CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>History of Taoism - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"537149e7-422c-4bdc-aeb8-534d704b31fa","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"History_of_Taoism","wgTitle":"History of Taoism","wgCurRevisionId":1262416334,"wgRevisionId":1262416334,"wgArticleId":11408137,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Pages with plain IPA","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles containing Chinese-language text","History of Taoism","History of mystic traditions","History of religion by religion"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"History_of_Taoism","wgRelevantArticleId":11408137,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true, "wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":30000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q2380718","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false, "wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups", "ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="History of Taoism - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Taoism"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Taoism"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-History_of_Taoism rootpage-History_of_Taoism skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+Taoism" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+Taoism" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+Taoism" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+Taoism" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Shang_dynasty_(1600–1046_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shang_dynasty_(1600–1046_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shang_dynasty_(1600–1046_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zhou_dynasty_(770–256_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zhou_dynasty_(770–256_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Zhou dynasty (770–256 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zhou_dynasty_(770–256_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Han_dynasty_(206_BCE–220_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Han_dynasty_(206_BCE–220_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Han_dynasty_(206_BCE–220_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three_Kingdoms_period_(220–265)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three_Kingdoms_period_(220–265)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Three Kingdoms period (220–265)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three_Kingdoms_period_(220–265)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Six_Dynasties_(316–589)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Six_Dynasties_(316–589)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Six Dynasties (316–589)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Six_Dynasties_(316–589)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tang_dynasty_(618–907)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tang_dynasty_(618–907)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Tang dynasty (618–907)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tang_dynasty_(618–907)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Song_dynasty_(960–1279)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Song_dynasty_(960–1279)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Song dynasty (960–1279)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Song_dynasty_(960–1279)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yuan_dynasty_(1279–1367)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yuan_dynasty_(1279–1367)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Yuan dynasty (1279–1367)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yuan_dynasty_(1279–1367)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ming_dynasty_(1368–1644)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ming_dynasty_(1368–1644)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Ming dynasty (1368–1644)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ming_dynasty_(1368–1644)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qing_dynasty_(1644–1912)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qing_dynasty_(1644–1912)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Qing dynasty (1644–1912)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qing_dynasty_(1644–1912)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nationalist_period_(1912–1949)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nationalist_period_(1912–1949)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Nationalist period (1912–1949)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nationalist_period_(1912–1949)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-People's_Republic_of_China_(1949–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#People's_Republic_of_China_(1949–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>People's Republic of China (1949–present)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-People's_Republic_of_China_(1949–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taoism_in_the_West" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taoism_in_the_West"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Taoism in the West</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taoism_in_the_West-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Taoism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 8 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-8" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">8 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_du_tao%C3%AFsme" title="Histoire du taoïsme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire du taoïsme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%A1%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Դաոսականության պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դաոսականության պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_del_taoismo" title="Storia del taoismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia del taoismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Taoisme" title="Sejarah Taoisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah Taoisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%93%E6%95%99%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="道教の歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="道教の歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="История даосизма – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История даосизма" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%81%93%E6%95%99%E5%8F%B2" title="中國道教史 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="中國道教史" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E9%81%93%E6%95%99%E5%8F%B2" title="中國道教史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中國道教史" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2380718#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_Taoism" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/History_of_Taoism" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/History_of_Taoism" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&oldid=1262416334" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=History_of_Taoism&id=1262416334&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_Taoism"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_Taoism"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=History_of_Taoism&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_Taoism" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2380718" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Taoism" title="Category:Taoism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao"><img alt="Tao" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tao.svg/75px-Tao.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tao.svg/113px-Tao.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tao.svg/150px-Tao.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="497" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Taoism" title="Outline of Taoism">Outline</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wuji_(philosophy)" title="Wuji (philosophy)">Wuji</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taiji_(philosophy)" title="Taiji (philosophy)">Taiji</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">Yin and yang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagua" title="Bagua">Bagua</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">Wuxing</a></i> (five phases)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bianhua" title="Bianhua">Bianhua</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fan_(Daoism)" title="Fan (Daoism)">Fan</a></i> (reversal)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">Wu wei</a></i> (non-action)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ziran" title="Ziran">Ziran</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">Xian</a></i> (immortal)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhenren" title="Zhenren">Zhenren</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True_form_(Taoism)" title="True form (Taoism)">True form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(traditional_Chinese_medicine)" title="Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)">Three Treasures</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Jing_(Chinese_medicine)" title="Jing (Chinese medicine)">Jing</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">Shen</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hun_and_po" title="Hun and po"><i>Hun</i> and <i>po</i></a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(Taoism)" title="Three Treasures (Taoism)">Three Treasures (virtues)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Precepts_(Taoism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Precepts (Taoism)">Five Precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Precepts_(Taoism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Precepts (Taoism)">Ten Precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_meditation" title="Taoist meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li>Alchemy <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Neidan" title="Neidan">Neidan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Waidan" title="Waidan">Waidan</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bugang" title="Bugang">Bugang</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chu_(Taoism)" title="Chu (Taoism)">Chu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_diet" title="Taoist diet">Diet</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Bigu_(grain_avoidance)" title="Bigu (grain avoidance)">Bigu</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_sexual_practices" title="Taoist sexual practices">Sexual practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_art" title="Taoist art">Art</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fulu" title="Fulu">Fulu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daoshi" title="Daoshi">Priesthood</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Texts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching">Tao Te Ching</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taipingjing" title="Taipingjing">Taipingjing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xiang%27er" title="Xiang'er">Xiang'er</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liezi" title="Liezi">Liezi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sanhuangjing" title="Sanhuangjing">Sanhuangjing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huahujing" title="Huahujing">Huahujing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qingjing_Jing" title="Qingjing Jing">Qingjing Jing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Baopuzi" title="Baopuzi">Baopuzi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daozang" title="Daozang">Daozang</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Taoist_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist