CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" dir="ltr" class="client-nojs"> <head><script type="text/javascript" src="/_static/js/bundle-playback.js?v=HxkREWBo" charset="utf-8"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="/_static/js/wombat.js?v=txqj7nKC" charset="utf-8"></script> <script>window.RufflePlayer=window.RufflePlayer||{};window.RufflePlayer.config={"autoplay":"on","unmuteOverlay":"hidden"};</script> <script type="text/javascript" src="/_static/js/ruffle/ruffle.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> __wm.init("https://web.archive.org/web"); __wm.wombat("https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radio","20150326200424","https://web.archive.org/","web","/_static/", "1427400264"); </script> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/_static/css/banner-styles.css?v=S1zqJCYt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/_static/css/iconochive.css?v=3PDvdIFv" />  <meta charset="UTF-8"/> <title>History of radio - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</title> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.25wmf22"/> <link rel="alternate" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/android-app://org.wikipedia/http/en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radio"/> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://bits.wikimedia.org/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"/> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://bits.wikimedia.org/favicon/wikipedia.ico"/> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/opensearch_desc.php" title="Wikipedia (en)"/> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"/> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="x-default" href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radio"/> <link rel="copyright" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/"/> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"/> <link rel="canonical" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radio"/> <script>var _mwq = _mwq || []; _mwq.push( function ( mw ) { mw.config.set({"wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"History_of_radio","wgTitle":"History of radio","wgCurRevisionId":653330802,"wgRevisionId":653330802,"wgArticleId":25522,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1 errors: dates","Articles with Russian-language external links","Articles to be merged from November 2014","All articles to be merged","Articles to be split from November 2014","All articles to be split","Wikipedia semi-protected pages","Commons category with local link same as on Wikidata","History of radio","Guglielmo Marconi"],"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgMonthNamesShort":["","Jan","Feb","Mar","Apr","May","Jun","Jul","Aug","Sep","Oct","Nov","Dec"],"wgRelevantPageName":"History_of_radio","wgRelevantArticleId":25522,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["autoconfirmed"],"wgWikiEditorEnabledModules":{"toolbar":true,"dialogs":true,"hidesig":true,"preview":false,"publish":false},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr"},"wikilove-recipient":"","wikilove-anon":0,"wgPoweredByHHVM":true,"wgULSAcceptLanguageList":[],"wgULSCurrentAutonym":"English","wgBetaFeaturesFeatures":[],"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1,"quality":2,"pristine":3}}},"wgStableRevisionId":null,"wgCategoryTreePageCategoryOptions":"{\"mode\":0,\"hideprefix\":20,\"showcount\":true,\"namespaces\":false}","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgWikibaseItemId":"Q1517374"}); } );</script> <script>var _mwq = _mwq || []; _mwq.push( function ( mw ) { mw.loader.implement("user.options",function($,jQuery){mw.user.options.set({"variant":"en"});},{},{},{});mw.loader.implement("user.tokens",function($,jQuery){mw.user.tokens.set({"editToken":"+\\","patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\"});},{},{},{}); /* cache key: enwiki:resourceloader:filter:minify-js:7:94007ea073e20ad4a3cdce36b2f2e369 */ } );</script> <script>var _mwq = _mwq || []; _mwq.push( function ( mw ) { mw.loader.load(["mediawiki.page.startup","mediawiki.legacy.wikibits","mediawiki.legacy.ajax","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.head","ext.imageMetrics.head","ext.visualEditor.viewPageTarget.init","ext.uls.init","ext.uls.interface","ext.centralNotice.bannerController","skins.vector.js"]); } );</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424cs_/https://bits.wikimedia.org/en.wikipedia.org/load.php?debug=false&lang=en&modules=ext.gadget.DRN-wizard%2CReferenceTooltips%2Ccharinsert%2Cfeatured-articles-links%2CrefToolbar%2Cswitcher%2Cteahouse%7Cext.rtlcite%2Cwikihiero%2CwikimediaBadges%7Cext.uls.nojs%7Cext.visualEditor.viewPageTarget.noscript%7Cmediawiki.legacy.commonPrint%2Cshared%7Cmediawiki.sectionAnchor%7Cmediawiki.skinning.interface%7Cmediawiki.ui.button%7Cskins.vector.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector&*"/> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""/> <link rel="stylesheet" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424cs_/https://bits.wikimedia.org/en.wikipedia.org/load.php?debug=false&lang=en&modules=site&only=styles&skin=vector&*"/> <style>a:lang(ar),a:lang(kk-arab),a:lang(mzn),a:lang(ps),a:lang(ur){text-decoration:none} /* cache key: enwiki:resourceloader:filter:minify-css:7:3904d24a08aa08f6a68dc338f9be277e */</style> <script src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424js_/https://bits.wikimedia.org/en.wikipedia.org/load.php?debug=false&lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&skin=vector&*"></script> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://meta.wikimedia.org/"/>  </head> <body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-History_of_radio skin-vector action-view"> <div id="mw-page-base" class="noprint"></div> <div id="mw-head-base" class="noprint"></div> <div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main"> <a id="top"></a> <div id="siteNotice"></div> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en">History of radio</h1> <div id="bodyContent" class="mw-body-content"> <div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> <div id="contentSub"></div> <div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump"> Jump to: <a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, <a href="#p-search">search</a> </div> <div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div class="hatnote">For the controversy about who invented radio, see <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention_of_radio" title="Invention of radio">Invention of radio</a>. For the programming of early radio stations, see <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old-time_radio" title="Old-time radio">Old-time radio</a>.</div> <table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"> <div style="width:52px"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Mergefrom.svg/50px-Mergefrom.svg.png" width="50" height="20" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Mergefrom.svg/75px-Mergefrom.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Mergefrom.svg/100px-Mergefrom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="20"/></div> </td> <td class="mbox-text"><span class="mbox-text-span">It has been suggested that <i><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radio_receivers" title="History of radio receivers" class="mw-redirect">History of radio receivers</a></i> and <i><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radio_transmitters" title="History of radio transmitters" class="mw-redirect">History of radio transmitters</a></i> be <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Merging" title="Wikipedia:Merging">merged</a> into this article. (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:History_of_radio#how_many_articles_does_it_take_to_tell_the_history_of_radio.3F" title="Talk:History of radio">Discuss</a>) <small><i>Proposed since November 2014.</i></small></span></td> </tr> </table> <table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"> <div style="width:52px"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/60px-Split-arrows.svg.png" width="60" height="20" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/90px-Split-arrows.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/120px-Split-arrows.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20"/></div> </td> <td class="mbox-text"><span class="mbox-text-span"> It has been suggested that this article be <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">split</a> into articles titled <i><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_radio_technology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of radio technology (page does not exist)">History of radio technology</a></i> and <i><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_radio_broadcasting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of radio broadcasting (page does not exist)">History of radio broadcasting</a></i>. (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:History_of_radio" title="Talk:History of radio">Discuss</a>) <small><i>Proposed since November 2014.</i></small></span></td> </tr> </table> <div class="metadata topicon nopopups" id="protected-icon" style="display:none;right:55px"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/20px-Padlock-silver.svg.png" width="20" height="20" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/30px-Padlock-silver.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/40px-Padlock-silver.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"/></a></div> <p>The early <b>history of radio</b> is the history of technology that produced <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_equipment" title="Radio equipment">radio instruments</a> that use <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a>. Within the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_radio" title="Timeline of radio">timeline of radio</a>, many people contributed theory and inventions in what became <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-inventorsaboutcom_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inventorsaboutcom-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> Radio development began as "<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_telegraphy" title="Wireless telegraphy">wireless telegraphy</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-inventorsaboutcom_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inventorsaboutcom-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> Later radio history increasingly involves matters of programming and content.</p> <p></p> <div id="toc" class="toc"> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Summary"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Summary</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Invention"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Invention</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#19th_century"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">19th century</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Hertzian_waves"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Hertzian waves</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Marconi"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Marconi</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#20th_century"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">20th century</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Start_of_the_20th_century"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Start of the 20th century</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Julio_Cervera_Baviera"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Julio Cervera Baviera</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#British_Marconi"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">British Marconi</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Telefunken"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Telefunken</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Reginald_Fessenden"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Reginald Fessenden</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Ferdinand_Braun"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Ferdinand Braun</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Charles_David_Herrold"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Charles David Herrold</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Harold_J._Power"><span class="tocnumber">2.7</span> <span class="toctext">Harold J. Power</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Edwin_Armstrong"><span class="tocnumber">2.8</span> <span class="toctext">Edwin Armstrong</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Audio_broadcasting_.281919_to_1950s.29"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Audio broadcasting (1919 to 1950s)</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Crystal_sets"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Crystal sets</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#The_first_vacuum_tubes"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">The first vacuum tubes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Political_interest_in_the_United_Kingdom"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Political interest in the United Kingdom</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Licensed_commercial_public_radio_stations"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Licensed commercial public radio stations</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#FM_and_television_start"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">FM and television start</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#FM_in_Europe"><span class="tocnumber">3.6</span> <span class="toctext">FM in Europe</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Later_20th_century_developments"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Later 20th century developments</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Color_television_and_digital"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Color television and digital</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Telex_on_radio"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Telex on radio</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Mobile_phones"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Mobile phones</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Legal_issues_with_radio"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Legal issues with radio</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Exotic_technologies"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Exotic technologies</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Footnotes"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Footnotes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Primary_sources"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">Primary sources</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Secondary_sources"><span class="tocnumber">9.2</span> <span class="toctext">Secondary sources</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Media_and_documentaries"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Media and documentaries</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <p></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Summary">Summary</span></h2> <table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"> <div style="width:52px"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/60px-Split-arrows.svg.png" width="60" height="20" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/90px-Split-arrows.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg/120px-Split-arrows.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="60" data-file-height="20"/></div> </td> <td class="mbox-text"><span class="mbox-text-span"><b>This article or section may need to be cleaned up.</b> It has been merged from <i><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">Radio#History</a></i>.</span></td> </tr> </table> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Invention">Invention</span></h3> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention_of_radio" title="Invention of radio">Invention of radio</a></div> <p>The idea of wireless communication predates the discovery of "radio" with experiments in "<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_telegraphy" title="Wireless telegraphy">wireless telegraphy</a>" via inductive and capacitive induction and transmission through the ground, water, and even <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_(rail_transport)" title="Track (rail transport)">train tracks</a> from the 1830s on. In 1873 James Clerk Maxwell showed mathematically that electromagnetic waves could propagate through free space. It is likely that the first intentional transmission of a signal by means of electromagnetic waves was performed in an experiment by <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Edward_Hughes" title="David Edward Hughes">David Edward Hughes</a> around 1880, although this was considered to be induction at the time. In 1888 <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz" title="Heinrich Rudolf Hertz" class="mw-redirect">Heinrich Rudolf Hertz</a> was able to conclusively prove transmitted airborne electromagnetic waves in an experiment confirming Maxwell's theory of <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>.</p> <p>After the discovery of these "Hertzian waves" (it would take almost 20 years for the term "radio" to be universally adopted for this type of electromagnetic radiation)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> many scientists and inventors experimented with wireless transmission, some trying to develop a system of communication, some not, some intentionally using these new Hertzian waves, some not. Maxwell's theory showing that light and Hertzian electromagnetic waves were the same phenomenon at different wavelengths led "Maxwellian" scientist such as John Perry, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Thomas_Trouton" title="Frederick Thomas Trouton">Frederick Thomas Trouton</a> and Alexander Trotter to assume they would be analogous to optical signaling<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> and the Serbian American engineer <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a> to consider them relatively useless for communication since "light" could not transmit further than <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation" title="Line-of-sight propagation">line of sight</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> In 1892 the physicist <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a> wrote on the possibilities of wireless telegraphy based on Hertzian waves<sup id="cite_ref-Sungook_Hong_2001.2C_pages_5-10_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sungook_Hong_2001.2C_pages_5-10-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> and in 1893 Tesla proposed a system for transmitting intelligence and wireless power using the earth as the medium.