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</a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manufacture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manufacture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Manufacture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Manufacture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Manufacture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Manufacture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General_characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>General characteristics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories_on_composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_on_composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Theories on composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories_on_composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods_of_deployment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_of_deployment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Methods of deployment</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods_of_deployment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methods of deployment subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methods_of_deployment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Projectors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Projectors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Projectors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Projectors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hand-held_projectors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hand-held_projectors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Hand-held projectors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hand-held_projectors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grenades" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grenades"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Grenades</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grenades-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effectiveness_and_countermeasures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effectiveness_and_countermeasures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Effectiveness and countermeasures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effectiveness_and_countermeasures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Greek fire</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griekse_vuur" title="Griekse vuur – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Griekse vuur" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griechisches_Feuer" title="Griechisches Feuer – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Griechisches Feuer" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%BA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="النار الإغريقية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="النار الإغريقية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agua_ardent" title="Agua ardent – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Agua ardent" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fueu_griego" title="Fueu griego – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fueu griego" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunan_alovu" title="Yunan alovu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yunan alovu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi-lia%CC%8Dp-h%C3%B3e" title="Hi-lia̍p-hóe – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hi-lia̍p-hóe" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C" title="Грэчаскі агонь – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Грэчаскі агонь" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D1%8A%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%8A%D0%BD" title="Гръцки огън – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Гръцки огън" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tan_gresian" title="Tan gresian – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tan gresian" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foc_grec" title="Foc grec – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Foc grec" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98eck%C3%BD_ohe%C5%88" title="Řecký oheň – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Řecký oheň" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A6sk_ild" title="Græsk ild – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Græsk ild" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griechisches_Feuer" title="Griechisches Feuer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Griechisches Feuer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreeka_tuli" title="Kreeka tuli – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kreeka tuli" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CE%B3%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%BD_%CF%80%CF%85%CF%81" title="Υγρόν πυρ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υγρόν πυρ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuego_griego" title="Fuego griego – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fuego griego" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greka_fajro" title="Greka fajro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Greka fajro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_greko" title="Su greko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Su greko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AA%D8%B4_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="آتش یونانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آتش یونانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feu_gr%C3%A9geois" title="Feu grégeois – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Feu grégeois" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lume_grego" title="Lume grego – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lume grego" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%B8%EB%A6%AC%EC%8A%A4%EC%9D%98_%EB%B6%88" title="그리스의 불 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="그리스의 불" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF" title="Հունական կրակ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հունական կրակ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C4%8Dka_vatra" title="Grčka vatra – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Grčka vatra" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Api_Yunani" title="Api Yunani – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Api Yunani" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuoco_greco" title="Fuoco greco – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fuoco greco" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A9_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אש יוונית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אש יוונית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AB%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ბერძნული ცეცხლი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბერძნული ცეცხლი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignis_Graecus" title="Ignis Graecus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ignis Graecus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grie%C4%B7u_uguns" title="Grieķu uguns – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Grieķu uguns" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graiki%C5%A1ka_ugnis" title="Graikiška ugnis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Graikiška ugnis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6r%C3%B6gt%C5%B1z" title="Görögtűz – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Görögtűz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grieks_vuur" title="Grieks vuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Grieks vuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AE%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A2%E7%81%AB%E8%96%AC" title="ギリシア火薬 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ギリシア火薬" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gresk_ild" title="Gresk ild – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gresk ild" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fu%C3%B2c_gr%C3%A8c" title="Fuòc grèc – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Fuòc grèc" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogie%C5%84_grecki" title="Ogień grecki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ogień grecki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fogo_grego" title="Fogo grego – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fogo grego" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Incendiary weapon used by the Byzantines</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the weapon. For the band, see <a href="/wiki/Greek_Fire_(band)" title="Greek Fire (band)">Greek Fire (band)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Greek_fires_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Greek fires (disambiguation)">Greek fires</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg/220px-Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg/330px-Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg/440px-Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3013" data-file-height="1543" /></a><figcaption>"The Roman fleet burn the opposite fleet down"<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – An <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman">Eastern Roman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> war ship using their "secret weapon" Greek fire against a ship belonging to the rebel <a href="/wiki/Thomas_the_Slav" title="Thomas the Slav">Thomas the Slav</a>, AD 821. (12th century illustration from the "<i><a href="/wiki/Madrid_Skylitzes" title="Madrid Skylitzes">Madrid Skylitzes</a></i>").</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Greek fire</b> was an <a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">incendiary weapon</a> system used by the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> from the seventh to the fourteenth centuries. The recipe for Greek fire was a closely-guarded <a href="/wiki/Classified_information" title="Classified information">state secret</a>; historians have variously speculated that it was based on <a href="/wiki/Potassium_nitrate" title="Potassium nitrate">saltpeter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">quicklime</a>, but most modern scholars agree that it was based on <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> mixed with <a href="/wiki/Resin" title="Resin">resins</a>, comparable in composition to modern <a href="/wiki/Napalm" title="Napalm">napalm</a>. Byzantine sailors would toss <a href="/wiki/Grenade" title="Grenade">grenades</a> loaded with Greek fire onto enemy ships or spray it from tubes. Its ability to burn on water made it an effective and destructive naval incendiary weapon, and rival powers tried unsuccessfully to copy the material. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Usage of the term "Greek fire" has been general in English and most other languages since the Crusades. Original Byzantine sources called the substance a variety of names, such as "sea fire" (<a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek">Medieval Greek</a>: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πῦρ θαλάσσιον</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">pŷr thalássion</i></span>), "Roman fire" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πῦρ ῥωμαϊκόν</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">pŷr rhōmaïkón</i></span>), "war fire" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πολεμικὸν πῦρ</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">polemikòn pŷr</i></span>), "liquid fire" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ὑγρὸν πῦρ</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">hygròn pŷr</i></span>), "sticky fire" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πῦρ κολλητικόν</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">pŷr kollētikón</i></span>), or "manufactured fire" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πῦρ σκευαστόν</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">pŷr skeuastón</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006608–609_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006608–609-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195983_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195983-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Early_thermal_weapons" title="Early thermal weapons">Early thermal weapons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Byzantine navy</a></div> <p>Incendiary and flaming weapons were used in warfare for centuries before Greek fire was invented. They included sulfur-, <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>-, and <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a>-based mixtures.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeicester197175_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeicester197175-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrosby200288–89_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrosby200288–89-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Incendiary arrows and pots or small pouches containing combustible substances surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Caltrops" class="mw-redirect" title="Caltrops">caltrops</a> or spikes, or launched by <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapults</a>, were used by the 9th century BC by the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Assyrians</a> and were extensively used in the Greco-Roman world as well. <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> mentions that in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Delium" title="Battle of Delium">siege of Delium</a> in 424 BC a long tube on wheels was used which blew flames forward using a large <a href="/wiki/Bellows" title="Bellows">bellows</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington19991–5_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington19991–5-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195970–74_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195970–74-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Graeco-Roman treatise <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">Kestoi</i></span>, compiled in the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD and traditionally ascribed to <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus" title="Sextus Julius Africanus">Julius Africanus</a>, records a mixture that ignited from adequate heat and intense sunlight, used in grenades or night attacks: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Automatic fire also by the following formula. This is the recipe: take equal amounts of sulphur, rock salt, ashes, thunder stone, and pyrite and pound fine in a black mortar at midday sun. Also in equal amounts of each ingredient mix together black mulberry <a href="/wiki/Resin" title="Resin">resin</a> and Zakynthian asphalt, the latter in a liquid form and free-flowing, resulting in a product that is sooty colored. Then add to the asphalt the tiniest amount of quicklime. But because the sun is at its zenith, one must pound it carefully and protect the face, for it will ignite suddenly. When it catches fire, one should seal it in some sort of copper receptacle; in this way you will have it available in a box, without exposing it to the sun. If you should wish to ignite enemy armaments, you will smear it on in the evening, either on the armaments or some other object, but in secret; when the sun comes up, everything will be burnt up.