theology">Theology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hongjun_Laozu" title="Hongjun Laozu">Hongjun Laozu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Pure_Ones" title="Three Pure Ones">Three Pure Ones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuanshi_Tianzun" title="Yuanshi Tianzun">Yuanshi Tianzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingbao_Tianzun" title="Lingbao Tianzun">Lingbao Tianzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daode_Tianzun" title="Daode Tianzun">Daode Tianzun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_heavenly_ministers" title="Four heavenly ministers">Four heavenly ministers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Jade Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziwei_Emperor" title="Ziwei Emperor">Ziwei Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianhuang_Emperor" title="Tianhuang Emperor">Tianhuang Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houtu" title="Houtu">Houtu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_of_the_West" title="Queen Mother of the West">Queen Mother of the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Father_of_the_East" title="King Father of the East">King Father of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Great_Emperor-Officials" title="Three Great Emperor-Officials">Three Great Emperor-Officials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Immortals" title="Eight Immortals">Eight Immortals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chang%27e" title="Chang'e">Chang'e</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors">Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guan_Yu" title="Guan Yu">Guan Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Hong_(Taoist_eschatology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li Hong (Taoist eschatology)">Li Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_god" title="Body god">Body god</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Taoists" title="List of Taoists">People</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_Yukou" title="Lie Yukou">Lie Yukou</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heshang_Gong" title="Heshang Gong">Heshang Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Boyang" title="Wei Boyang">Wei Boyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Daoling" title="Zhang Daoling">Zhang Daoling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Ji" title="Gan Ji">Gan Ji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jue" title="Zhang Jue">Zhang Jue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Lu_(Han_dynasty)" title="Zhang Lu (Han dynasty)">Zhang Lu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Xuan" title="Ge Xuan">Ge Xuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Yan" title="He Yan">He Yan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove" title="Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove">Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Hanhua" title="Sun Hanhua">Sun Hanhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Huacun" title="Wei Huacun">Wei Huacun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bao_Jingyan" title="Bao Jingyan">Bao Jingyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kou_Qianzhi" title="Kou Qianzhi">Kou Qianzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Xiujing" title="Lu Xiujing">Lu Xiujing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tao_Hongjing" title="Tao Hongjing">Tao Hongjing</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Xuanying" title="Cheng Xuanying">Cheng Xuanying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Tuan" title="Chen Tuan">Chen Tuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Boduan" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhang Boduan">Zhang Boduan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Bu%27er" title="Sun Bu'er">Sun Bu'er</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chongyang" title="Wang Chongyang">Wang Chongyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiu_Chuji" title="Qiu Chuji">Qiu Chuji</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Guoxiang" title="Zhang Guoxiang">Zhang Guoxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Sanfeng" title="Zhang Sanfeng">Zhang Sanfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Quan" title="Zhu Quan">Zhu Quan</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fangshi" title="Fangshi">Fangshi</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Taoist_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist schools">Schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huang%E2%80%93Lao" title="Huang–Lao">Huang–Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Taiping" title="Way of the Taiping">Way of the Taiping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shangqing_School" title="Shangqing School">Shangqing School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Li_Family" title="Way of the Li Family">Way of the Li Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingbao_School" title="Lingbao School">Lingbao School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chongxuan_School" title="Chongxuan School">Chongxuan School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen School</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_Gate_Taoism" title="Dragon Gate Taoism">Dragon Gate</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuliupai" title="Wuliupai">Wuliupai</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Celestial_Masters" title="Way of the Celestial Masters">Way of the Celestial Masters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Five_Pecks_of_Rice" title="Way of the Five Pecks of Rice">Way of the Five Pecks of Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Celestial_Masters#The_Southern_Celestial_Masters" title="Way of the Celestial Masters">The Southern Celestial Masters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Northern_Celestial_Masters" class="mw-redirect" title="The Northern Celestial Masters">The Northern Celestial Masters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Dao" title="Zhengyi Dao">Zhengyi Dao</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Chinese ritual mastery traditions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yao_Taoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Yao Taoism">Yao Taoism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Sacred places</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grotto-heavens" title="Grotto-heavens">Grotto-heavens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Mountains_of_China" title="Sacred Mountains of China">Sacred Mountains of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wudang_Mountains" title="Wudang Mountains">Wudang Mountains</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Penglai" title="Mount Penglai">Mount Penglai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunlun_(mythology)" title="Kunlun (mythology)">Mount Kunlun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_temple" title="Taoist temple">Taoist temple</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Cloud_Temple" title="White Cloud Temple">White Cloud Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louguantai" title="Louguantai">Louguantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cebu_Taoist_Temple" title="Cebu Taoist Temple">Cebu Taoist Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_Temple_(Hanford,_California)" title="Taoist Temple (Hanford, California)">Taoist Temple (Hanford, California)</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Institutions and organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Taoist_Association" title="Chinese Taoist Association">Chinese Taoist Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celestial_Masters" title="List of Celestial Masters">Celestial Masters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_priest" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist priest">Taoist priests</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taoism" title="Template:Taoism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Taoism" title="Template talk:Taoism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Taoism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Taoism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of</b> <b><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></b> stretches throughout <a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">Chinese history</a>. Originating in prehistoric China, it has exerted a powerful influence over <a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese culture</a> throughout the ages. Taoism evolved in response to changing times, with its doctrine and associated practices being revised and refined. The acceptance of Taoism by the ruling class has waxed and waned, alternately enjoying periods of favor and rejection. Most recently, Taoism has emerged from a period of suppression and is undergoing a revival in China. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> (Lao Tzu) is traditionally regarded as the founder of the Taoist religion and is closely associated in this context with "original", or "primordial", Taoism.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether he actually existed is disputed,<sup id="cite_ref-Robinet_1997,_p._25_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinet_1997,_p._25-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the work attributed to him – the Daodejing (<a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching">Tao Te Ching</a>) – is dated between the 8th and 3rd century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a>, Huangdi (2697–2597 BCE) is also often associated with the origin of the Tao; his works are believed to have greatly influenced Laozi. It is possible Taoism existed before Laozi, as he refers to the "Tao masters of antiquity" in the 15th chapter of the Daodejing; however it is also possible he was referring to masters—mythical or historical—of the wisdom to which Taoism points, rather than masters of Taoism as an already established religion. </p><p>Sinologist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Isabelle_Robinet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isabelle Robinet (page does not exist)">Isabelle Robinet</a> identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Philosophical Taoism</a>, i.e. the <i><a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a></i></li> <li>Techniques for achieving ecstasy</li> <li>Practices for achieving longevity or immortality</li> <li>Exorcism<sup id="cite_ref-Robinet_1997,_p._25_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinet_1997,_p._25-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Some elements of Taoism may be traced to <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric">prehistoric</a> <a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">folk religions</a> in China that later coalesced into a Taoist tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, many Taoist practices drew from the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Warring States era">Warring-States-era</a> phenomena of the <a href="/wiki/Wu_(shaman)" title="Wu (shaman)">Wu (shaman)</a> (connected to the "shamanism" of Southern China) and the <a href="/wiki/Fangshi" title="Fangshi">Fangshi</a> (which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity, one of whom supposedly was Laozi himself"), even though later Taoists insisted that this was not the case.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinet_1997,_p._36_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinet_1997,_p._36-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "... magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism; in the case of the <i>wu</i>, "shamans" or "sorcerers" is often used as a translation.