by enhanced lithium binding near edges, where hydrogen is most likely to bind.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Rate capacities increased by 17–43% at 200 mA/g.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> In 2015, researchers in China used porous graphene as the material for a lithium-ion battery anode in order to increase the specific capacity and binding energy between lithium atoms at the anode. The properties of the battery can be tuned by applying strain. The binding energy increases as biaxial strain is applied.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Silicon">Silicon</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Silicon">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93silicon_battery" title="Lithium–silicon battery">Lithium–silicon battery</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Silicon</a> is an earth abundant <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">element</a>, and is fairly inexpensive to refine to high purity. When alloyed with <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> it has a theoretical capacity of ~3,600 milliampere hours per gram (mAh/g), which is nearly 10 times the <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> of <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> electrodes, which exhibit a maximum capacity of 372 mAh/g for their fully lithiated state of LiC6.<a href="#cite_note-SiOC-4">[4]</a> One of silicon's inherent traits, unlike carbon, is the expansion of the lattice structure by as much as 400% upon full lithiation (charging). For bulk electrodes, this causes great structural stress gradients within the expanding material, inevitably leading to fractures and mechanical failure, which significantly limits the lifetime of the silicon anodes.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> In 2011, a group of researchers assembled data tables that summarized the morphology, composition, and method of preparation of those nanoscale and nanostructured silicon anodes, along with their electrochemical performance.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Porous silicon nanoparticles are more reactive than bulk silicon materials and tend to have a higher weight percentage of silica as a result of the smaller size. Porous materials allow for internal volume expansion to help control overall materials expansion. Methods include a silicon anode with an energy density above 1,100 mAh/g and a durability of 600 cycles that used porous silicon particles using ball-milling and stain-etching.<a href="#cite_note-pddnet1-28">[28]</a> In 2013, researchers developed a battery made from porous silicon <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">nanoparticles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Below are various structural morphologies attempted to overcome issue with silicon's intrinsic properties. The major obstacle in the commercialization of silicon as anode material for Li-ion battery is higher volumetric changes and formation of SEI. Recent research works have highlighted the strategies for the optimization and maintaining the structural stability of the electrode. Another aspect that contributes to fast anode degradation is the solid-electrolyte interface (SEI). During the first lithium insertion phase, the SEI forms on the electrode's surface and acts as a massive impediment between the electrode and the electrolyte. Because of this blockage, Lithium-ion conduction is permitted while functioning as an insulator, restricting additional electrolyte breakdown and keeping the lithium-ion battery's cycle performance from gradually declining. Everything from the most fundamental battery performance to the overall efficacy and cyclability of the LIB is influenced by the kind of SEI.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Silicon_encapsulation">Silicon encapsulation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Silicon encapsulation">edit</a>]</div> As a method to control the ability of fully lithiated silicon to expand and become electronically isolated, a method for caging 3 nm-diameter silicon particles in a shell of <a href="/wiki/Graphene" title="Graphene">graphene</a> was reported in 2016. The particles were first coated with <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>. Graphene layers then coated the metal. Acid dissolved the nickel, leaving enough of a void within the cage for the silicon to expand. The particles broke into smaller pieces, but remained functional within the cages.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In 2014, researchers encapsulated silicon <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticles" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoparticles">nanoparticles</a> inside carbon shells, and then encapsulated clusters of the shells with more carbon. The shells provide enough room inside to allow the nanoparticles to swell and shrink without damaging the shells, improving durability.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Silicon_nanowire">Silicon nanowire</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Silicon nanowire">edit</a>]</div> In 2021 Paul V.Braun's group at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana-Champaign" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a> developed a large-scale and low-cost approach for synthesizing Si/Cu nanowires. Firstly, Si/Cu/Zn ternary microspheres are prepared by a pulsed electrical discharging method in a scalable manner, and then Zn and partial Si in the microspheres was partially removed by chemical etching to form Si/Cu nanowires. This technology utilizes relatively cheap materials and flexible processing methods, costing approximately $0.3 g−1, which is promising to boost the yield of Si alloy NWs with low cost.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nanowire_battery" title="Nanowire battery">Nanowire battery</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Porous-silicon_inorganic-electrode_design">Porous-silicon inorganic-electrode design</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Porous-silicon inorganic-electrode design">edit</a>]</div> In 2012, Vaughey, et al., reported a new all-inorganic electrode structure based on electrochemically active silicon particles bound to a copper substrate by a Cu3Si intermetallic.<a href="#cite_note-Vaughey2012e-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vaughey2011c-38">[38]</a> Copper nanoparticles were deposited on silicon particles articles, dried, and laminated onto a copper foil. After annealing, the copper nanoparticles annealed to each other and to the copper current collector to produce a porous electrode with a copper binder once the initial polymeric binder burned out. The design had performance similar to conventional electrode polymer binders with exceptional rate capability owing to the metallic nature of the structure and current pathways. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Silicon_nanofiber">Silicon nanofiber</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Silicon nanofiber">edit</a>]</div> In 2015, a prototype electrode was demonstrated that consists of sponge-like silicon <a href="/wiki/Nanofibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanofibers">nanofibers</a> increases Coulombic efficiency and avoids the physical damage from silicon's expansion/contractions. The nanofibers were created by applying a high voltage between a rotating drum and a nozzle emitting a solution of <a href="/wiki/Tetraethyl_orthosilicate" title="Tetraethyl orthosilicate">tetraethyl orthosilicate</a> (TEOS). The material was then exposed to <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> vapors. The nanofibers contain 10 nm diameter nanopores on their surface. Along with additional gaps in the fiber network, these allow for silicon to expand without damaging the cell. Three other factors reduce expansion: a 1 nm shell of silicon dioxide; a second carbon coating that creates a buffer layer; and the 8-25 nm fiber size, which is below the size at which silicon tends to fracture.