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In naval warfare, the Byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Anastasius_I_(emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anastasius I (emperor)">Anastasius I</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 491–518</span>) is recorded by chronicler <a href="/wiki/John_Malalas" title="John Malalas">John Malalas</a> to have been advised by a philosopher from <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> called Proclus to use sulfur to burn the ships of the rebel general <a href="/wiki/Vitalian_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitalian (general)">Vitalian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington19995_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington19995-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Greek fire proper was developed in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 672</span> and is ascribed by the chronicler <a href="/wiki/Theophanes_the_Confessor" title="Theophanes the Confessor">Theophanes the Confessor</a> to <a href="/wiki/Callinicus_of_Heliopolis" title="Callinicus of Heliopolis">Kallinikos</a> (Latinized Callinicus), a Jewish architect from <a href="/wiki/Heliopolis_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliopolis (Syria)">Heliopolis</a>, in Syria, by then overrun by the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006607–609_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006607–609-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>At that time Kallinikos, an artificer from Heliopolis, fled to the Romans. He had devised a sea fire which ignited the Arab ships and burned them with all hands. Thus it was that the Romans returned with victory and discovered the sea fire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheophanesTurtledove198253_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheophanesTurtledove198253-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The accuracy and exact chronology of this account is open to question: elsewhere, Theophanes reports the use of fire-carrying ships equipped with nozzles (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">siphōn</i></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-Chronographia_1839_p._610_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chronographia_1839_p._610-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by the Byzantines a couple of years before the supposed arrival of Kallinikos at Constantinople.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheophanesTurtledove198252_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheophanesTurtledove198252-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If this is not due to chronological confusion of the events of the siege, it may suggest that Kallinikos introduced an improved version of an established weapon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992657_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992657-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006608_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006608-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historian <a href="/wiki/J._R._Partington" title="J. R. Partington">James Partington</a> thinks it likely that Greek fire was not the creation of any single person but "invented by chemists in Constantinople who had inherited the discoveries of the <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandrian</a> chemical school".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington199912–13_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington199912–13-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 11th-century chronicler <a href="/wiki/George_Kedrenos" title="George Kedrenos">George Kedrenos</a> records that Kallinikos came from <a href="/wiki/Heliopolis_(Ancient_Egypt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliopolis (Ancient Egypt)">Heliopolis in Egypt</a>, but most scholars reject this as an error.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195980_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195980-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kedrenos also records the story, considered implausible by modern scholars, that Kallinikos' descendants, a family called <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">Lampros</i></span>, "brilliant", kept the secret of the fire's manufacture and continued doing so to Kedrenos' time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006608_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006608-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kallinikos' development of Greek fire came at a critical moment in the Byzantine Empire's history: weakened by its long <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">wars with Sassanid Persia</a>, the Byzantines had been unable to effectively resist the onslaught of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a>. Within a generation, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt had fallen to the Arabs, who in <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 672</span> set out to conquer the imperial capital of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>. Greek fire was used to great effect against the Muslim fleets, helping to repel the Muslims at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(674%E2%80%93678)" title="Siege of Constantinople (674–678)">first</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(718)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Constantinople (718)">second</a> Arab sieges of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200626–27,_31–32_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200626–27,_31–32-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Records of its use in later naval battles against the <a href="/wiki/Saracen" title="Saracen">Saracens</a> are more sporadic, but it secured victories during the Byzantine expansion in the late 9th and early 10th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200661–62,_72_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200661–62,_72-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Use of the substance was prominent in Byzantine civil wars, chiefly the revolt of the thematic fleets in 727 and the large-scale rebellion led by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_the_Slav" title="Thomas the Slav">Thomas the Slav</a> in 821–823. In both cases, the rebel fleets were defeated by the Constantinople-based central Imperial fleet through the use of Greek fire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200632,_46,_73_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200632,_46,_73-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Byzantines also used the weapon to devastating effect against the various <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_people" title="Rus' people">Rus'</a> raids on the <a href="/wiki/Bosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosphorus">Bosporus</a>, especially those of <a href="/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_War_(941)" title="Rus'–Byzantine War (941)">941</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_War_(1043)" title="Rus'–Byzantine War (1043)">1043</a>, as well as during the <a href="/wiki/Rus%27%E2%80%93Byzantine_War_(970%E2%80%93971)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rus'–Byzantine War (970–971)">Bulgarian war of 970–971</a>, when the fire-carrying Byzantine ships blockaded the Danube.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200686,_189_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200686,_189-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The importance placed on Greek fire during the Empire's struggle against the Arabs led to its discovery being ascribed to divine intervention. The Emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_VII" title="Constantine VII">Constantine Porphyrogennetos</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 945–959</span>), in his book <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/De_Administrando_Imperio" title="De Administrando Imperio">De Administrando Imperio</a></i></span>, admonishes his son and heir, <a href="/wiki/Romanos_II" title="Romanos II">Romanos II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 959–963</span>), never to reveal the secrets of its composition, as it was "shown and revealed by an angel to the great and holy first Christian emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine</a>" and that the angel bound him "not to prepare this fire but for Christians, and only in the imperial city". As a warning, he adds that one official, who was bribed into handing some of it over to the Empire's enemies, was struck down by a "flame from heaven" as he was about to enter a church.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoravcsikJenkins196768–71_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoravcsikJenkins196768–71-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195982_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195982-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the latter incident demonstrates, the Byzantines could not avoid capture of their secret weapon: the Arabs captured at least one fireship intact in 827, and the Bulgars captured several <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">siphōn</i></span>s and much of the substance itself in 812/814. This was apparently not enough to allow their enemies to copy it (see <a href="#General_characteristics">below</a>). The Arabs used various incendiary substances similar to the Byzantine weapon, but were never able to copy the Byzantine method of deployment by <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">siphōn</i></span>, and used catapults and grenades instead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006609–611_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006609–611-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992660,_663–664_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992660,_663–664-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Greek fire continued to be mentioned during the 12th century, and <a href="/wiki/Anna_Komnene" title="Anna Komnene">Anna Komnene</a> gives a vivid description of its use in a naval battle against the <a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisans</a> in 1099.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006110_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006110-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of hastily improvised <a href="/wiki/Fireship" class="mw-redirect" title="Fireship">fireships</a> is mentioned during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1203)" title="Siege of Constantinople (1203)">1203 siege</a> of Constantinople by the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a>, but no report confirms the use of Greek fire. This might be because of the general disarmament of the Empire in the 20 years leading up to the sacking, or because the Byzantines had lost access to the areas where the primary ingredients were to be found, or even perhaps because the secret had been lost over time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006630–631_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006630–631-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006316_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006316-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Records of a 13th-century use of "Greek fire" by the Saracens against the Crusaders can be read through the Memoirs of the Lord of Joinville during the <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Crusade" title="Seventh Crusade">Seventh Crusade</a>. One description of the memoir says "the tail of fire that trailed behind it was as big as a great spear; and it made such a noise as it came, that it sounded like the thunder of heaven. It looked like a dragon flying through the air. Such a bright light did it cast, that one could see all over the camp as though it were day, by reason of the great mass of fire, and the brilliance of the light that it shed."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 19th century, it is reported that an <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> called Kavafian approached the government of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> with a new type of Greek fire he claimed to have developed. Kavafian refused to reveal its composition when asked by the government, insisting that he be placed in command of its use during naval engagements. Not long after this, he was poisoned by imperial authorities, without their ever having found out his secret.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manufacture">Manufacture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Manufacture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_characteristics">General characteristics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: General characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Byzantine army</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fighting_between_Byzantines_and_Arabs_Chronikon_of_Ioannis_Skylitzes,_end_of_13th_century..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Fighting_between_Byzantines_and_Arabs_Chronikon_of_Ioannis_Skylitzes%2C_end_of_13th_century..jpg/200px-Fighting_between_Byzantines_and_Arabs_Chronikon_of_Ioannis_Skylitzes%2C_end_of_13th_century..jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Fighting_between_Byzantines_and_Arabs_Chronikon_of_Ioannis_Skylitzes%2C_end_of_13th_century..jpg/300px-Fighting_between_Byzantines_and_Arabs_Chronikon_of_Ioannis_Skylitzes%2C_end_of_13th_century..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Fighting_between_Byzantines_and_Arabs_Chronikon_of_Ioannis_Skylitzes%2C_end_of_13th_century..jpg/400px-Fighting_between_Byzantines_and_Arabs_Chronikon_of_Ioannis_Skylitzes%2C_end_of_13th_century..jpg 2x" data-file-width="1363" data-file-height="694" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Structural history</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Roman_army" class="mw-redirect" title="East Roman army">East Roman army</a></li> <li>'Classical' Byzantine army <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">themes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagma_(military)" title="Tagma (military)">tagmata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetaireia" title="Hetaireia">Hetaireia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Komnenian_era)" title="Byzantine army (Komnenian era)">Komnenian-era army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronoia" title="Pronoia">pronoia</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Palaiologan_era)" title="Byzantine army (Palaiologan era)">Palaiologan-era army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allagion" title="Allagion">allagia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varangian_Guard" title="Varangian Guard">Varangian Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_generals" title="Category:Byzantine generals">Generals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_of_the_Schools" title="Domestic of the Schools">Domestic of the Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Domestic" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Domestic">Grand Domestic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratopedarches" title="Stratopedarches">Stratopedarches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protostrator" title="Protostrator">Protostrator</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Byzantine navy</a>: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Greek fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dromon" title="Dromon">Dromon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_admirals" title="Category:Byzantine admirals">Admirals</a> (<a href="/wiki/Droungarios_of_the_Fleet" title="Droungarios of the Fleet">Droungarios of the Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megas_doux" title="Megas doux">Megas doux</a>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Campaign history</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> Lists of <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_wars" title="List of Byzantine wars">wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_revolts_and_civil_wars" title="List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars">revolts and civil wars</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_battles" title="List of Byzantine battles">battles</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges_of_Constantinople" title="List of sieges of Constantinople">Constantinople</a>)</td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Strategy and tactics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_battle_tactics" title="Byzantine battle tactics">Tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Byzantine_siege_warfare&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Byzantine siege warfare (page does not exist)">Siege warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_military_manuals" title="Byzantine military manuals">Military manuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_military_architecture" title="Category:Byzantine military architecture">Fortifications</a> (<a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople" title="Walls of Constantinople">Walls of Constantinople</a>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Byzantine_Military" title="Template:Byzantine Military"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Byzantine_Military" title="Template talk:Byzantine Military"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Byzantine_Military" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Byzantine Military"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As Constantine Porphyrogennetos' warnings show, the ingredients and the processes of manufacture and deployment of Greek fire were carefully guarded military secrets. So strict was the secrecy that the composition of Greek fire was lost forever and remains a source of speculation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006290_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006290-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mystery of the formula has long dominated the research into Greek fire. Despite this almost exclusive focus, Greek fire is best understood as a complete weapon system of many components, all of which were needed to operate together to render it effective. This comprised not only the formula of its composition, but also the specialized <a href="/wiki/Dromon" title="Dromon">dromon</a> ships that carried it into battle, the device used to prepare the substance by heating and pressurizing it, the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">siphōn</i></span> projecting it, and the special training of the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">siphōnarioi</i></span> who used it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992660,_663_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992660,_663-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knowledge of the whole system was highly <a href="/wiki/Compartmentalization_(information_security)" title="Compartmentalization (information security)">compartmentalised</a>, with operators and technicians aware of the secrets of only one component, ensuring that no enemy could gain knowledge of it in its entirety.