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinet_1997,_p._36_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinet_1997,_p._36-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>fangshi</i> were philosophically close to the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">School of Yin-Yang</a>, and relied much on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Shang_dynasty_(1600–1046_BC)"><span id="Shang_dynasty_.281600.E2.80.931046_BC.29"></span>Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Predecessors to Taoism existed among the lower class during the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Zhou_dynasty_(770–256_BC)"><span id="Zhou_dynasty_.28770.E2.80.93256_BC.29"></span>Zhou dynasty (770–256 BC)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Zhou dynasty (770–256 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to traditional accounts, <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> was a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This reportedly allowed him broad access to the works of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a> and other classics of the time. The stories assert that Laozi never opened a formal school but nonetheless attracted numerous students and loyal disciples. There are many variations of a story retelling his encounter with Confucius, most famously in the <i><a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Simpkins_1999_pp_12-13_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Simpkins_1999_pp_12-13-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a> stated that Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of life in <a href="/wiki/Chengzhou" class="mw-redirect" title="Chengzhou">Chengzhou</a> and noted the kingdom's decline. He ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at the age of 80. At the western gate of the city (or kingdom), he was recognized by the guard <a href="/wiki/Yinxi" title="Yinxi">Yinxi</a>. The sentry asked the old master to record his wisdom for the good of the country before he would be permitted to pass. The text Laozi wrote was said to be the <i><a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching">Tao Te Ching</a></i>, although the present version of the text includes additions from later periods. In some versions of the tale, the sentry was so touched by the work that he became a disciple and left with Laozi, never to be seen again.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Laozi's disciples <a href="/wiki/Yinxi" title="Yinxi">Yinxi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wenzi" title="Wenzi">Wenzi</a> went on to write their own works, the <i>Guan Yi</i> and <i>Tongxuan zhenjing</i>, respectively. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lie_Yukou" title="Lie Yukou">Lie Yukou</a> was born in the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Zheng" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Zheng">State of Zheng</a>, near today's <a href="/wiki/Zhengzhou" title="Zhengzhou">Zhengzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Henan Province">Henan Province</a>. He was living in the <a href="/wiki/Zheng_(state)" title="Zheng (state)">Chêng State</a> not long before the year 398 BC, when the Prime Minister Tzu Yang was killed in a revolution. It was at this time that Yukou wrote the <a href="/wiki/Liezi" title="Liezi">Liezi</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a> was born around 369 BCE in a town called <a href="/wiki/Mengcheng_County" title="Mengcheng County">Meng</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Song_(state)" title="Song (state)">state of Song</a>, where he worked as a minor town official.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiporyn2009vii_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiporyn2009vii-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhuang made himself well acquainted with all the literature of his time, but preferred the views of Laozi; and ranked himself among his followers. He wrote stories to satirize and expose the disciples of <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, and clearly exhibit the sentiments of Lao. These were collected in the <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a>, which contains stories and anecdotes that exemplify the carefree nature of the ideal <a href="/wiki/Taoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist">Taoist</a> sage. Zhuang died in 286 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair199821_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair199821-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair1994xxxi_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair1994xxxi-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnechtges20142314_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnechtges20142314-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2015697_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2015697-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the late <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>, a hermit named Guigu Xiansheng was said to have compiled the <a href="/wiki/Guiguzi" title="Guiguzi">Guiguzi</a>, a work that discusses techniques of <a href="/wiki/Political_lobbying" class="mw-redirect" title="Political lobbying">political lobbying</a> based in Taoist thinking. He conveyed the teachings of this <a href="/wiki/School_of_Diplomacy" title="School of Diplomacy">School of Diplomacy</a> to <a href="/wiki/Su_Qin" title="Su Qin">Su Qin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yi_(Warring_States_period)" title="Zhang Yi (Warring States period)">Zhang Yi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sun_Bin" title="Sun Bin">Sun Bin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pang_Juan" title="Pang Juan">Pang Juan</a>, who would all go on to become famed military strategists and diplomats. Zhang Yi, in particular, paved the way for the domination of the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> and helped found the school of <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a> as the dynasty's guiding philosophy. After the Qin centralized power and brought the period of civil conflict to a close, they engaged in the <a href="/wiki/Burning_of_books_and_burying_of_scholars" title="Burning of books and burying of scholars">burning of books and burying of scholars</a> – many Taoist works were presumed lost. As such, many of the Zhou-era Taoist texts are sourced during the Han dynasty, and the existence of many of the Zhou-era Taoist sages and texts are still disputed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Han_dynasty_(206_BCE–220_CE)"><span id="Han_dynasty_.28206_BCE.E2.80.93220_CE.29"></span>Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>Daojia</i> (usually translated as "philosophical Taoism") was coined during the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a>'s history (chapter 63) it refers to immortals; in Liu Xiang it refers to Laozi and Zhuangzi (<i>Daojiao</i> came to be applied to the religious movements in later times). The earliest commentary on the <i>Dao De Jing</i> is that of <a href="/wiki/Heshang_Gong" title="Heshang Gong">Heshang Gong</a> (the "Riverside Master"), a legendary figure depicted as a teacher to the Han emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early Han dynasty, the Tao came to be associated with or conflated with the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xian_of_Han" title="Emperor Xian of Han">Xian Di Emperor</a>. A major text from the <a href="/wiki/Huang-Lao" class="mw-redirect" title="Huang-Lao">Huang-Lao</a> movement would be the <i><a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a></i>, which interprets earlier works of the Taoist canon in light of the quest for immortality. </p><p>The first organized form of Taoism, the <a href="/wiki/Tianshi_Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Tianshi Dao">Tianshi</a> (Celestial Masters') school (later known as <a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Dao" title="Zhengyi Dao">Zhengyi</a> school), developed from the <a href="/wiki/Five_Pecks_of_Rice" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Pecks of Rice">Five Pecks of Rice</a> movement at the end of the 2nd century CE; the latter had been founded by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Daoling" title="Zhang Daoling">Zhang Daoling</a>, who claimed that Laozi appeared to him in the year 142.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tianshi school was officially recognized by ruler <a href="/wiki/Cao_Cao" title="Cao Cao">Cao Cao</a> in 215, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Celestial Masters' activities did hasten the downfall of the Han dynasty, largely because Zhang's grandson set up a theocratic state in what is now <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> province. The same could be said of their contemporaries, the Taoist-leaning <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow Turban">Yellow Turban</a> sect.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Three_Kingdoms_period_(220–265)"><span id="Three_Kingdoms_period_.28220.E2.80.93265.29"></span>Three Kingdoms period (220–265)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Three Kingdoms period (220–265)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Kingdoms period">Three Kingdoms period</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a> (Mysterious Wisdom) school, including <a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a>, focused on the texts of Laozi and Zhuangzi. Many of the school's members, including Wang Bi himself, were not religious in any sense.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wang Bi mostly focused on reconciling Confucian thought with Taoist thought. Because the version of the Tao Te Ching that has been passed on to the present is the one that Wang Bi commented upon, his interpretations became very influential as they were passed on alongside the Tao Te Ching. In addition, his commentary was compatible with Confucian ideas and Buddhist ideas that later entered China. This compatibility ensured Taoism would remain an important aspect of Chinese culture, and made the merging of the three religions easier in later periods, such as the Tang dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Six_Dynasties_(316–589)"><span id="Six_Dynasties_.28316.E2.80.93589.29"></span>Six Dynasties (316–589)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Six Dynasties (316–589)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Taoist alchemist <a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/Baopuzi" title="Baopuzi">Baopuzi</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">抱扑子</span></span> The 'Master Embracing Simplicity') was active in the third and fourth centuries and had great influence on later Taoism.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major scriptures were produced during this time period, including the <a href="/wiki/Shangqing_School" title="Shangqing School">Shangqing</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">上清</span></span> 'Supreme Clarity') (365–370) and <a href="/wiki/Lingbao_School" title="Lingbao School">Lingbao</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">靈寶</span></span> 'Sacred Treasure') scriptures (397–402) received at Maoshan. The Shangqing revelations were received by Yang Xi, a relative of Ge Hong's; the revelations emphasised meditative visualisation (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">內觀</span></span> <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">neiguan</i></span>). They spoke of the Shangqing heaven, which stood above what had been previously considered the highest heaven by Celestial Master Taoists. Yang Xi's revelations consisted of visitations from the residents of this heaven (the "<a href="/wiki/Zhenren" title="Zhenren">Zhenren</a>") many of whom were ancestors of a circle of aristocrats from southern China. These Zhenren spoke of an apocalypse which was to arrive in 384, and claimed that only certain people from this aristocratic circle had been chosen to be saved. For the first century of its existence, Shangqing Taoism was isolated to this aristocratic circle. However, <a href="/wiki/Tao_Hongjing" title="Tao Hongjing">Tao Hongjing</a> (456–536) codified and wrote commentaries on Yang Xi's writings and allowed for the creation of Shangqing Taoism as a popular religion.