<a href="#cite_note-:1-39">[39]</a> Conventional lithium-ion cells use binders to hold together the active material and keep it in contact with the current collectors. These inactive materials make the battery bigger and heavier. Experimental binderless batteries do not scale because their active materials can be produced only in small quantities. The prototype has no need for current collectors, polymer binders or conductive powder additives. Silicon comprises over 80 percent of the electrode by weight. The electrode delivered 802 mAh/g after more than 600 cycles, with a Coulombic efficiency of 99.9 percent.<a href="#cite_note-:1-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tin">Tin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Tin">edit</a>]</div> Lithium tin <a href="/wiki/Zintl_phase" title="Zintl phase">Zintl phases</a>, discovered by <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Zintl" title="Eduard Zintl">Eduard Zintl</a>, have been studied as anode materials in lithium-ion energy storage systems for several decades. First reported in 1981 by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Huggins" title="Robert Huggins">Robert Huggins</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Huggins1981-40">[40]</a> the system has a multiphase discharge curve and stores approximately 1000 mAh/g (Li22Sn5). Tin and its compounds have been extensively studied but, similar to <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a> anode systems, issues associated with volume expansion (associated with gradual filling of p-orbitals and essential cation insertion), unstable SEI formation, and electronic isolation have been studied in an attempt to commercialize these materials. In 2013, work on morphological variation by researchers at <a href="/wiki/Washington_State_University" title="Washington State University">Washington State University</a> used standard <a href="/wiki/Electroplating" title="Electroplating">electroplating</a> processes to create nanoscale tin needles that show 33% lower volume expansion during charging.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> In 2015, the research team at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana-Champaign" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a> create a 3D mechanically stable nickel–tin nanocomposite scaffold as a <a href="/wiki/Li-ion_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Li-ion battery">Li-ion battery</a> anode. This scaffold can accommodate the volume change of a high-specific-capacity during operation. And nickel–tin anode is supported by an electrochemically inactive conductive scaffold with an engineered free volume and controlled characteristic dimensions, so the electrode with significantly improved cyclability.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intermetallic_insertion_materials">Intermetallic insertion materials</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Intermetallic insertion materials">edit</a>]</div> As for oxide intercalation (or insertion) anode materials, similar classes of materials where the lithium cation is inserted into crystallographic vacancies within a metal host lattice have been discovered and studied since 1997. In general because of the metallic lattice, these types of materials, for example Cu6Sn5,<a href="#cite_note-Vaughey1999-44">[44]</a> Mn2Sb,<a href="#cite_note-Vaughey2003-45">[45]</a> lower voltages and higher capacities have been found when compared to their oxide counterparts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cu6Sn5">Cu6Sn5</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cu6Sn5">edit</a>]</div> Cu6Sn5 is an intermetallic alloy with a defect <a href="/wiki/NiAs" class="mw-redirect" title="NiAs">NiAs</a> type structure. In <a href="/wiki/NiAs" class="mw-redirect" title="NiAs">NiAs</a> type nomenclature it would have the stoichiometry Cu0.2CuSn, with 0.2 Cu atoms occupying a usually unoccupied crystallographic position in the lattice. These copper atoms are displaced to the grain boundaries when charged to form Li2CuSn. With retention of most of the metal-metal bonding down to 0.5 V, Cu6Sn5 has become an attractive potential anode material due to its high theoretical specific capacity, resistance against Li metal plating especially when compared to carbon-based anodes, and ambient stability.<a href="#cite_note-Vaughey1999-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-TanMcDonald2019-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-WangShan2017-47">[47]</a> In this and related NiAs-type materials, lithium intercalation occurs through an insertion process to fill the two crystallographic vacancies in the lattice, at the same time as the 0.2 extra coppers are displaced to the grain boundaries. Efforts to charge compensate the main group metal lattice to remove the excess copper have had limited success.<a href="#cite_note-Vaughey2011-48">[48]</a> Although significant retention of structure is noted down to the ternary lithium compound Li2CuSn, over discharging the material results in disproportionation with formation of Li22Sn5 and elemental copper. This complete lithiation is accompanied by volume expansion of approximately 250%. Current research focuses on investigating alloying and low dimensional geometries to mitigate mechanical stress during lithiation. Alloying tin with elements that do not react with lithium, such as copper, has been shown to reduce stress. As for low dimensional applications, thin films have been produced with discharge capacities of 1127 mAhg−1 with excess capacity assigned to lithium ion storage at grain boundaries and associated with defect sites.<a href="#cite_note-Vaughey2008-49">[49]</a> Other approaches include making nanocomposites with Cu6Sn5 at its core with a nonreactive outer shell, SnO2-c hybrids have been shown to be effective,<a href="#cite_note-HuWaller2015-50">[50]</a> to accommodate volume changes and overall stability over cycles. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Copper_antimonide">Copper antimonide</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Copper antimonide">edit</a>]</div> The layered intermetallic materials derived from the Cu2Sb-type structure are attractive anode materials due to the open gallery space available and structural similarities to the discharge Li2CuSb product. First reported in 2001.<a href="#cite_note-Vaughey2011b-51">[51]</a> In 2011, researchers reported a method to create porous three dimensional electrodes materials based on electrodeposited antimony onto copper foams followed by a low temperature annealing step. It was noted to increase the rate capacity by lowering the lithium diffusion distances while increasing the surface area of the current collector.<a href="#cite_note-Vaughey2011c-38">[38]</a> In 2015, researchers announced a solid-state 3-D battery anode using the electroplated copper antimonide (copper foam). The anode is then layered with a solid polymer electrolyte that provides a physical barrier across which ions (but not electrons) can travel. The cathode is an inky slurry. The volumetric energy density was up to twice as much energy conventional batteries. The solid electrolyte prevents dendrite formation.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Three-dimensional_nanostructure">Three-dimensional nanostructure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Three-dimensional nanostructure">edit</a>]</div> Nanoengineered porous electrodes have the advantage of short diffusion distances, room for expansion and contraction, and high activity. In 2006 an example of a three dimensional engineered ceramic oxide based on lithium titanate was reported that had dramatic rate enhancement over the non-porous analogue.