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terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology_and_terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Natural law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Natural_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Natural law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Natural_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aristotle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aristotle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Aristotle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aristotle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thomas_Aquinas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thomas_Aquinas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Thomas Aquinas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thomas_Aquinas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-School_of_Salamanca" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#School_of_Salamanca"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>School of Salamanca</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-School_of_Salamanca-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lon_Fuller" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lon_Fuller"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Lon Fuller</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lon_Fuller-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Finnis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Finnis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>John Finnis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Finnis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analytic_jurisprudence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analytic_jurisprudence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Analytic jurisprudence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Analytic_jurisprudence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Analytic jurisprudence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Analytic_jurisprudence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_school" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_school"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Historical school</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_school-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociological_jurisprudence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociological_jurisprudence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Sociological jurisprudence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociological_jurisprudence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_positivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_positivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Legal positivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_positivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thomas_Hobbes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thomas_Hobbes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Thomas Hobbes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thomas_Hobbes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bentham_and_Austin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bentham_and_Austin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.2</span> <span>Bentham and Austin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bentham_and_Austin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hans_Kelsen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hans_Kelsen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.3</span> <span>Hans Kelsen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hans_Kelsen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-H._L._A._Hart" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#H._L._A._Hart"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.4</span> <span>H. L. A. Hart</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-H._L._A._Hart-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Joseph_Raz" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Joseph_Raz"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.5</span> <span>Joseph Raz</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Joseph_Raz-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_realism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_realism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Legal realism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_realism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critical_legal_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critical_legal_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Critical legal studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critical_legal_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutionalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutionalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Constitutionalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutionalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_interpretivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_interpretivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Legal interpretivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_interpretivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Therapeutic_jurisprudence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Therapeutic_jurisprudence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Therapeutic jurisprudence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Therapeutic_jurisprudence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Normative_jurisprudence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Normative_jurisprudence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Normative jurisprudence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Normative_jurisprudence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Normative jurisprudence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Normative_jurisprudence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Virtue_jurisprudence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virtue_jurisprudence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Virtue jurisprudence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virtue_jurisprudence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deontology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deontology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Deontology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deontology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Utilitarianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Utilitarianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Utilitarianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Utilitarianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-John_Rawls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#John_Rawls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>John Rawls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-John_Rawls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Experimental_jurisprudence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experimental_jurisprudence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Experimental jurisprudence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experimental_jurisprudence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_philosophers_of_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_philosophers_of_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>List of philosophers of law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_philosophers_of_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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Available in 82 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-82" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">82 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regsleer" title="Regsleer – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Regsleer" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtswissenschaft" title="Rechtswissenschaft – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Rechtswissenschaft" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%82%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="فقه القضاء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فقه القضاء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D6%80%D5%A1%D6%82%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Իրաւաբանութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Իրաւաբանութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xurisprudencia" title="Xurisprudencia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xurisprudencia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCquq%C5%9F%C3%BCnasl%C4%B1q" title="Hüquqşünaslıq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hüquqşünaslıq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="আইনশাস্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আইনশাস্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Юрыспрудэнцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Юрыспрудэнцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Юрыспрудэнцыя – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Юрыспрудэнцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="कानून शास्त्र – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="कानून शास्त्र" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Юриспруденция – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Юриспруденция" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtswissnschoft" title="Rechtswissnschoft – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Rechtswissnschoft" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A8ncia_del_Dret" title="Ciència del Dret – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ciència del Dret" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Юриспруденци – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Юриспруденци" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A1vn%C3%AD_v%C4%9Bda" title="Právní věda – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Právní věda" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfreitheg" title="Cyfreitheg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyfreitheg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retsvidenskab" title="Retsvidenskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Retsvidenskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%95igusteadus" title="Õigusteadus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Õigusteadus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Νομική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νομική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencia_del_derecho" title="Ciencia del derecho – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ciencia del derecho" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudenco" title="Jurisprudenco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Jurisprudenco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuzenbidearen_zientzia" title="Zuzenbidearen zientzia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zuzenbidearen zientzia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4_%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82" title="دانش نظری حقوق – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دانش نظری حقوق" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B8gfr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Løgfrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Løgfrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rjochtsgeleardheid" title="Rjochtsgeleardheid – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Rjochtsgeleardheid" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xurisprudencia" title="Xurisprudencia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xurisprudencia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0" title="ન્યાયશાસ્ત્ર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ન્યાયશાસ્ત્ર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%95%ED%95%99" title="법학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="법학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Իրավագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իրավագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="विधिशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विधिशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori_hukum" title="Teori hukum – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Teori hukum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudentie" title="Jurisprudentie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Jurisprudentie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9ttarheimspeki" title="Réttarheimspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Réttarheimspeki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giurisprudenza" title="Giurisprudenza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Giurisprudenza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%98%D7%99%D7%9D" title="משפטים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="משפטים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%94m_%C9%96%C9%A9h%CA%8Ay%C9%9B_taa_t%C9%94m_k%C9%A9kpa%C9%A3t%CA%8A_(Jurisprudence)" title="Tɔm ɖɩhʊyɛ taa tɔm kɩkpaɣtʊ (Jurisprudence) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Tɔm ɖɩhʊyɛ taa tɔm kɩkpaɣtʊ (Jurisprudence)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ನ್ಯಾಯಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ನ್ಯಾಯಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D2%B1%D2%9B%D1%8B%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Құқықтану – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Құқықтану" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BA_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%83" title="Укук таануу – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Укук таануу" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ນິຕິສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ນິຕິສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iurisprudentia" title="Iurisprudentia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iurisprudentia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ties%C4%ABbu_zin%C4%81tne" title="Tiesību zinātne – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Tiesību zinātne" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teis%C4%97tyra" title="Teisėtyra – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Teisėtyra" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jogtudom%C3%A1ny" title="Jogtudomány – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Jogtudomány" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Јуриспруденција – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јуриспруденција" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="നിയമശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നിയമശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtsgeleerdheid" title="Rechtsgeleerdheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Rechtsgeleerdheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="विधिशास्त्र – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="विधिशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%AD%A6" title="法学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="法学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rettsvitenskap" title="Rettsvitenskap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Rettsvitenskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juss" title="Juss – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Juss" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprud%C3%A9ncia" title="Jurisprudéncia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Jurisprudéncia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Юриспруденций – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Юриспруденций" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huquqshunoslik" title="Huquqshunoslik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Huquqshunoslik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0" title="ਨਿਆਂਸ਼ਾਸ਼ਤਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨਿਆਂਸ਼ਾਸ਼ਤਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7%E2%80%8B%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E2%80%8B%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F" title="យុត្តិសាស្រ្ត – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="យុត្តិសាស្រ្ត" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtswetenschoppen" title="Rechtswetenschoppen – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Rechtswetenschoppen" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauki_prawne" title="Nauki prawne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nauki prawne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_geral_do_direito" title="Teoria geral do direito – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Teoria geral do direito" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurispruden%C8%9B%C4%83" title="Jurisprudență – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Jurisprudență" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Юриспруденция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Юриспруденция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giurisprud%C3%A8ntzia" title="Giurisprudèntzia – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Giurisprudèntzia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_juridike" title="Teoria juridike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Teoria juridike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence – 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searchaux" style="display:none">Theoretical study of law</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the "jurisprudence" of courts, see <a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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<li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy_and_thinking" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Philosophy and thinking">Contents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Categories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_schools_and_traditions" title="Category:Philosophical schools and traditions">Philosophies</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content 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education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Meta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Jurisprudence</b>, also known as <b>theory of law</b> or <b>philosophy of law</b>, is the examination in a general perspective of what law is and what it ought to be. It investigates issues such as the definition of law; legal validity; legal norms and values; as well as the relationship between law and other fields of study, including <a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">sociology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>. </p><p>Modern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was based on the first principles of <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of nations">law of nations</a>. Contemporary philosophy of law addresses problems internal to law and legal systems and problems of law as a social institution that relates to the larger political and social context in which it exists. Jurisprudence can be divided into categories both by the type of question scholars seek to answer and by the theories of jurisprudence, or schools of thought, regarding how those questions are best answered: </p> <ul><li>Natural law holds that there are rational objective limits to the power of rulers, the foundations of law are accessible through reason, and it is from these laws of nature that human laws gain force.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_jurisprudence" title="Analytical jurisprudence">Analytic jurisprudence</a> rejects natural law's fusing of what law is and what it ought to be, espousing the use of a neutral point of view and descriptive language when referring to aspects of legal systems. It encompasses theories such as <a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">legal positivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">legal realism</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative jurisprudence">Normative jurisprudence</a> is concerned with evaluative theories of law, dealing with what the goal or purpose of law is and what moral or political theories provide a foundation for the law. It attempts to determine what the proper function of law should be, what sorts of acts should be subject to legal sanctions, and what sorts of punishment should be permitted.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_jurisprudence" title="Experimental jurisprudence">Experimental jurisprudence</a> seeks to investigate the content of legal concepts using the methods of social science, unlike the philosophical methods of traditional jurisprudence.</li></ul> <p>The terms "philosophy of law" and "jurisprudence" are often used interchangeably, though jurisprudence sometimes encompasses forms of reasoning that fit into <a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">economics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">sociology</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Whereas lawyers are interested in what the law is on a specific issue in a specific jurisdiction, analytical philosophers of law are interested in identifying the features of law shared across cultures, times, and places. Taken together, these foundational features of law offer the kind of universal definition philosophers are after. The general approach allows philosophers to ask questions about, for example, what separates law from morality, politics, or practical reason.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the field has traditionally focused on giving an account of law's nature, some scholars have begun to examine the nature of domains within law, e.g. tort law, contract law, or criminal law. These scholars focus on what makes certain domains of law distinctive and how one domain differs from another. A particularly fecund area of research has been the distinction between tort law and criminal law, which more generally bears on the difference between civil and criminal law.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to analytic jurisprudence, legal philosophy is also concerned with normative theories of law. "Normative jurisprudence involves normative, evaluative, and otherwise prescriptive questions about the law."<sup id="cite_ref-:42_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology_and_terminology">Etymology and terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology and terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The English word is derived from the Latin, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">iurisprudentia</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Iuris</i></span> is the <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a> form of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">ius</i></span> meaning law, and <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">prudentia</i></span> meaning prudence (also: discretion, foresight, forethought, circumspection). It refers to the exercise of good judgment, common sense, and caution, especially in the conduct of practical matters. The word first appeared in written English<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1628, at a time when the word <i>prudence</i> meant knowledge of, or skill in, a matter. It may have entered English via the French <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">jurisprudence</i></span>, which appeared earlier. </p><p>The terms "philosophy of law" and "jurisprudence" are often used interchangeably, though jurisprudence sometimes encompasses forms of reasoning that fit into <a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">economics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">sociology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_law#Jurisprudence" title="Roman law">Roman law § Jurisprudence</a></div> <p>Ancient jurisprudence begins with various <a href="/wiki/Dharma%C5%9B%C4%81stra" title="Dharmaśāstra">Dharmaśāstra</a> texts of India. Dharmasutras of <a href="/wiki/Apastamba_Dharmasutra" title="Apastamba Dharmasutra">Āpastaṃba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baudhayana_sutras" title="Baudhayana sutras">Baudhāyana</a> are examples.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Ancient China, the <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalists</a> all had competing theories of jurisprudence.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jurisprudence in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a> had its origins with the <i>periti</i>—experts in the <i><a href="/wiki/Ius" title="Ius">jus</a></i> <i><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">mos maiorum</a></i> (traditional law), a body of <a href="/wiki/Oral_law" title="Oral law">oral laws</a> and customs. <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetors</a> established a working <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">body of laws</a> by judging whether or not singular cases were capable of being prosecuted either by the <i>edicta</i>, the annual pronunciation of prosecutable offences, or in extraordinary situations, additions made to the <i>edicta</i>. A <i>iudex</i> (originally a <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrate</a>, later a private individual appointed to judge a specific case<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) would then prescribe a remedy according to the facts of the case. </p><p>The sentences of the <i>iudex</i> were supposed to be simple interpretations of the traditional customs, but—apart from considering what traditional customs applied in each case—soon developed a more equitable interpretation, coherently adapting the law to newer social exigencies. The law was then adjusted with evolving <i>institutiones</i> (legal concepts), while remaining in the traditional mode. Praetors were replaced in the 3rd century BC by a laical body of <i>prudentes</i>. Admission to this body was conditional upon proof of competence or experience. Under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, schools of law were created, and practice of the law became more academic. From the early Roman Empire to the 3rd century, a relevant body of literature was produced by groups of scholars, including the Proculians and <a href="/wiki/Sabinians" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabinians">Sabinians</a>. The scientific nature of the studies was unprecedented in ancient times. After the 3rd century, <i>juris prudentia</i> became a more bureaucratic activity, with few notable authors. It was during the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> (5th century) that legal studies were once again undertaken in depth, and it is from this cultural movement that <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian</a>'s <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a></i></span> was born. </p><p>Modern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and was based on the first principles of <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of nations">law of nations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarner2009Jurisprudence_entry_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarner2009Jurisprudence_entry-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_law"><span class="anchor" id="Natural_law"></span>Natural law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Natural law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Natural law holds that there are rational objective limits to the power of rulers, the foundations of law are accessible through reason, and it is from these laws of nature that human laws gain force.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The moral theory of natural law asserts that law is inherent in nature and constitutive of morality, at least in part, and that an objective moral order, external to human legal systems, underlies natural law.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On this view, while legislators can enact and even successfully enforce immoral laws, such laws are <i>legally</i> invalid. The view is captured by the maxim: "<a href="/wiki/An_unjust_law_is_no_law_at_all" title="An unjust law is no law at all">an unjust law is no law at all</a>", where 'unjust' means 'contrary to the natural law.' Natural law theory has medieval origins in the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, especially in his <i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatise on law">Treatise on law</a></i>. In late 20th century, <a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">John Finnis</a> revived interest in the theory and provided a modern reworking of it.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For one, Finnis has argued that the maxim "an unjust law is no law at all" is a poor guide to the classical <a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomist</a> position.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In its general sense, natural law theory may be compared to both state-of-nature law and general law understood on the basis of being analogous to the laws of physical science. Natural law is often contrasted to positive law which asserts law as the product of human activity and human volition. Another approach to natural-law jurisprudence generally asserts that human law must be in response to compelling reasons for action. There are two readings of the natural-law jurisprudential stance. </p> <ul><li><i>The strong natural law thesis</i> holds that if a human law fails to be in response to compelling reasons, then it is not properly a "law" at all. This is captured, imperfectly, in the famous maxim: <i><a href="/wiki/Lex_iniusta_non_est_lex" class="mw-redirect" title="Lex iniusta non est lex">lex iniusta non est lex</a></i> (an unjust law is no law at all).</li> <li><i>The weak natural law thesis</i> holds that if a human law fails to be in response to compelling reasons, then it can still be called a "law", but it must be recognised as a defective law.