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Lingbao scriptures added some Buddhist elements, such as an emphasis on universal salvation.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also, during the <a href="/wiki/Six_Dynasties" title="Six Dynasties">Six Dynasties</a> period, the Celestial Master movement re-emerged in two distinct forms. <a href="/wiki/The_Northern_Celestial_Masters" class="mw-redirect" title="The Northern Celestial Masters">The Northern Celestial Masters</a> were founded in 424 century by <a href="/wiki/Kou_Qianzhi" title="Kou Qianzhi">Kou Qianzhi</a>, and a Taoist theocracy was established that lasted until 450 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After this time, the Northern Celestial Masters were expelled from the Wei court and re-established themselves at Louguan where they survived into the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Southern Celestial Masters were centered at Jiankang (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a>), and were likely made of those adherents who fled Sichuan and others who fled from <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> after its fall in 311 CE. These various followers of The Way of the Celestial Master coalesced to form a distinct form of Taoism known as the Southern Celestial Masters, who lasted as a distinct movement into the fifth century.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tang_dynasty_(618–907)"><span id="Tang_dynasty_.28618.E2.80.93907.29"></span>Tang dynasty (618–907)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tang dynasty (618–907)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Taoism gained official status in China during the Tang dynasty, whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it was forced to compete with <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> its major rivals, for patronage and rank. Skepticism about the existence and goodness of <i><a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">xian</a></i>, the traditional view on <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">heaven</a>, and other factors boosted conversion from <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a> and Taoism to Buddhism, especially among <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Tiān</i> often was seen by Chinese peasants as a capricious force that only granted certain <a href="/wiki/Chosen_people" title="Chosen people">chosen ones</a> the privilege of becoming <i>xian</i> and bound all other <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">souls</a> in "gloomy underworld jails."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Taoist sects and Buddhist temple monks were often bitter <a href="/wiki/Ideological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideological">ideological</a> rivals that made scathing statements about each other and the faith they did not represent.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Emperor <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xuanzong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Xuanzong of Tang">Xuanzong</a> (685–762), who ruled at the height of the Tang, wrote commentaries on texts from all three of these traditions, which exemplifies the fact that in many people's lives they were not mutually exclusive. This marks the beginning of a long-lived tendency within imperial China, in which the government supported (and simultaneously regulated) all three movements.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Gaozong of Tang">Gaozong Emperor</a> added the <i>Tao Te Ching</i> to the list of classics (<span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">jing</i></span><i>,</i> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">經</span></span>) to be studied for the imperial examinations.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Song_dynasty_(960–1279)"><span id="Song_dynasty_.28960.E2.80.931279.29"></span>Song dynasty (960–1279)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Song dynasty (960–1279)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several Song emperors, most notably <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Huizong_of_Song" title="Emperor Huizong of Song">Huizong</a>, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the <i><a href="/wiki/Daozang" title="Daozang">Daozang</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Quanzhen" class="mw-redirect" title="Quanzhen">Quanzhen</a> school of Taoism was founded during this period, and together with the resurgent Celestial Masters called the <a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Dao" title="Zhengyi Dao">Zhengyi</a> is one of the two schools of Taoism that have survived to the present.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> saw an increasingly complex interaction between the elite traditions of organised Taoism as practised by ordained Taoist ministers (<span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">daoshi</i></span>) and the local traditions of <a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">folk religion</a> as practised by spirit mediums (<span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">wu</i></span>) and a new class of non-ordained ritual experts known as <span title="Chinese-language text"><i lang="zh-Latn">fashi</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This interaction manifested itself in the integration of 'converted' local deities into the bureaucratically organised Taoist pantheon and the emergence of new exorcistic rituals, including the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Celestial_Heart_Rites&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Celestial Heart Rites (page does not exist)">Celestial Heart Rites</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thunder_Rites&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thunder Rites (page does not exist)">Thunder Rites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesised in the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Confucian">Neo-Confucian</a> school, which eventually became Imperial <a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">orthodoxy</a> for state bureaucratic purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Yuan_dynasty_(1279–1367)"><span id="Yuan_dynasty_.281279.E2.80.931367.29"></span>Yuan dynasty (1279–1367)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Yuan dynasty (1279–1367)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baiyun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Baiyun.jpg" decoding="async" width="442" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="442" data-file-height="160" /></a><figcaption>White Cloud Monastery in Beijing</figcaption></figure> <p>Taoism suffered a significant setback in 1281 when many copies of the <i>Daozang</i> were ordered burned. This destruction gave Taoism a chance to renew itself.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Neidan" title="Neidan">Neidan</a></i>, a form of <a href="/wiki/Internal_alchemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal alchemy">internal alchemy</a>, became a major emphasis of the Quanzhen sect, whose practitioners followed a monastic model inspired by Buddhism. One of its leaders, Qiu Chuji became a teacher of <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> before the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>. (and used his influence to save millions of lives). Originally from <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>, the sect established its main center in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>'s <a href="/wiki/White_Cloud_Temple" title="White Cloud Temple">Baiyunguan</a> ("White Cloud Monastery").<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the end of the dynasty, the Celestial Masters sect (and Buddhism) again gained preeminence.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ming_dynasty_(1368–1644)"><span id="Ming_dynasty_.281368.E2.80.931644.29"></span>Ming dynasty (1368–1644)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ming dynasty (1368–1644)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1406, <a href="/wiki/Yongle_Emperor" title="Yongle Emperor">Yongle Emperor</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> commanded that all Taoist texts be collected and combined into a new version of the <i>Daozang.</i> The text was finally finished in 1447, and took nearly forty years to complete.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Qing_dynasty_(1644–1912)"><span id="Qing_dynasty_.281644.E2.80.931912.29"></span>Qing dynasty (1644–1912)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Qing dynasty (1644–1912)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The fall of the Ming dynasty and the subsequent establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> by the Manchus was blamed by some literati on religion, specifically Taoism. They sought to regain power by advocating a return to <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> orthodoxy in a movement called <i>Hanxue</i>, or "<a href="/wiki/Han_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Learning">Han Learning</a>." This movement returned the Confucian classics to favor and nearly completely rejected Taoism. During the eighteenth century, the <a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu" title="Siku Quanshu">imperial library</a> was constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist books.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through the Qing-administered agency Bureau of Taoist Registrations, the number of officially ordained Taoist masters was limited. Sponsored Taoist ritual and study sites were also restricted and controlled.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the beginning of the twentieth century, Taoism had fallen much from favor (only one complete copy of the <i><a href="/wiki/Daozang" title="Daozang">Daozang</a></i> still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing).<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nationalist_period_(1912–1949)"><span id="Nationalist_period_.281912.E2.80.931949.29"></span>Nationalist period (1912–1949)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nationalist period (1912–1949)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> (Chinese Nationalist Party) leaders embraced science, modernity, and Western culture, including (to some extent) Christianity. Viewing the popular religion as reactionary and parasitic, they confiscated some temples for public buildings, and otherwise attempted to control traditional religious activity.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="People's_Republic_of_China_(1949–present)"><span id="People.27s_Republic_of_China_.281949.E2.80.93present.29"></span>People's Republic of China (1949–present)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: People's Republic of China (1949–present)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a>, officially atheistic, initially suppressed Taoism along with other religions. During the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> from 1966 to 1976, many Taoist temples and sites were destroyed or badly damaged, Taoist clergy were forced to disrobe and were sent to labor camps.