<a href="#cite_note-Vaughey2006-53">[53]</a> Later work by Vaughey et al., highlighted the utility of electrodeposition of electroactive metals on copper foams to create thin film intermetallic anodes. These porous anodes have high power in addition to higher stability as the porous open nature of the electrode allows for space to absorb some of the volume expansion. In 2011, researchers at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana-Champaign" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a> discovered that wrapping a thin film into a <a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-dimensional">three-dimensional</a> nanostructure can decrease charge time by a factor of 10 to 100. The technology is also capable of delivering a higher voltage output.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> In 2013, the team improved the microbattery design, delivering 30 times the <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> 1,000x faster charging.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The technology also delivers better <a href="/wiki/Power_density" title="Power density">power density</a> than <a href="/wiki/Supercapacitor" title="Supercapacitor">supercapacitors</a>. The device achieved a power density of 7.4 W/cm2/mm.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> In 2019, the team develop a high areal and volumetric capacity 3D-structured tin-carbon anode by using a two steps electroplating process, which exhibits a high volumetric/areal capacity of ~879 mAh/cm3 and 6.59 mAh/cm2 after 100 cycles at 0.5 °C and 750 mAh/cm3 and 5.5 mAh/cm2 (delithiation) at 10 °C with a 20%<a href="/wiki/V/v" class="mw-redirect" title="V/v">v/v</a> Sn loading in a <a href="/wiki/Half-cell" title="Half-cell">half-cell</a> configuration.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semi-solid">Semi-solid</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Semi-solid">edit</a>]</div> In 2016, researchers announced an anode composed of a slurry of Lithium-iron phosphate and graphite with a liquid electrolyte. They claimed that the technique increased safety (the anode could be deformed without damage) and energy density.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> A flow battery without carbon, called <a href="/wiki/Solid_dispersion_redox_flow_battery" title="Solid dispersion redox flow battery">Solid Dispersion Redox Flow Battery</a>, was reported, proposing increased energy density and high operating efficiencies.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> A review of different semi-solid battery systems can be found here.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Redox-targeted_solids">Redox-targeted solids</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Redox-targeted solids">edit</a>]</div> In 2007, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Gratzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Gratzel">Michael Gratzel</a> and his co-workers at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Geneva" title="University of Geneva">University of Geneva</a> reported lithium-ion batteries, where the electroactive solids are stored as pure (i.e. without binders, conductive additives, current collectors) powders in tanks, and washed by liquids with dissolved redox couples, capable of electron exchange with the electroactive solids, with a <a href="/wiki/Flow_battery" title="Flow battery">flow battery</a> stack being added. Such devices are expected to provide a higher <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> than traditional batteries, but suffer from a lower <a href="/wiki/Energy_efficiency_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy efficiency (physics)">energy efficiency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cathode">Cathode</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Cathode">edit</a>]</div> Several varieties of cathode exist, but typically they can easily divided into two categories, namely charged and discharged. Charged cathodes are materials with pre-existing crystallographic vacancies. These materials, for instance <a href="/wiki/Spinels" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinels">spinels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanadium_pentoxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanadium pentoxide">vanadium pentoxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum_oxide" title="Molybdenum oxide">molybdenum oxide</a> or LiV3O8, typically are tested in cell configurations with a <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> metal anode as they need a source of lithium to function. While not as common in secondary cell designs, this class is commonly seen in primary batteries that do not require recharging, such as implantable medical device batteries. The second variety are discharged cathodes where the cathode typically in a discharged state (cation in a stable reduced oxidation state), has electrochemically active lithium, and when charged, crystallographic vacancies are created. Due to their increased manufacturing safety and without the need for a lithium source at the <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a>, this class is more commonly studied. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Lithium_cobalt_oxide" title="Lithium cobalt oxide">lithium cobalt oxide</a>, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide <a href="/wiki/Lithium_nickel_manganese_cobalt_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide">NMC</a>, or lithium iron phosphate <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a> which can be combined with most <a href="/wiki/Anodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Anodes">anodes</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a>, lithium titanate spinel, <a href="/wiki/Titanium_oxide" title="Titanium oxide">titanium oxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, or intermetallic insertion materials to create a working electrochemical cell. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vanadium_oxides">Vanadium oxides</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Vanadium oxides">edit</a>]</div> Vanadium oxides have been a common class of cathodes to study due to their high capacity, ease of synthesis, and electrochemical window that matches well with common <a href="/wiki/Polymer_electrolyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymer electrolyte">polymer electrolytes</a>. Vanadium oxides cathodes, typically classed as charged cathodes, are found in many different structure types. These materials have been extensively studied by <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Whittingham" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanley Whittingham">Stanley Whittingham</a> among others.<a href="#cite_note-Whittingham01-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Whittingham02-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Whittingham03-65">[65]</a> In 2007, <a href="/wiki/Subaru" title="Subaru">Subaru</a> introduced a battery with double the energy density while only taking 15 minutes for an 80% charge. They used a nanostructured vanadium oxide, which is able to load two to three times more lithium ions onto the cathode than the layered lithium cobalt oxide.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> In 2013 researchers announced a synthesis of hierarchical vanadium oxide nanoflowers (V10O24·nH2O) synthesized by an oxidation reaction of vanadium foil in a <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">NaCl</a> aqueous solution. Electrochemical tests demonstrate deliver high reversible specific capacities with 100% coulombic efficiency, especially at high C rates (e.g., 140 mAh g−1 at 10 C).