What Is Distributed Computing?

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data-disqus-identifier='144406 https://www.quantamagazine.org/?p=144406'></span> </div> <div class='uppercase kern ml05 mv0 h6t'>Comments</div> </a> </div> </li> <li class='__link flex flex-items-center flex-justify-start'> <div class='relative'> <button class='bookmark-button mh05 flex flex-items-center theme__accent-hover ' data-toggle-hover='tooltip' data-id='144406' data-active-class='' aria-expanded='false'> <svg class="icon" viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Save Article</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M2.1 0h45.8v50L25.5 37.5 2.1 50V0z"></path></svg> <div class='h6t uppercase kern ml1 mv0 theme__text'> Read Later </div> </button> <div class='q-tooltip hidden force-mobile-placement w-32 ml-n16 -top-10'> <div class='q-tooltip-content'> <div class='q-tooltip-arrow -bottom-3'></div> <div class='q-tooltip-inner py-1 pl-1' role='tooltip'> <div class='h6t relative z1 uppercase kern--w mx025'> <span class='small no-wrap'>Read Later</span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </li> </ul> <div class='nav__local__progress absolute fit-b fit-l fit-r z1 theme__accent'> <span class='block' style='transform: translateX(-100%);' data-role='content-progress-bar'></span> </div> </div> </div> <div id='postBody' class='theme__background-background theme__text'> <section class='post__title__wrapper relative '> <section class='outer fill-h relative outer--content '> <div class='mha container--s'> <div class='header-spacer'></div> <div class='post__title pv1 scale1 mha'> <div class='scale0'> <div class='mb1 pb025 mt0 h6t post__title__kicker '> <a class="kicker theme__accent theme__text-hover uppercase" href="/tag/explainers/">explainers</a> </div> <h1 class='post__title__title mv025 noe theme__text' >What Is Distributed Computing?</h1> <div class='post__title__author-date h5 mt1'> <div class='byline relative flex flex-items-start merriweather mv025 mr1 gray3 h6t theme__text-hover'> <em class='byline__by gray4 mr075'>By </em> <a href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/authors/levymax/'> <span class='byline__author uppercase kern light small'>Max G. Levy</span> </a> </div> <p class="h6 mv1 pv025 o6"><em>November 25, 2024</em></p> </div> <div class='post__title__meta flex flex-wrap flex-items-start'> <div class='post__title__excerpt wysiwyg p italic mb1 mt025 pr2 o4 theme__text ' > Our computers can get a lot more done when they share the load with other machines. </div> <div class='post__title__actions h5 mt025 flex-auto flex flex-items-center'> <div class='comments-button mr05 flex flex-items-center theme__accent-hover h5 theme__accent' data-name='comment-bubble' > <a href='#comments' class='flex flex-items-center pangram'> <svg viewbox='0 0 50 50' enable-background='new 0 0 50 50' xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class=''><title>Comment</title><path fill='currentColor' d='M9.4 4.2h31.2c8.6 0 9.4 7 9.4 15.6s-.7 15.6-9.4 15.6h-2.2l-.9 9.4-18.8-9.4H9.4c-8.6 0-9.4-7-9.4-15.6S.7 4.2 9.4 4.2z'></path></svg> <div> <span class='comments-button__count ml075 small mbold disqus-comment-count' data-disqus-identifier='144406 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justify-center flex-col max-w-img-large py-0 px-0 l:px-0 l:mb-20'> <div class='w-full flex justify-center max-w-mod-large m:max-w-unset image--module s:flex-col s:m-auto'> <div class='w-auto mr-2 last:mr-0 s:m-0 s:flex s:flex-col flex-1'> <img width="2560" height="1440" src="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Distributed-Computing_crCarlos-Arrojo-Lede.webp" class="mb-6 w-full s:mb-4" alt="A man on a motherboard surrounded by computers" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" srcset="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Distributed-Computing_crCarlos-Arrojo-Lede.webp 2560w, https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Distributed-Computing_crCarlos-Arrojo-Lede-1720x968.webp 1720w, https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Distributed-Computing_crCarlos-Arrojo-Lede-520x293.webp 520w, https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Distributed-Computing_crCarlos-Arrojo-Lede-768x432.webp 768w, https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Distributed-Computing_crCarlos-Arrojo-Lede-1536x864.webp 1536w, https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Distributed-Computing_crCarlos-Arrojo-Lede-2048x1152.webp 2048w" sizes="(max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px" /> </div> </div> <figcaption class='block my-0 mx-auto w-full'> <section class='py-0 px-12 s:p-0 m:px-16'> <div class='w-full my-0 mx-auto flex flex-col s:mx-5 s:w-full-minus-25 s:max-w-mod-inline m:max-w-mod-inline l:flex-row l:max-w-mod-large justify-end s:mt-4 s:mb-4'> <div class='attribution theme__anchors--solid wysiwyg pangram h6 mb1 fill-h text-left w-auto