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup> Others, such as <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a>, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Oliver_Lodge" title="Sir Oliver Lodge" class="mw-redirect">Sir Oliver Lodge</a>, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-inventr_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-inventr-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Popov_(physicist)" title="Alexander Popov (physicist)" class="mw-redirect">Alexander Popov</a><sup id="cite_ref-invent2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-invent2-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> were involved in the development of components and theory involved with the transmission and reception of airborne electromagnetic waves for their own theoretical work or as a potential means of communication.</p> <p>Over several years starting in 1894 the Italian inventor <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> built the first complete, commercially successful <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_telegraphy" title="Wireless telegraphy">wireless telegraphy</a> system based on airborne Hertzian waves (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_transmission" title="Radio transmission" class="mw-redirect">radio transmission</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-ABC-CLIO_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABC-CLIO-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> Marconi demonstrated application of radio in military and marine communications and started a company for the development and propagation of radio communication services and equipment.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="19th_century">19th century</span></h3> <p>The meaning and usage of the word "radio" has developed in parallel with developments within the field of communications and can be seen to have three distinct phases: electromagnetic waves and experimentation; wireless communication and technical development; and radio broadcasting and commercialization. <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> predicted the propagation of electromagnetic waves (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_waves" title="Radio waves" class="mw-redirect">radio waves</a>) (1873) and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz" title="Heinrich Rudolf Hertz" class="mw-redirect">Heinrich Rudolf Hertz</a> made the first demonstration of transmission of radio waves through <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_space" title="Free space" class="mw-redirect">free space</a> (1887) but many individuals—inventors, engineers, developers and businessmen constructed systems based on their own understanding of these and other phenomenon, some predating Maxwell and Hertz' discoveries. Thus "wireless telegraphy" and radio wave based systems can be attributed to multiple "inventors". Development from a laboratory demonstration to a commercial entity spanned several decades and required the efforts of many practitioners.</p> <p>In 1878, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_E._Hughes" title="David E. Hughes" class="mw-redirect">David E. Hughes</a> noticed that sparks could be heard in a telephone receiver when experimenting with his carbon microphone. He developed this carbon-based detector further and eventually could detect signals over a few hundred yards. He demonstrated his discovery to the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> in 1880, but was told it was merely induction, and therefore abandoned further research.</p> <p>Experiments were undertaken by <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a> and his employees at <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edison,_New_Jersey" title="Edison, New Jersey">Menlo Park</a>. Edison applied in 1885 to the U.S. Patent Office for <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Edison_patents" title="List of Edison patents">a patent</a> on an <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitive_coupling" title="Capacitive coupling">electrostatic coupling</a> system between elevated terminals. The patent was granted as <span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://www.google.com/patents/US465971">U.S. Patent 465,971</a></span> on December 29, 1891. The <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Company" title="Marconi Company">Marconi Company</a> would later purchase rights to the Edison patent to protect them legally from lawsuits.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>In 1884 <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temistocle_Calzecchi-Onesti" title="Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti">Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti</a> at <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermo" title="Fermo">Fermo</a> in Italy experiments with tubes containing powder and nickel silver with traces of mercury metal filings and their reactions when conducting electricity. This would lead to the development of the iron filings filled <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherer" title="Coherer">coherer</a>, a radio detecting device usually credited to <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edouard_Branly" title="Edouard Branly" class="mw-redirect">Edouard Branly</a> in 1890.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Hertzian_waves">Hertzian waves</span></h4> <p>Between 1886 and 1888 <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz" title="Heinrich Rudolf Hertz" class="mw-redirect">Heinrich Rudolf Hertz</a> published the results of his experiments where he was able to transmit electromagnetic waves (radio waves) through the air, proving Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heinrich_1893_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heinrich_1893-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> Early on after their discovery, radio waves were referred to as "Hertzian waves".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> Between 1890 and 1892 physicists such as John Perry, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Thomas_Trouton" title="Frederick Thomas Trouton">Frederick Thomas Trouton</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a> proposed electromagnetic or Hertzian waves as a navigation aid or means of communication, with Crookes writing on the possibilities of wireless telegraphy based on Hertzian waves in 1892.<sup id="cite_ref-Sungook_Hong_2001.2C_pages_5-10_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sungook_Hong_2001.2C_pages_5-10-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TeslaWirelessPower1891.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/TeslaWirelessPower1891.png/220px-TeslaWirelessPower1891.png" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/TeslaWirelessPower1891.png/330px-TeslaWirelessPower1891.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/TeslaWirelessPower1891.png/440px-TeslaWirelessPower1891.png 2x" data-file-width="558" data-file-height="371"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TeslaWirelessPower1891.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Tesla</a> in his "Experiments with alternate currents of very high frequency and their application to methods of artificial illumination" lecture of 1891. After continued research, Tesla presented his ideas on wireless communication in 1892 and expanded on them in 1893.</div> </div> </div> <p>After learning of Hertz demonstrations of wireless transmission, inventor <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a> began developing his own system based on Hertz and Maxwell's ideas, primarily as a means of wireless lighting and power distribution.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup> Tesla, concluding that Hertz had not demonstrated airborne electromagnetic waves (radio transmission), went on to develop a system based on what he thought was the primary conductor, the earth.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> In 1893 demonstrations of his ideas, in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri" title="St. Louis, Missouri" class="mw-redirect">St. Louis, Missouri</a> and at the <i><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Institute" title="Franklin Institute">Franklin Institute</a></i> in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, Tesla proposed this wireless power technology could also incorporate a system for the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication">telecommunication</a> of <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a>.</p> <p>In a lecture on the work of Hertz, shortly after his death, Professor <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Muirhead" title="Alexander Muirhead">Alexander Muirhead</a> demonstrated wireless signaling using Hertzian (radio) waves in the lecture theater of the Oxford University Museum of Natural History on August 14, 1894. During the demonstration a radio signal was sent from the neighboring Clarendon laboratory building, and received by apparatus in the lecture theater.</p> <p>Building on the work of Lodge,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup> the Indian Bengali physicist <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a> ignited gunpowder and rang a bell at a distance using millimeter range wavelength microwaves in a November 1894 public demonstration at the Town Hall of <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a>,. Bose wrote in a <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a> essay, Adrisya Alok (Invisible Light), "The invisible light can easily pass through brick walls, buildings etc. Therefore, messages can be transmitted by means of it without the mediation of wires." Bose’s first scientific paper, "On polarisation of electric rays by double-refracting crystals" was communicated to the Asiatic Society of Bengal in May 1895. His second paper was communicated to the Royal Society of London by Lord Rayleigh in October 1895. In December 1895, the London journal The Electrician (Vol. 36) published Bose’s paper, "On a new electro-polariscope". At that time, the word '<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherer" title="Coherer">coherer</a>', coined by Lodge, was used in the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-speaking_world" title="English-speaking world">English-speaking world</a> for Hertzian wave receivers or detectors. The Electrician readily commented on Bose’s coherer. (December 1895). The Englishman (18 January 1896) quoted from the Electrician and commented as follows: "Should Professor Bose succeed in perfecting and patenting his ‘Coherer’, we may in time see the whole system of coast lighting throughout the navigable world revolutionised by an Indian Bengali scientist working single handed in our Presidency College Laboratory." Bose planned to "perfect his coherer", but never thought of patenting it.</p> <p>In 1895, conducting experiments along the lines of Hertz's research, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a> built his first radio receiver, which contained a coherer. Further refined as a <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning_detector" title="Lightning detector" class="mw-redirect">lightning detector</a>, it was presented to the Russian Physical and Chemical Society on May 7, 1895. A depiction of Popov's lightning detector was printed in the Journal of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society the same year (publication of the minutes 15/201 of this session — December issue of the journal RPCS<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup>). An earlier description of the device was given by <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Lachinov" title="Dmitry Lachinov">Dmitry Aleksandrovich Lachinov</a> in July 1895 in the 2nd edition of his course "Fundamentals of Meteorology and climatology" — the first in Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> Popov's receiver was created on the improved basis of Lodge's receiver, and originally intended for reproduction of its experiments.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Marconi">Marconi</span></h4> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Post_Office_Engineers.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Post_Office_Engineers.jpg/220px-Post_Office_Engineers.jpg" width="220" height="152" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Post_Office_Engineers.jpg/330px-Post_Office_Engineers.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Post_Office_Engineers.jpg/440px-Post_Office_Engineers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4440" data-file-height="3065"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Post_Office_Engineers.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> British Post Office engineers inspect Guglielmo Marconi's wireless telegraphy (radio) equipment in 1897.</div> </div> </div> <p>In 1894 the young Italian inventor <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> began working on the idea of building a commercial wireless telegraphy system based on the use of Hertzian waves (radio waves), a line of inquiry that he noted other inventors did not seem to be pursuing.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup> Marconi read through the literature and used the ideas of others who were experimenting with radio waves but did a great deal to develop devices such as portable transmitters and receiver systems that could work over long distances,<sup id="cite_ref-ABC-CLIO_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABC-CLIO-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> turning what was essentially a laboratory experiment into useful communication system.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> By August 1895 Marconi was field testing his system but even with improvements he was only able to transmit signals up to one-half mile, a distance Oliver Lodge had predicted in 1894 as the maximum transmission distance for radio waves. Marconi raised the height of his antenna and hit upon the idea of grounding his transmitter and receiver. With these improvements the system was capable of transmitting signals up to 2 miles (3.2 km) and over hills.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> Marconi's experimental apparatus proved to be the first engineering-complete, commercially successful <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_transmission" title="Radio transmission" class="mw-redirect">radio transmission</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-SaturdayThompson_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SaturdayThompson-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup> Marconi’s apparatus is also credited for saving the 700 people that survived the tragic Titanic disaster.<sup id="cite_ref-A_Short_History_of_Radio_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A_Short_History_of_Radio-28"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>In 1896, Marconi was awarded British patent 12039, <i>Improvements in transmitting electrical impulses and signals and in apparatus there-for</i>, the first patent ever issued for a Hertzian wave (radio wave) base wireless telegraphic system.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup> In 1897, he established a radio station on the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a>, England. Marconi opened his "wireless" factory in the former <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>-works at Hall Street, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelmsford" title="Chelmsford">Chelmsford</a>, England in 1898, employing around 60 people. Shortly after the 1900s, Marconi held the patent rights for radio. Marconi would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup> and be more successful than any other inventor in his ability to <i>commercialize</i> radio and its associated equipment into a global business.<sup id="cite_ref-ABC-CLIO_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABC-CLIO-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> In the US some of his subsequent patented refinements (but not his original radio patent) would be overturned in a 1935 court case (upheld by the US Supreme Court in 1943).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="20th_century">20th century</span></h3> <p>In 1900, Brazilian priest Roberto <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landell_de_Moura" title="Landell de Moura">Landell de Moura</a> transmitted the human voice wirelessly. According to the newspaper <i>Jornal do Comercio</i> (June 10, 1900), he conducted his first public experiment on June 3, 1900, in front of journalists and the General Consul of Great Britain, C.P. Lupton, in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo,_Brazil" title="São Paulo, Brazil" class="mw-redirect">São Paulo</a>, Brazil, for a distance of approximately 5.0 miles (8 km). The points of transmission and reception were Alto de Santana and Paulista Avenue.<sup id="cite_ref-Landall_de_Moura_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Landall_de_Moura-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>One year after that experiment, he received his first patent from the Brazilian government. It was described as "equipment for the purpose of phonetic transmissions through space, land and water elements at a distance with or without the use of wires." Four months later, knowing that his <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">invention</a> had real value, he left Brazil for the United States with the intent of patenting the machine at the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office" title="United States Patent and Trademark Office">US Patent Office</a> in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_DC" title="Washington, DC" class="mw-redirect">Washington, DC</a>.</p> <p>Having few resources, he had to rely on friends to push his project. In spite of great difficulty, three patents were awarded: "The Wave Transmitter" (October 11, 1904), which is the precursor of today's radio transceiver; "The Wireless Telephone" and the "Wireless Telegraph", both dated November 22, 1904.</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patente_Telefone_Sem_Fio.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Patente_Telefone_Sem_Fio.jpg/220px-Patente_Telefone_Sem_Fio.jpg" width="220" height="326" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Patente_Telefone_Sem_Fio.jpg/330px-Patente_Telefone_Sem_Fio.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Patente_Telefone_Sem_Fio.jpg/440px-Patente_Telefone_Sem_Fio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1427" data-file-height="2115"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Patente_Telefone_Sem_Fio.