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992663–664_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992663–664-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This accounts for the fact that when the <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgarians</a> took <a href="/wiki/Nesebar" title="Nesebar">Mesembria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Debeltos" class="mw-redirect" title="Debeltos">Debeltos</a> in 814, they captured 36 <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">siphōn</i></span>s and even quantities of the substance itself,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheophanesTurtledove1982178_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETheophanesTurtledove1982178-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but were unable to make any use of them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992663_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992663-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006609_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006609-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The information available on Greek fire is indirect, based on references in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_military_manuals" title="Byzantine military manuals">Byzantine military manuals</a> and secondary historical sources such as <a href="/wiki/Anna_Komnene" title="Anna Komnene">Anna Komnene</a> and Western European chroniclers, which are often inaccurate. In her <i><a href="/wiki/Alexiad" title="Alexiad">Alexiad</a></i>, Anna Komnene provides a description of an incendiary weapon, which was used by the Byzantine garrison of <a href="/wiki/Dyrrhachium" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyrrhachium">Dyrrhachium</a> in 1108 against the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a>. It is often regarded as an at least partial "recipe" for Greek fire:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington199919,_29_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington199919,_29-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197364_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197364-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This fire is made by the following arts: From the pine and certain such evergreen trees, inflammable resin is collected. This is rubbed with sulfur and put into tubes of reed, and is blown by men using it with violent and continuous breath. Then in this manner it meets the fire on the tip and catches light and falls like a fiery whirlwind on the faces of the enemies.</p></blockquote> <p>At the same time, the reports by Western chroniclers of the famed <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ignis graecus</i></span> are largely unreliable, since they apply the name to all incendiary substances.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006290_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006290-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In attempting to reconstruct the Greek fire system, the evidence from the contemporary literary references provides the following characteristics: </p> <ul><li>It burned on water; according to some interpretations it was ignited by water. Numerous writers testify that it could be extinguished only by a few substances, such as sand, strong vinegar, or old urine, some presumably by a sort of chemical reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992657–658_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992657–658-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECheronis1937362–363_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECheronis1937362–363-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>It was a liquid substance – not some sort of projectile – as verified both by descriptions and the name "liquid fire".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992657–658_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992657–658-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECheronis1937362–363_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECheronis1937362–363-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>At sea it was usually ejected from a <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">siphōn</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992657–658_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992657–658-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECheronis1937362–363_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECheronis1937362–363-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but earthenware pots or grenades filled with it – or similar substances – were also used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington199914_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington199914-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The discharge of Greek fire was accompanied by "thunder" and "much smoke".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992657–658_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992657–658-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECheronis1937362–363_43-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECheronis1937362–363-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theories_on_composition">Theories on composition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Theories on composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first and, for a long time, most popular theory regarding the composition of Greek fire held that its chief ingredient was <a href="/wiki/Potassium_nitrate" title="Potassium nitrate">saltpeter</a>, making it an early form of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197792_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197792-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197369–70_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197369–70-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This argument was based on the "thunder and smoke" description, as well as on the distance the flame could be projected from the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">siphōn</i></span>, which suggested an explosive discharge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992659_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992659-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the times of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Vossius" title="Isaac Vossius">Isaac Vossius</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195983_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195983-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> several scholars adhered to this position, most notably the so-called "French school" during the 19th century, which included chemist <a href="/wiki/Marcellin_Berthelot" title="Marcellin Berthelot">Marcellin Berthelot</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992658–659_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992658–659-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197369_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197369-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This view has subsequently been rejected, since saltpeter does not appear to have been used in warfare in Europe or the Middle East before the 13th century, and is absent from the accounts of the Muslim writers – the <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam">foremost chemists</a> of the early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> world<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-Hassan200141–83_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-Hassan200141–83-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – before the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington199921–22_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington199921–22-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the behavior of the suggested mixture would have been very different from the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">siphōn</i></span>-projected substance described by Byzantine sources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195983–84_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195983–84-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A second view, based on the fact that Greek fire was inextinguishable by water (some sources suggest that water intensified the flames), suggested that its destructive power was the result of the explosive reaction between water and <a href="/wiki/Quicklime" class="mw-redirect" title="Quicklime">quicklime</a>. Although quicklime was known and used by the Byzantines and the Arabs in warfare,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington19996–10,_14_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington19996–10,_14-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the theory is refuted by literary and empirical evidence. A quicklime-based substance would have to come in contact with water to ignite, while Emperor Leo's <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Tactica_of_Emperor_Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise">Tactica</a></i></span> indicates that Greek fire was often poured directly onto the decks of enemy ships,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although admittedly, decks were kept wet due to lack of sealants. Likewise, Leo describes the use of grenades,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which further reinforces the view that contact with water was not necessary for the substance's ignition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992660_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992660-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zenghelis (1932) pointed out that, based on experiments, the result of the water–quicklime reaction would be negligible in the open sea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZenghelis1932270_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZenghelis1932270-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another similar proposition suggested that Kallinikos had discovered <a href="/wiki/Calcium_phosphide" title="Calcium phosphide">calcium phosphide</a>, which can be made by boiling bones in urine in a sealed vessel.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On contact with water it releases <a href="/wiki/Phosphine" title="Phosphine">phosphine</a>, which ignites spontaneously. Extensive experiments with calcium phosphide also failed to reproduce the described intensity of Greek fire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECheronis1937363_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECheronis1937363-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197370_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197370-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Consequently, although the presence of either quicklime or saltpeter in the mixture cannot be entirely excluded, they were not the primary ingredient.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197370_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197370-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992659_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992659-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most modern scholars agree that Greek fire was based on either crude or refined <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>, comparable to modern <a href="/wiki/Napalm" title="Napalm">napalm</a>. The Byzantines had easy access to crude oil from the naturally occurring wells around the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> (e.g., the wells around <a href="/wiki/Tmutorakan" class="mw-redirect" title="Tmutorakan">Tmutorakan</a> noted by Constantine Porphyrogennetos) or in various locations throughout the Middle East.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197792_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197792-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington19994_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington19994-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195982–84_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195982–84-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An alternate name for Greek fire was "<a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median</a> fire" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">μηδικὸν πῦρ</span></span>),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195983_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195983-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the 6th-century historian <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a> records that crude oil, called "<a href="/wiki/Naphtha" title="Naphtha">naphtha</a>" (in Greek: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">νάφθα</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">náphtha</i></span>, from <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a> <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><span lang="peo"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%90%8E%B4%F0%90%8E%B3%F0%90%8E%AB" class="extiw" title="wikt:𐎴𐎳𐎫">𐎴𐎳𐎫</a></span></span> <span title="Old Persian (ca. 600-400 B.C.)-language text"><i lang="peo-Latn">naft</i></span>) by the Persians, was known to the Greeks as "Median oil" (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">μηδικὸν ἔλαιον</span></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This seems to corroborate the availability of naphtha as a basic ingredient of Greek fire.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197362_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197362-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Naphtha was also used by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasids" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasids">Abbasids</a> in the 9th century, with special troops, the <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">naffāṭūn</i></span>, who wore thick protective suits and used small copper vessels containing burning oil, which they threw onto the enemy troops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington199922_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington199922-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also a surviving 9th-century <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> text, preserved at <a href="/wiki/Wolfenb%C3%BCttel" title="Wolfenbüttel">Wolfenbüttel</a> in Germany, which mentions the ingredients of what appears to be Greek fire and the operation of the <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">siphōn</i></span>s used to project it. Although the text contains some inaccuracies, it identifies the main component as naphtha.