<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> In 2014, researchers announced the use of vanadate-borate glasses (V2O5 – LiBO2 glass with reduced graphite oxide) as a cathode material. The cathode achieved around 1000 Wh/kg with high specific capacities in the range of ~ 300 mAh/g for the first 100 cycles.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disordered_materials">Disordered materials</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Disordered materials">edit</a>]</div> In 2014, researchers at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> found that creating high lithium content lithium-ion batteries materials with cation disorder among the electroactive metals could achieve 660 <a href="/wiki/Watt-hours_per_kilogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Watt-hours per kilogram">watt-hours per kilogram</a> at 2.5 <a href="/wiki/Volts" class="mw-redirect" title="Volts">volts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The materials of the stoichiometry Li2MO3-LiMO2 are similar to the lithium rich <a href="/wiki/Lithium_nickel_manganese_cobalt_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide">lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide</a> (NMC) materials but without the cation ordering. The extra lithium creates better diffusion pathways and eliminates high energy transition points in the structure that inhibit lithium diffusion. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Glasses">Glasses</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Glasses">edit</a>]</div> In 2015 researchers blended powdered <a href="/wiki/Vanadium_pentoxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanadium pentoxide">vanadium pentoxide</a> with borate compounds at 900 C and quickly cooled the melt to form glass. The resulting paper-thin sheets were then crushed into a powder to increase their surface area. The powder was coated with reduced graphite oxide (RGO) to increase conductivity while protecting the electrode. The coated powder was used for the battery cathodes. Trials indicated that capacity was quite stable at high discharge rates and remained consistently over 100 charge/discharge cycles. Energy density reached around 1,000 watt-hours per kilogram and a discharge capacity that exceeded 300 mAh/g.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sulfur">Sulfur</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Sulfur">edit</a>]</div> Used as the cathode for a <a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Lithium–sulfur battery">lithium–sulfur battery</a> this system has high capacity on the formation of Li2S. In 2014, researchers at <a href="/wiki/USC_Viterbi_School_of_Engineering" title="USC Viterbi School of Engineering">USC Viterbi School of Engineering</a> used a <a href="/wiki/Graphite_oxide" title="Graphite oxide">graphite oxide</a> coated <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> cathode to create a battery with 800 mAh/g for 1,000 cycles of charge/discharge, over 5 times the energy density of commercial cathodes. Sulfur is abundant, low cost and has low toxicity. Sulfur has been a promising cathode candidate owing to its high theoretical energy density, over 10 times that of metal oxide or phosphate cathodes. However, sulfur's low cycle durability has prevented its commercialization. Graphene oxide coating over sulfur is claimed to solve the cycle durability problem. Graphene oxide high surface area, chemical stability, mechanical strength and flexibility.<a href="#cite_note-pddnet1-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seawater">Seawater</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Seawater">edit</a>]</div> In 2012, researchers at Polyplus Corporation created a battery with an <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> more than triple that of traditional lithium-ion batteries using the halides or organic materials in <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> as the active cathode. Its energy density is 1,300 <a href="/wiki/W%C2%B7h/kg" class="mw-redirect" title="W·h/kg">W·h/kg</a>, which is a lot more than the traditional 400 W·h/kg. It has a solid lithium positive electrode and a solid electrolyte. It could be used in underwater applications.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lithium-based_cathodes">Lithium-based cathodes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Lithium-based cathodes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lithium_nickel_cobalt_aluminium_oxides" title="Lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxides">Lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxides</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lithium_nickel_manganese_cobalt_oxide">Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lithium_nickel_manganese_cobalt_oxides" title="Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides">Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides</a></div> In 1998, a team from <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a> reported on the discovery of lithium rich <a href="/wiki/Lithium_nickel_manganese_cobalt_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide">NMC</a> cathodes.,<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thack03-73">[73]</a> These high-capacity high-voltage materials consist of nanodomains of the two structurally similar but different materials. On first charge, noted by its long plateau around 4.5 V (vs Li), the activation step creates a structure that gradually equilibrates to a more stable materials by cation re-positioning from high-energy points to lower-energy points in the lattice. The intellectual property surrounding these materials has been licensed to several manufacturers, including BASF, General Motors for the <a href="/wiki/Chevrolet_Volt" title="Chevrolet Volt">Chevrolet Volt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chevrolet_Bolt" title="Chevrolet Bolt">Chevrolet Bolt</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Toda_Kogyo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Toda Kogyo (page does not exist)">Toda</a>. The mechanism for the high capacity and the gradual voltage fade has been extensively examined. It is generally believed the high-voltage activation step induces various cation defects that on cycling equilibrate through the lithium-layer sites to a lower energy state that exhibits a lower cell voltage but with a similar capacity,.<a href="#cite_note-Dogan04-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Croy02-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lithium–iron_phosphate">Lithium–iron phosphate</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Lithium–iron phosphate">edit</a>]</div> LiFePO4 is a 3.6 V lithium-ion battery cathode initially reported by <a href="/wiki/John_Goodenough" class="mw-redirect" title="John Goodenough">John Goodenough</a> and is structurally related to the mineral <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a> and consists of a three dimensional lattice of an [FePO4] framework surrounding a lithium cation. The lithium cation sits in a one dimensional channel along the [010] axis of the crystal structure. This alignment yields anisotropic ionic conductivity that has implications for its usage as a battery cathode and makes morphological control an important variable in its electrochemical cell rate performance. Although the iron analogue is the most commercial owing to its stability, the same composition exists for nickel, manganese, and cobalt although the observed high cell charging voltages and synthetic challenges for these materials make them viable but more difficult to commercialize. While the material has good ionic conductivity it possesses poor intrinsic electronic conductivity. This combination makes nanophase compositions and composites or coatings (to increase electronic conductivity of the whole matrix) with materials such as carbon advantageous. Alternatives to nanoparticles include mesoscale structure such as <a href="/wiki/Nanoball_batteries" title="Nanoball batteries">nanoball batteries</a> of the olivine LiFePO4 that can have rate capabilities two orders of magnitude higher than randomly ordered materials. The rapid charging is related to the nanoballs high surface area where electrons are transmitted to the surface of the cathode at a higher rate. In 2012, researchers at <a href="/wiki/A123_Systems" title="A123 Systems">A123 Systems</a> developed a battery that operates in extreme temperatures without the need for thermal management material. It went through 2,000 full charge-discharge cycles at 45 °C while maintaining over 90% energy density. It does this using a nanophosphate positive electrode.