before:block l:before:hidden l:w-half-minus-17 l:text-right l:pl-24'> <p>Carlos Arrojo for <em>Quanta Magazine</em></p> </div> </div> </section> </figcaption> </figure> <div class='acf-content scale1 mt2'> <h2 class='screen-reader-text'>Introduction</h2> <div class='post__wrapper scale0 show-dropcap'> <div class='mha container--m'> <div class='post__content relative flex flex-items-start flex-justify-between'> <aside class='post__sidebar hide flex flex-justify-center '> <div class='post__sidebar__content'> <div class='post__sidebar__content__inner'> <div class='align-c mb075'> <div class='sidebar__author'> <a class='theme__accent-hover transition--color ' href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/authors/levymax/'> <div class='sidebar__author__avatar mha mb1'> <div class='image mx0 relative image--circle '> <div class='image__inner absolute fit-x is-loaded'> <img width="1000" height="1000" src="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Levy_Max.jpg" class="absolute fit-x fill-h fill-v mxa" alt="" decoding="async" srcset="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Levy_Max.jpg 1000w, https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Levy_Max-520x520.jpg 520w, https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Levy_Max-768x768.jpg 768w, https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Levy_Max-160x160.jpg 160w" sizes="(max-width: 1000px) 100vw, 1000px" /> </div> </div> </div> <div class='h3t mv05'> <span class='screen-reader-text'>By </span>Max G. Levy </div> <p class="o8 theme__text h5 mt05 mb1"><em>Contributing Writer</em></p> </a> </div> <hr class='mb075 o1'> <p class="h6 mv1 pv025 o6"><em>November 25, 2024</em></p> </div> <form action='https://www.quantamagazine.org/what-is-distributed-computing-20241125' method='get' class='sidebar__actions'> <hr class='mt075 mb1 o1'> <input type='hidden' id='print' name='print' value='1' /> <button type="submit" class='h6 pangram uppercase mv05 pb1 bold kern flex flex-items-center flex-justify-between sidebar__print transition--color theme__accent-hover'> <small>View PDF/Print Mode</small> <svg class="icon-l theme__accent ml05" viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50"><path fill="currentColor" d="M39.9,27.5h4.9v22.4H0.1V5.1h22.4V10H5v35h35V27.5z M49.8,0.1h-2.4h-1H33.8V5h7.6L20.7,25.8l3.4,3.4L45,8.4v7.7h4.9V2.6L49.8,0.1z"></path></svg> </button> </form> <div class='mt1 pt05 sidebar__tag-wrap'> <a class='sidebar__tag h6 pangram medium inline-block mb0 relative float-left' href='/tag/computer-science'> <span class='absolute fit-x theme__text-background o1'></span> <span class='theme__text theme__accent-hover transition--color relative'>computer science</span></a> <a class='sidebar__tag h6 pangram medium inline-block mb0 relative float-left' href='/tag/computers'> <span class='absolute fit-x theme__text-background o1'></span> <span class='theme__text theme__accent-hover transition--color relative'>computers</span></a> <a class='sidebar__tag h6 pangram medium inline-block mb0 relative float-left' href='/tag/explainers'> <span class='absolute fit-x theme__text-background o1'></span> <span class='theme__text theme__accent-hover transition--color relative'>explainers</span></a> <a class='sidebar__tag h6 pangram medium inline-block mb0 relative float-left' href='/tag/history-of-science'> <span class='absolute fit-x theme__text-background o1'></span> <span class='theme__text theme__accent-hover transition--color relative'>history of science</span></a> <a class='sidebar__tag h6 pangram medium inline-block mb0 relative float-left' href='/tag/information-theory'> <span class='absolute fit-x theme__text-background o1'></span> <span class='theme__text theme__accent-hover transition--color relative'>information theory</span></a> <a class='sidebar__tag h6 pangram medium inline-block mb0 relative float-left' href='/tag/networks'> <span class='absolute fit-x theme__text-background o1'></span> <span class='theme__text theme__accent-hover transition--color relative'>networks</span></a> <a class='sidebar__tag h6 pangram medium inline-block mb0 relative theme__accent w-full' href='/topics'> <span class='absolute fit-x theme__text-background o1'></span> <span class='theme__text-hover transition--color relative'>All topics</span> <svg class='icon ml05' viewbox='0 0 50 50' enable-background='new 0 0 50 50'><path fill='currentColor' d='M50 25l-17.4-8.7v6.5H0v4.4h32.6v6.5'></path></svg> </a> </div> </div> <div class='sidebar__poster'> <a href='https://www.simonsfoundation.org/' title='' target='_blank' class=''> <img width="640" height="1100" src="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Article-Design-E@2x.png" class="fill-h" alt="" decoding="async" srcset="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Article-Design-E@2x.png 640w, https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Article-Design-E@2x-303x520.png 