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aristotle">Aristotle</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Aristotle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:(Venice)_Aristide_-_Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/%28Venice%29_Aristide_-_Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg/220px-%28Venice%29_Aristide_-_Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/%28Venice%29_Aristide_-_Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg/330px-%28Venice%29_Aristide_-_Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/%28Venice%29_Aristide_-_Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg/440px-%28Venice%29_Aristide_-_Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6786" data-file-height="8772" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Francesco Hayez</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Aristotle is often said to be the father of natural law.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like his philosophical forefathers <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> and Plato, Aristotle posited the existence of <a href="/wiki/Natural_justice" title="Natural justice">natural justice</a> or natural right (<i>dikaion physikon</i>, <i>δικαίον φυσικόν</i>, Latin <i><a href="/wiki/Ius_naturale" title="Ius naturale">ius naturale</a></i>). His association with natural law is largely due to how he was interpreted by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was based on Aquinas' conflation of natural law and natural right, the latter of which Aristotle posits in Book V of the <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i> (Book IV of the <i><a href="/wiki/Eudemian_Ethics" title="Eudemian Ethics">Eudemian Ethics</a></i>). Aquinas's influence was such as to affect a number of early translations of these passages,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though more recent translations render them more literally.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aristotle's theory of justice is bound up in his idea of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_mean_(philosophy)" title="Golden mean (philosophy)">golden mean</a>. Indeed, his treatment of what he calls "political justice" derives from his discussion of "the just" as a moral virtue derived as the mean between opposing vices, just like every other virtue he describes.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His longest discussion of his theory of justice occurs in <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i> and begins by asking what sort of mean a just act is. He argues that the term "justice" actually refers to two different but related ideas: general justice and particular justice.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When a person's actions toward others are completely virtuous in all matters, Aristotle calls them "just" in the sense of "general justice"; as such, this idea of justice is more or less coextensive with virtue.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Particular" or "partial justice", by contrast, is the part of "general justice" or the individual virtue that is concerned with treating others equitably.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aristotle moves from this unqualified discussion of justice to a qualified view of political justice, by which he means something close to the subject of modern jurisprudence. Of political justice, Aristotle argues that it is partly derived from nature and partly a matter of convention.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be taken as a statement that is similar to the views of modern natural law theorists. But it must also be remembered that Aristotle is describing a view of morality, not a system of law, and therefore his remarks as to nature are about the grounding of the morality enacted as law, not the laws themselves. </p><p>The best evidence of Aristotle's having thought there was a natural law comes from the <i><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a></i>, where Aristotle notes that, aside from the "particular" laws that each people has set up for itself, there is a "common" law that is according to nature.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The context of this remark, however, suggests only that Aristotle thought that it could be rhetorically advantageous to appeal to such a law, especially when the "particular" law of one's own city was adverse to the case being made, not that there actually was such a law.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle, moreover, considered certain candidates for a universally valid, natural law to be wrong.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle's theoretical paternity of the natural law tradition is consequently disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thomas_Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Thomas Aquinas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/220px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/330px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/440px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4004" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> was the most influential Western medieval legal scholar.</figcaption></figure> <p>Thomas Aquinas is the foremost classical proponent of <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a>, and the father of the Thomistic school of philosophy, for a long time the primary philosophical approach of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>. The work for which he is best known is the <i><a href="/wiki/Summa_Theologiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Summa Theologiae">Summa Theologiae</a></i>. One of the thirty-five <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_the_Church" title="Doctor of the Church">Doctors of the Church</a>, he is considered by many Catholics to be the Church's greatest theologian. Consequently, many <a href="/wiki/Institutions_named_after_Thomas_Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutions named after Thomas Aquinas">institutions of learning</a> have been named after him. </p><p>Aquinas distinguished four kinds of law: eternal, natural, divine, and human: </p> <ul><li>Eternal law refers to divine reason, known only to God. It is God's plan for the universe. Man needs this plan, for without it he would totally lack direction.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> is the "participation" in the eternal law by rational human creatures, and is discovered by reason</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a> is revealed in the scriptures and is God's positive law for mankind</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Human law">Human law</a> is supported by reason and enacted for the common good.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Natural law is based on "first principles":<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p><i>... this is the first precept of the law, that good is to be done and promoted, and evil is to be avoided. All other precepts of the natural law are based on this ...</i></p></blockquote> <p>The desires to live and to procreate are counted by Aquinas among those basic (natural) human values on which all other human values are based. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="School_of_Salamanca">School of Salamanca</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: School of Salamanca"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ius_gentium" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius gentium">ius gentium</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Vitoria" title="Francisco de Vitoria">Francisco de Vitoria</a> was perhaps the first to develop a theory of <i><a href="/wiki/Ius_gentium" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius gentium">ius gentium</a></i> (law of nations), and thus is an important figure in the transition to modernity. He extrapolated his ideas of legitimate sovereign power to international affairs, concluding that such affairs ought to be determined by forms respecting of the rights of all and that the common good of the world should take precedence before the good of any single state. This meant that relations between states ought to pass from being justified by force to being justified by law and justice. Some scholars have upset the standard account of the origins of International law, which emphasises the seminal text <i>De iure belli ac pacis</i> by <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Hugo Grotius</a>, and argued for Vitoria and, later, Suárez's importance as forerunners and, potentially, founders of the field.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others, such as Koskenniemi, have argued that none of these humanist and scholastic thinkers can be understood to have founded international law in the modern sense, instead placing its origins in the post-1870 period.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Francisco Suárez</a>, regarded as among the greatest scholastics after Aquinas, subdivided the concept of <i>ius gentium</i>. Working with already well-formed categories, he carefully distinguished <i>ius inter gentes</i> from <i>ius intra gentes</i>. <i>Ius inter gentes</i> (which corresponds to modern international law) was something common to the majority of countries, although, being positive law, not natural law, it was not necessarily universal. On the other hand, <i>ius intra gentes</i>, or civil law, is specific to each nation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lon_Fuller">Lon Fuller</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Lon Fuller"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lon_L._Fuller" title="Lon L. Fuller">Lon L. Fuller</a></div> <p>Writing after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Lon L. Fuller defended a secular and procedural form of natural law. He emphasised that the (natural) law must meet certain formal requirements (such as being impartial and publicly knowable). To the extent that an institutional system of social control falls short of these requirements, Fuller argued, we are less inclined to recognise it as a system of law, or to give it our respect. Thus, the law must have a morality that goes beyond the societal rules under which laws are made. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Finnis">John Finnis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: John Finnis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">John Finnis</a></div> <p>Sophisticated positivist and natural law theories sometimes resemble each other and may have certain points in common. Identifying a particular theorist as a positivist or a natural law theorist sometimes involves matters of emphasis and degree, and the particular influences on the theorist's work. The natural law theorists of the distant past, such as Aquinas and John Locke made no distinction between analytic and normative jurisprudence, while modern natural law theorists, such as John Finnis, who claim to be positivists, still argue that law is moral by nature. In his book <i><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law_and_Natural_Rights" title="Natural Law and Natural Rights">Natural Law and Natural Rights</a></i> (1980, 2011), John Finnis provides a restatement of natural law doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analytic_jurisprudence"><span class="anchor" id="Analytic_jurisprudence"></span>Analytic jurisprudence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Analytic jurisprudence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Analytic_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic jurisprudence">Analytic jurisprudence</a></div><p>Unlike <a href="/wiki/Experimental_jurisprudence" title="Experimental jurisprudence">experimental jurisprudence</a>, which investigates the content of legal concepts using the methods of <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> analytical jurisprudence seeks to provide a general account of the nature of law through the tools of <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">conceptual analysis</a>. The account is general in the sense of targeting universal features of law that hold at all times and places.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Analytic, or <i>clarificatory</i>, jurisprudence takes a neutral point of view and uses descriptive language when referring to various aspects of legal systems. This was a philosophical development that rejected natural law's fusing of what law is and what it ought to be.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_1958_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart_1958-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> argued, in <i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that people invariably slip from describing what the world <i>is</i> to asserting that we therefore <i>ought</i> to follow a particular course of action. But as a matter of pure logic, one cannot conclude that we <i>ought</i> to do something merely because something <i>is</i> the case. So analysing and clarifying the way the world <i>is</i> must be treated as a strictly separate question from normative and evaluative questions of what <i>ought</i> to be done. </p><p>The most important questions of analytic jurisprudence are: "What are laws?"; "What is <i>the</i> law?"; "What is the relationship between law and power/sociology?"; and "What is the relationship between law and morality?" Legal positivism is the dominant theory, although there is a growing number of critics who offer their own interpretations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_school">Historical school</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Historical school"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historical jurisprudence came to prominence during the debate on the proposed <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codification</a> of <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Germany" title="Law of Germany">German law</a>. In his book <i>On the Vocation of Our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Friedrich Carl von Savigny</a> argued that <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> did not have a legal language that would support codification because the traditions, customs, and beliefs of the German people did not include a belief in a code. Historicists believe that law originates with society. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociological_jurisprudence">Sociological jurisprudence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sociological jurisprudence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of Law">Sociology of Law</a></div> <p>An effort to systematically inform jurisprudence from sociological insights developed from the beginning of the twentieth century, as sociology began to establish itself as a distinct <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a>, especially in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a>. In Germany, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, the work of the "free law" theorists (e.g. Ernst Fuchs, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Kantorowicz" title="Hermann Kantorowicz">Hermann Kantorowicz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Eugen Ehrlich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_G%C3%A9ny" title="François Gény">François Gény</a>) encouraged the use of sociological insights in the development of legal and juristic theory. The most internationally influential advocacy for a "sociological jurisprudence" occurred in the United States, where, throughout the first half of the twentieth century, <a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Roscoe Pound</a>, for many years the Dean of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a>, used this term to characterise his <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">legal philosophy</a>. In the United States, many later writers followed Pound's lead or developed distinctive approaches to sociological jurisprudence. In Australia, <a href="/wiki/Julius_Stone" title="Julius Stone">Julius Stone</a> strongly defended and developed Pound's ideas. </p><p>In the 1930s, a significant split between the sociological jurists and the American legal realists emerged. In the second half of the twentieth century, sociological jurisprudence as a distinct movement declined as jurisprudence came more strongly under the influence of analytical legal philosophy; but with increasing criticism of dominant orientations of legal philosophy in English-speaking countries in the present century, it has attracted renewed interest. Increasingly, its contemporary focus is on providing theoretical resources for jurists to aid their understanding of new types of regulation (for example, the diverse kinds of developing transnational law) and the increasingly important interrelations of law and culture, especially in multicultural Western societies.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_positivism">Legal positivism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Legal positivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></div> <p>Legal positivism is the view that the content of law is dependent on social facts and that a legal system's existence is not constrained by morality.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within legal positivism, theorists agree that law's content is a product of social facts, but theorists disagree whether law's validity can be explained by incorporating moral values.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurphy2006132–135_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphy2006132–135-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal positivists who argue against the incorporation of moral values to explain law's validity are labeled exclusive (or hard) legal positivists. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Joseph Raz's</a> legal positivism is an example of exclusive legal positivism. Legal positivists who argue that law's validity can be explained by incorporating moral values are labeled inclusive (or soft) legal positivists. The legal positivist theories of <a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">H. L. A. Hart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jules_Coleman" title="Jules Coleman">Jules Coleman</a> are examples of inclusive legal positivism.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Legal positivism has traditionally been associated with three doctrines: the pedigree thesis, the separability thesis, and the discretion thesis.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pedigree thesis says that the right way to determine whether a directive is law is to look at the directive's source. The thesis claims that it is the fact that the directive was issued by the proper official within a legitimate government, for example, that determines the directive's legal validity—not the directive's moral or practical merits. The separability thesis states that law is conceptually distinct from morality.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While law might contain morality, the separability thesis states that "it is in no sense a necessary truth that laws reproduce or satisfy certain demands of morality, though in fact they have often done so."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal positivists disagree about the extent of the separability thesis. Exclusive legal positivists, notably <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Joseph Raz</a>, go further than the standard thesis and deny that it is possible for morality to be a part of law at all. The discretion thesis states that judges create new law when they are given discretion to adjudicate cases where existing law underdetermines the result. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thomas_Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Thomas Hobbes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></div> <p>Hobbes was a <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contractarian</a><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and believed that the law had peoples' tacit consent. He believed that society was formed from a <a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">state of nature</a> to protect people from the state of war that would exist otherwise. In <a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)"><i>Leviathan</i></a>, Hobbes argues that without an ordered society life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short."<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is commonly said that Hobbes's views on human nature were influenced by his times. The <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> and the Cromwellian dictatorship had taken place; and, in reacting to that, Hobbes felt that absolute authority vested in a monarch, whose subjects obeyed the law, was the basis of a civilized society. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bentham_and_Austin">Bentham and Austin</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bentham and Austin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/220px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/330px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/440px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="536" data-file-height="728" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham's</a> utilitarian theories remained dominant in law until the twentieth century.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">John Austin (legal philosopher)</a></div> <p>John Austin and Jeremy Bentham were early legal positivists who sought to provide a descriptive account of law that describes the law as it is. Austin explained the descriptive focus for legal positivism by saying, "The existence of law is one thing; its merit and demerit another. Whether it be or be not is one enquiry; whether it be or be not conformable to an assumed standard, is a different enquiry."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Austin and Bentham, a society is governed by a sovereign who has <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> authority. Through the sovereign's authority come laws, which for Austin and Bentham are commands backed by sanctions for non-compliance. Along with Hume, Bentham was an early and staunch supporter of the utilitarian concept, and was an avid prison reformer, advocate for <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, and firm <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a>. Bentham's views about law and jurisprudence were popularized by his student <a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">John Austin</a>. Austin was the first chair of law at the new <a href="/wiki/University_of_London" title="University of London">University of London</a>, from 1829. Austin's <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarian</a> answer to "what is law?" was that law is "commands, backed by threat of sanctions, from a sovereign, to whom people have a habit of obedience".<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> H. L. A. Hart criticized Austin and Bentham's early legal positivism because the command theory failed to account for individual's compliance with the law. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hans_Kelsen">Hans Kelsen</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Hans Kelsen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Hans Kelsen</a></div> <p>Hans Kelsen is considered one of the preeminent jurists of the 20th century and has been highly influential in Europe and Latin America, although less so in <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> countries. His <a href="/wiki/Pure_Theory_of_Law" title="Pure Theory of Law">Pure Theory of Law</a> describes law as "binding norms", while at the same time refusing to evaluate those norms. That is, "legal science" is to be separated from "legal politics". Central to the Pure Theory of Law is the notion of a <a href="/wiki/Basic_norm" title="Basic norm"><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">basic norm</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span></a> (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Grundnorm</i></span>)—a hypothetical norm, presupposed by the jurist, from which all "lower" norms in the hierarchy of a <a href="/wiki/Legal_system" title="Legal system">legal system</a>, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">constitutional law</a>, are understood to derive their authority or the extent to which they are binding. Kelsen contends that the extent to which legal norms are binding, their specifically "legal" character, can be understood without tracing it ultimately to some suprahuman source such as God, personified Nature or—of great importance in his time—a personified State or Nation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="H._L._A._Hart">H. L. A. Hart</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: H. L. A. Hart"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">H. L. A. Hart</a></div> <p>In the English-speaking world, the most influential legal positivist of the twentieth century was <a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">H. L. A. Hart</a>, professor of jurisprudence at <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a>. Hart argued that the law should be understood as a system of social rules. In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law">The Concept of Law</a></i>, Hart rejected Kelsen's views that sanctions were essential to law and that a normative social phenomenon, like law, cannot be grounded in non-normative social facts. </p><p>Hart claimed that law is the union of primary rules and secondary rules.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart201279–99_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart201279–99-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Primary rules require individuals to act or not act in certain ways and create duties for the governed to obey. Secondary rules are rules that confer authority to create new primary rules or modify existing ones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart201281_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart201281-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secondary rules are divided into rules of adjudication (how to resolve legal disputes), rules of change (how laws are amended), and the rule of recognition (how laws are identified as valid). The validity of a legal system comes from the "rule of recognition", which is a customary practice of officials (especially barristers and judges) who identify certain acts and decisions as sources of law. In 1981, Neil MacCormick<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wrote a pivotal book on Hart (second edition published in 2008), which further refined and offered some important criticisms that led MacCormick to develop his own theory (the best example of which is his <i>Institutions of Law</i>, 2007). Other important critiques include those of <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Ronald Dworkin</a>, John Finnis, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Joseph Raz</a>. </p><p>In recent years, debates on the nature of law have become increasingly fine-grained. One important debate is within legal positivism. One school is sometimes called "exclusive legal positivism" and is associated with the view that the legal validity of a norm can never depend on its moral correctness. A second school is labeled "inclusive legal positivism", a major proponent of which is Wil Waluchow, and is associated with the view that moral considerations <em>may</em>, but do not necessarily, determine the legal validity of a norm. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Joseph_Raz">Joseph Raz</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Joseph Raz"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Joseph Raz</a></div> <p>Joseph Raz's theory of legal positivism argues against the incorporation of moral values to explain law's validity. In Raz's 1979 book <i>The Authority of Law</i>, he criticised what he called the "weak social thesis" to explain law.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He formulates the weak social thesis as "(a) Sometimes the identification of some laws turn on moral arguments, but also with, (b) In all legal systems the identification of some law turns on moral argument."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Raz argues that law's authority is identifiable purely through social sources, without reference to moral reasoning.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view he calls "the sources thesis".<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Raz suggests that any categorisation of rules beyond their role as authority is better left to sociology than to jurisprudence.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some philosophers used to contend that positivism was the theory that held that there was "no necessary connection" between law and morality; but influential contemporary positivists—including Joseph Raz, <a href="/wiki/John_Gardner_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Gardner (legal philosopher)">John Gardner</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Green_(philosopher)" title="Leslie Green (philosopher)">Leslie Green</a>—reject that view. Raz claims it is a necessary truth that there are vices that a legal system cannot possibly have (for example, it cannot commit rape or murder). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_realism">Legal realism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Legal realism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">Legal realism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr_circa_1930-edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr_circa_1930-edit.jpg/220px-Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr_circa_1930-edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr_circa_1930-edit.jpg/330px-Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr_circa_1930-edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr_circa_1930-edit.jpg/440px-Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr_circa_1930-edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1019" data-file-height="1491" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes</a> was a self-styled legal realist.</figcaption></figure> <p>Legal realism is the view that a theory of law should be descriptive and account for the reasons why judges decide cases as they do.