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> "The Wireless Telephone" U S Patent Office in Washington, DC</div> </div> </div> <p>The next advancement was the vacuum tube detector, invented by <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_Corporation" title="Westinghouse Electric Corporation" class="mw-redirect">Westinghouse</a> engineers. On <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Eve" title="Christmas Eve">Christmas Eve</a> 1906, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a> used a synchronous <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark-gap_transmitter" title="Spark-gap transmitter">rotary-spark transmitter</a> for the first radio program broadcast, from <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Bluff-Brant_Rock,_Massachusetts" title="Ocean Bluff-Brant Rock, Massachusetts">Ocean Bluff-Brant Rock</a>, Massachusetts. Ships at sea heard a broadcast that included Fessenden playing <i><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O_Holy_Night" title="O Holy Night">O Holy Night</a></i> on the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violin" title="Violin">violin</a> and reading a passage from the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Radio_Broadcasting_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radio_Broadcasting-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>In June 1912 Marconi opened the world's first purpose-built radio factory at <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Street_Works" title="New Street Works">New Street Works</a> in Chelmsford, England.</p> <p>This was, for all intents and purposes, the first transmission of what is now known as amplitude modulation or AM radio. The first radio news program was broadcast August 31, 1920 by station 8MK in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, which survives today as all-news format station <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWJ_(AM)" title="WWJ (AM)">WWJ</a> under ownership of the CBS network. The first college radio station began broadcasting on October 14, 1920 from Union College, Schenectady, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York" title="New York">New York</a> under the personal call letters of Wendell King, an <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African-American" title="African-American" class="mw-redirect">African-American</a> student at the school.<sup id="cite_ref-Radio_Broadcasting_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radio_Broadcasting-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>That month 2ADD (renamed <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WRUC" title="WRUC">WRUC</a> in 1947), aired what is believed to be the first public entertainment broadcast in the United States, a series of Thursday night concerts initially heard within a 100-mile (160 km) radius and later for a 1,000-mile (1,600 km) radius. In November 1920, it aired the first broadcast of a sporting event.<sup id="cite_ref-Radio_Broadcasting_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radio_Broadcasting-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup> At 9 pm on August 27, 1920, Sociedad Radio Argentina aired a live performance of Richard Wagner's opera <i>Parsifal</i> from the Coliseo Theater in downtown <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>. Only about twenty homes in the city had receivers to tune in this radio program. Meanwhile, regular entertainment broadcasts commenced in 1922 from the Marconi Research Centre at <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writtle" title="Writtle">Writtle</a>, England.</p> <p>Sports broadcasting began at this time as well, including the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_football_on_radio" title="College football on radio">college football on radio</a> broadcast of a <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1921_West_Virginia_vs._Pittsburgh_football_game" title="1921 West Virginia vs. Pittsburgh football game">1921 West Virginia vs. Pittsburgh football game</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Girl_listening_to_radio.gif" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Girl_listening_to_radio.gif/170px-Girl_listening_to_radio.gif" width="170" height="249" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Girl_listening_to_radio.gif/255px-Girl_listening_to_radio.gif 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Girl_listening_to_radio.gif/340px-Girl_listening_to_radio.gif 2x" data-file-width="401" data-file-height="588"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Girl_listening_to_radio.gif" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> An American girl listens to a radio during the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></div> </div> </div> <p>One of the first developments in the early 20th century was that aircraft used commercial AM radio stations for navigation. This continued until the early 1960s when <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHF_omnidirectional_range" title="VHF omnidirectional range">VOR</a> systems became widespread.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup> In the early 1930s, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_sideband" title="Single sideband" class="mw-redirect">single sideband</a> and frequency modulation were invented by amateur radio operators. By the end of the decade, they were established commercial modes. Radio was used to transmit pictures visible as <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> as early as the 1920s. Commercial television transmissions started in North America and Europe in the 1940s.</p> <p>In 1947 AT&T commercialized the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_Telephone_Service" title="Mobile Telephone Service">Mobile Telephone Service</a>. From its start in St. Louis in 1946, AT&T then introduced Mobile Telephone Service to one hundred towns and highway corridors by 1948. Mobile Telephone Service was a rarity with only 5,000 customers placing about <span class="nowrap">30,000 calls</span> each week. Because only three radio channels were available, only three customers in any given city could make mobile telephone calls at one time.<sup id="cite_ref-GS2006_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GS2006-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup> Mobile Telephone Service was expensive, costing <span class="nowrap">15 USD</span> per month, plus 0.30 to 0.40 USD per local call, equivalent to about <span class="nowrap">176 USD</span> per month and 3.50 to 4.75 per call in 2012 USD.<sup id="cite_ref-att1946_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-att1946-38"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Mobile_Phone_System" title="Advanced Mobile Phone System">Advanced Mobile Phone System</a> <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_signal" title="Analog signal">analog</a> mobile <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_phone" title="Cell phone" class="mw-redirect">cell phone</a> system, developed by <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a>, was introduced in the Americas in 1978,<sup id="cite_ref-Testing_the_First_Cell_Phone_Network_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Testing_the_First_Cell_Phone_Network-39"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PrivateLine_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PrivateLine-40"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MilestonesPast_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MilestonesPast-41"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup> gave much more capacity. It was the primary analog mobile phone system in North America (and other locales) through the 1980s and into the 2000s.</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regency_TR-1.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Regency_TR-1.jpg/170px-Regency_TR-1.jpg" width="170" height="255" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Regency_TR-1.jpg/255px-Regency_TR-1.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Regency_TR-1.jpg/340px-Regency_TR-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1536"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Regency_TR-1.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> The <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regency_TR-1" title="Regency TR-1">Regency TR-1</a>, which used <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a>' <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPN_transistor" title="NPN transistor" class="mw-redirect">NPN transistors</a>, was the world's first commercially produced <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_radio" title="Transistor radio">transistor radio</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p>In 1954, the Regency company introduced a pocket <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_radio" title="Transistor radio">transistor radio</a>, the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regency_TR-1" title="Regency TR-1">TR-1</a>, powered by a "standard 22.5 V Battery." In 1955, the newly formed <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a> company introduced its first transistorized radio.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></a></sup> It was small enough to fit in a <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waistcoat" title="Waistcoat">vest</a> pocket, powered by a small battery. It was durable, because it had no vacuum tubes to burn out. Over the next 20 years, transistors replaced tubes almost completely except for high-power <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitters</a>.</p> <p>By 1963, color television was being broadcast commercially (though not all broadcasts or programs were in color), and the first (radio) <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">communication satellite</a>, <i><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telstar" title="Telstar">Telstar</a></i>, was launched. In the late 1960s, the U.S. long-distance telephone network began to convert to a digital network, employing <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_radio" title="Digital radio">digital radios</a> for many of its links. In the 1970s, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LORAN" title="LORAN">LORAN</a> became the premier <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation">radio navigation</a> system.</p> <p>Soon, the U.S. Navy experimented with <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">satellite navigation</a>, culminating in the launch of the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> (GPS) constellation in 1987. In the early 1990s, amateur radio experimenters began to use personal computers with audio cards to process radio signals. In 1994, the U.S. Army and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a> launched an aggressive, successful project to construct a <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software-defined_radio" title="Software-defined radio">software-defined radio</a> that can be programmed to be virtually any radio by changing its software program. Digital transmissions began to be applied to broadcasting in the late 1990s.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Start_of_the_20th_century">Start of the 20th century</span></h2> <p>Around the start of the 20th century, the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slaby-Arco_wireless_system&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slaby-Arco wireless system (page does not exist)">Slaby-Arco wireless system</a> was developed by <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Slaby" title="Adolf Slaby">Adolf Slaby</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_von_Arco" title="Georg von Arco">Georg von Arco</a>. In 1900, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a> made a weak transmission of voice over the airwaves. In 1901, Marconi conducted the first successful transatlantic experimental radio communications. In 1904, The <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office" title="United States Patent and Trademark Office">U.S. Patent Office</a> reversed its decision, awarding Marconi a patent for the invention of radio, possibly influenced by Marconi's financial backers in the States, who included <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a>. This also allowed the U.S. government (among others) to avoid having to pay the royalties that were being claimed by Tesla for use of his patents. For more information see <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention_of_radio#Marconi" title="Invention of radio">Marconi's radio work</a>. In 1907, Marconi established the first commercial transatlantic radio communications service, between <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifden" title="Clifden">Clifden</a>, Ireland and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glace_Bay" title="Glace Bay">Glace Bay</a>, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion_of_Newfoundland" title="Dominion of Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a>.</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:224px;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg/222px-Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg" width="222" height="168" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg/333px-Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg/444px-Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg 2x" data-file-width="633" data-file-height="480"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Donald Manson working as an employee of the Marconi Company (England, 1906)</div> </div> </div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Julio_Cervera_Baviera">Julio Cervera Baviera</span></h3> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Julio_Cervera_Baviera.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Julio_Cervera_Baviera.jpg/150px-Julio_Cervera_Baviera.jpg" width="150" height="156" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Julio_Cervera_Baviera.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Julio_Cervera_Baviera.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="187"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Julio_Cervera_Baviera.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Julio Cervera Baviera</div> </div> </div> <p><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julio_Cervera_Baviera" title="Julio Cervera Baviera">Julio Cervera Baviera</a> developed radio in Spain around 1902.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup> Cervera Baviera obtained patents in England, Germany, Belgium, and Spain. In May–June 1899, Cervera had, with the blessing of the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Army" title="Spanish Army">Spanish Army</a>, visited Marconi's radiotelegraphic installations on the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>, and worked to develop his own system. He began collaborating with Marconi on resolving the problem of a wireless communication system, obtaining some <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patents" title="Patents" class="mw-redirect">patents</a> by the end of 1899. Cervera, who had worked with Marconi and his assistant <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Stephen_Kemp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George Stephen Kemp (page does not exist)">George Kemp</a> in 1899, resolved the difficulties of wireless telegraph and obtained his first patents prior to the end of that year. On March 22, 1902, Cervera founded the Spanish Wireless Telegraph and Telephone Corporation and brought to his corporation the patents he had obtained in Spain, Belgium, Germany and England.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></a></sup> He established the second and third regular radiotelegraph service in the history of the world in 1901 and 1902 by maintaining regular transmissions between <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarifa" title="Tarifa">Tarifa</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a> for three consecutive months, and between <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javea" title="Javea" class="mw-redirect">Javea</a> (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabo_de_la_Nao" title="Cabo de la Nao" class="mw-redirect">Cabo de la Nao</a>) and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibiza" title="Ibiza">Ibiza</a> (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cabo_Pelado&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cabo Pelado (page does not exist)">Cabo Pelado</a>). This is after Marconi established the radiotelegraphic service between the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bournemouth" title="Bournemouth">Bournemouth</a> in 1898. In 1906, Domenico Mazzotto wrote: "In Spain the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_of_War" title="Minister of War" class="mw-redirect">Minister of War</a> has applied the system perfected by the commander of military engineering, Julio Cervera Baviera (English patent No. 20084 (1899))."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></a></sup> Cervera thus achieved some success in this field, but his radiotelegraphic activities ceased suddenly, the reasons for which are unclear to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="British_Marconi">British Marconi</span></h3> <p>Using various <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>, the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Company" title="Marconi Company">British Marconi</a> company was established in 1897 and began communication between <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast_radio_station" title="Coast radio station">coast radio stations</a> and ships at sea. This company, along with its subsidiaries <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Marconi_Company" title="Canadian Marconi Company" class="mw-redirect">Canadian Marconi</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Marconi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="American Marconi (page does not exist)">American Marconi</a>, had a stranglehold on ship to shore communication. It operated much the way <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Telephone_and_Telegraph" title="American Telephone and Telegraph" class="mw-redirect">American Telephone and Telegraph</a> operated until 1983, owning all of its equipment and refusing to communicate with non-Marconi equipped ships. In June 1912, after the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RMS_Titanic" title="RMS Titanic">RMS <i>Titanic</i></a> disaster, due to increased production Marconi opened the world's first purpose-built radio factory at <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Street_Works" title="New Street Works">New Street Works</a> in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelmsford" title="Chelmsford">Chelmsford</a>, and in 1932 the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Research_Centre" title="Marconi Research Centre">Marconi Research Laboratory</a>. Many inventions improved the quality of radio, and amateurs experimented with uses of radio, thus planting the first seeds of broadcasting.