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lithium_manganese_silicon_oxide">Lithium manganese silicon oxide</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Lithium manganese silicon oxide">edit</a>]</div> A "<a href="/wiki/Lithium_orthosilicate" title="Lithium orthosilicate">lithium orthosilicate</a>-related" cathode compound, Li 2MnSiO 4, was able to support a charging capacity of 335 mAh/g.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Li2MnSiO4@C porous nanoboxes were synthesized via a wet-chemistry solid-state reaction method. The material displayed a hollow nanostructure with a crystalline porous shell composed of phase-pure Li2MnSiO4 nanocrystals. <a href="/wiki/Powder_diffraction" title="Powder diffraction">Powder X-ray diffraction</a> patterns and <a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy" title="Transmission electron microscopy">transmission electron microscopy</a> images revealed that the high phase purity and porous nanobox architecture were achieved via monodispersed MnCO3@SiO2 core–shell nanocubes with controlled shell thickness.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Air">Air</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Air">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air battery</a></div> In 2009, researchers at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Dayton_Research_Institute" title="University of Dayton Research Institute">University of Dayton Research Institute</a> announced a solid-state battery with higher <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a> that uses air as its cathode. When fully developed, the energy density could exceed 1,000 Wh/kg.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> In 2014, researchers at the School of Engineering at the University of Tokyo and Nippon Shokubai discovered that adding <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Lithium_oxide" title="Lithium oxide">lithium oxide</a> crystal structure gave it seven times the <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> In 2017, researchers at University of Virginia reported a scalable method to produce sub-micrometer scale lithium cobalt oxide.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transition_Metal_Fluorides_(TMFs)">Transition Metal Fluorides (TMFs)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Transition Metal Fluorides (TMFs)">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">Transition metal</a> fluorides (TMFs) form a metallic phase within a LiF matrix upon reacting with lithium. TMFs typically display poor electrochemical reversibility, and poor ionic and electronic conductivity. Although researchers are still working to understand the exact electrochemical reaction mechanisms of TMFs, there is a general agreement that the strong metal-fluoride <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bonding" title="Ionic bonding">ionic bond</a> contributes to poor kinetics within battery cells.<a href="#cite_note-:0-85">[85]</a> Among TMFs, iron fluoride is of particular interest because iron is Earth abundant and environmentally friendly compared to popular intercalation-type cathode materials, <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iron_Fluoride">Iron Fluoride</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Iron Fluoride">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_fluoride" title="Iron(II) fluoride">Iron (II) fluoride</a> (FeF2) and <a href="/wiki/Iron(III)_fluoride" title="Iron(III) fluoride">iron (III) fluoride</a> (FeF3) have garnered recent interest as conversion-type cathode materials due to their high theoretical gravimetric energy densities and specific capacities, 571 mAh g−1 and 712 mAh g−1 respectively.<a href="#cite_note-:2-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-88">[88]</a> This high energy density and capacity derives from iron fluorides’ ability to transfer 2-3 electrons per Fe atom per reaction.<a href="#cite_note-:2-86">[86]</a> Decreasing particle size is one of the main methods researchers have used to overcome iron fluoride’s insulating properties. <a href="/wiki/Ball_mill" title="Ball mill">Ball milling</a> utilizes shear-forces to form fine particles which can improve conductivity by increasing particle surface area and reducing carrier pathlength to reaction sites. While there has been some success with ball milling, this method can lead to a non-uniform particle size distribution.<a href="#cite_note-:4-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Another challenge with metal fluoride conversion cathodes includes volume expansion upon cycling.<a href="#cite_note-:2-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-88">[88]</a> Volume expansion decreases the reversibility of reactions and cycle stability. In addition, volume expansion results in the mechanical fatigue and fracture of the metal/LiF matrix, and can ultimately lead to the failure of the cell.<a href="#cite_note-:2-86">[86]</a> Recent success with solid polymer electrolytes (SPE) has increased the electrochemical stability and elasticity of the cathode electrolyte interface (CEI). Unlike traditional liquid electrolytes that form a thick, brittle CEI layer, these FeF2-SPE cathodes form elastic CEI layers which are encapsulated by the elastic electrolyte and strong composite layer. The elastic SPE is able to withstand the volume expansion of FeF2 and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) strengthen the composite to prevent mechanical fatigue.<a href="#cite_note-:4-88">[88]</a> Another technique to circumvent volume expansion includes creating a lithiated FeF3 nanocomposite with carbon. A lithiated FeF3/C <a href="/wiki/Nanocomposite" title="Nanocomposite">nanocomposite</a> already contains lithium in close contact with FeF3, therefore significantly reduces the stress/strain that occurs during lithiation upon the first cycle.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electrolyte">Electrolyte</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Electrolyte">edit</a>]</div> Currently, <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytes</a> are typically made of lithium <a href="/wiki/Salts" class="mw-redirect" title="Salts">salts</a> in a liquid <a href="/wiki/Organic_solvent" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic solvent">organic solvent</a>. Common solvents are organic carbonates (cyclic, straight chain), sulfones, imides, polymers (polyethylene oxide) and fluorinated derivatives. Common salts include LiPF6, LiBF4, LiTFSI, and LiFSI. Research centers on increased safety via reduced flammability and reducing shorts via preventing <a href="/wiki/Dendrite_(crystal)" title="Dendrite (crystal)">dendrites</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perfluoropolyether">Perfluoropolyether</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Perfluoropolyether">edit</a>]</div> In 2014, researchers at <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina" title="University of North Carolina">University of North Carolina</a> found a way to replace the electrolyte's flammable organic solvent with nonflammable <a href="/wiki/Perfluoropolyether" title="Perfluoropolyether">perfluoropolyether</a> (PFPE). PFPE is usually used as an industrial lubricant, e.g., to prevent marine life from sticking to the ship bottoms. The material exhibited unprecedented high transference numbers and low electrochemical polarization, indicative of a higher cycle durability.