<sup id="cite_ref-Dean_1993,_p._41_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dean_1993,_p._41-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Persecution of Taoists in China eventually stopped in 1979, and many Taoists began reviving their traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Dean_1993,_p._41_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dean_1993,_p._41-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequently, many temples and monasteries have been repaired and reopened, but the destruction of cultural revolution was substantial. </p><p>Taoism is one of five religions officially recognized by the communist government, which regulates its activities through the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Taoist_Association" title="Chinese Taoist Association">China Taoist Association</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sensitive areas include the relationship of the <a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Dao" title="Zhengyi Dao">Zhengyi Taoist community</a> with their denomination's lineage-holder, <a href="/wiki/Celestial_Masters" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial Masters">Celestial Masters</a> who moved to Taiwan with the Kuomintang, and various traditional temple activities such as astrology and mediumship, which have been criticized as "superstitious".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taoism_in_the_West">Taoism in the West</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Taoism in the West"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 1927 to 1944, the chief proponent of Taoism in the West was Professor <a href="/wiki/Henri_Maspero" title="Henri Maspero">Henri Maspero</a> in Paris. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Saso" title="Michael Saso">Michael Saso</a> was the first westerner to be initiated as a Taoist priest; he subsequently served also as co-editor of <i>Taoist Resources</i>. Today, many Taoist organizations like <a href="/wiki/Taoist_Church_of_Italy" title="Taoist Church of Italy">Taoist Church of Italy</a> and Catalan Taoist Association have been established in the West. </p><p>"Popular Western Taoism" is a term coined by Jonathan R. Herman in his 1998 review of <a href="/wiki/Ursula_K._Le_Guin" title="Ursula K. Le Guin">Ursula K. Le Guin</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Daodejing" class="mw-redirect" title="Daodejing">Daodejing</a></i> "rendition", referring to the </p> <blockquote><p>abundance of new literature on Taoism by nonspecialists, including "translations" of Taoist texts by authors who (sometimes boastfully) lack linguistic competence. Scholars have been quick to reject such documents as ahistorical and inauthentic, and many do indeed combine questionable scholarship with a promiscuous blend of western individualism and new-age universalism. However, this popular western Taoism is not exclusively or even primarily a scholarly phenomenon; rather, it is an <i>aesthetic</i>, <i>cultural</i>, and <i>religious</i> phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This review was largely positive with some criticisms and cautions. While Herman states that the book "is not a useful text for informing students" about philosophical thought during the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>, Herman praised the book as a "surprisingly interesting and scholastically responsible" example of western Daoist thought and as "an intelligent example of the emerging western transformation of Taoism, an area too often overlooked by sinologists." On the other hand, he criticized that Le Guin "make[s] some claims—or rather, employs some language—that may carry misleading implications", such as identifying Laozi "as a mystic and his perceptions as mystical, without ever defining the terms or questioning what generalizations can be drawn." </p><p>Herman subsequently described popular Western Taoism as the modern proliferation of self-proclaimed Daoist journals, meditation centers, websites, and renderings of Daoist texts by nonspecialists; and said, "not surprisingly, the sinological community (myself included) has generally greeted this overall phenomenon – what I will from here on label "popular Western Daoism" – with varying degrees of indifferences, amusement, and derision."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a 1998 article about teaching Daoism, Russell Kirkland urged colleagues not to "Pooh-pooh Taoism" with "popular fluff" like Benjamin Hoff's coffee-table book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Tao_of_Pooh" title="The Tao of Pooh">The Tao of Pooh</a></i>, and characterized <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Mitchell_(translator)" title="Stephen Mitchell (translator)">Stephen Mitchell</a> and others as "self-indulgent dilettantes who deceive the public by publishing pseudo-translations of the <i>Tao-te ching</i>, without having actually read the text in its original language".<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Louis Komjathy described modern "Western Daoism" or "American Daoism" in <a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">religious studies</a> terms, where "New Age discourse communities and advocates of <a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">Perennial Philosophy</a> identify and interpret Daoist texts as part of a 'universal wisdom tradition'."<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Komjathy later elaborated on these spiritual hybrids that "domesticate, sterilize and misrepresent Daoism", and may best be understood as part of a <a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">new religious movement</a> labeled "Popular Western Taoism (PWT), with 'Taoism' pronounced with a hard 't' sound."<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this construct, "'Daoism' becomes anything for anyone", and Popular Western Taoism "has little to no connection with the Daoist religious tradition."<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robinet_1997,_p._25-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robinet_1997,_p._25_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinet_1997,_p._25_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. xix</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBellinghamWhittakerGrant1992" class="citation book cs1">Bellingham, David; Whittaker, Clio; Grant, John (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/27192394"><i>Myths and Legends</i></a>. Secaucus, New Jersey: Wellfleet Press. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55521-812-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-55521-812-1"><bdi>1-55521-812-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/27192394">27192394</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Myths+and+Legends&rft.place=Secaucus%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Wellfleet+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F27192394&rft.isbn=1-55521-812-1&rft.aulast=Bellingham&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Whittaker%2C+Clio&rft.au=Grant%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F27192394&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDemerath2003">Demerath 2003</a>, p. 149</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHucker1995">Hucker 1995</a>, pp. 203–04</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robinet_1997,_p._36-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robinet_1997,_p._36_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robinet_1997,_p._36_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark2016" class="citation web cs1">Mark, Emily (2016-02-22). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Taoism">"Taoism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Taoism&rft.date=2016-02-22&rft.aulast=Mark&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FTaoism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.edepot.com/taoism_lao-tzu.html">"Lao Tzu (Lao Zi) Scroll Paintings and Posters"</a>. Edepot.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lao+Tzu+%28Lao+Zi%29+Scroll+Paintings+and+Posters&rft.pub=Edepot.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.edepot.com%2Ftaoism_lao-tzu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simpkins_1999_pp_12-13-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Simpkins_1999_pp_12-13_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimpkinsSimpkins1999">Simpkins & Simpkins (1999</a>, pp. 12–13)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorgan2001">Morgan (2001</a>, pp. 223–24)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKohnLaFargue1998">Kohn & LaFargue (1998</a>, pp. 14, 17, 54–55)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZiporyn2009vii-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZiporyn2009vii_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZiporyn2009">Ziporyn (2009)</a>, p. vii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair199821-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair199821_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMair1998">Mair (1998)</a>, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair1994xxxi-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMair1994xxxi_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMair1994">Mair (1994)</a>, p. xxxi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnechtges20142314-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnechtges20142314_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKnechtges2014">Knechtges (2014)</a>, p. 2314.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2015697-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkinson2015697_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilkinson2015">Wilkinson (2015)</a>, p. 697.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKohn2000">Kohn 2000</a>, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. 54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. 50</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, pp. 54–55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/w/wangbi.htm">Wang Bi [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. 78</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, pp. 116–117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. 153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKohn2000">Kohn 2000</a>, pp. 284–285</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKohn2000">Kohn 2000</a>, pp. 284–289–290</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKohn2000">Kohn 2000</a>, pp. 257–258</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. 184</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChua2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amy_Chua" title="Amy Chua">Chua, Amy</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/123079516"><i>Day of Empire: How Hyperpowers Rise to Global Dominance–and Why They Fall</i></a> (1st ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday</a>. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-51284-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-51284-8"><bdi>978-0-385-51284-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/123079516">123079516</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Day+of+Empire%3A+How+Hyperpowers+Rise+to+Global+Dominance%E2%80%93and+Why+They+Fall&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=65&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F123079516&rft.isbn=978-0-385-51284-8&rft.aulast=Chua&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F123079516&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. 186</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. 185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, p. 213</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKohn2000">Kohn 2000</a>, p. 567</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKohn2000">Kohn 2000</a>, p. 415</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKohn2000">Kohn 2000</a>, pp. 416–418, 423</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKohn2000">Kohn 2000</a>, p. XVII</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchipperVerellen2004">Schipper & Verellen 2004</a>, p. 30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet 1997</a>, pp. 223–224</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchipper1993">Schipper 1993</a>, p. 