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Telefunken">Telefunken</span></h3> <p>The company <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telefunken" title="Telefunken">Telefunken</a> was founded on May 27, 1903, as "Telefunken society for wireless telefon" of <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens_%26_Halske" title="Siemens & Halske">Siemens & Halske</a> (S & H) and the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AEG" title="AEG">Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft (<i>General Electricity Company</i>)</a> as joint undertakings for radio engineering in Berlin. It continued as a joint venture of <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AEG" title="AEG">AEG</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens_AG" title="Siemens AG" class="mw-redirect">Siemens AG</a>, until Siemens left in 1941. In 1911, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_II" title="Kaiser Wilhelm II" class="mw-redirect">Kaiser Wilhelm II</a> sent Telefunken engineers to <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Sayville" title="West Sayville" class="mw-redirect">West Sayville</a>, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York" title="New York">New York</a> to erect three 600-foot (180-m) radio towers there. Nikola Tesla assisted in the construction. A similar station was erected in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauen" title="Nauen">Nauen</a>, creating the only wireless communication between North America and Europe.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Reginald_Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</span></h3> <p>The invention of amplitude-modulated (AM) radio, so that more than one station can send signals (as opposed to spark-gap radio, where one transmitter covers the entire bandwidth of the spectrum) is attributed to <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a>. On <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Eve" title="Christmas Eve">Christmas Eve</a> 1906, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a> used an <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexanderson_alternator" title="Alexanderson alternator">Alexanderson alternator</a> and rotary <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark-gap_transmitter" title="Spark-gap transmitter">spark-gap transmitter</a> to make the first radio audio broadcast, from <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Bluff-Brant_Rock,_Massachusetts" title="Ocean Bluff-Brant Rock, Massachusetts">Brant Rock, Massachusetts</a>. Ships at sea heard a broadcast that included Fessenden playing <i><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O_Holy_Night" title="O Holy Night">O Holy Night</a></i> on the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violin" title="Violin">violin</a> and reading a passage from the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ferdinand_Braun">Ferdinand Braun</span></h3> <p>In 1909, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Marconi</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Karl Ferdinand Braun</a> were awarded the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> for "contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy".</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Charles_David_Herrold">Charles David Herrold</span></h3> <p>In April 1909 <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_David_Herrold" title="Charles David Herrold" class="mw-redirect">Charles David Herrold</a>, an electronics instructor in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jose,_California" title="San Jose, California">San Jose, California</a> constructed a broadcasting station. It used <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark_gap" title="Spark gap">spark gap</a> technology, but modulated the carrier frequency with the human voice, and later music. The station "San Jose Calling" (there were no call letters), continued to eventually become today's <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KCBS_(AM)" title="KCBS (AM)">KCBS</a> in San Francisco. Herrold, the son of a <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Clara_Valley" title="Santa Clara Valley">Santa Clara Valley</a> farmer, coined the terms "narrowcasting" and "broadcasting", respectively to identify transmissions destined for a single receiver such as that on board a ship, and those transmissions destined for a general audience. (The term "broadcasting" had been used in farming to define the tossing of seed in all directions.) Charles Herrold did not claim to be the first to transmit the human voice, but he claimed to be the first to conduct "broadcasting". To help the radio signal to spread in all directions, he designed some <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnidirectional_antenna" title="Omnidirectional antenna">omnidirectional antennas</a>, which he mounted on the rooftops of various buildings in San Jose. Herrold also claims to be the first broadcaster to accept <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">advertising</a> (he exchanged publicity for a local record store for records to play on his station), though this dubious honour usually is foisted on <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WEAF_(AM)" title="WEAF (AM)">WEAF</a> (1922).</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:224px;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RMS_Titanic_sea_trials_April_2,_1912.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/RMS_Titanic_sea_trials_April_2%2C_1912.jpg/222px-RMS_Titanic_sea_trials_April_2%2C_1912.jpg" width="222" height="167" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/RMS_Titanic_sea_trials_April_2%2C_1912.jpg/333px-RMS_Titanic_sea_trials_April_2%2C_1912.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/RMS_Titanic_sea_trials_April_2%2C_1912.jpg/444px-RMS_Titanic_sea_trials_April_2%2C_1912.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1393" data-file-height="1050"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RMS_Titanic_sea_trials_April_2,_1912.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> RMS Titanic (April 2, 1912).</div> </div> </div> <p>In 1912, the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RMS_Titanic" title="RMS Titanic">RMS <i>Titanic</i></a> sank in the northern Atlantic Ocean. After this, wireless telegraphy using spark-gap transmitters quickly became universal on large ships. In 1913, the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Convention_for_the_Safety_of_Life_at_Sea" title="International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea" class="mw-redirect">International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea</a> was convened and produced a treaty requiring shipboard radio stations to be manned 24 hours a day. A typical high-power spark gap was a rotating commutator with six to twelve contacts per wheel, nine inches (229 mm) to a foot wide, driven by about 2,000 <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volts</a> DC. As the gaps made and broke contact, the radio wave was audible as a tone in a <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_detector" title="Magnetic detector">magnetic detector</a> at a remote location. The telegraph key often directly made and broke the 2,000 volt supply. One side of the spark gap was directly connected to the antenna. Receivers with <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermionic_valve" title="Thermionic valve" class="mw-redirect">thermionic valves</a> became commonplace before spark-gap transmitters were replaced by continuous wave transmitters.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Harold_J._Power">Harold J. Power</span></h3> <p>On March 8, 1916, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harold_Power&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harold Power (page does not exist)">Harold Power</a> with his radio company American Radio and Research Company (AMRAD), broadcast the first continuous broadcast in the world from <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tufts_University" title="Tufts University">Tufts University</a> under the call sign 1XE (it lasted 3 hours). The company later became the first to broadcast on a daily schedule, and the first to broadcast radio dance programs, university professor lectures, the weather, and bedtime stories.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span>[</span>48<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Edwin_Armstrong">Edwin Armstrong</span></h3> <p>Inventor <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a> is credited with developing many of the features of radio as it is known today. Armstrong patented three important inventions that made today's radio possible. <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_circuit" title="Regenerative circuit">Regeneration</a>, the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superheterodyne" title="Superheterodyne" class="mw-redirect">superheterodyne</a> circuit and wide-band <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">frequency modulation</a> or FM. Regeneration or the use of <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a> greatly increased the amplitude of received radio signals to the point where they could be heard without headphones. The superhet simplified radio receivers by doing away with the need for several tuning controls. It made radios more sensitive and selective as well. FM gave listeners a static-free experience with better sound quality and fidelity than AM.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Audio_broadcasting_.281919_to_1950s.29">Audio broadcasting (1919 to 1950s)<span id="Broadcasting"></span></span></h2> <div class="hatnote boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old-time_radio" title="Old-time radio">Old-time radio</a>, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">History of broadcasting</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_broadcasting#History" title="Radio broadcasting">Radio broadcasting § History</a></div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Crystal_sets">Crystal sets</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:224px;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NBS_120_Set.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9d/NBS_120_Set.jpg/222px-NBS_120_Set.jpg" width="222" height="180" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9d/NBS_120_Set.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9d/NBS_120_Set.jpg 2x" data-file-width="274" data-file-height="222"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NBS_120_Set.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> In the 1920s, the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_of_the_United_States_Government" title="Work of the United States Government" class="mw-redirect">United States government publication</a>, "<i>Construction and Operation of a Simple Homemade Radio Receiving Outfit</i>", showed how almost any person handy with simple tools could a build an effective <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_radio" title="Crystal radio">crystal radio</a> receiver.</div> </div> </div> <p>The most common type of receiver before vacuum tubes was the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_radio_receiver" title="Crystal radio receiver" class="mw-redirect">crystal set</a>, although some early radios used some type of amplification through electric current or battery. Inventions of the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triode_amplifier" title="Triode amplifier" class="mw-redirect">triode amplifier</a>, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor-generator" title="Motor-generator" class="mw-redirect">motor-generator</a>, and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detector_(radio)" title="Detector (radio)">detector</a> enabled audio radio. The use of <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">amplitude modulation</a> (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_radio" title="AM radio" class="mw-redirect">AM</a>), with which more than one station can simultaneously send signals (as opposed to spark-gap radio, where one transmitter covers the entire bandwidth of spectra) was pioneered by Fessenden and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a>.</p> <p>To this day there is a small but avid base of fans of this technology who study and practice the art and science of designing and making crystal sets as a hobby; the Boy Scouts of America have often undertaken such craft projects to introduce boys to electronics and radio, and quite a number of them having grown up remain staunch fans of a radio that 'runs on nothing, forever'. As the only energy available is that gathered by the antenna system, there are inherent limitations on how much sound even an ideal set could produce, but with only moderately decent antenna systems remarkable performance is possible with a superior set.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="The_first_vacuum_tubes">The first vacuum tubes</span></h3> <p>During the mid-1920s, amplifying <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> (or <i>thermionic valves</i> in the UK) revolutionized <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver" class="mw-redirect">radio receivers</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitters</a>. <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ambrose_Fleming" title="John Ambrose Fleming">John Ambrose Fleming</a> developed an earlier tube known as an "oscillation valve" (it was a <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diode</a>). <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a> placed a screen, the "grid" electrode, between the filament and plate electrode, creating the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">triode</a>. The Dutch company <i>Nederlandsche Radio-Industrie</i> and its owner engineer, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hanso_Idzerda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hanso Idzerda (page does not exist)">Hanso Idzerda</a>, made the first regular wireless broadcast for entertainment from its workshop in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> on 6 November 1919. The company manufactured both transmitters and receivers. Its popular program was broadcast four nights per week on AM 670 metres,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span>[</span>49<span>]</span></a></sup> until 1924 when the company ran into financial troubles.</p> <p>On 27 August 1920, regular wireless broadcasts for entertainment began in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, pioneered by the group around <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrique_Tel%C3%A9maco_Susini" title="Enrique Telémaco Susini">Enrique Telémaco Susini</a>, and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark_gap" title="Spark gap">spark gap</a> telegraphy stopped. On 31 August 1920 the first known radio news program was broadcast by station 8MK, the unlicensed predecessor of <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWJ_(AM)" title="WWJ (AM)">WWJ (AM)</a> in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit,_Michigan" title="Detroit, Michigan" class="mw-redirect">Detroit, Michigan</a>. In 1922 regular wireless broadcasts for entertainment began in the UK from the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Marconi</a> Research Centre <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2MT" title="2MT">2MT</a> at <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writtle" title="Writtle">Writtle</a> near <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelmsford,_England" title="Chelmsford, England" class="mw-redirect">Chelmsford, England</a>. Early radios ran the entire power of the transmitter through a <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_microphone" title="Carbon microphone">carbon microphone</a>. In the 1920s, the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_(1886)" title="Westinghouse Electric (1886)">Westinghouse company</a> bought <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a>'s and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Armstrong" title="Edwin Armstrong" class="mw-redirect">Edwin Armstrong</a>'s patent. During the mid-1920s, Amplifying <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> (US)/<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermionic_valve" title="Thermionic valve" class="mw-redirect">thermionic valves</a> (UK) revolutionized <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver" class="mw-redirect">radio receivers</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitters</a>. Westinghouse engineers developed a more modern vacuum tube.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Political_interest_in_the_United_Kingdom">Political interest in the United Kingdom</span></h3> <p>The British government and the state-owned postal services found themselves under massive pressure from the wireless industry (including telegraphy) and early radio adopters to open up to the new medium. In an internal confidential report from February 25, 1924, the <i>Imperial Wireless Telegraphy Committee</i> stated:</p> <dl> <dd>"We have been asked 'to consider and advise on the policy to be adopted as regards the Imperial Wireless Services so as to protect and facilitate public interest.' It was impressed upon us that the question was urgent. We did not feel called upon to explore the past or to comment on the delays which have occurred in the building of the Empire Wireless Chain. We concentrated our attention on essential matters, examining and considering the facts and circumstances which have a direct bearing on policy and the condition which safeguard public interests."<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span>[</span>50<span>]</span></a></sup></dd> </dl> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Licensed_commercial_public_radio_stations">Licensed commercial public radio stations</span></h3> <p>The question of the 'first' publicly targeted licensed radio station in the U.S. has more than one answer and depends on semantics. Settlement of this 'first' question may hang largely upon what constitutes 'regular' programming.</p> <ul> <li>It is commonly attributed to <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDKA_(AM)" title="KDKA (AM)">KDKA</a> in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh,_Pennsylvania" title="Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania" class="mw-redirect">Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania</a>, which in October 1920 received its license and went on the air as the first US licensed commercial broadcasting station on November 2, 1920 with the presidential election results as its inaugural show, but was not broadcasting daily until 1921. (Their engineer <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Conrad" title="Frank Conrad">Frank Conrad</a> had been broadcasting from on the two call sign signals of 8XK and 8YK since 1916.) Technically, KDKA was the first of several already-extant stations to receive a 'limited commercial' license.