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal realism had some affinities with the sociology of law and sociological jurisprudence. The essential tenet of legal realism is that all law is made by humans and thus should account for reasons besides legal rules that led to a legal decision. </p><p>There are two separate schools of legal realism: American legal realism and Scandinavian legal realism. American legal realism grew out of the writings of <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes</a>. At the start of Holmes's <a href="/wiki/The_Common_Law_(Holmes)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Common Law (Holmes)"><i>The Common Law</i></a>, he claims that "[t]he life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience".<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view was a reaction to <a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">legal formalism</a> that was popular the time due to the <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus_Langdell" title="Christopher Columbus Langdell">Christopher Columbus Langdell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Holmes's writings on jurisprudence also laid the foundations for the predictive theory of law. In his article "The Path of the Law", Holmes argues that "the object of [legal] study...is prediction, the prediction of the incidence of the public force through the instrumentality of the courts."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For the American legal realists of the early twentieth century, legal realism sought to describe the way judges decide cases. For legal realists such as <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Frank" title="Jerome Frank">Jerome Frank</a>, judges start with the facts before them and then move to legal principles. Before legal realism, theories of jurisprudence turned this method around where judges were thought to begin with legal principles and then look to facts. </p><p>It has become common today to identify Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., as the main precursor of American Legal Realism (other influences include <a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Roscoe Pound</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_N._Llewellyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Karl N. Llewellyn">Karl Llewellyn</a>, and Justice <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Benjamin Cardozo</a>). Karl Llewellyn, another founder of the U.S. legal realism movement, similarly believed that the law is little more than putty in the hands of judges who are able to shape the outcome of cases based on their personal values or policy choices.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Scandinavian school of legal realism argued that law can be explained through the empirical methods used by social scientists.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prominent Scandinavian legal realists are <a href="/wiki/Alf_Ross" title="Alf Ross">Alf Ross</a>, <a href="/wiki/Axel_H%C3%A4gerstr%C3%B6m" title="Axel Hägerström">Axel Hägerström</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Olivecrona" title="Karl Olivecrona">Karl Olivecrona</a>. Scandinavian legal realists also took a naturalist approach to law.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite its decline in popularity, legal realism continues to influence a wide spectrum of jurisprudential schools today, including <a href="/wiki/Critical_legal_studies" title="Critical legal studies">critical legal studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">feminist legal theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Critical_race_theory" title="Critical race theory">critical race theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">sociology of law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">law and economics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrechenigGelter2008295–360_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrechenigGelter2008295–360-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critical_legal_studies">Critical legal studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Critical legal studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Critical_legal_studies" title="Critical legal studies">Critical legal studies</a> are a new theory of jurisprudence that has developed since the 1970s. The theory can generally be traced to American legal realism and is considered "the first movement in legal theory and legal scholarship in the United States to have espoused a committed Left political stance and perspective".<sup id="cite_ref-Hunt86_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hunt86-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It holds that the law is largely contradictory, and can be best analyzed as an expression of the policy goals of a dominant social group.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Constitutionalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitutionalism&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a> is "a compound of ideas, attitudes, and patterns of behavior elaborating the principle that the authority of government derives from and is limited by <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">a body of fundamental law</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_interpretivism">Legal interpretivism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Legal interpretivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interpretivism_(legal)" title="Interpretivism (legal)">Interpretivism (legal)</a></div> <p>American legal philosopher <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Ronald Dworkin</a>'s legal theory attacks legal positivists that separate law's content from morality.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his book <i><a href="/wiki/Law%27s_Empire" title="Law's Empire">Law's Empire</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dworkin argued that law is an "interpretive" concept that requires barristers to find the best-fitting and most just solution to a legal dispute, given their constitutional traditions. According to him, law is not entirely based on social facts, but includes the best moral justification for the institutional facts and practices that form a society's legal tradition. It follows from Dworkin's view that one cannot know whether a society has a legal system in force, or what any of its laws are, until one knows some truths about the moral justifications of the social and political practices of that society. It is consistent with Dworkin's view—in contrast with the views of legal positivists or legal realists—that <em>no-one</em> in a society may know what its laws are, because no-one may know the best moral justification for its practices. </p><p>Interpretation, according to Dworkin's "integrity theory of law", has two dimensions. To count as an interpretation, the reading of a text must meet the criterion of "fit". Of those interpretations that fit, however, Dworkin maintains that the correct interpretation is the one that portrays the practices of the community in their best light, or makes them "the best that they can be". But many writers have doubted whether there <em>is</em> a single best moral justification for the complex practices of any given community, and others have doubted whether, even if there is, it should be counted as part of the law of that community. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Therapeutic_jurisprudence">Therapeutic jurisprudence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Therapeutic jurisprudence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_jurisprudence" title="Therapeutic jurisprudence">Therapeutic jurisprudence</a></div> <p>Consequences of the operation of legal rules or legal procedures—or of the behavior of legal actors (such as lawyers and judges)—may be either beneficial (therapeutic) or harmful (anti-therapeutic) to people. <a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_jurisprudence" title="Therapeutic jurisprudence">Therapeutic jurisprudence</a> ("TJ") studies law as a social force (or agent) and uses <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> methods and data to study the extent to which a legal rule or practice affects the psychological well-being of the people it impacts.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Normative_jurisprudence"><span class="anchor" id="Normative_jurisprudence"></span>Normative jurisprudence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Normative jurisprudence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div> <p>In addition to the question, "What is law?", legal philosophy is also concerned with normative, or "evaluative" theories of law. What is the goal or purpose of law? What moral or political theories provide a foundation for the law? What is the proper function of law? What sorts of acts should be subject to <a href="/wiki/Sanctions_(law)" title="Sanctions (law)">punishment</a>, and what sorts of punishment should be permitted? What is justice? What rights do we have? Is there a duty to obey the law? What value has the rule of law? Some of the different schools and leading thinkers are discussed below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virtue_jurisprudence">Virtue jurisprudence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Virtue jurisprudence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/200px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/300px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/400px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="804" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (right), a detail of <i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Virtue_jurisprudence" title="Virtue jurisprudence">Virtue jurisprudence</a></div> <p>Aretaic moral theories, such as contemporary <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>, emphasize the role of character in morality. Virtue jurisprudence is the view that the laws should promote the development of virtuous character in citizens. Historically, this approach has been mainly associated with Aristotle or Thomas Aquinas. Contemporary virtue jurisprudence is inspired by philosophical work on virtue ethics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deontology">Deontology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Deontology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontological ethics</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a> is the "theory of duty or moral obligation".<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> formulated one influential deontological theory of law. He argued that any rule we follow must be able to be universally applied, i.e. we must be willing for everyone to follow that rule. A contemporary deontological approach can be found in the work of the legal philosopher Ronald Dworkin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Utilitarianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnStuartMill.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/JohnStuartMill.JPG/200px-JohnStuartMill.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/JohnStuartMill.JPG/300px-JohnStuartMill.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/JohnStuartMill.JPG 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a> believed law should create happiness.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Lysander Spooner</a></div> <p>Utilitarianism is the view that the laws should be crafted so as to produce the best consequences for the greatest number of people. Historically, utilitarian thinking about law has been associated with the philosopher Jeremy Bentham. John Stuart Mill was a pupil of Bentham's and was the torch bearer for <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">utilitarian</a> philosophy throughout the late nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contemporary legal theory, the utilitarian approach is frequently championed by scholars who work in the law and economics tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrechenigGelter2008295–360_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrechenigGelter2008295–360-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="John_Rawls">John Rawls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: John Rawls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a> and <a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></div> <p>John Rawls was an American philosopher; a <a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">professor</a> of <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>; and author of <i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> (1971), <i><a href="/wiki/Political_Liberalism" title="Political Liberalism">Political Liberalism</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Justice_as_Fairness:_A_Restatement" title="Justice as Fairness: A Restatement">Justice as Fairness: A Restatement</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Law_of_Peoples" title="The Law of Peoples">The Law of Peoples</a></i>. He is widely considered one of the most important English-language political philosophers of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His theory of justice uses a method called "original position" to ask us which principles of justice we would choose to regulate the basic institutions of our society if we were behind a "veil of ignorance". Imagine we do not know who we are—our race, sex, wealth, status, class, or any distinguishing feature—so that we would not be biased in our own favour. Rawls argued from this "original position" that we would choose exactly the same political liberties for everyone, like freedom of speech, the right to vote, and so on. Also, we would choose a system where there is only inequality because that produces incentives enough for the economic well-being of all society, especially the poorest. This is Rawls's famous "difference principle". Justice is fairness, in the sense that the fairness of the original position of choice guarantees the fairness of the principles chosen in that position. </p><p>There are many other normative approaches to the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">philosophy of law</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">constitutionalism</a>, critical legal studies and <a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">libertarian theories of law</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experimental_jurisprudence">Experimental jurisprudence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Experimental jurisprudence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Experimental_jurisprudence" title="Experimental jurisprudence">Experimental jurisprudence</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Experimental_jurisprudence" title="Experimental jurisprudence">Experimental jurisprudence</a> seeks to investigate the content of legal concepts using the methods of social science, unlike the philosophical methods of traditional jurisprudence.