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchipperVerellen2004">Schipper & Verellen 2004</a>, pp. 1–2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchipper1993">Schipper 1993</a>, p. 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittlejohn2009" class="citation book cs1">Littlejohn, Ronnie (2009). <i>Daoism: An Introduction</i>. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. p. 172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-639-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-639-2"><bdi>978-1-84511-639-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daoism%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=172&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84511-639-2&rft.aulast=Littlejohn&rft.aufirst=Ronnie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchipper1993">Schipper 1993</a>, p. 220</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchipper1993">Schipper 1993</a>, p. 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dean_1993,_p._41-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dean_1993,_p._41_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dean_1993,_p._41_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDean1993">Dean 1993</a>, p. 41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090327075017/http://www.hrwf.net/advocacy/ext/religious_freedom_china.pdf">"Human Rights Without Frontiers "Religious Freedom in China in 2006"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hrwf.net/advocacy/ext/religious_freedom_china.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2009-03-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Rights+Without+Frontiers+%22Religious+Freedom+in+China+in+2006%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrwf.net%2Fadvocacy%2Fext%2Freligious_freedom_china.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:85%;">(30.6 KB)</span> An address given to the Delegation EU-China of the European Parliament.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071001211132/http://www.oslocoalition.org/html/project_china/report_china_visit_2000.html">"Report from The Oslo Coalition "Visit to China"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oslocoalition.org/html/project_china/report_china_visit_2000.html">the original</a> on 2007-10-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-05-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Report+from+The+Oslo+Coalition+%22Visit+to+China%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oslocoalition.org%2Fhtml%2Fproject_china%2Freport_china_visit_2000.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerman1998" class="citation journal cs1">Herman, Jonathan R. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1466152">"Review of Tao Te Ching: A Book about the Way and the Power of the Way"</a>. <i>Journal of the American Academy of Religion</i>. <b>66</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">686–</span>689. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7189">0002-7189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Academy+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Review+of+Tao+Te+Ching%3A+A+Book+about+the+Way+and+the+Power+of+the+Way&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E686-%3C%2Fspan%3E689&rft.date=1998&rft.issn=0002-7189&rft.aulast=Herman&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1466152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herman, Jonathan R. (2001), "Daoist Environmentalism in the West: Ursula K. Le Guin's Reception and Transmission of Daoism," in <i>Daoism and Ecology</i>, ed. by N. J. Girardot et al., Harvard University Press, 391, 392.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Russell Kirkland, "Teaching Taoism in the 1990s", <i>Teaching Theology and Religion</i>, 1998, 1.2, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Komjathy, Louis (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.daoistcenter.org/novareligio.pdf">Tracing the Contours of Daoism in North America</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111226091433/http://www.daoistcenter.org/novareligio.pdf">Archived</a> 2011-12-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions</i>, 8.2, 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Komjathy, Louis (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.daoistcenter.org/pwt.html">Popular Western Taoism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151211110432/http://www.daoistcenter.org/pwt.html">Archived</a> 2015-12-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Center for Daoist Studies. This refers to the common <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/</span> mispronunciation of English <i>Taoism</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/</span> (see <a href="/wiki/Daoism%E2%80%93Taoism_romanization_issue" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism–Taoism romanization issue">Daoism–Taoism romanization issue</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Komjathy, Louis (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.daoistcenter.org/daoist3.html">Popular Construction of Daoist Religion</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151125122245/http://www.daoistcenter.org/daoist3.html">Archived</a> 2015-11-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> , Center for Daoist Studies.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDean1993" class="citation book cs1">Dean, Kenneth (1993). <i>Taoist Ritual and Popular Cults of Southeast China</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey" title="Princeton, New Jersey">Princeton</a>: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taoist+Ritual+and+Popular+Cults+of+Southeast+China&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Dean&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemerath2003" class="citation book cs1">Demerath, Nicholas J. (2003). <i>Crossing the Gods: World Religions and Worldly Politics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University_Press" title="Rutgers University Press">Rutgers University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-3207-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8135-3207-8"><bdi>0-8135-3207-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crossing+the+Gods%3A+World+Religions+and+Worldly+Politics&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8135-3207-8&rft.aulast=Demerath&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHucker1995" class="citation book cs1">Hucker, Charles O. (1995). <i>China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture</i>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2353-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2353-2"><bdi>0-8047-2353-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Imperial+Past%3A+An+Introduction+to+Chinese+History+and+Culture&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-8047-2353-2&rft.aulast=Hucker&rft.aufirst=Charles+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohn1993" class="citation book cs1">Kohn, Livia (1993). <i>The Taoist Experience: An Anthology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Albany,_New_York" title="Albany, New York">Albany</a>: <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Taoist+Experience%3A+An+Anthology&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Kohn&rft.aufirst=Livia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohn2000" class="citation book cs1">Kohn, Livia, ed. (2000). <i>Daoism Handbook</i>. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daoism+Handbook&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohn2004" class="citation book cs1">Kohn, Livia (2004). <i>The Daoist Monastic Manual: A Translation of the Fengdao Kejie</i>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Daoist+Monastic+Manual%3A+A+Translation+of+the+Fengdao+Kejie&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Kohn&rft.aufirst=Livia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnechtges2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_R._Knechtges" title="David R. Knechtges">Knechtges, David R.</a> (2014). "<i>Zhuangzi</i> <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">莊子</span></span>". In Knechtges, David R.; Chang, Taiping (eds.). <i>Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature: A Reference Guide, Part Four</i>. Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">2314–</span>23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-27217-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-27217-0"><bdi>978-90-04-27217-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zhuangzi+%3Cspan+title%3D%22Chinese-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22zh%22%3E%E8%8E%8A%E5%AD%90%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Chinese-language+text&rft.btitle=Ancient+and+Early+Medieval+Chinese+Literature%3A+A+Reference+Guide%2C+Part+Four&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2314-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-90-04-27217-0&rft.aulast=Knechtges&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohnLaFargue1998" class="citation book cs1">Kohn, Livia; LaFargue, Michael, eds. (1998). <i>Lao-Tzu and the Tao-Te-Ching</i>. <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-3599-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-3599-7"><bdi>0-7914-3599-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lao-Tzu+and+the+Tao-Te-Ching&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-7914-3599-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMair1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Victor_H._Mair" title="Victor H. Mair">Mair, Victor H.</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dpFnYhV_ghIC"><i>Wandering on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Chuang Tzu</i></a>. New York: Bantam Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-553-37406-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-553-37406-0"><bdi>0-553-37406-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wandering+on+the+Way%3A+Early+Taoist+Tales+and+Parables+of+Chuang+Tzu&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Bantam+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-553-37406-0&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdpFnYhV_ghIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMair1998" class="citation book cs1">Mair, Victor H. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6TADbQ8_b8gC&pg=PP1">"<i>Chuang-tzu</i>"</a>. In Nienhauser, William (ed.). <i>The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature, Volume 2</i>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">20–</span>26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-33456-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-33456-X"><bdi>0-253-33456-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chuang-tzu&rft.btitle=The+Indiana+Companion+to+Traditional+Chinese+Literature%2C+Volume+2&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E20-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-253-33456-X&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6TADbQ8_b8gC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeilly2001" class="citation book cs1">McNeilly, Mark R. (2001). <i>Sun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513340-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513340-0"><bdi>978-0-19-513340-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sun+Tzu+and+the+Art+of+Modern+Warfare&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513340-0&rft.aulast=McNeilly&rft.aufirst=Mark+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan2001" class="citation book cs1">Morgan, Diane (2001). <i>The Best Guide to Eastern Philosophy and Religion</i>. New York, NY: St. Martin's Griffin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58063-197-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58063-197-6"><bdi>978-1-58063-197-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Best+Guide+to+Eastern+Philosophy+and+Religion&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Griffin&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-58063-197-6&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Diane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinet1993" class="citation book cs1">Robinet, Isabelle (1993) [1989]. <i>Taoist Meditation: The Mao-shan Tradition of Great Purity</i>. <a href="/wiki/Albany,_New_York" title="Albany, New York">Albany</a>: <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taoist+Meditation%3A+The+Mao-shan+Tradition+of+Great+Purity&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Robinet&rft.aufirst=Isabelle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinet1997" class="citation book cs1">Robinet, Isabelle (1997) [1992]. <i>Taoism: Growth of a Religion</i>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford">Stanford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2839-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2839-9"><bdi>0-8047-2839-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taoism%3A+Growth+of+a+Religion&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8047-2839-9&rft.aulast=Robinet&rft.aufirst=Isabelle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSawyer2007" class="citation book cs1">Sawyer, Ralph D. (2007). <i>The Seven Military Classics of Ancient China</i>. Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00304-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00304-4"><bdi>978-0-465-00304-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Seven+Military+Classics+of+Ancient+China&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-465-00304-4&rft.aulast=Sawyer&rft.aufirst=Ralph+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchipper1993" class="citation book cs1">Schipper, Kristopher (1993) [1982]. <i>The Taoist Body</i>. <a href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Taoist+Body&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Schipper&rft.aufirst=Kristopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchipperVerellen2004" class="citation book cs1">Schipper, Kristopher; Verellen, Franciscus (2004). <i>The Taoist Canon: A Historical Companion to the Daozang</i>. <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Taoist+Canon%3A+A+Historical+Companion+to+the+Daozang&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Schipper&rft.aufirst=Kristopher&rft.au=Verellen%2C+Franciscus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpkinsSimpkins1999" class="citation book cs1">Simpkins, Annellen M.; Simpkins, C. Alexander (1999). <i>Simple Taoism: a guide to living in balance</i> (3rd Printing ed.). Boston: Tuttle Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-3173-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8048-3173-4"><bdi>978-0-8048-3173-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Simple+Taoism%3A+a+guide+to+living+in+balance&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=3rd+Printing&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8048-3173-4&rft.aulast=Simpkins&rft.aufirst=Annellen+M.&rft.au=Simpkins%2C+C.+Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Endymion_Wilkinson" title="Endymion Wilkinson">Wilkinson, Endymion</a> (2015). <i>Chinese History: A New Manual</i> (4th ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Asia Center. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-08846-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-08846-7"><bdi>978-0-674-08846-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+History%3A+A+New+Manual&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Asia+Center&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-674-08846-7&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Endymion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZiporyn2009" class="citation book cs1">Ziporyn, Brook (2009). <i>Zhuangzi: The Essential Writings with Selections from Traditional Commentaries Hackett Classics Series</i>. Hackett Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60384-435-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60384-435-2"><bdi>978-1-60384-435-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zhuangzi%3A+The+Essential+Writings+with+Selections+from+Traditional+Commentaries+Hackett+Classics+Series&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-60384-435-2&rft.aulast=Ziporyn&rft.aufirst=Brook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Taoism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taoism135" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #cce0f0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taoism_footer" title="Template:Taoism footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Taoism_footer" title="Template talk:Taoism footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Taoism_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Taoism footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Taoism135" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #cce0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Metaphysics32" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #ddeef3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taoist_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist cosmology">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></b> (way)</li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Taiji_(philosophy)" title="Taiji (philosophy)">Taiji</a></b></i> (ultimate) <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wuji_(philosophy)" title="Wuji (philosophy)">Wuji</a></i> (non-polarity)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">Yin and yang</a> (duality)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bagua" title="Bagua">Bagua</a></i> (eight trigrams)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">Feng shui</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">Wuxing</a></i> (five phases)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bianhua" title="Bianhua">Bianhua</a></i> (transformation)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fan_(Daoism)" title="Fan (Daoism)">Fan</a></i> (reversion)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #ddeef3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taoist_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a></b></i> (integrity)</li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">Wu wei</a></b></i> (nonaction)</li> <li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Ziran" title="Ziran">Ziran</a></b></i> (spontenaity) <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pu_(Daoism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pu (Daoism)">Pu</a></i> (plainness)</li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhenren" title="Zhenren">Zhenren</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Precepts_(Taoism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Precepts (Taoism)">Five Precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Precepts_(Taoism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Precepts (Taoism)">Ten Precepts</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:BatQuaiDo_2.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Taoism"><img alt="Taoism" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/BatQuaiDo_2.svg/80px-BatQuaiDo_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/BatQuaiDo_2.svg/120px-BatQuaiDo_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/BatQuaiDo_2.svg/160px-BatQuaiDo_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="120" data-file-height="120" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #cce0f0;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Neidan" title="Neidan">Neidan</a></i> (internal alchemy)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Waidan" title="Waidan">Waidan</a></i> (external alchemy)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yangsheng_(Daoism)" title="Yangsheng (Daoism)">Yangsheng</a></i> (self-cultivation) <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Daoyin" title="Daoyin">Daoyin</a></i> (calisthenics)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_meditation" title="Taoist meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(traditional_Chinese_medicine)" title="Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)">Three Treasures</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Jing_(Chinese_medicine)" title="Jing (Chinese medicine)">Jing</a></i> (essence)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a> (breath)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">Shen</a></i> (spirit)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_diet" title="Taoist diet">Diet</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">Xian</a></i> (immortality)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_art" title="Taoist art">Art</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fulu" title="Fulu">Fulu</a></i> (talismancy)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #cce0f0;;width:1%">Texts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching">Tao Te Ching</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liezi" title="Liezi">Liezi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taipingjing" title="Taipingjing">Taipingjing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xiang%27er" title="Xiang'er">Xiang'er</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sanhuangjing" title="Sanhuangjing">Sanhuangjing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huahujing" title="Huahujing">Huahujing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qingjing_Jing" title="Qingjing Jing">Qingjing Jing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Baopuzi" title="Baopuzi">Baopuzi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daozang" title="Daozang">Daozang</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #cce0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_theology#Taoism" title="Chinese theology">Deities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hongjun_Laozu" title="Hongjun Laozu">Hongjun Laozu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Pure_Ones" title="Three Pure Ones">Three Pure Ones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuanshi_Tianzun" title="Yuanshi Tianzun">Yuanshi Tianzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingbao_Tianzun" title="Lingbao Tianzun">Lingbao Tianzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daode_Tianzun" title="Daode Tianzun">Daode Tianzun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_heavenly_ministers" title="Four heavenly ministers">Four Sovereigns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Jade Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziwei_Emperor" title="Ziwei Emperor">Ziwei Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianhuang_Emperor" title="Tianhuang Emperor">Tianhuang Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houtu" title="Houtu">Houtu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Great_Emperor-Officials" title="Three Great Emperor-Officials">Three Great Emperor-Officials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_of_the_West" title="Queen Mother of the West">Queen Mother of the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Father_of_the_East" title="King Father of the East">King Father of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Immortals" title="Eight Immortals">Eight Immortals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chang%27e" title="Chang'e">Chang'e</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors">Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guan_Yu#Worship_of_Guan_Yu" title="Guan Yu">Guan Shengdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Taoist_deities" title="Category:Taoist deities"><i>Other deities</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #cce0f0;;width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_Yukou" title="Lie Yukou">Lie Yukou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heshang_Gong" title="Heshang Gong">Heshang Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Boyang" title="Wei