</li> <li>On February 17, 1919, station 9XM at the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin</a> in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison,_Wisconsin" title="Madison, Wisconsin">Madison</a> broadcast human speech to the public at large. 9XM was first experimentally licensed in 1914, began regular <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a> transmissions in 1916, and its first music broadcast in 1917. Regularly scheduled broadcasts of voice and music began in January 1921. That station is still on the air today as <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHA_(AM)" title="WHA (AM)">WHA</a>.</li> <li>On August 20, 1920 8MK, began broadcasing daily and was credited by famed inventor <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Forest" title="Lee De Forest" class="mw-redirect">Lee De Forest</a> as the first commercial station. 8MK was licensed to a teenager, Michael DeLisle Lyons, and financed by <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._W._Scripps" title="E. W. Scripps">E. W. Scripps</a>. In 1921 8MK changed to WBL and then to <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWJ_(AM)" title="WWJ (AM)">WWJ</a> in 1922, in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>. It has carried a regular schedule of programming to the present and also broadcast the 1920 presidential election returns just as KDKA did.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span>[</span>51<span>]</span></a></sup> Inventor <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_DeForest" title="Lee DeForest" class="mw-redirect">Lee DeForest</a> claims to have been present during 8MK's earliest broadcasts, since the station was using a transmitter sold by his company.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span>[</span>52<span>]</span></a></sup> <i>In August 1921, teenagers Michael DeLisle Lyons, his younger brother Francis "Frank" Edward Lyons and Ed Clark (founder of WJR - Detroit) put the first radio in a police car in Toledo, Ohio.</i></li> </ul> <p><i>There is the history noted above of <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_David_Herrold" title="Charles David Herrold" class="mw-redirect">Charles David Herrold</a>'s radio services as early as 1909 with call signs FN, SJN, 6XF, and 6XE until 1921 when it became WKQW and then finally <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KCBS_(AM)" title="KCBS (AM)">KCBS</a> in 1949.</i></p> <ul> <li>The first station to receive a commercial license was <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WBZ_(AM)" title="WBZ (AM)">WBZ</a>, then in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springfield,_Massachusetts" title="Springfield, Massachusetts">Springfield, Massachusetts</a> . Lists provided to the <i><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Globe" title="Boston Globe" class="mw-redirect">Boston Globe</a></i> by the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Commerce" title="U.S. Department of Commerce" class="mw-redirect">U.S. Department of Commerce</a> showed that WBZ received its commercial license on 15 September 1921; another Westinghouse station, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WABC_(AM)" title="WABC (AM)">WJZ</a>, then in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newark,_New_Jersey" title="Newark, New Jersey">Newark, New Jersey</a>, received its commercial license on November 7, the same day as KDKA did.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup> What separates WJZ and WBZ from KDKA is the fact that neither of the former stations remain in their original city of license, whereas KDKA has remained in Pittsburgh for its entire existence.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2XG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2XG (page does not exist)">2XG</a>: Launched by <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_De_Forest" title="Lee De Forest" class="mw-redirect">Lee De Forest</a> in the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Bridge_(New_York_City)" title="High Bridge (New York City)">Highbridge</a> section of New York City, that station began daily broadcasts in 1916.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span>[</span>54<span>]</span></a></sup> Like most experimental radio stations, however, it had to go off the air when the U.S. entered World War I in 1917, and did not return to the air.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1XE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1XE (page does not exist)">1XE</a>: Launched by <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harold_J._Power&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Harold J. Power (page does not exist)">Harold J. Power</a> in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medford,_Massachusetts" title="Medford, Massachusetts">Medford, Massachusetts</a>, 1XE was an experimental station that started broadcasting in 1917. It had to go off the air during World War I, but started up again after the war, and began regular voice and music broadcasts in 1919. However, the station did not receive its commercial license, becoming <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WGI_(AM)" title="WGI (AM)" class="mw-redirect">WGI</a>, until 1922.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span>[</span>55<span>]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2XN&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2XN (page does not exist)">2XN</a>, broadcasting from the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_College_of_New_York" title="City College of New York">City College of New York</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2ZK&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2ZK (page does not exist)">2ZK</a>, broadcasting in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Rochelle,_New_York" title="New Rochelle, New York">New Rochelle, New York</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWV_(radio_station)" title="WWV (radio station)">WWV</a>, the U.S. Government time service, which had believed to have started 6 months before KDKA in Washington, D.C. but in 1966 was transferred to Ft. Collins, Colorado.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WRUC" title="WRUC">WRUC</a>, located on <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_College" title="Union College">Union College</a> in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schenectady,_New_York" title="Schenectady, New York">Schenectady, New York</a>; was launched as W2XQ</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHA_(AM)" title="WHA (AM)">WHA (AM)</a>, located at the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a>, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison,_Wisconsin" title="Madison, Wisconsin">Madison, Wisconsin</a>; was launched as 9XM.</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KQV" title="KQV">KQV</a>, one of Pittsburgh's five original AM stations, signed on as amateur station "8ZAE" on November 19, 1919, but did not receive a commercial license until January 9, 1922.</li> </ul> <p>Outside the United States there are also claims for the first radio stations:</p> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XWA" title="XWA" class="mw-redirect">XWA</a>, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Company" title="Marconi Company">Marconi</a>'s broadcast station in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal,_Canada" title="Montreal, Canada" class="mw-redirect">Montreal, Canada</a>, since 1919 (was CFCF, later <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CINW" title="CINW">CINW</a> and shut down in February 2010)</li> <li>On August 27, 1920 the Argentina Station started the first transmission from Coliseo Theatre at Buenos Aires, Argentina. Later that station received the name LOR Radio Argentina, and finally LR2 Radio Argentina. That station was in service until 31 December 1997 at 1110 kHz. <div class="hatnote boilerplate seealso">For more details on this topic, see <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrique_Tel%C3%A9maco_Susini" title="Enrique Telémaco Susini">Enrique Telémaco Susini</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <p>Broadcasting was not yet supported by <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">advertising</a> or <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Listener_sponsorship&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Listener sponsorship (page does not exist)">listener sponsorship</a>. The stations owned by manufacturers and department stores were established to sell radios and those owned by newspapers to sell newspapers and express the opinions of the owners. In the 1920s, radio was first used to transmit pictures visible as television. During the early 1930s, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_sideband" title="Single sideband" class="mw-redirect">single sideband</a> (SSB) and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">frequency modulation</a> (FM) were invented by amateur radio operators. By 1940, they were established commercial modes.</p> <p>Westinghouse was brought into the patent allies group, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Telephone_and_Telegraph" title="American Telephone and Telegraph" class="mw-redirect">American Telephone and Telegraph</a>, and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Corporation_of_America" title="Radio Corporation of America" class="mw-redirect">Radio Corporation of America</a>, and became a part owner of RCA. All radios made by GE and Westinghouse were sold under the RCA label 60% GE and 40% Westinghouse. ATT's <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Electric" title="Western Electric">Western Electric</a> would build radio transmitters. The patent allies attempted to set up a monopoly, but they failed due to successful competition. Much to the dismay of the patent allies, several of the contracts for inventor's patents held clauses protecting "amateurs" and allowing them to use the patents. Whether the competing manufacturers were really amateurs was ignored by these competitors.</p> <p>These features arose:</p> <ul> <li>Commercial (United States) or governmental (Europe) station networks</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Radio_Commission" title="Federal Radio Commission">Federal Radio Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_consultatif_international_pour_la_radio" title="Comité consultatif international pour la radio" class="mw-redirect">CCIR</a></li> <li>Birth of the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soap_opera" title="Soap opera">soap opera</a></li> <li>Race towards shorter waves and FM</li> </ul> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="FM_and_television_start">FM and television start</span></h3> <div class="hatnote">Further information: <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">History of television</a></div> <p>In 1933, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_radio" title="FM radio" class="mw-redirect">FM radio</a> was patented by inventor <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Armstrong" title="Edwin Armstrong" class="mw-redirect">Edwin H. Armstrong</a>. FM uses <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">frequency modulation</a> of the radio wave to reduce <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_noise" title="White noise">static</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_frequency_interference" title="Radio frequency interference" class="mw-redirect">interference</a> from electrical equipment and the atmosphere. In 1937, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W1XOJ" title="W1XOJ" class="mw-redirect">W1XOJ</a>, the first experimental FM radio station, was granted a construction permit by the US <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC). In the 1930s, regular <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_television" title="Analog television">analog television</a> broadcasting began in some parts of Europe and North America. By the end of the decade there were roughly 25,000 all-electronic television receivers in existence worldwide, the majority of them in the UK. In the US, Armstrong's FM system was designated by the FCC to transmit and receive television sound.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="FM_in_Europe">FM in Europe</span></h3> <p>After World War II, the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_radio" title="FM radio" class="mw-redirect">FM radio</a> broadcast was introduced in Germany. In 1948, a new wavelength plan was set up for Europe at a meeting in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a>. Because of the recent war, Germany (which did not exist as a state and so was not invited) was only given a small number of <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumwave" title="Mediumwave" class="mw-redirect">medium-wave</a> frequencies, which are not very good for broadcasting. For this reason Germany began broadcasting on UKW ("Ultrakurzwelle", i.e. ultra short wave, nowadays called <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">VHF</a>) which was not covered by the Copenhagen plan. After some <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">amplitude modulation</a> experience with VHF, it was realized that FM radio was a much better alternative for VHF radio than AM. Because of this history FM Radio is still referred to as "UKW Radio" in Germany. Other European nations followed a bit later, when the superior sound quality of FM and the ability to run many more local stations because of the more limited range of VHF broadcasts were realized.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Later_20th_century_developments">Later 20th century developments</span></h2> <p>In 1954 Regency introduced a pocket <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> radio, the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regency_TR-1" title="Regency TR-1">TR-1</a>, powered by a "standard 22.5V Battery". In the early 1960s, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHF_omnidirectional_range" title="VHF omnidirectional range">VOR</a> systems finally became widespread for <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> navigation; before that, aircraft used commercial AM radio stations for navigation. (AM stations are still marked on U.S. <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation" title="Aviation">aviation</a> charts). In 1960 <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a> introduced their first transistorized radio, small enough to fit in a vest pocket, and able to be powered by a small battery. It was durable, because there were no tubes to burn out. Over the next twenty years, transistors displaced tubes almost completely except for <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" title="Cathode ray tube">picture tubes</a> and very high power or very high frequency uses.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Color_television_and_digital">Color television and digital</span></h3> <ul> <li>1953: <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTSC" title="NTSC">NTSC</a> compatible color television introduced in the US.</li> <li>1962: <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telstar" title="Telstar">Telstar 1</a>, the first <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">communications satellite</a>, relayed the first publicly available live transatlantic television signal.</li> <li>Late 1960s: The US long-distance telephone network began to convert to a digital network, employing <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_radio" title="Digital radio">digital radios</a> for many of its links.</li> <li>1970s: <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LORAN" title="LORAN">LORAN</a> became the premier radio navigation system. Soon, the US Navy experimented with <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">satellite navigation</a>.</li> <li>1987: The <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">GPS</a> constellation of satellites was launched.</li> <li>Early 1990s: <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio" title="Amateur radio">Amateur radio</a> experimenters began to use personal computers with audio cards to process radio signals.</li> <li>1994: The US Army and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a> launched an aggressive successful project to construct a <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_radio" title="Software radio" class="mw-redirect">software radio</a> that could become a different radio on the fly by changing software.</li> <li>Late 1990s: Digital transmissions began to be applied to <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcasting</a>.</li> </ul> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Telex_on_radio">Telex on radio</span></h3> <p><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a> did not go away on radio. Instead, the degree of automation increased. On land-lines in the 1930s, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletypewriter" title="Teletypewriter" class="mw-redirect">teletypewriters</a> automated encoding, and were adapted to pulse-code dialing to automate routing, a service called <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">telex</a>. For thirty years, telex was the absolute cheapest form of long-distance communication, because up to 25 telex channels could occupy the same bandwidth as one voice channel. For business and government, it was an advantage that telex directly produced written documents.</p> <p>Telex systems were adapted to short-wave radio by sending tones over <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_sideband" title="Single sideband" class="mw-redirect">single sideband</a>. <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-T" title="ITU-T">CCITT</a> R.44 (the most advanced pure-telex standard) incorporated character-level error detection and retransmission as well as automated encoding and routing. For many years, telex-on-radio (TOR) was the only reliable way to reach some third-world countries. TOR remains reliable, though less-expensive forms of e-mail are displacing it. Many national telecom companies historically ran nearly pure telex networks for their governments, and they ran many of these links over short wave radio.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mobile_phones">Mobile phones</span></h3> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">History of mobile phones</a></div> <p>In 1947 AT&T commercialized the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_Telephone_Service" title="Mobile Telephone Service">Mobile Telephone Service</a>. From its start in St. Louis in 1946, AT&T then introduced Mobile Telephone Service to one hundred towns and highway corridors by 1948. Mobile Telephone Service was a rarity with only 5,000 customers placing about <span class="nowrap">30 000 calls</span> each week. Because only three radio channels were available, only three customers in any given city could make mobile telephone calls at one time.