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195983_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195983-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006614–616_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006614–616-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Resin" title="Resin">Resins</a> were probably added as a thickener (the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Praecepta_Militaria" title="Praecepta Militaria">Praecepta Militaria</a></i></span> refer to the substance as <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πῦρ κολλητικόν</span></span>, "sticky fire"), and to increase the duration and intensity of the flame.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006310_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006310-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006618_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006618-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A modern theoretical concoction included the use of <a href="/wiki/Pine_tar" title="Pine tar">pine tar</a> and animal fat.<sup id="cite_ref-video_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-video-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 12th-century treatise prepared by <a href="/wiki/Mardi_bin_Ali_al-Tarsusi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi">Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi</a> for <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> records an Arab version of Greek fire, called <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">naft</i></span>, which also had a petroleum base, with <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> and various resins added. Any direct relation with the Byzantine formula is unlikely.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006610–611_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006610–611-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <a href="/wiki/Isabella_Cortese" title="Isabella Cortese">Italian</a> recipe from the 16th century has been recorded for recreational use; it includes charcoal from a willow tree, saltpeter (<span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">sale ardente</i></span>), alcohol, sulfur, incense, tar (<span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it">pegola</i></span>), wool, and <a href="/wiki/Camphor" title="Camphor">camphor</a>; the concoction was guaranteed to "burn under water" and to be "beautiful".<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods_of_deployment">Methods of deployment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Methods of deployment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire,_medieval_illumination.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire%2C_medieval_illumination.jpg/220px-Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire%2C_medieval_illumination.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire%2C_medieval_illumination.jpg/330px-Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire%2C_medieval_illumination.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire%2C_medieval_illumination.jpg/440px-Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire%2C_medieval_illumination.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1392" /></a><figcaption>Use of a <i>cheirosiphōn</i> ("hand-<i>siphōn</i>"), a portable flamethrower, used from a flying bridge against a castle. Illumination from the <i><a href="/wiki/Poliorcetica" title="Poliorcetica">Poliorcetica</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Byzantium" title="Hero of Byzantium">Hero of Byzantium</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The chief method of deployment of Greek fire, which sets it apart from similar substances, was its projection through a tube (<i>siphōn</i>), for use aboard ships or in sieges. Portable projectors (<i>cheirosiphōnes</i>, χειροσίφωνες) were also invented, reputedly by Emperor Leo VI. The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_military_manuals" title="Byzantine military manuals">Byzantine military manuals</a> also mention that jars (<i>chytrai</i> or <i>tzykalia</i>) filled with Greek fire and <a href="/wiki/Caltrop" title="Caltrop">caltrops</a> wrapped with <a href="/wiki/Tow_(fibre)" title="Tow (fibre)">tow</a> and soaked in the substance were thrown by catapults, while pivoting <a href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)" title="Crane (machine)">cranes</a> (<i>gerania</i>) were employed to pour it upon enemy ships.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006378–379,_609_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006378–379,_609-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195986–87_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195986–87-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>cheirosiphōnes</i> especially were prescribed for use at land and in sieges, both against <a href="/wiki/Siege_machines" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege machines">siege machines</a> and against defenders on the walls, by several 10th-century military authors, and their use is depicted in the <i><a href="/wiki/Poliorcetica" title="Poliorcetica">Poliorcetica</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Byzantium" title="Hero of Byzantium">Hero of Byzantium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617–619_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617–619-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006295_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006295-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Dromon" title="Dromon">dromons</a> usually had a <i>siphōn</i> installed on their <a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)#Prow" title="Bow (watercraft)">prow</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Forecastle" title="Forecastle">forecastle</a>, but additional devices could also be placed elsewhere on the ship. Thus in 941, when the Byzantines were facing the vastly more numerous Rus' fleet, <i>siphōn</i>s were placed also amidships and even astern. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006203,_618_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006203,_618-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Projectors">Projectors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Projectors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of tubular projectors (σίφων, <i>siphōn</i>) is amply attested in the contemporary sources. Anna Komnene gives this account of beast-shaped Greek fire projectors being mounted to the bow of warships:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDawes1928292_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawes1928292-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>As he [the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I</a>] knew that the <a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisans</a> were skilled in sea warfare and dreaded a battle with them, on the prow of each ship he had a head fixed of a lion or other land-animal, made in brass or iron with the mouth open and then gilded over, so that their mere aspect was terrifying. And the fire which was to be directed against the enemy through tubes he made to pass through the mouths of the beasts, so that it seemed as if the lions and the other similar monsters were vomiting the fire.</p></blockquote> <p>Some sources provide more information on the composition and function of the whole mechanism. The Wolfenbüttel manuscript provides the following description:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006614–616_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006614–616-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>...having built a furnace right at the front of the ship, they set on it a copper vessel full of these things, having put fire underneath. And one of them, having made a bronze tube similar to that which the rustics call a <i>squitiatoria</i>, "squirt," with which boys play, they spray [it] at the enemy.</p></blockquote> <p>Another, possibly first-hand, account of the use of Greek fire comes from the 11th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Yngvars_saga_v%C3%AD%C3%B0f%C3%B6rla" title="Yngvars saga víðförla">Yngvars saga víðförla</a></i>, in which the <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a> <a href="/wiki/Ingvar_the_Far-Travelled" title="Ingvar the Far-Travelled">Ingvar the Far-Travelled</a> faces ships equipped with Greek fire weapons:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006616–617_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006616–617-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>[They] began blowing with smiths’ bellows at a furnace in which there was fire and there came from it a great din. There stood there also a brass [or bronze] tube and from it flew much fire against one ship, and it burned up in a short time so that all of it became white ashes...</p></blockquote> <p>The account, albeit embellished, corresponds with many of the characteristics of Greek fire known from other sources, such as a loud roar that accompanied its discharge.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197372_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197372-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These two texts are also the only two sources that explicitly mention that the substance was heated over a furnace before being discharged; although the validity of this information is open to question, modern reconstructions have relied upon them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006628–629_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006628–629-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006315_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006315-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Greek_Fire_mechanism_after_Haldon_and_Byrne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/Greek_Fire_mechanism_after_Haldon_and_Byrne.jpg/220px-Greek_Fire_mechanism_after_Haldon_and_Byrne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/Greek_Fire_mechanism_after_Haldon_and_Byrne.jpg/330px-Greek_Fire_mechanism_after_Haldon_and_Byrne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8a/Greek_Fire_mechanism_after_Haldon_and_Byrne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="413" data-file-height="242" /></a><figcaption>Proposed reconstruction of the Greek fire mechanism by Haldon and Byrne</figcaption></figure> <p>Based on these descriptions and the Byzantine sources, John Haldon and Maurice Byrne designed a hypothetical apparatus as consisting of three main components: a bronze pump, which was used to pressurize the oil; a brazier, used to heat the oil (πρόπυρον, <i>propyron</i>, "pre-heater"); and the nozzle, which was covered in bronze and mounted on a swivel (στρεπτόν, <i>strepton</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197793_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197793-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The brazier, burning a match of linen or flax that produced intense heat and the characteristic thick smoke, was used to heat oil and the other ingredients in an airtight tank above it,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197794_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197794-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a process that also helped to dissolve the resins into a fluid mixture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006310_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006310-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The substance was pressurized by the heat and the use of a force pump. After it had reached the proper pressure, a valve connecting the tank with the swivel was opened and the mixture was discharged from its end, being ignited at its mouth by a flame.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197795_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197795-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The intense heat of the flame made necessary the presence of heat shields made of iron (βουκόλια, <i>boukolia</i>), which are attested in the fleet inventories.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006624–626_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006624–626-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The process of operating Haldon and Byrne's design was fraught with danger, as the mounting pressure could easily make the heated oil tank explode, a flaw which was not recorded as a problem with the historical fire weapon.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197796_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197796-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006627–628_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006627–628-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the experiments conducted by Haldon in 2002 for the episode "Fireship" of the television series <i>Machines Times Forgot</i>, even modern welding techniques failed to secure adequate insulation of the bronze tank under pressure. This led to the relocation of the pressure pump between the tank and the nozzle. The full-scale device built on this basis established the effectiveness of the mechanism's design, even with the simple materials and techniques available to the Byzantines. The experiment used crude oil mixed with wood resins, and achieved a flame temperature of over 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) and an effective range of up to 15 meters (49 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hand-held_projectors">Hand-held projectors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hand-held projectors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire,_medieval_illumination_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire%2C_medieval_illumination_%28detail%29.jpg/220px-Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire%2C_medieval_illumination_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire%2C_medieval_illumination_%28detail%29.jpg/330px-Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire%2C_medieval_illumination_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire%2C_medieval_illumination_%28detail%29.jpg/440px-Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire%2C_medieval_illumination_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1046" data-file-height="840" /></a><figcaption>Detail of a <i>cheirosiphōn</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The portable <i>cheirosiphōn</i> ("hand-<i>siphōn</i>"), the earliest analogue to a modern <a href="/wiki/Flamethrower" title="Flamethrower">flamethrower</a>, is extensively attested in the military documents of the 10th century, and recommended for use in both sea and land. They first appear in the <i><a href="/wiki/Tactica_of_Emperor_Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise">Tactica</a></i> of emperor <a href="/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Leo VI the Wise">Leo VI the Wise</a>, who claims to have invented them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequent authors continued to refer to the <i>cheirosiphōnes</i>, especially for use against <a href="/wiki/Siege_towers" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege towers">siege towers</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_II_Phokas" title="Nikephoros II Phokas">Nikephoros II Phokas</a> also advises their use in field armies, with the aim of disrupting the enemy formation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617–619_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617–619-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although both Leo VI and Nikephoros Phokas claim that the substance used in the <i>cheirosiphōnes</i> was the same as in the static devices used on ships, Haldon and Byrne consider that the former were manifestly different from their larger cousins, and theorize that the device was fundamentally different, "a simple syringe [that] squirted both liquid fire (presumably unignited) and noxious juices to repel enemy troops." The illustrations of Hero's <i>Poliorcetica</i> show the <i>cheirosiphōn</i> also throwing the ignited substance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197797_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197797-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006627_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006627-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grenades">Grenades</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Grenades"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg/220px-Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg/330px-Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg/440px-Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1881" data-file-height="1590" /></a><figcaption>Ceramic grenades that were filled with Greek fire, surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Caltrop" title="Caltrop">caltrops</a>, 10th–12th century, <a href="/wiki/National_Historical_Museum_(Greece)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Historical Museum (Greece)">National Historical Museum</a>, Athens, Greece</figcaption></figure> <p>In its earliest form, Greek fire was hurled onto enemy forces by firing a burning cloth-wrapped ball, perhaps containing a flask, using a form of <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">light catapult</a>, most probably a seaborne variant of the Roman light catapult or <a href="/wiki/Onager_(siege_weapon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Onager (siege weapon)">onager</a>. These were capable of hurling loads of around 6 to 9 kg (13 to 20 lb) a distance of 350–450 m (380–490 yd). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effectiveness_and_countermeasures">Effectiveness and countermeasures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Effectiveness and countermeasures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the destructiveness of Greek fire is indisputable, it did not make the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Byzantine navy</a> invincible. It was not, in the words of naval historian John Pryor, a "ship-killer" comparable to the <a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">naval ram</a>, which, by then, had fallen out of use.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryor200397_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryor200397-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Greek fire remained a potent weapon, its limitations were significant when compared to more traditional forms of artillery: in its <i>siphōn</i>-deployed version, it had a limited range, and it could be used safely only in a calm sea and with favorable wind conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006384_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006384-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Muslim navies eventually adapted themselves to it by staying out of its effective range and devising methods of protection such as felt or hides soaked in vinegar.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, it was still a decisive weapon in many battles. <a href="/wiki/John_Julius_Norwich" title="John Julius Norwich">John Julius Norwich</a> wrote: "It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of Greek fire in Byzantine history."<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_literature">In literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: In literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/William_Golding" title="William Golding">William Golding</a>'s 1958 play <i>The Brass Butterfly</i>, adapted from his novella <i><a href="/wiki/Envoy_Extraordinary_(novella)" title="Envoy Extraordinary (novella)">Envoy Extraordinary</a></i>, the Greek inventor Phanocles demonstrates explosives to the Roman Emperor. The Emperor decides that his empire is not ready for this or for Phanocles's other inventions and sends him on "a slow boat to China".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Victor_Canning" title="Victor Canning">Victor Canning</a>'s stage play <i>Honour Bright</i> <sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1960), the crusader Godfrey of Ware returns with a casket of Greek Fire given to him by an old man in Athens.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Rick_Riordan" title="Rick Riordan">Rick Riordan</a>'s Greek storyline, Greek Fire is described as being a volatile green liquid. When it explodes, all of the substance is spread out over an area and burns continuously. It is very strong and dangerous.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/C._J._Sansom" title="C. J. Sansom">C. J. Sansom</a>'s historical mystery novel <i><a href="/wiki/Dark_Fire_(Sansom_novel)" title="Dark Fire (Sansom novel)">Dark Fire</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cromwell" title="Thomas Cromwell">Thomas Cromwell</a> sends the lawyer <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Shardlake" class="mw-redirect" title="Matthew Shardlake">Matthew Shardlake</a> to recover the secret of Greek fire, following its discovery in the library of a dissolved London monastery.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Michael_Crichton" title="Michael Crichton">Michael Crichton</a>'s sci-fi novel <i><a href="/wiki/Timeline_(novel)" title="Timeline (novel)">Timeline</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Timeline_(novel)#Professor_Edward_Johnston" title="Timeline (novel)">Professor Edward Johnston</a> is stuck in the past in 14th-century Europe, and claims to have knowledge of Greek fire.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Mika_Waltari" title="Mika Waltari">Mika Waltari</a>'s novel <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dark_Angel_(Waltari_novel)" title="The Dark Angel (Waltari novel)">The Dark Angel</a></i>, some old men who are the last ones who know the secret of Greek fire are mentioned as present in the last Christian services held in <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> before the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a>. The narrator is told that in the event of the city's fall, they will be killed so as to keep the secret from the Turks.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/George_R._R._Martin" title="George R. R. Martin">George R. R. Martin</a>'s fantasy series of novels <i><a href="/wiki/A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire" title="A Song of Ice and Fire">A Song of Ice and Fire</a></i>, and its television adaptation <i><a href="/wiki/Game_of_Thrones" title="Game of Thrones">Game of Thrones</a></i>, wildfire is similar to Greek fire. It was used in naval battles as it could remain lit on water, and its recipe was closely guarded.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Greek fire was used by <a href="/wiki/Blackbeard" title="Blackbeard">Blackbeard</a>'s ship, the <i><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_Revenge" title="Queen Anne's Revenge">Queen Anne's Revenge</a></i>, in the 2011 film <i><a href="/wiki/Pirates_of_the_Caribbean:_On_Stranger_Tides" title="Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides">Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>An application of Greek fire is shown in the 2011 <a href="/wiki/Ubisoft" title="Ubisoft">Ubisoft</a> video game <a href="/wiki/Assassin%27s_Creed_Revelations" title="Assassin's Creed Revelations">Assassin's Creed: Revelations</a> when the main character, <a href="/wiki/Ezio_Auditore_da_Firenze" title="Ezio Auditore da Firenze">Ezio Auditore</a>, escapes from the port of <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a> using a hand projector located on an <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Navy" title="Ottoman Navy">Ottoman ship</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">List of Byzantine inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flamethrowers" title="List of flamethrowers">List of flamethrowers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lost_inventions" title="List of lost inventions">List of lost inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molotov_cocktail" title="Molotov cocktail">Molotov cocktail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_heat_ray" title="Archimedes' heat ray">Archimedes' heat ray</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Greek language">Medieval Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Στόλος Ρωμαίων πυρπολῶν τὸν τῶν ἐναντίων στόλον</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Medieval_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanization of Medieval Greek">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Medieval Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Stolos Rhōmaiōn pyrpolōn ton tōn enantiōn stolon</i></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006608–609-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006608–609_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 608–609.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195983-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195983_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195983_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195983_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195983_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForbes1959">Forbes 1959</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeicester197175-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeicester197175_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeicester1971">Leicester 1971</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrosby200288–89-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrosby200288–89_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrosby2002">Crosby 2002</a>, pp. 88–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington19991–5-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington19991–5_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPartington1999">Partington 1999</a>, pp. 1–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195970–74-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195970–74_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForbes1959">Forbes 1959</a>, pp. 70–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thuc. 4.100.1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Julius Africanus, <i>The Cestus</i>, D25, 116–117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington19995-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington19995_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPartington1999">Partington 1999</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006607–609-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006607–609_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 607–609.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Callinicus-of-Heliopolis">"Callinicus of Heliopolis | Byzantine Empire, Hagia Sophia, Dome"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-07-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Callinicus+of+Heliopolis+%7C+Byzantine+Empire%2C+Hagia+Sophia%2C+Dome&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FCallinicus-of-Heliopolis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETheophanesTurtledove198253-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheophanesTurtledove198253_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTheophanesTurtledove1982">Theophanes & Turtledove 1982</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chronographia_1839_p._610-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chronographia_1839_p._610_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PyIAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA610"><i>Chronographia</i></a>. Corpus scriptorum historiae Byzantinae (in Italian). Impensis E. Weberi. 1839. p. 610<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronographia&rft.series=Corpus+scriptorum+historiae+Byzantinae&rft.pages=610&rft.pub=Impensis+E.+Weberi&rft.date=1839&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPyIAAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA610&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETheophanesTurtledove198252-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheophanesTurtledove198252_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTheophanesTurtledove1982">Theophanes & Turtledove 1982</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992657-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992657_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoland1992">Roland 1992</a>, p. 657.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006608-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006608_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006608_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, p. 608.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington199912–13-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington199912–13_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPartington1999">Partington 1999</a>, pp. 12–13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195980-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195980_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForbes1959">Forbes 1959</a>, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200626–27,_31–32-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200626–27,_31–32_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 26–27, 31–32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200661–62,_72-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200661–62,_72_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 61–62, 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200632,_46,_73-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200632,_46,_73_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 32, 46, 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200686,_189-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys200686,_189_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 86, 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoravcsikJenkins196768–71-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoravcsikJenkins196768–71_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoravcsikJenkins1967">Moravcsik & Jenkins 1967</a>, pp. 68–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195982-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195982_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForbes1959">Forbes 1959</a>, p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006609–611-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006609–611_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 609–611.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992660,_663–664-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992660,_663–664_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoland1992">Roland 1992</a>, pp. 660, 663–664.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006110-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006110_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006630–631-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006630–631_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 630–631.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006316-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006316_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2006">Haldon 2006</a>, p. 316.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlchin" class="citation web cs1">Alchin, Linda. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lordsandladies.org/greek-fire.htm">"Greek Fire"</a>. <i>Lords and Ladies</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lords+and+Ladies&rft.atitle=Greek+Fire&rft.aulast=Alchin&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lordsandladies.org%2Fgreek-fire.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Armenian)</span> <a href="/wiki/Hrachia_Adjarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hrachia Adjarian">Adjarian, Hrachia</a>. <span title="Armenian-language text"><span lang="hy" style="font-style: normal;">"Հայոց դերը Օսմանյան կայսրության մեջ"</span></span> [The role of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire]. <i>Banber Erevani Hamalsarani</i> 1967; trans. in Charles Issawi, <i>The Economic History of Turkey, 1800–1914</i>, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006290-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006290_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006290_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2006">Haldon 2006</a>, p. 290.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992660,_663-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992660,_663_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoland1992">Roland 1992</a>, pp. 660, 663.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992663–664-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992663–664_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoland1992">Roland 1992</a>, pp. 663–664.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETheophanesTurtledove1982178-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETheophanesTurtledove1982178_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTheophanesTurtledove1982">Theophanes & Turtledove 1982</a>, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992663-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992663_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoland1992">Roland 1992</a>, p. 663.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006609-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006609_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, p. 609.