303w" sizes="(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px" /></a> </div> </div> </aside> <section class='outer mha js-router-anchors outer--content'> <div class='flex-auto mha container--xs '> <div class='post__content__section wysiwyg p theme__anchors--underline' data-role='selectable'> <div class='post__content wysiwyg p theme__anchors--underline '> <p>No device is an island: Your daily computational needs depend on more than just the microprocessors inside your computer or phone. Our modern world relies on “distributed computing,” which shares the computational load among multiple different machines. The technique passes data back and forth in an elaborate choreography of digital bits — a dance that has shaped the internet’s past, present and likely future.</p> <p>In 1973, Xerox engineers invented the <a href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/bob-metcalfe-ethernet-pioneer-wins-turing-award-20230322/">ethernet</a> connection, which allowed the first personal computers to communicate with a shared printer. Ethernet gave rise to local area networks (LANs), which by the end of the 1970s let users share files within homes or offices.</p> <p>Around that same time, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) had been developing a more expansive distributed network. ARPANET, as it was called, could distribute information over phone lines, promising a much vaster network than a LAN. But it had limitations: The machines involved had to be compatible, and all connections were hardwired. Defense officials wanted tanks, planes and ships to communicate wirelessly, and scientists wanted to open the networking possibilities up to the masses. The challenge was to establish rules that standardize how any kind of machine talks to another one over any kind of connection.</p> <p>In 1974, <a href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/vint-cerfs-plan-for-building-an-internet-in-space-20201021/">Vinton Cerf</a> and Robert Kahn documented their proposal for a set of rules they called Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, or TCP/IP. These instructions allowed information to be broken into small “packets,” sent through a network, and reassembled at the destination.</p> <aside class="post__aside mb2 relative post__aside--right post__aside--medium hide-on-print"> <div class='card clearfix mv05 pv1 theme__anchors--none is-grid-variant is-shortcode border-grey-o25'> <div class='card__image mr1 mb1' data-toggle-hover='card'> <a href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/vint-cerfs-plan-for-building-an-internet-in-space-20201021/' class='relative'> <span class='screen-reader-text'>To Boldly Go Where No Internet Protocol Has Gone Before</span> <div class='image mx0 relative image--standard'> <div class='image__inner absolute fit-x is-loaded'> <img width="520" height="292" src="https://www.quantamagazine.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Vint-Cerf_520x292.jpg" class="absolute fit-x fill-h fill-v mxa" alt="" decoding="async" /> </div> </div> </a> </div> <div class='card__content '> <div class='mb1 pb025 mt0 h6t card__kicker'> <a class="kicker theme__accent theme__text-hover uppercase" href="/qa/">Q&A</a> </div> <a href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/vint-cerfs-plan-for-building-an-internet-in-space-20201021/' data-toggle-hover='card'> <h3 class='card__title noe mv0 theme__accent-hover transition--color h2t'> To Boldly Go Where No Internet Protocol Has Gone Before </h3> </a> <div class='card__meta mb0 mt025 flex flex-items-center flex-wrap'> <div class='card-date h6 flex flex-items-center mv05'> <div class='uppercase mr1 kern small gray3'>October 21, 2020</div> <span class='o-divider o-divider--vertical mr1 relative'></span> </div> <div class='card__actions h6 flex flex-items-center mv05'> <div class='comments-button mr05 flex flex-items-center theme__accent-hover ' data-name='comment-bubble' > <a href='https://www.quantamagazine.org/vint-cerfs-plan-for-building-an-internet-in-space-20201021/#comments' class='flex flex-items-center pangram'> <svg viewbox='0 0 50 50' enable-background='new 0 0 50 50' xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class='o2'><title>Comment</title><path fill='currentColor' d='M9.4 4.2h31.2c8.6 0 9.4 7 9.4 15.6s-.7 15.6-9.4 15.6h-2.2l-.9 9.4-18.8-9.4H9.4c-8.6 0-9.4-7-9.4-15.6S.7 4.2 9.4 4.2z'></path></svg> </a> </div> <span class='o-divider mh075 relative'></span> <div class='relative'> <button class='bookmark-button mh05 flex flex-items-center theme__accent-hover ' data-toggle-hover='tooltip' data-id='93804' data-active-class='' aria-expanded='false'> <svg class="icon" viewbox="0 0 50 50" enable-background="new 0 0 50 50" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>Save Article</title><path fill="currentColor" d="M2.1 0h45.8v50L25.5 37.5 2.1 50V0z"></path></svg> </button> <div class='q-tooltip hidden force-mobile-placement w-32 ml-n16 -top-10'> <div