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_philosophers_of_law">List of philosophers of law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: List of philosophers of law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 13em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Suarez" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisco Suarez">Francisco Suarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Vitoria" title="Francisco de Vitoria">Francisco de Vitoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Hugo Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Austin (legal philosophy)">John Austin (legal philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_Bastiat" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederic Bastiat">Frederic Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Pashukanis" title="Evgeny Pashukanis">Evgeny Pashukanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Betti" title="Emilio Betti">Emilio Betti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio" title="Norberto Bobbio">Norberto Bobbio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Castanheira_Neves" title="António Castanheira Neves">António Castanheira Neves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Coleman" title="Jules Coleman">Jules Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Ronald Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_D%27Agostino" title="Francesco D'Agostino">Francesco D'Agostino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_El%C3%ADas_de_Tejada_y_Sp%C3%ADnola" title="Francisco Elías de Tejada y Spínola">Francisco Elías de Tejada y Spínola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Cossio" title="Carlos Cossio">Carlos Cossio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Reale" title="Miguel Reale">Miguel Reale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">John Finnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lon_L._Fuller" title="Lon L. Fuller">Lon L. Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Green_(philosopher)" title="Leslie Green (philosopher)">Leslie Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_P._George" title="Robert P. George">Robert P. George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germain_Grisez" title="Germain Grisez">Germain Grisez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">H. L. A. Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_Ross" title="Alf Ross">Alf Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Honor%C3%A9" title="Tony Honoré">Tony Honoré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Rudolf Jhering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Hans Kelsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_Feinberg" title="Joel Feinberg">Joel Feinberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lyons_(legal_philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Lyons (legal philosopher)">David Lyons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Alexy" title="Robert Alexy">Robert Alexy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Zippelius" title="Reinhold Zippelius">Reinhold Zippelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_MacCormick" title="Neil MacCormick">Neil MacCormick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._May" title="William E. May">William E. May</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Radbruch" title="Gustav Radbruch">Gustav Radbruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Joseph Raz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Waldron" title="Jeremy Waldron">Jeremy Waldron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Friedrich Carl von Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Summers" title="Robert S. Summers">Robert Summers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Unger" class="mw-redirect" title="Roberto Unger">Roberto Unger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharine_MacKinnon" class="mw-redirect" title="Catharine MacKinnon">Catharine MacKinnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Schlag" title="Pierre Schlag">Pierre Schlag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_West" title="Robin West">Robin West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Carl Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Santiago_Nino" title="Carlos Santiago Nino">Carlos Santiago Nino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Warnock" title="Geoffrey Warnock">Geoffrey Warnock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_J._Shapiro" title="Scott J. Shapiro">Scott J. Shapiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Roscoe Pound</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_jurisprudence" title="Analytical jurisprudence">Analytical jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_and_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial intelligence and law">Artificial intelligence and law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brocard_(law)" title="Brocard (law)">Brocard (law)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cautelary_jurisprudence" title="Cautelary jurisprudence">Cautelary jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_economics" title="Constitutional economics">Constitutional economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_race_theory" title="Critical race theory">Critical race theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeasible_reasoning" title="Defeasible reasoning">Defeasible reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist jurisprudence">Feminist jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="International legal theory">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_activism" title="Judicial activism">Judicial activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_literature" title="Law and literature">Law and literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">Legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">Legal realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_science" title="Legal science">Legal science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian theories of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_Constitution" title="Living Constitution">Living Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_judicial_decision_making" title="Models of judicial decision making">Models of judicial decision making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">Originalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_legal_realism" title="New legal realism">New legal realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_jurisprudence" title="Political jurisprudence">Political jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_law" title="Postmodern law">Postmodernist jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publius_Juventius_Celsus" title="Publius Juventius Celsus">Publius Juventius Celsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_according_to_higher_law" title="Rule according to higher law">Rule according to higher law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological jurisprudence">Sociological jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strict_interpretation" class="mw-redirect" title="Strict interpretation">Strict interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_jurisprudence" title="Virtue jurisprudence">Virtue jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:02-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMarmorSarch2015" class="citation cs2">Marmor, Andrei; Sarch, Alexander (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2015/entries/lawphil-nature/">"The Nature of Law"</a>, in Zalta, Edward N. 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Rackham, trans., <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, Loeb Classical Library; J. A. K. Thomson, trans. (revised by Hugh Tedennick), <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, Penguin Classics.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joe Sachs, trans., <i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, Focus Publishing</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Nicomachean Ethics" Bk. II ch. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>. Translated by Irwin, Terrence (2nd ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nicomachean+Ethics&rft.edition=2nd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, Bk. V, ch. 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Nicomachean Ethics", Bk. V, ch. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Nicomachean Ethics</i>, Bk. V, ch. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Rhetoric</i> 1373b2–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shellens, "Aristotle on Natural Law", 75–81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Natural Law", <i>International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legalservicesindia.com/article/2105/Greek-Theory-of-Natural-Law.html">"Greek Theory of Natural Law"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Greek+Theory+of+Natural+Law&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legalservicesindia.com%2Farticle%2F2105%2FGreek-Theory-of-Natural-Law.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pojman" title="Louis Pojman">Louis Pojman</a>, <i>Ethics</i> (<a href="/wiki/Belmont,_California" title="Belmont, California">Belmont</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">CA</a>: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1995)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/a/aquinas/summa/FS/FS094.html#FSQ94A2THEP1">"Summa Theologica"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Summa+Theologica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fa%2Faquinas%2Fsumma%2FFS%2FFS094.html%23FSQ94A2THEP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. James Brown Scott, cited in Cavallar, <i>The Rights of Strangers: theories of international hospitality, the global community, and political justice since Vitoria</i>, p.164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koskenniemi: "International Law and raison d'état: Rethinking the Prehistory of International Law", in Kingsbury & Strausmann, <i>The Roman Foundations of the Law of Nations</i>, pp. 297–339</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinnis1980" class="citation book cs1">Finnis, John (1980). <i>Natural Law and Natural Rights</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 18–19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Law+and+Natural+Rights&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=18-19&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Finnis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSommers2021" class="citation journal cs1">Sommers, Roseanna (23 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abf0711">"Experimental jurisprudence"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>373</b> (6553): 394–395. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Sci...373..394S">2021Sci...373..394S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abf0711">10.1126/science.abf0711</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34437107">34437107</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236179587">236179587</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Experimental+jurisprudence&rft.volume=373&rft.issue=6553&rft.pages=394-395&rft.date=2021-07-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236179587%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021Sci...373..394S&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abf0711&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34437107&rft.aulast=Sommers&rft.aufirst=Roseanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abf0711&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hart_1958-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hart_1958_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See H L A Hart, 'Positivism and the Separation of Law and Morals' (1958) 71 <i>Harv. L. Rev.</i> 593</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Hume, <i>A Treatise of Human Nature</i> (1739) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/h/hume/david/h92t/">Etext</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060820100015/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/h/hume/david/h92t/">Archived</a> 20 August 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Friedrich Carl von Savigny, <i>On the Vocation of Our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence</i> (Abraham A. Hayward trans., 1831)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2018" class="citation journal cs1">Green, Leslie (Spring 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2018/entries/legal-positivism/">"Legal Positivism"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231204203110/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2018/entries/legal-positivism/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Legal+Positivism&rft.ssn=spring&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fspr2018%2Fentries%2Flegal-positivism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphy2006132–135-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMurphy2006132–135_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMurphy2006">Murphy 2006</a>, pp. 132–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHimma" class="citation web cs1">Himma, Kenneth Einar. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/legalpos/">"Legal Positivism"</a>. <i>The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Legal+Positivism&rft.aulast=Himma&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Einar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Flegalpos%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHimma2019" class="citation web cs1">Himma, Kenneth Einar (15 May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/law-phil/">"Philosophy of Law"</a>. <i>The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Philosophy+of+Law&rft.date=2019-05-15&rft.aulast=Himma&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+Einar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Flaw-phil%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart1994" class="citation book cs1">Hart, H. L. A. (1994). <i>The Concept of Law, Second Edition</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 181–182. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199644704" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199644704"><bdi>978-0199644704</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concept+of+Law%2C+Second+Edition&rft.pages=181-182&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0199644704&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=H.+L.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartinich2013" class="citation book cs1">Martinich, A.P. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lCTK2O0aKoYC&pg=PA54"><i>Hobbes</i></a>. New York: Routledge. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135180799" title="Special:BookSources/9781135180799"><bdi>9781135180799</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hobbes&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781135180799&rft.aulast=Martinich&rft.aufirst=A.P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlCTK2O0aKoYC%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobbes1668" class="citation book cs1">Hobbes, Thomas (1668). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7Sc4p5-ghJcC&q=leviathan+hackett">"Of the Natural Condition of Mankind"</a>. In Curley, Edwin (ed.). <i>Leviathan: With selected variants from the Latin edition of 1668</i>. Hackett Publishing. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781603844857" title="Special:BookSources/9781603844857"><bdi>9781603844857</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Of+the+Natural+Condition+of+Mankind&rft.btitle=Leviathan%3A+With+selected+variants+from+the+Latin+edition+of+1668&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=1668&rft.isbn=9781603844857&rft.aulast=Hobbes&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7Sc4p5-ghJcC%26q%3Dleviathan%2Bhackett&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustin1832" class="citation book cs1">Austin, John (1832). <i>The province of jurisprudence determined ; and, the uses of the study of jurisprudence</i>. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Pub. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0872204332" title="Special:BookSources/0872204332"><bdi>0872204332</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39539515">39539515</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+province+of+jurisprudence+determined+%3B+and%2C+the+uses+of+the+study+of+jurisprudence&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+IN&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=Hackett+Pub&rft.date=1832&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39539515&rft.isbn=0872204332&rft.aulast=Austin&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Austin, <i>The Providence of Jurisprudence Determined</i> (1831)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart201279–99-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart201279–99_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHart2012">Hart 2012</a>, pp. 79–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHart201281-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHart201281_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHart2012">Hart 2012</a>, p. 81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060601221401/http://www.law.ed.ac.uk/staff/neilmaccormick_51.aspx">"The University of Edinburgh"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.ed.ac.uk/staff/neilmaccormick_51.aspx">the original</a> on 1 June 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+University+of+Edinburgh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.ed.ac.uk%2Fstaff%2Fneilmaccormick_51.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaz1979" class="citation book cs1">Raz, Joseph (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ObSH22v3984C&q=sources+thesis"><i>The Authority of Law: Essays on Law and Morality</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199573561" title="Special:BookSources/9780199573561"><bdi>9780199573561</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Authority+of+Law%3A+Essays+on+Law+and+Morality&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=9780199573561&rft.aulast=Raz&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DObSH22v3984C%26q%3Dsources%2Bthesis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaz1979" class="citation book cs1">Raz, Joseph (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ObSH22v3984C&q=sources+thesis"><i>The Authority of Law: Essays on Law and Morality</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199573561" title="Special:BookSources/9780199573561"><bdi>9780199573561</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Authority+of+Law%3A+Essays+on+Law+and+Morality&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=9780199573561&rft.aulast=Raz&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DObSH22v3984C%26q%3Dsources%2Bthesis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaz1979" class="citation book cs1">Raz, Joseph (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ObSH22v3984C&q=sources+thesis"><i>The Authority of Law: Essays on Law and Morality</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 47–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199573561" title="Special:BookSources/9780199573561"><bdi>9780199573561</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Authority+of+Law%3A+Essays+on+Law+and+Morality&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=47-48&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=9780199573561&rft.aulast=Raz&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DObSH22v3984C%26q%3Dsources%2Bthesis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ch. 2, Joseph Raz, <i>The Authority of Law</i> (1979)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeiter1997" class="citation journal cs1">Leiter, Brian (December 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2562&context=journal_articles">"Rethinking Legal Realism: Toward a Naturalized Jurisprudence"</a>. <i>Texas Law Review</i>. <b>76</b>: 268.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Texas+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Rethinking+Legal+Realism%3A+Toward+a+Naturalized+Jurisprudence&rft.volume=76&rft.pages=268&rft.date=1997-12&rft.aulast=Leiter&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchicagounbound.uchicago.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D2562%26context%3Djournal_articles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes1881" class="citation book cs1">Holmes, O.W. Jr. (1881). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.beal/cllwh0001&i=17"><i>The Common Law</i></a>. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Common+Law&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown%2C+and+Co.&rft.date=1881&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=O.W.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FP%3Fh%3Dhein.beal%2Fcllwh0001%26i%3D17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLangdell1871" class="citation book cs1">Langdell, C.C. (1871). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.beal/sclcl0001&i=4"><i>A Selection of Cases on the Law of Contracts</i></a>. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co. pp. vi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Selection+of+Cases+on+the+Law+of+Contracts&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=vi&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown%2C+and+Co.&rft.date=1871&rft.aulast=Langdell&rft.aufirst=C.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FP%3Fh%3Dhein.beal%2Fsclcl0001%26i%3D4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes1897" class="citation journal cs1">Holmes, O.W. (1897). "The Path of the Law". <i>Harvard Law Review</i>. <b>10</b> (8): 457–478. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1322028">10.2307/1322028</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1322028">1322028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Path+of+the+Law&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=457-478&rft.date=1897&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1322028&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1322028%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=O.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Jurisprudence". West's Encyclopedia of American Law. Ed. Jeffrey Lehman, Shirelle Phelps. Detroit: Thomson/Gale, 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchauer2009" class="citation book cs1">Schauer, Frederick (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xZVw0EcmYh8C&q=thinking+like+a+lawyer"><i>Thinking Like a Lawyer</i></a>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 124 n.1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674032705" title="Special:BookSources/9780674032705"><bdi>9780674032705</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thinking+Like+a+Lawyer&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=124+n.1&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780674032705&rft.aulast=Schauer&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxZVw0EcmYh8C%26q%3Dthinking%2Blike%2Ba%2Blawyer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlivecrona1971" class="citation book cs1">Olivecrona, Karl (1971). <i>Law as Fact</i>. London: Stevens & Sons. pp. vii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0420432506" title="Special:BookSources/978-0420432506"><bdi>978-0420432506</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+as+Fact&rft.place=London&rft.pages=vii&rft.pub=Stevens+%26+Sons&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0420432506&rft.aulast=Olivecrona&rft.aufirst=Karl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrechenigGelter2008295–360-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrechenigGelter2008295–360_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrechenigGelter2008295–360_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrechenigGelter2008">Grechenig & Gelter 2008</a>, pp. 295–360.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hunt86-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hunt86_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alan Hunt, "The Theory of Critical Legal Studies", Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, Vol. 6, No. 1 (1986): 1-45, esp. 1, 5. See <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151208023200/http://ojls.oxfordjournals.org/content/6/1/1.extract">[1]</a>. DOI, 10.1093/ojls/6.1.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moore, "Critical Legal Studies", <i>Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Don E. Fehrenbacher, <i>Constitutions and Constitutionalism in the Slaveholding South</i> (University of Georgia Press, 1989). p. 1. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-1119-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-1119-7">978-0-8203-1119-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brooks, "Review of Dworkin and His Critics with Replies by Dworkin", <i>Modern Law Review</i>, vol. 69 no. 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald Dworkin, <i>Law's Empire</i> (1986) <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWexlerPerlinVols2016" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_B._Wexler" title="David B. Wexler">Wexler, David B</a>; <a href="/wiki/Michael_L._Perlin" title="Michael L. Perlin">Perlin, Michael L</a>; Vols, Michel; et al. (December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5204%2Fqutlr.v16i3.692">"Editorial: Current Issues in Therapeutic Jurisprudence"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Queensland_University_of_Technology" title="Queensland University of Technology">QUT Law Review</a></i>. <b>16</b> (3): 1–3. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5204%2Fqutlr.v16i3.692">10.5204/qutlr.v16i3.692</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2201-7275">2201-7275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=QUT+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Editorial%3A+Current+Issues+in+Therapeutic+Jurisprudence&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1-3&rft.date=2016-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5204%2Fqutlr.v16i3.692&rft.issn=2201-7275&rft.aulast=Wexler&rft.aufirst=David+B&rft.au=Perlin%2C+Michael+L&rft.au=Vols%2C+Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5204%252Fqutlr.v16i3.692&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language, p. 378 (2d Coll. Ed. 1978).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://metalibri.incubadora.fapesp.br/portal/authors/m/john-stuart-mill/utilitarianism/">Utilitarianism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070505231025/http://metalibri.incubadora.fapesp.br/portal/authors/m/john-stuart-mill/utilitarianism/">Archived</a> 5 May 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at Metalibri Digital Library</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNussbaum2001" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum, Martha</a> (20 July 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://keithburgess-jackson.typepad.com/Nussbaum%20on%20Rawls.pdf">"The Enduring Significance of John Rawls"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Chronicle of Higher Education</i>. <q>John Rawls, who turned 80 this year, is the most distinguished moral and political philosopher of our age.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Chronicle+of+Higher+Education&rft.atitle=The+Enduring+Significance+of+John+Rawls&rft.date=2001-07-20&rft.aulast=Nussbaum&rft.aufirst=Martha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkeithburgess-jackson.typepad.com%2FNussbaum%2520on%2520Rawls.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorf2002" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_C._Dorf" title="Michael C. Dorf">Dorf, Michael C.</a> (11 December 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.findlaw.com/legal-commentary/in-praise-of-john-rawlsthe-man-who-made-moral-philosophy-respectable-again-and-whose-views-also-profoundly-informed-american-legal-thought-1.html">"In Praise of John Rawls, The Man Who Made Moral Philosophy Respectable Again – And Whose Views Also Profoundly Informed American Legal Thought"</a>. <i>FindLaw</i>. <q>Rawls remained the most important American philosopher since John Dewey.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=FindLaw&rft.atitle=In+Praise+of+John+Rawls%2C+The+Man+Who+Made+Moral+Philosophy+Respectable+Again+%E2%80%93+And+Whose+Views+Also+Profoundly+Informed+American+Legal+Thought&rft.date=2002-12-11&rft.aulast=Dorf&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupreme.findlaw.com%2Flegal-commentary%2Fin-praise-of-john-rawlsthe-man-who-made-moral-philosophy-respectable-again-and-whose-views-also-profoundly-informed-american-legal-thought-1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJedediah2019" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jedediah_Purdy" title="Jedediah Purdy">Jedediah, Purdy</a> (29 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newrepublic.com/article/155294/john-rawls-missed-create-just-society">"What John Rawls Missed"</a>. <i>The New Republic</i>. <q>John Rawls, who died in 2002, was the most influential American philosopher of the twentieth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Republic&rft.atitle=What+John+Rawls+Missed&rft.date=2019-10-29&rft.aulast=Jedediah&rft.aufirst=Purdy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewrepublic.com%2Farticle%2F155294%2Fjohn-rawls-missed-create-just-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSommers2021" class="citation journal cs1">Sommers, Roseanna (23 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abf0711">"Experimental jurisprudence"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>373</b> (6553): 394–395. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Sci...373..394S">2021Sci...373..394S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abf0711">10.1126/science.abf0711</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34437107">34437107</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236179587">236179587</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Experimental+jurisprudence&rft.volume=373&rft.issue=6553&rft.pages=394-395&rft.date=2021-07-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236179587%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021Sci...373..394S&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abf0711&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34437107&rft.aulast=Sommers&rft.aufirst=Roseanna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abf0711&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For full discussion see Cotterrell 2018</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarner2009" class="citation book cs1">Garner, Bryan A. (2009). <i>Black's law dictionary</i> (9th ed.). Saint Paul, Minnesota, US: West. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-314-19949-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-314-19949-2"><bdi>978-0-314-19949-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black%27s+law+dictionary&rft.place=Saint+Paul%2C+Minnesota%2C+US&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=West&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-314-19949-2&rft.aulast=Garner&rft.aufirst=Bryan+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrechenigGelter2008" class="citation journal cs1">Grechenig, Kristoffel R.; Gelter, Martin (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200313232939/http://ssrn.com/abstract=1161168">"The Transatlantic Divergence in Legal Thought: American Law and Economics vs. German Doctrinalism"</a>. <i>Hastings International and Comparative Law Review</i>. <b>31</b> (1) (published 3 March 2010): 295–360. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ssrn.com/abstract=1161168">the original</a> on 13 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hastings+International+and+Comparative+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Transatlantic+Divergence+in+Legal+Thought%3A+American+Law+and+Economics+vs.+German+Doctrinalism&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=295-360&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Grechenig&rft.aufirst=Kristoffel+R.&rft.au=Gelter%2C+Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D1161168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">Hart, H. L. A.</a> (2012) [1964]. <a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law"><i>The Concept of Law</i></a> (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concept+of+Law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=H.+L.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2006" class="citation book cs1">Murphy, Mark C. (2006). <i>Philosophy of law: the fundamentals</i>. Malden, MA: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405129466" title="Special:BookSources/9781405129466"><bdi>9781405129466</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/62281976">62281976</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+law%3A+the+fundamentals&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F62281976&rft.isbn=9781405129466&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustin1831" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">Austin, John</a> (1831). <a href="/wiki/The_Province_of_Jurisprudence_Determined" title="The Province of Jurisprudence Determined"><i>The Province of Jurisprudence Determined</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Province+of+Jurisprudence+Determined&rft.date=1831&rft.aulast=Austin&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotterrell1995" class="citation book cs1">Cotterrell, R. (1995). <i>Law's Community: Legal Theory in Sociological Perspective</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law%27s+Community%3A+Legal+Theory+in+Sociological+Perspective&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Cotterrell&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotterrell2003" class="citation book cs1">Cotterrell, R. (2003). <i>The Politics of Jurisprudence: A Critical Introduction to Legal Philosophy</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Jurisprudence%3A+A+Critical+Introduction+to+Legal+Philosophy&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Cotterrell&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCotterrell2018" class="citation book cs1">Cotterrell, R. (2018). <i>Sociological Jurisprudence: Juristic Thought and Social Inquiry</i>. New York/London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociological+Jurisprudence%3A+Juristic+Thought+and+Social+Inquiry&rft.place=New+York%2FLondon&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Cotterrell&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2014" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, M. D. A. (2014). <i>Lloyd's Introduction to Jurisprudence</i> (9th ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Sweet_%26_Maxwell" title="Sweet & Maxwell">Sweet & Maxwell</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lloyd%27s+Introduction+to+Jurisprudence&rft.place=London&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Sweet+%26+Maxwell&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=M.+D.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li>Hartzler, H. Richard (1976). <i>Justice, Legal Systems, and Social Structure</i>. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngle2010" class="citation book cs1">Engle, Eric (July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nz4DasoEUesC"><i>Lex Naturalis, Ius Naturalis: Law as Positive Reasoning & Natural Rationality</i></a>. Eric Engle. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9807318-4-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9807318-4-2"><bdi>978-0-9807318-4-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lex+Naturalis%2C+Ius+Naturalis%3A+Law+as+Positive+Reasoning+%26+Natural+Rationality&rft.pub=Eric+Engle&rft.date=2010-07&rft.isbn=978-0-9807318-4-2&rft.aulast=Engle&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnz4DasoEUesC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJurisprudence" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hutchinson, Allan C., ed. (1989). <i><a href="/wiki/Critical_Legal_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical Legal Studies">Critical Legal Studies</a></i>. Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield.</li> <li>Kempin Jr., Frederick G. (1963). <i>Legal History: Law and Social Change</i>. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</li> <li>Llewellyn, Karl N. (1986). <i>Karl N. Llewellyn on Legal Realism</i>. Birmingham, AL: Legal Classics Library. (Contains penetrating classic "The Bramble Bush" on nature of law).</li> <li>Murphy, Cornelius F. (1977). <i>Introduction to Law, Legal Process, and Procedure</i>. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing.</li> <li>Rawls, John (1999). <i>A Theory of Justice</i>, revised ed. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. (Philosophical treatment of justice).</li> <li>Wacks, Raymond (2009). <i>Understanding Jurisprudence: An Introduction to Legal Theory</i> <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</li> <li>Washington, Ellis (2002). <i>The Inseparability of Law and Morality: Essays on Law, Race, Politics and Religion</i> <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_America" title="University Press of America">University Press of America</a>.</li> <li>Washington, Ellis (2013). <i>The Progressive Revolution, 2007–08 Writings-Vol. 1; 2009 Writings-Vol. 2, Liberal Fascism through the Ages</i> <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_America" title="University Press of America">University Press of America</a>.</li> <li>Zinn, Howard (1990). <i>Declarations of Independence: Cross-Examining American Ideology.</i> New York: <a href="/wiki/Harper_Collins_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper Collins Publishers">Harper Collins Publishers</a>.</li> <li>Zippelius, Reinhold (2011). <i>Rechtsphilosophie</i>, 6th ed. Munich: <a href="/wiki/C.H._Beck" class="mw-redirect" title="C.H. Beck">C.H. Beck</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-61191-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-61191-9">978-3-406-61191-9</a></li> <li>Zippelius, Reinhold (2012). <i>Das Wesen des Rechts</i> (The Concept of Law), an introduction to Legal Theory, 6th ed., Stuttgart: <a href="/wiki/W._Kohlhammer" class="mw-redirect" title="W. Kohlhammer">W. Kohlhammer</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-17-022355-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-17-022355-4">978-3-17-022355-4</a></li> <li>Zippelius, Reinhold (2008). <i>Introduction to German Legal Methods</i> (Juristische Methodenlehre), translated from the tenth German Edition by Kirk W. Junker, P. Matthew Roy. Durham: <a href="/wiki/Carolina_Academic_Press" title="Carolina Academic Press">Carolina Academic Press</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Heinze" title="Eric Heinze">Heinze, Eric</a>, <i>The Concept of Injustice</i> (Routledge, 2013)</li> <li>Pillai, P. S. A. (2016). <i>Jurisprudence and Legal Theory</i>, 3rd Edition, Reprinted 2016: Eastern Book Company. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-326-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-5145-326-0">978-93-5145-326-0</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/jurisprudence" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/jurisprudence">LII Law about ... 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title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_legal_studies" title="Critical legal studies">Critical legal studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Economic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal norms">Legal norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="International legal theory">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">Legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_law" title="Category:Philosophers of law">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Alexy" title="Robert Alexy">Alexy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norberto_Bobbio" title="Norberto Bobbio">Bobbio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Bork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartosz_Bro%C5%BCek" title="Bartosz Brożek">Brożek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Ehrlich" title="Eugen Ehrlich">Ehrlich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Finnis" title="John Finnis">Finnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lon_L._Fuller" title="Lon L. Fuller">Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Gurvitch" title="Georges Gurvitch">Gurvitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axel_H%C3%A4gerstr%C3%B6m" title="Axel Hägerström">Hägerström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Jellinek" title="Georg Jellinek">Jellinek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_von_Jhering" title="Rudolf von Jhering">Jhering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Kelsen" title="Hans Kelsen">Kelsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Leoni" title="Bruno Leoni">Leoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Llewellyn" title="Karl Llewellyn">Llewellyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_M%C3%BCller" title="Adam Müller">Müller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Olivecrona" title="Karl Olivecrona">Olivecrona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Pashukanis" title="Evgeny Pashukanis">Pashukanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Petra%C5%BCycki" title="Leon Petrażycki">Petrażycki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Posner" title="Richard Posner">Posner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustav_Radbruch" title="Gustav Radbruch">Radbruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Raz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Reinach" title="Adolf Reinach">Reinach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Renner" title="Karl Renner">Renner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_Ross" title="Alf Ross">Ross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Carl_von_Savigny" title="Friedrich Carl von Savigny">Savigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Mucius_Scaevola_Pontifex" title="Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex">Scaevola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Julius_Stahl" title="Friedrich Julius Stahl">Stahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Mangabeira_Unger" title="Roberto Mangabeira Unger">Unger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Books_about_jurisprudence" title="Category:Books about jurisprudence">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)" title="Laws (dialogue)">Laws</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 355 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pure_Theory_of_Law" title="Pure Theory of Law">Pure Theory of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1934)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law">The Concept of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1961)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Natural_Law_and_Natural_Rights" title="Natural Law and Natural Rights">Natural Law and Natural Rights</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1980)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Law%27s_Empire" title="Law's Empire">Law's Empire</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1986)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Theories_of_law" title="Category:Theories of law">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_jurisprudence" title="Analytical jurisprudence">Analytical jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontological ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy,_theology,_and_fundamental_theory_of_Catholic_canon_law" title="Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law">Fundamental theory of Catholic canon law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_historical_school" title="German historical school">German historical school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretivism_(legal)" title="Interpretivism (legal)">Interpretivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_moralism" title="Legal moralism">Legal moralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_realism" title="Legal realism">Legal realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian theories of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paternalism" title="Paternalism">Paternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_jurisprudence" title="Virtue jurisprudence">Virtue jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa_(concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fa (concept)">Fa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_without_the_state" title="Law 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class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" 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class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">Behavioral sciences</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" title="Category:Social sciences">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Social sciences">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikiversity page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/16px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/24px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:Social_Sciences" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Portal:Social Sciences">Wikiversity</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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