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington199919,_29-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington199919,_29_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPartington1999">Partington 1999</a>, pp. 19, 29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197364-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197364_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllis_Davidson1973">Ellis Davidson 1973</a>, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Sir_James_Sibbald_David_Scott,_3rd_Baronet" title="Sir James Sibbald David Scott, 3rd Baronet">Scott, James Sibbald David</a> (1868). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/britisharmyitsor02scotuoft"><i>The British army: its origin, progress, and equipment</i></a>. p. 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992657–658-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992657–658_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992657–658_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992657–658_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992657–658_42-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoland1992">Roland 1992</a>, pp. 657–658.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECheronis1937362–363-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECheronis1937362–363_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECheronis1937362–363_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECheronis1937362–363_43-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECheronis1937362–363_43-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCheronis1937">Cheronis 1937</a>, pp. 362–363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, p. 617.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington199914-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington199914_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPartington1999">Partington 1999</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo VI, <i><a href="/wiki/Tactica_of_Emperor_Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise">Tactica</a></i>, XIX.59, transl. in <a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, p. 507</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197792-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197792_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197792_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldonByrne1977">Haldon & Byrne 1977</a>, p. 92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197369–70-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197369–70_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllis_Davidson1973">Ellis Davidson 1973</a>, pp. 69–70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992659-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992659_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992659_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoland1992">Roland 1992</a>, p. 659.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992658–659-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992658–659_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoland1992">Roland 1992</a>, pp. 658–659.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197369-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197369_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllis_Davidson1973">Ellis Davidson 1973</a>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEal-Hassan200141–83-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEal-Hassan200141–83_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFal-Hassan2001">al-Hassan 2001</a>, pp. 41–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington199921–22-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington199921–22_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPartington1999">Partington 1999</a>, pp. 21–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195983–84-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195983–84_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForbes1959">Forbes 1959</a>, pp. 83–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington19996–10,_14-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington19996–10,_14_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPartington1999">Partington 1999</a>, pp. 6–10, 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo VI, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Tactica_of_Emperor_Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise">Tactica</a></i></span>, XIX.67, transl. in <a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, p. 509</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leo VI, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Tactica_of_Emperor_Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise">Tactica</a></i></span>, XIX.63, transl. in <a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, p. 509</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoland1992660-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoland1992660_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoland1992">Roland 1992</a>, p. 660.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZenghelis1932270-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZenghelis1932270_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZenghelis1932">Zenghelis 1932</a>, p. 270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Colin_McEvedy" title="Colin McEvedy">Colin McEvedy</a> (1992), <i>The New Penguin Atlas of Medieval History</i>, New York: Penguin.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECheronis1937363-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECheronis1937363_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCheronis1937">Cheronis 1937</a>, p. 363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197370-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197370_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197370_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllis_Davidson1973">Ellis Davidson 1973</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington19994-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington19994_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPartington1999">Partington 1999</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195982–84-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195982–84_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForbes1959">Forbes 1959</a>, pp. 82–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Procopius, <i>De bello Gothico</i>, IV.11.36, cited in <a href="#CITEREFPartington1999">Partington 1999</a>, p. 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197362-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197362_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllis_Davidson1973">Ellis Davidson 1973</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPartington199922-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPartington199922_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPartington1999">Partington 1999</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006614–616-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006614–616_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006614–616_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 614–616.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006310-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006310_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006310_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2006">Haldon 2006</a>, p. 310.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006618-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006618_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, p. 618.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-video-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-video_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121021091344/http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/the-link/videos/greek-fire/">"The Link: Greek Fire"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/the-link/videos/greek-fire/">the original</a> on October 21, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=The+Link%3A+Greek+Fire&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchannel.nationalgeographic.com%2Fchannel%2Fthe-link%2Fvideos%2Fgreek-fire%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006610–611-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006610–611_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 610–611.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCortese1565" class="citation book cs1">Cortese, Isabella (1565). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n2Ga_v5kpI4C&q=fuoco+greco+secreti&pg=PA62"><i>I Segreti della signora</i></a>. Venice: Giovanni Bariletto. p. 62<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=I+Segreti+della+signora&rft.place=Venice&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Giovanni+Bariletto&rft.date=1565&rft.aulast=Cortese&rft.aufirst=Isabella&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn2Ga_v5kpI4C%26q%3Dfuoco%2Bgreco%2Bsecreti%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006378–379,_609-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006378–379,_609_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 378–379, 609.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes195986–87-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes195986–87_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForbes1959">Forbes 1959</a>, pp. 86–87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617–619-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617–619_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006617–619_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 617–619.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006295-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006295_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2006">Haldon 2006</a>, p. 295.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006203,_618-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006203,_618_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 203, 618.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawes1928292-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDawes1928292_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDawes1928">Dawes 1928</a>, p. 292.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006616–617-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006616–617_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 616–617.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197372-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEllis_Davidson197372_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEllis_Davidson1973">Ellis Davidson 1973</a>, p. 72.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006628–629-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006628–629_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 628–629.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006315-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldon2006315_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldon2006">Haldon 2006</a>, p. 315.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197793-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197793_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldonByrne1977">Haldon & Byrne 1977</a>, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197794-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197794_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldonByrne1977">Haldon & Byrne 1977</a>, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197795-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197795_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldonByrne1977">Haldon & Byrne 1977</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006624–626-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006624–626_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 624–626.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197796-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197796_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldonByrne1977">Haldon & Byrne 1977</a>, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006627–628-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006627–628_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, pp. 627–628.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a detailed description, cf. <a href="#CITEREFHaldon2006">Haldon 2006</a>, pp. 297–315 An interesting characteristic displayed during these tests was that, contrary to expectations due to the flame's heat, the stream of fire projected through the tube did not curve upwards but downwards, as the fuel was not completely vaporized as it left the nozzle. This fact is important because medieval galleys had a low profile, and a high-arcing flame would miss them entirely.<a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, p. 621</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197797-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaldonByrne197797_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaldonByrne1977">Haldon & Byrne 1977</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006627-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006627_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, p. 627.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryor200397-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryor200397_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryor2003">Pryor 2003</a>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006384-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPryorJeffreys2006384_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006">Pryor & Jeffreys 2006</a>, p. 384.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norwich, John Julius (1991) <i>Byzantium: The Apogee</i>, London: BCA, p. 151</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://canning.marlodge.net/honour-bright.html">"Honour Bright"</a>. <i>The Victor Canning Pages</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Victor+Canning+Pages&rft.atitle=Honour+Bright&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcanning.marlodge.net%2Fhonour-bright.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Demigods and Monsters Your Favorite Authors on Rick Riordan's Percy Jackson and the Olympians Series</i>. BenBella Books. 2013. p. 205.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Demigods+and+Monsters+Your+Favorite+Authors+on+Rick+Riordan%27s+Percy+Jackson+and+the+Olympians+Series&rft.pages=205&rft.pub=BenBella+Books&rft.date=2013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2004/nov/06/featuresreviews.guardianreview22">“A wherry across the Thames”</a> <i>The Guardian</i>, 6 November 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Science of Michael Crichton An Unauthorized Exploration Into the Real Science Behind the Fictional Worlds of Michael Crichton</i>. BenBella Books. 2008. p. 87.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Science+of+Michael+Crichton+An+Unauthorized+Exploration+Into+the+Real+Science+Behind+the+Fictional+Worlds+of+Michael+Crichton&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=BenBella+Books&rft.date=2008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutchinson" class="citation news cs1">Hutchinson, Sam. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://screenrant.com/game-thrones-real-life-connections-links/#roman-empire">"10 Real-Life Historical Connections In Game Of Thrones That You Never Noticed"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Screen_Rant" title="Screen Rant">Screen Rant</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Screen+Rant&rft.atitle=10+Real-Life+Historical+Connections+In+Game+Of+Thrones+That+You+Never+Noticed&rft.aulast=Hutchinson&rft.aufirst=Sam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscreenrant.com%2Fgame-thrones-real-life-connections-links%2F%23roman-empire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wordplayer.com/archives/PIRATES4.cover.html">"PIRATES OF THE CARIBBEAN: ON STRANGER TIDES by Ted Elliott & Terry Rossio"</a>. <i>www.wordplayer.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.wordplayer.com&rft.atitle=PIRATES+OF+THE+CARIBBEAN%3A+ON+STRANGER+TIDES+by+Ted+Elliott+%26+Terry+Rossio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wordplayer.com%2Farchives%2FPIRATES4.cover.