class='q-tooltip-content'> <div class='q-tooltip-arrow -bottom-3'></div> <div class='q-tooltip-inner py-1 pl-1' role='tooltip'> <div class='h6t relative z1 uppercase kern--w mx025'> <span class='small no-wrap'>Read Later</span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class='card__excerpt h5 pangram o6 mb4 mt025'> </div> </div> </div> </aside> <p>To this day, all internet data transfers begin with TCP’s three-way handshake. The sender’s machine sends a “synchronization” packet to the receiver, as if to say “listen up.” The receiver responds with an acknowledgment, and the sender confirms with its own acknowledgment. The message then begins in earnest. The TCP part of the protocol splits the data to be sent into a sequence of packets, labeling them carefully so that they can be reassembled later. IP then dictates the best route for each packet to take. TCP protocols reassemble the information at the receiver’s machine and check it for accuracy. The process guarantees no out-of-order or missing packets.</p> <p>In the early 1980s, physicists at the European particle physics laboratory CERN showed that distributed computing could be important for far more than just communication. Their computational problems were too complex for a single device to handle efficiently. Hundreds of CERN scientists would collaborate on a single experiment, and the giant detectors that they used created an enormous volume of raw data that had to be analyzed. Distributed computing allowed these researchers to efficiently share the computational load between giant mainframes and individual workstations, even if those machines came from different manufacturers and used different operating systems. This type of work paved the way for reliable intercontinental collaboration and, eventually, email.</p> <div class="related-list"> <aside class="post__aside mb2 relative hide-on-print post__aside--right"> <h2 class="mv0 h5 bold uppercase kern">Related:</h2> <hr class="mt1 o2"> <ol class="post__aside__list theme__anchors--none pt05"> <li class="mv075 flex"> <h3 class="h5t mt0 mb025 medium"> <a class="theme__accent theme__text-hover" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/how-mathematical-curves-power-cryptography-20220919/"> <span class="' . $span_class . '">How Mathematical Curves Enable Advanced Communication</span> </a> </h3> </li> <li class="mv075 flex"> <h3 class="h5t mt0 mb025 medium"> <a class="theme__accent theme__text-hover" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/bob-metcalfe-ethernet-pioneer-wins-turing-award-20230322/"> <span class="' . $span_class . '">Bob Metcalfe, Ethernet Pioneer, Wins Turing Award</span> </a> </h3> </li> <li class="mv075 flex"> <h3 class="h5t mt0 mb025 medium"> <a class="theme__accent theme__text-hover" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/stephanie-wehner-is-designing-a-quantum-internet-20190925/"> <span class="' . $span_class . '">To Invent a Quantum Internet</span> </a> </h3> </li> </ol> </aside> </div> <p>Decades later, as global business moved to the internet, the ultimate distributed computing system was born: the cloud. Cloud servers are, basically, other people’s computers that you can use to store and process data for you. With these systems in place, tech companies no longer needed their own servers, they could just rent processing power that’s scattered across a distributed network. Cloud servers are a bit like taxis: You only use one when you need it, and it’s often more efficient than owning a car that sits unused 95% of the time.</p> <p>Distributed computing also allows for <a href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/how-mathematical-curves-power-cryptography-20220919/">better cryptographic systems</a>. An encrypted key may be more secure when generated by a network of computers where no single device knows the entire secret code. This collaborative approach also prevents tampering with data on the blockchain, a technology that stores transactions redundantly in multiple nodes of a network.</p> <p>These benefits — efficiency, security and reliability — suggest that our computers are likely to keep distributing their computations for the foreseeable future.</p> </div> </div> </div> </section> <aside class='post__sidebar hide flex flex-justify-center theme__anchors--solid '> <div class='post__sidebar__content'> <div class='post__sidebar__content__inner'> <div class='h3t mt0'> Share this article </div> <div data-id='social-links'> <div class='social-links social-links--share flex flex-justify-between'> <a href='http://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=https://www.quantamagazine.org/what-is-distributed-computing-20241125/' class='social-links__link flex flex-items-center relative' target="_blank" > <div class='icon-button inline-block relative pointer theme__accent-hover-child'> <div class='absolute fit-x mxa o2 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