<sup id="cite_ref-GS2006_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GS2006-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup> Mobile Telephone Service was expensive, costing <span class="nowrap">15 USD</span> per month, plus 0.30 to 0.40 USD per local call, equivalent to about <span class="nowrap">176 USD</span> per month and 3.50 to 4.75 per call in 2012 USD.<sup id="cite_ref-att1946_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-att1946-38"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Mobile_Phone_System" title="Advanced Mobile Phone System">Advanced Mobile Phone System</a> <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_signal" title="Analog signal">analog</a> mobile <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_phone" title="Cell phone" class="mw-redirect">cell phone</a> system, developed by <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a>, was introduced in the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> in 1978,<sup id="cite_ref-Testing_the_First_Cell_Phone_Network_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Testing_the_First_Cell_Phone_Network-39"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PrivateLine_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PrivateLine-40"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MilestonesPast_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MilestonesPast-41"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup> gave much more capacity. It was the primary analog mobile phone system in <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> (and other locales) through the 1980s and into the 2000s.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Legal_issues_with_radio">Legal issues with radio</span></h2> <p>When radio was introduced in the 1920s many predicted the end of <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramophone_record" title="Gramophone record">records</a>. Radio was a free medium for the public to hear music for which they would normally pay. While some companies saw radio as a new avenue for promotion, others feared it would cut into profits from record sales and live performances. Many companies had their major stars sign agreements that they would not appear on radio.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span>[</span>56<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span>[</span>57<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Indeed, the music recording industry had a severe drop in profits after the introduction of the radio. For a while, it appeared as though radio was a definite threat to the record industry. Radio ownership grew from two out of five homes in 1931 to four out of five homes in 1938. Meanwhile record sales fell from $75 million in 1929 to $26 million in 1938 (with a low point of $5 million in 1933), though the economics of the situation were also affected by the Great Depression.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span>[</span>58<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The copyright owners of these songs were concerned that they would see no gain from the popularity of radio and the ‘free’ music it provided. Luckily, everything they needed to make this new medium work for them already existed in previous copyright law. The copyright holder for a song had control over all public performances ‘for profit.’ The problem now was proving that the radio industry, which was just figuring out for itself how to make money from advertising and currently offered free music to anyone with a receiver, was making a profit from the songs.</p> <p>The test case was against Bamberger Department Store in Newark, New Jersey in 1922. The store was broadcasting music throughout its store on the radio station WOR. No advertisements were heard, except for at the beginning of the broadcast which announced "L. Bamberger and Co., One of America's Great Stores, Newark, New Jersey." It was determined through this and previous cases (such as the lawsuit against Shanley's Restaurant) that Bamberger was using the songs for commercial gain, thus making it a public performance for profit, which meant the copyright owners were due payment.</p> <p>With this ruling the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Society_of_Composers,_Authors_and_Publishers" title="American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers">American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers</a> (ASCAP) began collecting licensing fees from radio stations in 1923. The beginning sum was $250 for all music protected under ASCAP, but for larger stations the price soon ballooned up to $5,000. Edward Samuels reports in his book <i>The Illustrated Story of Copyright</i> that "radio and TV licensing represents the single greatest source of revenue for ASCAP and its composers […] and [a]n average member of ASCAP gets about $150–$200 per work per year, or about $5,000-$6,000 for all of a member's compositions." Not long after the Bamberger ruling, ASCAP had to once again defend their right to charge fees, in 1924. The Dill Radio Bill would have allowed radio stations to play music without paying and licensing fees to ASCAP or any other music-licensing corporations. The bill did not pass.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span>[</span>59<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Exotic_technologies">Exotic technologies</span></h2> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteor_scatter" title="Meteor scatter" class="mw-redirect">Meteor scatter</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EME_(communications)" title="EME (communications)" class="mw-redirect">Earth-Moon-Earth communication</a></li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2> <p><b>Histories</b></p> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_electrical_engineering" title="History of electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_electromagnetism" title="History of electromagnetism" class="mw-redirect">History of electromagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum#History" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">History of electromagnetic spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_amateur_radio" title="History of amateur radio">History of amateur radio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">History of broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">History of science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History of telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">History of television</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">History of videotelephony</a></li> </ul> <p><b>General</b></p> <div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_of_public_radio_broadcasting" title="Birth of public radio broadcasting">Birth of public radio broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_broadcasting" title="Digital audio broadcasting" class="mw-redirect">Digital audio broadcasting</a> (DAB)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Radio_Mondiale" title="Digital Radio Mondiale">Digital Radio Mondiale</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_radio" title="Internet radio">Internet radio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_old-time_radio_people" title="List of old-time radio people" class="mw-redirect">List of old-time radio people</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_area_network" title="Personal area network">Personal area networks</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Act_of_1912" title="Radio Act of 1912">Radio Act of 1912</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Act_of_1927" title="Radio Act of 1927" class="mw-redirect">Radio Act of 1927</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_Satellite_Radio" title="Sirius Satellite Radio">Sirius Satellite Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark_gap_transmitter" title="Spark gap transmitter" class="mw-redirect">Spark gap transmitter</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_radio" title="Timeline of radio">Timeline of radio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">Wireless</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_LAN" title="Wireless LAN">Wireless LANs</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_Ship_Act_of_1910" title="Wireless Ship Act of 1910">Wireless Ship Act of 1910</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XM_Radio" title="XM Radio" class="mw-redirect">XM Radio</a></li> </ul> </div> <p>Many contributed to wireless. Individuals that helped to further the science include, among others:</p> <div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_von_Arco" title="Georg von Arco">Georg von Arco</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edouard_Branly" title="Edouard Branly" class="mw-redirect">Edouard Branly</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temistocle_Calzecchi-Onesti" title="Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti">Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archie_Frederick_Collins" title="Archie Frederick Collins">Archie Frederick Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva_Edison" title="Thomas Alva Edison" class="mw-redirect">Thomas Alva Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Hans Christian Ørsted</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Joseph Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Herrold" title="Charles Herrold">Charles Herrold</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_E._Hughes" title="David E. Hughes" class="mw-redirect">David E. Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahlon_Loomis" title="Mahlon Loomis">Mahlon Loomis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jozef_Murga%C5%A1" title="Jozef Murgaš">Jozef Murgaš</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._W._Pierce" title="G. W. Pierce">G. W. Pierce</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Preece" title="William Henry Preece">William Henry Preece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusto_Righi" title="Augusto Righi">Augusto Righi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Shoemaker" title="Harry Shoemaker">Harry Shoemaker</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolphus_Slaby" title="Adolphus Slaby" class="mw-redirect">Adolphus Slaby</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stone_Stone" title="John Stone Stone">John Stone Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Stubblefield" title="Nathan Stubblefield">Nathan Stubblefield</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> </ul> </div> <p><b>Categories</b></p> <div class="div-col columns column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 20em; -webkit-column-width: 20em; column-width: 20em;"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Radio_pioneers" title="Category:Radio pioneers">Category:Radio pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Radio_people" title="Category:Radio people">Category:Radio people</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_radio" title="Category:History of radio">Category:History of radio</a></li> </ul> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Footnotes">Footnotes</span></h2> <div class="reflist columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-inventorsaboutcom-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-inventorsaboutcom_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-inventorsaboutcom_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://inventors.about.com/od/rstartinventions/a/radio.htm">The Invention of Radio</a> inventors.about.com/od/rstartinventions/a/radio.htm</span></li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://earlyradiohistory.us/sec022.htm">earlyradiohistory.us, UNITED STATES EARLY RADIO HISTORY THOMAS H. WHITE, s e c t i o n 22, Word Origins-Radio</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. Bernard Carlson, Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, page 125-126</span></li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sungook Hong, Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion, MIT Press, 2001, page 2</span></li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://earlyradiohistory.us/tesla.htm">Thomas H. White, Nikola Tesla: The Guy Who DIDN'T "Invent Radio", earlyradiohistory.us, November 1, 2012</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-Sungook_Hong_2001.2C_pages_5-10-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sungook_Hong_2001.2C_pages_5-10_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sungook_Hong_2001.2C_pages_5-10_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sungook Hong, Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion, MIT Press, 2001, pages 5-10</span></li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. K. Sarkar, Robert Mailloux, Arthur A. Oliner, M. Salazar-Palma, Dipak L. Sengupta, History of Wireless, page 271</span></li> <li id="cite_note-inventr-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-inventr_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Bishop, Don. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://home.earthlink.net/~drestinblack/who_invented_radio.htm">"Who Invented Radio?"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-02-24</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.au=Bishop%2C+Don&rft.aufirst=Don&rft.aulast=Bishop&rft.btitle=Who+Invented+Radio%3F&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.earthlink.net%2F~drestinblack%2Fwho_invented_radio.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-invent2-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-invent2_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Rybak, James P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.ptti.ru/eng/forum/article2.html">"Alexander Popov: Russia's Radio Pioneer"</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.aufirst=James+P&rft.aulast=Rybak&rft.au=Rybak%2C+James+P&rft.btitle=Alexander+Popov%3A+Russia%27s+Radio+Pioneer&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ptti.ru%2Feng%2Fforum%2Farticle2.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-ABC-CLIO-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ABC-CLIO_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ABC-CLIO_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ABC-CLIO_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://books.google.com/books?id=WKuG-VIwID8C&pg=PA161&dq=British+High+Court+upheld+patent+7777&hl=en&ei=8hc_TujkFubb0QGUvantAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false"><i>Icons of invention: the makers of the modern world from Gutenberg to Gates</i></a>. ABC-CLIO<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 07-08-2011</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.btitle=Icons+of+invention%3A+the+makers+of+the+modern+world+from+Gutenberg+to+Gates&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWKuG-VIwID8C%26pg%3DPA161%26dq%3DBritish%2BHigh%2BCourt%2Bupheld%2Bpatent%2B7777%26hl%3Den%26ei%3D8hc_TujkFubb0QGUvantAw%26sa%3DX%26oi%3Dbook_result%26ct%3Dresult%26resnum%3D1%26ved%3D0CC0Q6AEwAA%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> <span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|accessdate=</code> (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://books.google.com/books?id=GuA3AAAAMAAJ">Edison, his life and inventions</a> By Frank Lewis Dyer, Thomas Commerford Martin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://books.google.com/books?id=GuA3AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA830">Page 830</a>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Rowlands, Oliver Lodge and the Liverpool Physical Society, Liverpool University Press, 1990, page 24</span></li> <li id="cite_note-Heinrich_1893-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heinrich_1893_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://books.google.com/books?id=EJdAAAAAIAAJ">Electric waves; being research on the propagation of electric action with finite velocity through space</a> by Heinrich Rudolph Hertz, Daniel Evan Jones 1 Review Macmillan and co., 1893. Pages1 - 5</span></li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://earlyradiohistory.us/1901hz.htm">"<i>Hertzian Waves</i> (1901)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-08-11</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.btitle=Hertzian+Waves+%281901%29&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fearlyradiohistory.us%2F1901hz.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://books.google.com/books?id=N2rNO6FX8o4C&pg=PA22&dq=hertz+many+published+results+interested+in+radio&hl=en&sa=X&ei=0KwXUu7aJpfH4APG6IFA&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=hertz%20many%20published%20results%20interested%20in%20radio&f=false"><i>Radio: Brian Regal, The Life Story of a Technology, page 22</i></a>. Books.google.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-08-02</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.btitle=Radio%3A+Brian+Regal%2C+The+Life+Story+of+a+Technology%2C+page+22&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN2rNO6FX8o4C%26pg%3DPA22%26dq%3Dhertz%2Bmany%2Bpublished%2Bresults%2Binterested%2Bin%2Bradio%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DX%26ei%3D0KwXUu7aJpfH4APG6IFA%26ved%3D0CDsQ6AEwAQ%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dhertz%2520many%2520published%2520results%2520interested%2520in%2520radio%26f%3Dfalse&rft.pub=Books.google.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. Bernard Carlson, Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, page 132</span></li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. Bernard Carlson, Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age, page 127</span></li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mukherji, Visvapriya, <i>Jagadish Chandra Bose</i>, second edition, 1994, Builders of Modern India series, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India" title="Government of India">Government of India</a>, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/8123000472" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 81-230-0047-2</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Журнал Русского физико-химического общества. Т. XXVII. Вып. 8. С. 259 — декабрь 1895</span></li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Лачинов Д. А.</i> Основы метеорологии и климатологии. — СПб, 1895. С. 460</span></li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rzhosnitsky B. N. <i>Dmitry Aleksandrovich Lachinov</i>. Moscow-Leningrad: Gosenergoizdat, 1955 / Ржонсницкий Б. Н. Дмитрий Александрович Лачинов. — М.