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solid-state">Solid-state</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Solid-state">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_lithium-ion_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-state lithium-ion battery">Solid-state lithium-ion battery</a></div> While no solid-state batteries have reached the market, multiple groups are researching this alternative. The notion is that solid-state designs are safer because they prevent dendrites from causing short circuits. They also have the potential to substantially increase energy density because their solid nature prevents dendrite formation and allows the use of pure metallic lithium anodes. They may have other benefits such as lower temperature operation. In 2015, researchers announced an electrolyte using superionic lithium-ion conductors, which are compounds of lithium, germanium, phosphorus and sulfur.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thiophosphate">Thiophosphate</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Thiophosphate">edit</a>]</div> In 2015, researchers worked with a lithium carbon fluoride battery. They incorporated a solid lithium thiophosphate electrolyte wherein the electrolyte and the cathode worked in cooperation, resulting in capacity 26 percent. Under discharge, the electrolyte generates a lithium fluoride salt that further catalyzes the electrochemical activity, converting an inactive component to an active one. More significantly, the technique was expected to substantially increase battery life.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Glassy_electrolytes">Glassy electrolytes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Glassy electrolytes">edit</a>]</div> In March 2017, researchers announced a solid-state battery with a glassy <a href="/wiki/Ferroelectric" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferroelectric">ferroelectric</a> electrolyte of lithium, oxygen, and chlorine ions doped with barium, a lithium metal anode, and a composite cathode in contact with a copper substrate. A spring behind the copper cathode substrate holds the layers together as the electrodes change thickness. The cathode comprises particles of sulfur "redox center", carbon, and electrolyte. During discharge, the lithium ions plate the cathode with lithium metal and the sulfur is not reduced unless irreversible deep discharge occurs. The thickened cathode is a compact way to store the used lithium. During recharge, this lithium moves back into the glassy electrolyte and eventually plates the anode, which thickens. No dendrites form.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The cell has 3 times the energy density of conventional lithium-ion batteries. An extended life of more than 1,200 cycles was demonstrated. The design also allows the substitution of sodium for lithium minimizing lithium environmental issues.<a href="#cite_note-Hislop-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salts">Salts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Salts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Superhalogen">Superhalogen</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Superhalogen">edit</a>]</div> Conventional electrolytes generally contain <a href="/wiki/Halogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Halogens">halogens</a>, which are toxic. In 2015 researchers claimed that these materials could be replaced with non-toxic <a href="/wiki/Halogen#Superhalogen" title="Halogen">superhalogens</a> with no compromise in performance. In superhalogens the vertical electron detachment energies of the moieties that make up the negative ions are larger than those of any halogen atom.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The researchers also found that the procedure outlined for Li-ion batteries is equally valid for other metal-ion batteries, such as sodium-ion or <a href="/wiki/Magnesium-ion_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnesium-ion batteries">magnesium-ion batteries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Water-in-salt">Water-in-salt</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Water-in-salt">edit</a>]</div> In 2015, researchers at the University of Maryland and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Research_Laboratory" title="United States Army Research Laboratory">Army Research Laboratory</a> showed significantly increased stable <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_window" title="Electrochemical window">potential windows</a> for <a href="/wiki/Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">aqueous</a> electrolytes with very high salt concentration.<a href="#cite_note-:3-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> By increasing the <a href="/wiki/Molality" title="Molality">molality</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lithium_bis(trimethylsilyl)amide" title="Lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide">Bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide lithium salt</a> to 21 <a href="/wiki/Molality" title="Molality">m</a>, the potential window could be increased from 1.23 to 3 <a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">V</a> due to the formation of SEI on the anode electrode, which has previously only been accomplished with non-aqueous electrolytes.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Using aqueous rather than organic electrolyte could significantly improve the safety of Li-ion batteries.<a href="#cite_note-:3-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dual_anionic_liquid">Dual anionic liquid</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Dual anionic liquid">edit</a>]</div> An experimental lithium metal battery with a LiNi 0.88Co 0.09Mn 0.03O 2/NCM88 cathode material with a dual-anion <a href="/wiki/Ionic_liquid" title="Ionic liquid">ionic liquid</a> electrolyte (ILE) 0.8Pyr 14FSI 0.2LiTFSI was demonstrated in 2021. This electrolyte enables initial <a href="/wiki/Specific_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific capacity">specific capacity</a> of 214 mAh g−1 and 88% capacity retention over 1,000 cycles with an average <a href="/wiki/Coulombic_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Coulombic efficiency">Coulombic efficiency</a> of 99.94%. The cells achieved a <a href="/wiki/Specific_energy" title="Specific energy">specific energy</a> above 560 Wh kg−1 at >4 volts. Capacity after 1k cycles was 88%. Importantly, the cathode retained its structural integrity throughout the charging cycles.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Management">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charging">Charging</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Charging">edit</a>]</div> In 2014, researchers at MIT, <a href="/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratories" title="Sandia National Laboratories">Sandia National Laboratories</a>, Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology America and <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory" title="Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a> discovered that uniform charging could be used with increased charge speed to speed up battery charging. This discovery could also increase cycle durability to ten years. Traditionally slower charging prevented overheating, which shortens cycle durability. The researchers used a <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">particle accelerator</a> to learn that in conventional devices each increment of charge is absorbed by a single or a small number of particles until they are charged, then moves on. By distributing charge/discharge circuitry throughout the electrode, heating and degradation could be reduced while allowing much greater power density.