Boyang">Wei Boyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Daoling" title="Zhang Daoling">Zhang Daoling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Ji" title="Gan Ji">Gan Ji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jue" title="Zhang Jue">Zhang Jue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Lu_(Han_dynasty)" title="Zhang Lu (Han dynasty)">Zhang Lu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Xuan" title="Ge Xuan">Ge Xuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Yan" title="He Yan">He Yan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove" title="Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove">Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Huacun" title="Wei Huacun">Wei Huacun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bao_Jingyan" title="Bao Jingyan">Bao Jingyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kou_Qianzhi" title="Kou Qianzhi">Kou Qianzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Xiujing" title="Lu Xiujing">Lu Xiujing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tao_Hongjing" title="Tao Hongjing">Tao Hongjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Xuanying" title="Cheng Xuanying">Cheng Xuanying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Tuan" title="Chen Tuan">Chen Tuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Boduan" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhang Boduan">Zhang Boduan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Bu%27er" title="Sun Bu'er">Sun Bu'er</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chongyang" title="Wang Chongyang">Wang Chongyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiu_Chuji" title="Qiu Chuji">Qiu Chuji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Guoxiang" title="Zhang Guoxiang">Zhang Guoxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Sanfeng" title="Zhang Sanfeng">Zhang Sanfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Quan" title="Zhu Quan">Zhu Quan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fangshi" title="Fangshi"><i>Fangshi</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #cce0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taoist_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist schools">Schools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huang%E2%80%93Lao" title="Huang–Lao">Huang–Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Taiping" title="Way of the Taiping">Taiping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Five_Pecks_of_Rice" title="Way of the Five Pecks of Rice">Way of the Five Pecks of Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Celestial_Masters" title="Way of the Celestial Masters">Way of the Celestial Masters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Northern_Celestial_Masters" class="mw-redirect" title="The Northern Celestial Masters">Northern Celestial Masters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Dao" title="Zhengyi Dao">Zhengyi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shangqing_School" title="Shangqing School">Shangqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingbao_School" title="Lingbao School">Lingbao</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jingming_Dao" title="Jingming Dao">Jingming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chongxuan_School" title="Chongxuan School">Chongxuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dragon_Gate_Taoism" title="Dragon Gate Taoism">Dragon Gate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuliupai" title="Wuliupai">Wuliu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_Taoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Yao Taoism">Yao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #cce0f0;;width:1%">Sacred places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grotto-heavens" title="Grotto-heavens">Grotto-heavens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Mountains_of_China" title="Sacred Mountains of China">Sacred Mountains of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wudang_Mountains" title="Wudang Mountains">Wudang Mountains</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Penglai" title="Mount Penglai">Mount Penglai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunlun_(mythology)" title="Kunlun (mythology)">Mount Kunlun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_temple" title="Taoist temple">Temples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cebu_Taoist_Temple" title="Cebu Taoist Temple">Cebu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_Temple_(Hanford,_California)" title="Taoist Temple (Hanford, California)">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louguantai" title="Louguantai">Louguantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tong_Jee_Teung" title="Tong Jee Teung">Tong Jee Teung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Cloud_Temple" title="White Cloud Temple">White Cloud</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_religions182" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_religions" title="Template:History of religions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_religions" title="Template talk:History of religions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_religions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of religions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_religions182" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">List of religions and spiritual traditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">Major groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="History of the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rastafari" title="History of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Amerindian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Inca_Empire" title="Religion in the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Confucianism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shintoism#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Shintoism">Shinto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jainism" title="History of Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sikhism" title="History of Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism#History" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism#Origins" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Neopaganism">Neopaganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wicca" title="History of Wicca">Wicca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Thought" title="History of New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Kardecist spiritism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Religions of the ancient Near East">Near East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic religion">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Illyro-thracian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic Hinduism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Evolution of morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Evolutionary origin of religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atheism" title="History of atheism">History of atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_theology" title="History of theology">History of theology (Greco-Abrahamic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_School_(history_of_religion)" title="Roman School (history of religion)">Roman School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&oldid=1262416334">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&oldid=1262416334</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Taoism" title="Category:History of Taoism">History of Taoism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_mystic_traditions" title="Category:History of mystic traditions">History of mystic traditions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_religion_by_religion" title="Category:History of religion by religion">History of religion by religion</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_plain_IPA" title="Category:Pages with plain IPA">Pages with plain IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Chinese-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Chinese-language text">Articles containing Chinese-language text</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 11 December 2024, at 08:30<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Taoism&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Taoism</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>8 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-92gd6","wgBackendResponseTime":138,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.617","walltime":"0.737","ppvisitednodes":{"value":3240,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":121370,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":764,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":8,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":1,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":120601,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 624.928 1 -total"," 31.24% 195.253 1 Template:Reflist"," 25.49% 159.305 23 Template:Cite_book"," 15.94% 99.638 11 Template:Lang"," 12.51% 78.196 1 Template:Taoism"," 12.20% 76.218 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 9.95% 62.201 1 Template:Short_description"," 7.61% 47.563 5 Template:Sfnp"," 6.29% 39.282 6 Template:Navbox"," 6.16% 38.469 2 Template:Pagetype"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.402","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":19110603,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBellinghamWhittakerGrant1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChua2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDean1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDemerath2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHucker1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnechtges2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKohn1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKohn2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKohn2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKohnLaFargue1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittlejohn2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMair1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMair1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMark2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNeilly2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorgan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinet1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinet1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSawyer2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchipper1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchipperVerellen2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpkinsSimpkins1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkinson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZiporyn2009\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Cite book\"] = 23,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 4,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 35,\n [\"Harvtxt\"] = 3,\n [\"History of religions\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA\"] = 2,\n [\"Lang\"] = 11,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 5,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 1,\n [\"Taoism\"] = 1,\n [\"Taoism footer\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-9kwmb","timestamp":"20250216125813","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of Taoism","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_Taoism","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2380718","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q2380718","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2007-05-25T08:02:21Z","dateModified":"2024-12-11T08:30:38Z","headline":"aspect of history"}</script> </body> </html>