—Л.: Госэнергоиздат, 1955 <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:0.95em; font-weight:bold; color:#555;">(Russian)</span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://books.google.com/books?id=WKuG-VIwID8C&pg=PA161&dq=British+High+Court+upheld+patent+7777&hl=en&ei=8hc_TujkFubb0QGUvantAw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false"><i>Icons of invention: the makers of the modern world from Gutenberg to Gates</i></a>. ABC-CLIO<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 07-08-2011</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.btitle=Icons+of+invention%3A+the+makers+of+the+modern+world+from+Gutenberg+to+Gates&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWKuG-VIwID8C%26pg%3DPA161%26dq%3DBritish%2BHigh%2BCourt%2Bupheld%2Bpatent%2B7777%26hl%3Den%26ei%3D8hc_TujkFubb0QGUvantAw%26sa%3DX%26oi%3Dbook_result%26ct%3Dresult%26resnum%3D1%26ved%3D0CC0Q6AEwAA%23v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dfalse&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> <span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">Check date values in: <code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">|accessdate=</code> (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_date" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span>, page 162</span></li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sungook Hong, Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion, MIT Press, 2001. page 22</span></li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sungook Hong, Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion, MIT Press, 2001. page 20-22</span></li> <li id="cite_note-SaturdayThompson-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SaturdayThompson_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Saturday review of politics, literature, science and art, Volume 93. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://books.google.com/books?id=gHVHAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA556">THE INVENTOR OF WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY: A REPLY. To the Editor of the Saturday Review</a>" Guglielmo Marconi and "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://books.google.com/books?id=gHVHAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA598">WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY: A REJOINDER. To the Editor of the Saturday Review</a>," <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvanus_P._Thompson" title="Silvanus P. Thompson">Silvanus P. Thompson</a>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.radiomarconi.com/marconi/stravolgimento1.html">"MARCONI E LO STRAVOLGIMENTO DELLA VERITÀ STORICA SULLA SUA OPERA"</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.btitle=MARCONI+E+LO+STRAVOLGIMENTO+DELLA+VERIT%C3%80+STORICA+SULLA+SUA+OPERA&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radiomarconi.com%2Fmarconi%2Fstravolgimento1.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, Volume 28 By Institution of Electrical Engineers. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://books.google.com/books?id=-ZYZAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA294">page 294</a>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-A_Short_History_of_Radio-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-A_Short_History_of_Radio_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://transition.fcc.gov/omd/history/radio/documents/short_history.pdf">http://transition.fcc.gov/omd/history/radio/documents/short_history.pdf</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sungook Hong, Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion, MIT Press, 2001, page 13</span></li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html">"Nobel Prizes and Laureates - Guglielmo Marconi"</a>. NobelPrize.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2014</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.btitle=Nobel+Prizes+and+Laureates+-+Guglielmo+Marconi&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1909%2Fmarconi-bio.html&rft.pub=NobelPrize.org&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note: A 1943 <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" title="United States Supreme Court" class="mw-redirect">United States Supreme Court</a> "<i>Marconi Wireless Tel. Co. v. United States</i>", a case on the U.S. government's use of Marconi Co. patents during World War One, invalidated some of Marconi's patents issued on the refinement of his system on the basis that the adoption of adjustable transformers in the transmitting and receiving circuits, which was an improvement of the initial invention, was anticipated by patents issued to <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a>, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stone_Stone" title="John Stone Stone">John Stone Stone</a>, and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a>. (This decision was not unanimous, the dissents siding with Marconi). The court specifically stated their decision didn't overturn Marconi's original radio patents or have any bearing on Marconi as the inventor of radio. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://earlyradiohistory.us/tesla.htm">Thomas H. White, Nikola Tesla: The Guy Who DIDN'T "Invent Radio", earlyradiohistory.us, November 1, 2012</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-Landall_de_Moura-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Landall_de_Moura_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://highfields-arc.co.uk/biogs/rldemoura.htm">"Father Roberto Landell de Moura"</a>. highfields-arc.co.uk.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.btitle=Father+Roberto+Landell+de+Moura&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhighfields-arc.co.uk%2Fbiogs%2Frldemoura.htm&rft.pub=highfields-arc.co.uk&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-Radio_Broadcasting-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Radio_Broadcasting_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Radio_Broadcasting_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Radio_Broadcasting_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://w2uc.union.edu/RADIO_web.htm">"Radio Broadcasting"</a>. W2uc.union.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-07-22</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.btitle=Radio+Broadcasting&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fw2uc.union.edu%2FRADIO_web.htm&rft.pub=W2uc.union.edu&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://2000.union.edu/N/DS/edition_display.php?e=677&s=2700">"Union College Magazine"</a>. 2000.union.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-07-22</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.btitle=Union+College+Magazine&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F2000.union.edu%2FN%2FDS%2Fedition_display.php%3Fe%3D677%26s%3D2700&rft.pub=2000.union.edu&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Sciullo Jr, Sam, ed. (1991). <i>1991 Pitt Football: University of Pittsburgh Football Media Guide</i>. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Sports Information Office. p. 116.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.btitle=1991+Pitt+Football%3A+University+of+Pittsburgh+Football+Media+Guide&rft.date=1991&rft.genre=book&rft.pages=116&rft.place=Pittsburgh%2C+PA&rft.pub=University+of+Pittsburgh+Sports+Information+Office&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">AM stations are still marked on U.S. aviation charts</span></li> <li id="cite_note-GS2006-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GS2006_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GS2006_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gordon A. Gow, Richard K. Smith <i>Mobile and wireless communications: an introduction</i>, McGraw-Hill International, 2006 <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0335217613" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-335-21761-3</a> page 23</span></li> <li id="cite_note-att1946-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-att1946_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-att1946_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.corp.att.com/attlabs/reputation/timeline/46mobile.html">"1946: First Mobile Telephone Call"</a>. <i>corp.att.com</i>. AT&T Intellectual Property. 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-04-24</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.atitle=1946%3A+First+Mobile+Telephone+Call&rft.date=2011&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.corp.att.com%2Fattlabs%2Freputation%2Ftimeline%2F46mobile.html&rft.jtitle=corp.att.com&rft.pub=AT%26T+Intellectual+Property&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-Testing_the_First_Cell_Phone_Network-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Testing_the_First_Cell_Phone_Network_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Testing_the_First_Cell_Phone_Network_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">AT&T Tech Channel (2011-06-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://techchannel.att.com/play-video.cfm/2011/6/13/AT&T-Archives-AMPS:-coming-of-age">"AT&T Archives : Testing the First Public Cell Phone Network"</a>. Techchannel.att.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-09-28</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.au=AT%26T+Tech+Channel&rft.aulast=AT%26T+Tech+Channel&rft.btitle=AT%26T+Archives+%3A+Testing+the+First+Public+Cell+Phone+Network&rft.date=2011-06-13&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftechchannel.att.com%2Fplay-video.cfm%2F2011%2F6%2F13%2FAT%26T-Archives-AMPS%3A-coming-of-age&rft.pub=Techchannel.att.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-PrivateLine-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PrivateLine_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PrivateLine_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.privateline.com/dailynotes/index13.html">Private Line</a>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-MilestonesPast-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MilestonesPast_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MilestonesPast_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.milestonespast.com/exbringing.htm">MilestonesPast</a>.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.pbs.org/transistor/background1/events/tradio.html">"Transistor Radios"</a>. ScienCentral. 1999<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-01-19</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio&rft.btitle=Transistor+Radios&rft.date=1999&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Ftransistor%2Fbackground1%2Fevents%2Ftradio.html&rft.pub=ScienCentral&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.unav.es/noticias/211005-06.html">Noticias, Últimas noticias, El español Julio Cervera Baviera, y no Marconi, fue quien inventó la radio, según el profesor Ángel Faus . Universidad de Navarra</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2005/10/19/comunicacion/1129722413.html">Un estudio asegura que fue el español Cervera Baviera y no Marconi el inventor de la radio - comunicación - elmundo.es</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.unav.es/english/news/38.html">News, Latest news, The Spaniard Julio Cervera Baviera, and not Marconi, was the inventor of the radio, according to professor Ángel Faus . University of Navarra</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Domenico Mazzotto, <i>Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony</i>. Translated by Selimo Romeo Bottone (Whittaker & Co., 1906), 217.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.coit.es/foro/pub/ficheros/librosapendice_1_981ff066.pdf?PHPSESSID=c3606fd8d59137417f50e69e7d8f8566">http://www.coit.es/foro/pub/ficheros/librosapendice_1_981ff066.pdf?PHPSESSID=c3606fd8d59137417f50e69e7d8f8566</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2000.04.0001%3Ahead%3D%23360">North Hall</a>." <u>Concise Encyclopedia of Tufts History.</u> Ed. Anne Sauer</span></li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant 05 nov. 1919, page 16</span></li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Report of the Imperial Wireless Telegraphy Committee, 1924. Presented to Parliament by Command of His Majesty.</i> <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Archives" title="National Archives" class="mw-redirect">National Archives</a>, London, Reference: CAB 24/165/38</span></li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Tower in Babel, pp. 62-64</span></li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larry Wolters, "Radio Illusions Dispelled By DeForest." Chicago Tribune, 13 September 1936, p. SW 7</span></li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Radio's Anniversary," Boston Globe, 30 September 1928, p. B27.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://earlyradiohistory.us/1917df.htm">Highbridge Station Reports (1917)</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.bostonradio.org/essays/wgi.html">The Boston Radio Archives: The Rise and Fall of WGI</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.serci.org/docs/liebowitz.pdf">liebowitz.dvi</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/music/inside/cron.html">frontline: the way the music died: inside the music industry: chronology - technology and the music industry | PBS</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.edwardsamuels.com/copyright/beyond/articles/csusa6.htm">Creativity Wants to be Paid</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.edwardsamuels.com/illustratedstory/isc2.htm">Chapter Two</a></span></li> </ol> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</span></h3> <div class="refbegin columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;"> <ul> <li>De Lee Forest. <i>Father of Radio: The Autobiography of Lee de Forest</i> (1950).</li> <li>Gleason L. Archer Personal Papers (MS108), Suffolk University Archives, Suffolk University; Boston, Massachusetts. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.suffolk.edu/files/Archives/MS108_findaid.pdf">Gleason L. Archer Personal Papers (MS108) finding aid</a></li> <li>Kahn Frank J., ed. <i>Documents of American Broadcasting,</i> fourth edition (Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1984).</li> <li>Lichty Lawrence W., and Topping Malachi C., eds. <i>American Broadcasting: A Source Book on the History of Radio and Television</i> (Hastings House, 1975).</li> </ul> </div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</span></h3> <div class="refbegin columns references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;"> <ul> <li>Aitkin, Hugh G. J. <i>The Continuous Wave: Technology and the American Radio, 1900-1932</i> (Princeton University Press, 1985).</li> <li>Anderson, Leland. "<i>Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power</i>", Sun Publishing Company, LC 92-60482, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0963265202" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-9632652-0-2</a> (<i>ed</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.tfcbooks.com/tesla/nt_on_ac.htm">excerpts available online</a>)</li> <li>Anderson, Leland I. <i>Priority in the Invention of Radio — <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/more/431pir.htm">Tesla vs. Marconi</a></i>, Antique Wireless Association monograph, 1980, examining the 1943 decision by the <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" title="US Supreme Court" class="mw-redirect">US Supreme Court</a> holding the key Marconi patent invalid (9 pages). (21st Century Books)</li> <li>Archer, Gleason L. Big Business and Radio (The American Historical Society, Inc., 1939)</li> <li>Archer, Gleason L. History of Radio to 1926 (The American Historical Society, Inc., 1938).</li> <li>Barnouw, Erik. <i>The Golden Web</i> (Oxford University Press, 1968); <i>The Sponsor</i> (1978); <i>A Tower in Babel</i> (1966).</li> <li>Belrose, John S., "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/radio/radio_differences.html">Fessenden and Marconi: Their Differing Technologies and Transatlantic Experiments During the First Decade of this Century</a></i>". International Conference on 100 Years of Radio (5–7 September 1995).</li> <li>Briggs, Asa. <i>The BBC — the First Fifty Years</i> (Oxford University Press, 1984).</li> <li>Briggs, Asa. <i>The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom</i> (Oxford University Press, 1961).</li> <li>Brodsky, Ira. "The History of Wireless: How Creative Minds Produced Technology for the Masses" (Telescope Books, 2008)</li> <li>Butler, Lloyd (VK5BR), "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.qsl.net/vk5br/Before_Valve_Amp.pdf">Before Valve Amplification</a> - Wireless Communication of an Early Era</i>"</li> <li>Coe, Douglas and Kreigh Collins (ills), "<i>Marconi, pioneer of radio</i>". New York, J. Messner, Inc., 1943. LCCN 43010048</li> <li>Covert, Cathy and Stevens John L. <i>Mass Media Between the Wars</i> (Syracuse University Press, 1984).</li> <li>Craig, Douglas B. <i>Fireside Politics: Radio and Political Culture in the United States, 1920–1940</i> (2005)</li> <li>Crook, Tim. <i>International Radio Journalism: History, Theory and Practice</i> Routledge, 1998</li> <li>Douglas, Susan J., <i>Listening in : radio and the American imagination : from Amos ’n’ Andy and Edward R. Murrow to Wolfman Jack and Howard Stern</i> , New York, N.Y. : Times Books, 1999.</li> <li>Ewbank Henry and Lawton Sherman P. <i>Broadcasting: Radio and Television</i> (Harper & Brothers, 1952).</li> <li>Garratt, G. R. M., "<i>The early history of radio : from Faraday to Marconi</i>", London, Institution of Electrical Engineers in association with the Science Museum, History of technology series, 1994. <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0852968450" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-85296-845-0</a> LCCN gb 94011611</li> <li>Geddes, Keith, "<i>Guglielmo Marconi, 1874-1937</i>". London : H.M.S.O., A Science Museum booklet, 1974. <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0112901980" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-11-290198-0</a> LCCN 75329825 (<i>ed</i>. Obtainable in the U.S.A. from Pendragon House Inc., Palo Alto, California.)</li> <li>Gibson, George H. <i>Public Broadcasting; The Role of the Federal Government, 1919-1976</i> (Praeger Publishers, 1977).</li> <li>Hancock, Harry Edgar, "<i>Wireless at sea; the first fifty years. A history of the progress and development of marine wireless communications written to commemorate the jubilee of the Marconi International Marine Communication Company limited</i>". Chelmsford, Eng., Marconi International Marine Communication Co., 1950. LCCN 51040529 /L</li> <li>Jackaway, Gwenyth L. <i>Media at War: Radio's Challenge to the Newspapers, 1924-1939</i> Praeger Publishers, 1995</li> <li>Journal of the Franklin Institute. "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://earlyradiohistory.us/1897jfi.htm">Notes and comments; Telegraphy without wires</a></i>", Journal of the Franklin Institute, December 1897, pages 463-464.</li> <li>Katz, Randy H., "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~randy/Courses/CS39C.S97/radio/radio.html">Look Ma, No Wires": Marconi and the Invention of Radio</a></i>". History of Communications Infrastructures.</li> <li>Lazarsfeld, Paul F. <i>The People Look at Radio</i> (University of North Carolina Press, 1946).</li> <li>Maclaurin, W. Rupert. <i>Invention and Innovation in the Radio Industry</i> (The Macmillan Company, 1949).