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-Hassan2001" class="citation cs2">al-Hassan, A. Y. (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h2g1qte4iegC&pg=PA41">"Alchemy, chemistry and chemical technology"</a>, in al-Hassan, A. Y. (ed.), <i>Science and Technology in Islam: Technology and applied sciences</i>, UNESCO, pp. 41–83, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9231038311" title="Special:BookSources/9231038311"><bdi>9231038311</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alchemy%2C+chemistry+and+chemical+technology&rft.btitle=Science+and+Technology+in+Islam%3A+Technology+and+applied+sciences&rft.pages=41-83&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9231038311&rft.aulast=al-Hassan&rft.aufirst=A.+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh2g1qte4iegC%26pg%3DPA41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCheronis1937" class="citation cs2">Cheronis, Nicholas D. (1937), "Chemical Warfare in the Middle Ages: Kallinikos' 'Prepared Fire'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>", <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Chemical_Education" title="Journal of Chemical Education">Journal of Chemical Education</a></i>, <b>14</b> (8), Chicago: 360–365, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1937JChEd..14..360C">1937JChEd..14..360C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed014p360">10.1021/ed014p360</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.atitle=Chemical+Warfare+in+the+Middle+Ages%3A+Kallinikos%27+%27Prepared+Fire%27&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=360-365&rft.date=1937&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed014p360&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1937JChEd..14..360C&rft.aulast=Cheronis&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristides1991" class="citation cs2">Christides, Vassilios (1991), "Fireproofing of War Machines, Ships and Garments", <i>Proc. Tropis VI: 6th International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Lamia 1996</i>, Athens, pp. 135–141, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1105-7947">1105-7947</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fireproofing+of+War+Machines%2C+Ships+and+Garments&rft.btitle=Proc.+Tropis+VI%3A+6th+International+Symposium+on+Ship+Construction+in+Antiquity%2C+Lamia+1996&rft.place=Athens&rft.pages=135-141&rft.date=1991&rft.issn=1105-7947&rft.aulast=Christides&rft.aufirst=Vassilios&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristides1993" class="citation cs2">Christides, Vassilios (1993), "Nafṭ", <i>The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VII: Mif–Naz</i>, Leiden and New York: Brill, pp. 884–886, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004094199" title="Special:BookSources/9004094199"><bdi>9004094199</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Naf%E1%B9%AD&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Islam%2C+New+Edition%2C+Volume+VII%3A+Mif%E2%80%93Naz&rft.place=Leiden+and+New+York&rft.pages=884-886&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9004094199&rft.aulast=Christides&rft.aufirst=Vassilios&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawes1928" class="citation cs2">Dawes, Elizabeth A., ed. 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J. (1959), "Naphtha Goes To War", <i>More Studies in Early Petroleum History 1860–1880</i>, Leiden: E.J. 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(eds.), <i>War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance</i>, Boydell Press, pp. 83–104, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0851159036" title="Special:BookSources/0851159036"><bdi>0851159036</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Byzantium+and+the+Sea%3A+Byzantine+Fleets+and+the+History+of+the+Empire+in+the+Age+of+the+Macedonian+Emperors%2C+c.+900%E2%80%931025+CE&rft.btitle=War+at+Sea+in+the+Middle+Ages+and+the+Renaissance&rft.pages=83-104&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0851159036&rft.aulast=Pryor&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPryorJeffreys2006" class="citation cs2">Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006), <i>The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204</i>, Brill Academic Publishers, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004151970" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004151970"><bdi>978-9004151970</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+the+%CE%94%CE%A1%CE%9F%CE%9C%CE%A9%CE%9D%3A+The+Byzantine+Navy+ca.+500%E2%80%931204&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-9004151970&rft.aulast=Pryor&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rft.au=Jeffreys%2C+Elizabeth+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoland1992" class="citation cs2">Roland, Alex (1992), "Secrecy, Technology, and War: Greek Fire and the Defense of Byzantium", <i>Technology and Culture</i>, <b>33</b> (4): 655–679, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3106585">10.2307/3106585</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3106585">3106585</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:113017993">113017993</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Secrecy%2C+Technology%2C+and+War%3A+Greek+Fire+and+the+Defense+of+Byzantium&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=655-679&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A113017993%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3106585%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3106585&rft.aulast=Roland&rft.aufirst=Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Spears, W.H. Jr. (1969). <i>Greek Fire: The Fabulous Secret Weapon That Saved Europe</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0960010637" title="Special:BookSources/0960010637">0960010637</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheophanesTurtledove1982" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Theophanes_the_Confessor" title="Theophanes the Confessor">Theophanes</a>; <a href="/wiki/Harry_Turtledove" title="Harry Turtledove">Turtledove, Harry (Transl.)</a> (1982), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lK5wIPb4Vi4C"><i>The chronicle of Theophanes: an English translation of </i>anni mundi<i> 6095–6305 (A.D. 602–813)</i></a>, University of Pennsylvania Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812211283" title="Special:BookSources/978-0812211283"><bdi>978-0812211283</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+chronicle+of+Theophanes%3A+an+English+translation+of+anni+mundi+6095%E2%80%936305+%28A.D.+602%E2%80%93813%29&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0812211283&rft.au=Theophanes&rft.au=Turtledove%2C+Harry+%28Transl.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlK5wIPb4Vi4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Thucydides, <i>History of the Peloponnesian War</i>, translated by Rex Warner; with an introduction and notes by M.I. Finley (London 1972)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToutain1953" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Toutain, J. (1953), "Le feu grégeois", <i>Journal des Savants</i> (in French), Paris: 77–80</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+des+Savants&rft.atitle=Le+feu+gr%C3%A9geois&rft.pages=77-80&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Toutain&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>"The Rise of Gawain, Nephew of Arthur (De ortu Waluuanii)," ed. Mildred Leake Day, in Wilhelm, James J. (1994). <i>The Romance of Arthur</i>. New York: Garland. pp. 369–397. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0815315112" title="Special:BookSources/0815315112">0815315112</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZenghelis1932" class="citation cs2">Zenghelis, C. (1932), "Le feu grégeois et les armes à feu des Byzantins", <i>Byzantion</i>, <b>VI</b>, Brussels: 265–286</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Byzantion&rft.atitle=Le+feu+gr%C3%A9geois+et+les+armes+%C3%A0+feu+des+Byzantins&rft.volume=VI&rft.pages=265-286&rft.date=1932&rft.aulast=Zenghelis&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreek+fire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_fire&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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aria-labelledby="Byzantine_Empire_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks plainlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Template:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Template talk:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Byzantine_Empire_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Byzantine Empire topics"><abbr title="Edit this 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right;"><b>Preceding</b></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Early</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">(330–717)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Constantinian_and_Valentinianic_dynasties" title="Byzantine Empire under the Constantinian and Valentinianic dynasties">Constantinian–Valentinianic era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentinianic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinianic dynasty">Valentinianic dynasty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Theodosian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Leonid_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty">Leonid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Justinian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Heraclian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty">Heraclian era</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Dark_Ages" title="Byzantine Dark Ages">Byzantine Dark Ages</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty_Years%27_Anarchy" title="Twenty Years' Anarchy">Twenty Years' Anarchy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Middle</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">(717–1204)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Isaurian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty">Isaurian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Nikephorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty">Nikephorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Amorian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty">Amorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Macedonian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty">Macedonian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Doukas_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty">Doukid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Komnenos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty">Komnenian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Angelos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty">Angelid era</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;"><b>Late</b> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1204–1453)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople" title="Sack of Constantinople">Sack of Constantinople</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankokratia" title="Frankokratia">Frankokratia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li></ul></li> <li>Byzantine successor states (<a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a> / <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a>–<a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a> / <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a>–<a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Theodoro" title="Principality of Theodoro">Theodoro</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Palaiologos_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty">Palaiologan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">Decline of the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em;text-align:left; font-weight:normal"><div style="float: right;">By modern region<br />or territory</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Anatolia" title="Byzantine Anatolia">Anatolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Armenia" title="Byzantine Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Corsica" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Corsica">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Crete" title="Byzantine Crete">Crete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Dalmatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Italy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sardinia" title="Byzantine Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Sicily">Sicily</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Maghreb" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Maghreb">Maghreb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Malta" title="Byzantine Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Spain">Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands)</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Thrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Thrace">Thrace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Governance" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Governance</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em">Central</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="List of Byzantine emperors">Emperors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Byzantine_emperor" title="Coronation of the Byzantine emperor">Coronation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="Family tree of Byzantine emperors">Family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_bureaucracy_and_aristocracy" title="Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy">Imperial bureaucracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek">Medieval Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Senate">Senate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">Praetorian prefects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_officiorum" title="Magister officiorum">Magister officiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comes_sacrarum_largitionum" title="Comes sacrarum largitionum">Comes sacrarum largitionum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comes_rerum_privatarum" title="Comes rerum privatarum">Comes rerum privatarum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor_sacri_palatii" title="Quaestor sacri palatii">Quaestor sacri palatii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_dromou" title="Logothetes tou dromou">Logothetes tou dromou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakellarios" title="Sakellarios">Sakellarios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_genikou" title="Logothetes tou genikou">Logothetes tou genikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logothetes_tou_stratiotikou" title="Logothetes tou stratiotikou">Logothetes tou stratiotikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakellarios" title="Sakellarios">Chartoularios tou sakelliou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestiarion" title="Vestiarion">Chartoularios tou vestiariou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi_tou_eidikou" title="Epi tou eidikou">Epi tou eidikou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protasekretis" title="Protasekretis">Protasekretis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epi_ton_deeseon" title="Epi ton deeseon">Epi ton deeseon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megas_logothetes" title="Megas logothetes">Megas logothetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesazon" title="Mesazon">Mesazon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Subdivisions of the Byzantine Empire">Provincial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">Praetorian prefectures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_diocese" title="Roman diocese">Dioceses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province#List_of_Late_Roman_provinces" title="Roman province">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestura_exercitus" title="Quaestura exercitus">Quaestura exercitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Exarchate of Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Themata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleisoura_(Byzantine_district)" title="Kleisoura (Byzantine district)">Kleisourai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandon_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Bandon (Byzantine Empire)">Bandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katepano" title="Katepano">Catepanates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kephale_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Kephale (Byzantine Empire)">Kephale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despot_(court_title)" title="Despot (court title)">Despotates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign relations of the Byzantine Empire">Foreign relations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Treaties_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Treaties of the