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> In 2014, researchers at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://qnovo.com/">Qnovo</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a> for a <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphone</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Computer_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer chip">computer chip</a> capable of speeding up re-charge time by a factor of 3-6, while also increasing cycle durability. The technology is able to understand how the battery needs to be charged most effectively, while avoiding the formation of <a href="/wiki/Dendrite_(metal)" title="Dendrite (metal)">dendrites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> In 2019, Chao-Yang Wang from <a href="/wiki/Penn_State_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Penn State University">Penn State University</a> found that it is possible to recharge the (conventional) lithium-ion batteries of EV's in under 10 minutes. He did so by heating the battery to 60 °C, recharging it and then cooling if quickly afterwards. This causes only very little damage to the batteries. Professor Wang used a thin nickel foil with one end attached to the negative terminal and the other end extending to outside the cell in order to create a third terminal. A temperature sensor attached to a switch completes the circuit.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Durability">Durability</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Durability">edit</a>]</div> In 2014, independent researchers from <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> announced a battery management system that increased cycles four-fold, that with specific energy of 110–175 Wh/kg using a battery pack architecture and controlling <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> that allows it to fully utilize the active materials in battery cells. The process maintains lithium-ion diffusion at optimal levels and eliminates concentration polarization, thus allowing the <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> to be more uniformly attached/detached to the cathode. The SEI layer remains stable, preventing energy density losses.<a href="#cite_note-treehuggerli-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal">Thermal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Thermal">edit</a>]</div> In 2016, researchers announced a reversible shutdown system for preventing thermal runaway. The system employed a thermoresponsive polymer switching material. This material consists of electrochemically stable, graphene-coated, spiky nickel nanoparticles in a polymer matrix with a high thermal expansion coefficient. Film electrical conductivity at ambient temperature was up to 50 S cm−1. Conductivity decreases within one second by 107-108 at the transition temperature and spontaneously recovers at room temperature. The system offers 103–104x greater sensitivity than previous devices.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flexibility">Flexibility</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Flexibility">edit</a>]</div> In 2014, multiple research teams and vendors demonstrated flexible battery technologies for potential use in textiles and other applications. One technique made li-ion batteries flexible, bendable, twistable and crunchable using the <a href="/wiki/Miura_fold" title="Miura fold">Miura fold</a>. This discovery uses conventional materials and could be commercialized for foldable smartphones and other applications.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Another approached used carbon nanotube fiber <a href="/wiki/Yarn" title="Yarn">yarns</a>. The 1 mm diameter fibers were claimed to be lightweight enough to create weavable and wearable textile batteries. The yarn was capable of storing nearly 71 mAh/g. Lithium manganate (LMO) particles were deposited on a carbon nanotube (CNT) sheet to create a CNT-LMO composite yarn for the cathode. The anode composite yarns sandwiched a CNT sheet between two silicon-coated CNT sheets. When separately rolled up and then wound together separated by a gel electrolyte the two fibers form a battery. They can also be wound onto a polymer fiber, for adding to an existing textile. When silicon fibers charge and discharge, the silicon expands in volume up to 300 percent, damaging the fiber. The CNT layer between the silicon-coated sheet buffered the silicon's volume change and held it in place.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> A third approach produced rechargeable batteries that can be printed cheaply on commonly used industrial screen printers. The batteries used a zinc charge carrier with a solid polymer electrolyte that prevents dendrite formation and provides greater stability. The device survived 1,000 bending cycles without damage.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> A fourth group created a device that is one hundredth of an inch thick and doubles as a supercapacitor. The technique involved etching a 900 nanometer-thick layer of <a href="/wiki/Nickel(II)_fluoride" title="Nickel(II) fluoride">Nickel(II) fluoride</a> with regularly spaced five nanometer holes to increase capacity. The device used an electrolyte made of <a href="/wiki/Potassium_hydroxide" title="Potassium hydroxide">potassium hydroxide</a> in <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_alcohol" title="Polyvinyl alcohol">polyvinyl alcohol</a>. The device can also be used as a supercapacitor. Rapid charging allows supercapacitor-like rapid discharge, while charging with a lower current rate provides slower discharge. It retained 76 percent of its original capacity after 10,000 charge-discharge cycles and 1,000 bending cycles. Energy density was measured at 384 Wh/kg, and power density at 112 kW/kg.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volume_expansion">Volume expansion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Volume expansion">edit</a>]</div> Current research has been primarily focused on finding new materials and characterising them by means of specific capacity (mAh/g), which provides a good metric to compare and contrast all electrode materials. Recently, some of the more promising materials are showing some large volume expansions which need to be considered when engineering devices. Lesser known to this realm of data is the volumetric capacity (mAh/cm3) of various materials to their design. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Nanotechnology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nanoarchitectures_for_lithium-ion_batteries" title="Nanoarchitectures for lithium-ion batteries">Nanoarchitectures for lithium-ion batteries</a></div> Researchers have taken various approaches to improving performance and other characteristics by using nanostructured materials. One strategy is to increase electrode surface area. Another strategy is to reduce the distance between electrodes to reduce transport distances. Yet another strategy is to allow the use of materials that exhibit unacceptable flaws when used in bulk forms, such as silicon. Finally, adjusting the geometries of the electrodes, e.g., by interdigitating anode and cathode units variously as rows of anodes and cathodes, alternating anodes and cathodes, hexagonally packed 1:2 anodes:cathodes and alternating anodic and cathodic triangular poles. One electrode can be nested within another. <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">Carbon nanotubes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nanowire" title="Nanowire">nanowires</a> have been examined for various purposes, as have <a href="/wiki/Aerogel" title="Aerogel">aerogels</a> and other novel bulk materials. Finally, various nanocoatings have been examined, to increase electrode stability and performance. <a href="/wiki/Nanosensor" title="Nanosensor">Nanosensors</a> is now being integrated in to each cell of the battery. This will help to monitor the state of charge in real time which will be helpful not only for security reason but also be useful to maximize the use of the battery.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Economy">edit</a>]</div> In 2016, researchers from <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Mellon_College_of_Engineering" title="Carnegie Mellon College of Engineering">CMU</a> found that prismatic cells are more likely to benefit from production scaling than cylindrical cells.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Repurposing_and_reuse">Repurposing and reuse</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Repurposing and reuse">edit</a>]</div> The elimination of power batteries made by lithium-ion batteries has largely increased, causing environmental protection threats and waste of resources. About 100-120 GWh of electric vehicle batteries will be retired by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-SciDataChung2021-118">[118]</a> Hence, recycling and reuse of such retired power batteries have been suggested.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Some retired power batteries still have ~80% of their initial capacity.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> So they can be repurposed and reused as second-life applications, for instance, to serve the batteries in the energy storage systems.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Governments in different countries have acknowledged this emergent problem and prepared to launch their policies to deal with repurposed batteries, such as coding principles, traceability management system, manufacturing factory guidelines, dismantling process guidelines, residual energy measurement, tax credits, rebates, and financial support.<a href="#cite_note-TaipowerChung2020-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-TaiwanEnergyChung2019-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Standards for second-life applications of retired electric vehicle batteries are still emerging technology. One of the few standards, UL 1974, was published by Underwriters Laboratories (UL).<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> The document gives a general procedure of the safety operations and performance tests on retired power battery cells, packs, and modules, but could not detail the steps and specifics. For applications in the real world, the design, form factor, and materials of the existing battery cells, packs, and modules often vary greatly from one another. It is difficult to develop a unified technical procedure. Furthermore, information on the detailed technical procedures applied is usually not available in the open literature, except for Schneider et al. who demonstrated the procedure to refurbish small cylindrical NiMH batteries used in mobile phones,<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Zhao who published the successful experiences of some grid-oriented applications of electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries in China,<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> and Chung who reported the procedure described in UL 1974 on a LiFePO4 repurposing battery.<a href="#cite_note-SciDataChung2021-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Lithium–sulfur battery">Lithium–sulfur battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trickle_charging" title="Trickle charging">Trickle charging</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Research_in_lithium-ion_batteries&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLombardoDuquesnoyEl-BouysidyÅrén2021" class="citation journal cs1">Lombardo, Teo; Duquesnoy, Marc; El-Bouysidy, Hassna; Årén, Fabian; Gallo-Bueno, Alfonso; Jørgensen, Peter Bjørn; Bhowmik, Arghya; Demortière, Arnaud; Ayerbe, Elixabete; Alcaide, Francisco; Reynaud, Marine; Carrasco, Javier; Grimaud, Alexis; Zhang, Chao; Vegge, Tejs; Johansson, Patrik; Franco, Alejandro A. 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Cell Reports Physical Science. 2 (8): 100537. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021CRPS....200537Z">2021CRPS....200537Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.xcrp.2021.100537">10.1016/j.xcrp.2021.100537</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:238701303">238701303</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell+Reports+Physical+Science&rft.atitle=End-of-life+or+second-life+options+for+retired+electric+vehicle+batteries&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=100537&rft.date=2021-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A238701303%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.xcrp.2021.100537&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021CRPS....200537Z&rft.aulast=Zhu&rft.aufirst=Juner&rft.au=Mathews%2C+Ian&rft.au=Ren%2C+Dongsheng&rft.au=Li%2C+Wei&rft.au=Cogswell%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Xing%2C+Bobin&rft.au=Sedlatschek%2C+Tobias&rft.au=Kantareddy%2C+Sai+Nithin+R.&rft.au=Yi%2C+Mengchao&rft.au=Gao%2C+Tao&rft.au=Xia%2C+Yong&rft.au=Zhou%2C+Qing&rft.au=Wierzbicki%2C+Tomasz&rft.au=Bazant%2C+Martin+Z.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.xcrp.2021.100537&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResearch+in+lithium-ion+batteries" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneiderKindleinSouzaMalfatti2009" class="citation journal cs1">Schneider, E.L.; Kindlein, W.; Souza, S.; Malfatti, C.F. 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Journal of Power Sources. 189 (2): 1264–1269. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JPS...189.1264S">2009JPS...189.1264S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jpowsour.2008.12.154">10.1016/j.jpowsour.2008.12.154</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Power+Sources&rft.atitle=Assessment+and+reuse+of+secondary+batteries+cells&rft.volume=189&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1264-%3C%2Fspan%3E1269&rft.date=2009-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jpowsour.2008.12.154&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009JPS...189.1264S&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=E.L.&rft.au=Kindlein%2C+W.&rft.au=Souza%2C+S.&rft.au=Malfatti%2C+C.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResearch+in+lithium-ion+batteries" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneiderOliveiraBritoMalfatti2014" class="citation journal cs1">Schneider, E.L.; Oliveira, C.T.; Brito, R.M.; Malfatti, C.F. 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Journal of Power Sources. 262: 1–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014JPS...262....1S">2014JPS...262....1S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jpowsour.2014.03.095">10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.03.095</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Power+Sources&rft.atitle=Classification+of+discarded+NiMH+and+Li-Ion+batteries+and+reuse+of+the+cells+still+in+operational+conditions+in+prototypes&rft.volume=262&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=2014-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jpowsour.2014.03.095&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014JPS...262....1S&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=E.L.&rft.au=Oliveira%2C+C.T.&rft.au=Brito%2C+R.M.&rft.au=Malfatti%2C+C.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResearch+in+lithium-ion+batteries" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhao2017" class="citation book cs1">Zhao, Guangjin (2017). Reuse and recycling of lithium-ion power batteries. 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