Byzantine Empire">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_diplomats" title="Category:Byzantine diplomats">Diplomats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_diplomacy" title="Byzantine diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_wars" title="List of Byzantine wars">Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Military" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Army" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Army</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_battle_tactics" title="Byzantine battle tactics">Battle tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_battles" title="List of Byzantine battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_beacon_system" title="Byzantine beacon system">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_generals" title="Category:Byzantine generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_mercenaries" title="Category:Byzantine mercenaries">Mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_military_manuals" title="Byzantine military manuals">Military manuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_units_and_formations_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Military units and formations of the Byzantine Empire">Military units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_revolts_and_civil_wars" title="List of Byzantine revolts and civil wars">Revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Early</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">Late Roman army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Roman_army" class="mw-redirect" title="East Roman army">East Roman army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foederati" title="Foederati">Foederati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucellarii" title="Bucellarii">Bucellarii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholae_Palatinae" title="Scholae Palatinae">Scholae Palatinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excubitors" title="Excubitors">Excubitors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Themata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleisoura_(Byzantine_district)" title="Kleisoura (Byzantine district)">Kleisourai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourma" class="mw-redirect" title="Tourma">Tourma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droungos" title="Droungos">Droungos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandon_(Byzantine_Empire)" title="Bandon (Byzantine Empire)">Bandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagma_(military)" title="Tagma (military)">Tagmata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_of_the_Schools" title="Domestic of the Schools">Domestic of the Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetaireia" title="Hetaireia">Hetaireia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akritai" title="Akritai">Akritai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varangian_Guard" title="Varangian Guard">Varangian Guard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Late</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Komnenian_era)" title="Byzantine army (Komnenian era)">Komnenian army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pronoia" title="Pronoia">Pronoia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestiaritai" title="Vestiaritai">Vestiaritai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army_(Palaiologan_era)" title="Byzantine army (Palaiologan era)">Palaiologan army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allagion" title="Allagion">Allagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramonai" title="Paramonai">Paramonai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_domestic" title="Grand domestic">Grand domestic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karabisianoi" title="Karabisianoi">Karabisianoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theme_(Byzantine_district)" title="Theme (Byzantine district)">Maritime themata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cibyrrhaeot_Theme" title="Cibyrrhaeot Theme">Cibyrrhaeot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea_(theme)" title="Aegean Sea (theme)">Aegean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samos_(theme)" title="Samos (theme)">Samos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dromon" title="Dromon">Dromon</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Greek fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droungarios_of_the_Fleet" title="Droungarios of the Fleet">Droungarios of the Fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megas_doux" title="Megas doux">Megas doux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_admirals" title="Category:Byzantine admirals">Admirals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Naval_battles_involving_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Naval battles involving the Byzantine Empire">Naval battles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_and_law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion and law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Category:Religion in the Byzantine Empire">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Rite" title="Byzantine Rite">Byzantine Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesychasm" title="Hesychasm">Hesychasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayhurum" title="Hayhurum">Hayhurum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_Patriarchate_of_Constantinople" title="Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople">Patriarchate of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_saints" title="Category:Byzantine saints">Saints</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_Rite" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandrian Rite">Alexandrian Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Rite" title="Armenian Rite">Armenian Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Syriac_Rite" title="West Syriac Rite">West Syriac Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miaphysitism" title="Miaphysitism">Miaphysitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">Ecumenical councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">Monophysitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulicianism" title="Paulicianism">Paulicianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos</a></li> <li>Missionary activity <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Serbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianization of the Serbs">Serbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">Jews</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Codex Theodosianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Justinian" title="Code of Justinian">Code of Justinian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecloga" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecloga">Ecloga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilika" title="Basilika">Basilika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_Harmenopoulos" title="Constantine Harmenopoulos">Hexabiblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_mutilation_in_Byzantine_culture" title="Political mutilation in Byzantine culture">Mutilation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Culture_and_society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Culture and society</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_architecture" title="Byzantine architecture">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_secular_architecture" title="Category:Byzantine secular architecture">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_sacred_architecture" title="Category:Byzantine sacred architecture">Sacred</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-in-square" title="Cross-in-square">Cross-in-square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Cistern" title="Basilica Cistern">Basilica Cistern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baths_of_Zeuxippus" title="Baths of Zeuxippus">Baths of Zeuxippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Blachernae" title="Palace of Blachernae">Blachernae Palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chora_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Chora Church">Chora Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople" title="Walls of Constantinople">City Walls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Palace_of_Constantinople" title="Great Palace of Constantinople">Great Palace of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Irene" title="Hagia Irene">Hagia Irene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippodrome_of_Constantinople" title="Hippodrome of Constantinople">Hippodrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pammakaristos_Church" title="Pammakaristos Church">Pammakaristos Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_of_Anemas" title="Prison of Anemas">Prison of Anemas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessalonica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Galerius_and_Rotunda" title="Arch of Galerius and Rotunda">Arch of Galerius and Rotunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Bath_(Thessaloniki)" title="Byzantine Bath (Thessaloniki)">Byzantine Bath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia,_Thessaloniki" title="Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki">Hagia Sophia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagios_Demetrios" title="Hagios Demetrios">Hagios Demetrios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_Panagia_Chalkeon" title="Church of Panagia Chalkeon">Panagia Chalkeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Thessaloniki" title="Walls of Thessaloniki">Walls of Thessaloniki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">San Vitale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_in_Classe" title="Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe">Sant'Apollinare in Classe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_Nuovo" title="Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo">Sant'Apollinare Nuovo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal">Other locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daphni_Monastery" title="Daphni Monastery">Daphni Monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosios_Loukas" title="Hosios Loukas">Hosios Loukas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nea_Moni_of_Chios" title="Nea Moni of Chios">Nea Moni of Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Metropolis" title="Little Metropolis">Panagia Gorgoepikoos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Catherine%27s_Monastery" title="Saint Catherine's Monastery">Saint Catherine's Monastery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystras" title="Mystras">Mystras</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">Icons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_enamel" title="Byzantine enamel">Enamel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_glass" title="Byzantine glass">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic#Byzantine_mosaics" title="Mosaic">Mosaics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Byzantine_mosaics_in_the_Middle_East" title="Early Byzantine mosaics in the Middle East">Early Byzantine mosaics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_painters" title="Category:Byzantine painters">Painters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_art_(Byzantine)" title="Macedonian art (Byzantine)">Macedonian period art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civilisation_in_the_12th_century" title="Byzantine civilisation in the 12th century">Komnenian renaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_economy" title="Byzantine economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_coinage" title="Byzantine coinage">Coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_mints" title="Byzantine mints">Mints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine trade">Trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_silk" title="Byzantine silk">silk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_route_from_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks">Varangians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynatoi" title="Dynatoi">Dynatoi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_literature" title="Byzantine literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_novel" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine novel">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acritic_songs" title="Acritic songs">Acritic songs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digenes_Akritas" title="Digenes Akritas">Digenes Akritas</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Romance" title="Alexander Romance">Alexander Romance</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_historians" title="Category:Byzantine historians">Historians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em">Everyday life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_calendar" title="Byzantine calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cities_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Cities in the Byzantine Empire">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_cuisine" title="Byzantine cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_dance" title="Byzantine dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_dress" title="Byzantine dress">Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_flags_and_insignia" title="Byzantine flags and insignia">Flags and insignia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_gardens" title="Byzantine gardens">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_music" title="Byzantine music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_lyra" title="Byzantine lyra">Lyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octoechos" title="Octoechos">Octoechos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_people" title="Category:Byzantine people">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantine Greeks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Women in the Byzantine Empire">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Death in the Byzantine Empire">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_units_of_measurement" title="Byzantine units of measurement">Units of measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.75em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Science</a></li><li>Learning</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_Greek_encyclopedias" title="Category:Byzantine Greek encyclopedias">Encyclopedias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Library_of_Constantinople" title="Imperial Library of Constantinople">Imperial Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_medicine" title="Byzantine medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_philosophy" title="Byzantine philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rhetoric" title="Byzantine rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_scholars" title="List of Byzantine scholars">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_university" title="Byzantine university">University</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Constantinople" title="University of Constantinople">University of Constantinople</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Impact" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Impact</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_commonwealth" title="Byzantine commonwealth">Byzantine commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_studies" title="Byzantine studies">Byzantine studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Byzantine_museums" title="Category:Byzantine museums">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantinism" title="Byzantinism">Byzantinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Revival_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Revival architecture">Neo-Byzantine architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars in the Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Third Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megali_Idea" title="Megali Idea">Megali Idea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Byzantine_Empire%E2%80%93related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of Byzantine Empire–related articles">Index</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Outline of the Byzantine Empire">Outline</a></li><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" 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