</li> <li>Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company, "<i>Year book of wireless telegraphy and telephony</i>", London : Published for the Marconi Press Agency Ltd., by the St. Catherine Press / Wireless Press. LCCN 14017875 sn 86035439</li> <li>Marincic, Aleksandar and Djuradj Budimir, "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.mwr.medianis.net/pdf/Vol7No2-05-AMarincic.pdf">Tesla contribution to radio wave propagation</a></i>". (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDF" title="PDF" class="mw-redirect">PDF</a>)</li> <li>Masini, Giancarlo. "<i>Guglielmo Marconi</i>". Turin: Turinese typographical-publishing union, 1975. LCCN 77472455 (<i>ed</i>. Contains 32 tables outside of the text<i>)</i></li> <li>Massie, Walter Wentworth, "<i>Wireless telegraphy and telephony popularly explained</i>". New York, Van Nostrand, 1908.</li> <li>McChesney, Robert W. <i>Telecommunications, Mass Media, and Democracy: The Battle for the Control of U.S. Broadcasting, 1928-1935</i> Oxford University Press, 1994</li> <li>McCourt, Tom. <i>Conflicting Communication Interests in America: The Case of National Public Radio</i> Praeger Publishers, 1999</li> <li>McNicol, Donald. "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://earlyradiohistory.us/1917erly.htm">The Early Days of Radio in America</a></i>". <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Electrical_Experimenter" title="The Electrical Experimenter" class="mw-redirect">The Electrical Experimenter</a>, April 1917, pages 893, 911.</li> <li>Peers, Frank W. <i>The Politics of Canadian Broadcasting, 1920–1951</i> (University of Toronto Press, 1969).</li> <li>Pimsleur, J. L. "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist/radio.html">Invention of Radio Celebrated in S.F.</a>; 100th birthday exhibit this weekend</i> ". San Francisco Chronicle, 1995.</li> <li><i>The Prestige</i>, 2006, Touchstone Pictures.</li> <li>The Radio Staff of the Detroit News, <i>WWJ-The Detroit News</i> (The Evening News Association, Detroit, 1922).</li> <li>Ray, William B. <i>FCC: The Ups and Downs of Radio-TV Regulation</i> (Iowa State University Press, 1990).</li> <li>Rosen, Philip T. <i>The Modern Stentors; Radio Broadcasting and the Federal Government 1920-1934</i> (Greenwood Press, 1980).</li> <li>Rubin, Julian "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/marconiradioexperiments.html">Guglielmo Marconi: The Invention of Radio</a></i>". January 2006.</li> <li>Rugh, William A. <i>Arab Mass Media: Newspapers, Radio, and Television in Arab Politics</i> Praeger, 2004</li> <li>Scannell, Paddy, and Cardiff, David. <i>A Social History of British Broadcasting, Volume One, 1922-1939</i> (Basil Blackwell, 1991).</li> <li>Schramm Wilbur, ed. <i>Mass Communications</i> (University of Illinois Press, 1960).</li> <li>Schwoch James. <i>The American Radio Industry and Its Latin American Activities, 1900-1939</i> (University of Illinois Press, 1990).</li> <li>Seifer, Marc J., "<i>The Secret History of Wireless</i>". Kingston, Rhode Island.</li> <li>Slater, Robert. <i>This ... is CBS: A Chronicle of 60 Years</i> (Prentice Hall, 1988).</li> <li>Smith, F. Leslie, John W. Wright II, David H. Ostroff; <i>Perspectives on Radio and Television: Telecommunication in the United States</i> Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998</li> <li>Sterling, Christopher H. <i>Electronic Media, A Guide to Trends in Broadcasting and Newer Technologies 1920–1983</i> (Praeger, 1984).</li> <li>Sterling, Christopher, and Kittross John M. <i>Stay Tuned: A Concise History of American Broadcasting</i> (Wadsworth, 1978).</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stone_Stone" title="John Stone Stone">Stone, John Stone</a>. "John Stone Stone on Nikola Tesla's Priority in Radio and Continuous-Wave Radiofrequency Apparatus". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/more/436ntpr.htm">Twenty First Century Books, 2005</a>.</li> <li>Sungook Hong, "<i>Wireless: from Marconi's Black-box to the Audion</i>", Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2001, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0262082985" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-262-08298-5</a></li> <li>Waldron, Richard Arthur, "<i>Theory of guided electromagnetic waves</i>". London, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970. <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0442091672" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-442-09167-2</a> LCCN 69019848 //r86</li> <li>Weightman, Gavin, "<i>Signor Marconi's magic box : the most remarkable invention of the 19th century & the amateur inventor whose genius sparked a revolution</i>" 1st Da Capo Press ed., Cambridge, Massachusetts : Da Capo Press, 2003.</li> <li>White, Llewellyn. <i>The American Radio</i> (University of Chicago Press, 1947).</li> <li>White, Thomas H. "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://earlyradiohistory.us/sec007.htm">Pioneering U.S. Radio Activities (1897-1917)</a></i>", United States Early Radio History.</li> <li>Wunsch, A. David "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.mercurians.org/1998_Fall/Misreading.htm">Misreading the Supreme Court: A Puzzling Chapter in the History of Radio</a></i>" Mercurians.org.</li> </ul> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Media_and_documentaries">Media and documentaries</span></h2> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_the_Air:_The_Men_Who_Made_Radio" title="Empire of the Air: The Men Who Made Radio">Empire of the Air: The Men Who Made Radio</a> (1992) by <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Burns" title="Ken Burns">Ken Burns</a>, PBS documentary based on the 1991 book, <i>Empire of the Air: The Men Who Made Radio</i> by Tom Lewis, 1st ed., New York : E. Burlingame Books, <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060182156" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-06-018215-6</a></li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2> <table class="mbox-small plainlinks" style="border:1px solid #aaa;background-color:#f9f9f9"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" height="40" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"/></td> <td class="mbox-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <i><b><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Antique_radios" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Antique radios">Antique radios</a></b></i>.</td> </tr> </table> <div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul> <li>"<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.tfcbooks.com/teslafaq/q&a_038.htm">A Comparison of the Tesla and Marconi Low-Frequency Wireless Systems</a></i> ". Twenty First Century Books, Breckenridge, Co.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.zianet.com/sparks/sparkmakers2.html">Sparks Telegraph Key Review</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://earlyradiohistory.us/">Early Radio History</a></li> <li>"<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://inventors.about.com/od/rstartinventions/a/radio.htm">The Invention of Radio</a></i>". inventors.about.com.</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.lostartsmedia.com/nikolatesla.html">Presentation of the Edison Medal to Nikola Tesla</a>". Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Held at the Engineering Society Building, New York City, Friday evening, May 18, 1917.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://ns1763.ca/radio30/radio-first-30yrs.html">Timeline of the First Thirty Years of Radio 1895 – 1925</a>; An important chapter in the Death of Distance</i>. Nova Scotia, Canada, March 14, 2006.</li> <li>Portuguese Radio History: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://telefonia.no.sapo.pt/">Telefonia Sem Fios - História da Rádio em Portugal</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://www.cybertelecom.org/notes/history_wireless.htm">Cybertelecom :: Radio History (legal and regulatory)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://archives.cbc.ca/">Canadian Broadcasting Corporation archives</a></li> </ul> </div> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Audio_broadcasting" title="Template:Audio broadcasting"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Audio_broadcasting" title="Template talk:Audio broadcasting"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Audio_broadcasting&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_recording" title="Analog recording">Analog</a> and <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio" title="Digital audio">digital audio</a> <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcasting</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Terrestrial</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">Radio</a> <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation">modulation</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">AM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">FM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing">COFDM</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_allocation" title="Frequency allocation">Frequency allocations</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longwave" title="Longwave">LW</a> (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">LF</a>)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">MW</a> (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">MF</a>)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortwave_radio" title="Shortwave radio">SW</a> (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">HF</a>)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">VHF</a> (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_I" title="Band I">low</a> / <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">mid</a> / <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_III" title="Band III">high</a>)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L_band_(template)" title="L band (template)" class="mw-redirect">L band</a> (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">UHF</a>)</li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;">Digital systems</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAM-D" title="CAM-D">CAM-D</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Audio_Broadcasting" title="Digital Audio Broadcasting">DAB/DAB+</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Radio_Mondiale" title="Digital Radio Mondiale">DRM/DRM+</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FMeXtra" title="FMeXtra">FMeXtra</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD_Radio" title="HD Radio">HD Radio</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Satellite</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;">Frequency allocations</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_band" title="C band">C band</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">K<sub>u</sub> band</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L_band_(template)" title="L band (template)" class="mw-redirect">L band</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S_band" title="S band">S band</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;">Digital systems</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astra_Digital_Radio" title="Astra Digital Radio">ADR</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Audio_Broadcasting" title="Digital Audio Broadcasting">DAB-S</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVB-SH" title="DVB-SH">DVB-SH</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-DMB" title="S-DMB">S-DMB</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETSI_Satellite_Digital_Radio" title="ETSI Satellite Digital Radio">SDR</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_broadcasting" title="Commercial broadcasting">Commercial radio</a> providers</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1worldspace" title="1worldspace">1worldspace</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_XM_Radio" title="Sirius XM Radio" class="mw-redirect">Sirius XM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius_XM_Canada" title="Sirius XM Canada">Sirius XM Canada</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codec" title="Codec">Codecs</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Audio_Coding" title="Advanced Audio Coding">AAC</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Adaptive_Multi-Rate_%E2%80%93_Wideband" title="Extended Adaptive Multi-Rate – Wideband">AMR-WB+</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-Efficiency_Advanced_Audio_Coding" title="High-Efficiency Advanced Audio Coding">HE-AAC</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG-1_Audio_Layer_II" title="MPEG-1 Audio Layer II">MPEG-1 Audio Layer II</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subcarrier" title="Subcarrier">Subcarrier</a> signals</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation_signalling_system" title="Amplitude modulation signalling system">AMSS</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectBand" title="DirectBand">DirectBand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program-associated_data" title="Program-associated data">PAD</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Data_System" title="Radio Data System">RDS/RBDS</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsidiary_communications_authority" title="Subsidiary communications authority">SCA/SCMO</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div style="font-size:110%">Related topics</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;">Technical (audio)</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_data_compression" title="Audio data compression" class="mw-redirect">Audio data compression</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_signal_processing" title="Audio signal processing">Audio signal processing</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;">Technical (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_stereo" title="AM stereo">AM stereo</a> formats)</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_stereo#Belar_System" title="AM stereo">Belar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-QUAM" title="C-QUAM">C-QUAM</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_stereo#Harris_System" title="AM stereo">Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_stereo#Kahn-Hazeltine" title="AM stereo">Kahn-Hazeltine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_stereo#Magnavox_System" title="AM stereo">Magnavox</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;">Technical (emission)</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_broadcasting" title="AM broadcasting">AM broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_expanded_band" title="AM expanded band">AM expanded band</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_radio" title="Cable radio">Cable radio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_radio" title="Digital radio">Digital radio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_detection_and_correction" title="Error detection and correction">Error detection and correction</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcast_band" title="FM broadcast band">FM broadcast band</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcasting" title="FM broadcasting">FM broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multipath_propagation" title="Multipath propagation">Multipath propagation</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortwave_relay_station" title="Shortwave relay station">Shortwave relay station</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="padding-left:0;padding-right:0;"> <div style="padding:0em 0.75em;">Cultural</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><strong class="selflink">History of radio</strong></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_broadcasting" title="International broadcasting">International broadcasting</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"> <div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_radio_systems" title="Comparison of radio systems">Comparison of radio systems</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Morse_code" title="Template:Morse code"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Morse_code&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Morse code (page does not exist)"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Morse_code&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">International Morse code</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="line-height:1.2em;">Transmission methods</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-off_keying" title="On-off keying">On-off keying</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_wave" title="Continuous wave">Continuous wave</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulated_continuous_wave" title="Modulated continuous wave">Modulated continuous wave</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliograph" title="Heliograph">Heliograph</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_lamp" title="Signal lamp">Signal lamp</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="line-height:1.2em;">Notable signals</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOS" title="SOS">SOS</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CQD" title="CQD">CQD</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code_mnemonics" title="Morse code mnemonics">Morse code mnemonics</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosigns_for_Morse_code" title="Prosigns for Morse code">Prosigns for Morse code</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code_abbreviations" title="Morse code abbreviations">Morse code abbreviations</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q_code" title="Q code">Q code</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z_code" title="Z code">Z code</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="line-height:1.2em;">Other writing systems<br/> in Morse code</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Morse_code" title="American Morse code">American Morse code</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Other_alphabets_in_Morse_code#Greek" title="Other alphabets in Morse code" class="mw-redirect">Greek alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Other_alphabets_in_Morse_code#Cyrillic" title="Other alphabets in Morse code" class="mw-redirect">Cyrillic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Other_alphabets_in_Morse_code#Hebrew" title="Other alphabets in Morse code" class="mw-redirect">Hebrew alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Other_alphabets_in_Morse_code#Arabic" title="Other alphabets in Morse code" class="mw-redirect">Arabic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wabun_code" title="Wabun code">Wabun code</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_telegraph_code" title="Chinese telegraph code">Chinese telegraph code</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="navbox" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <td style="padding:2px"> <table class="nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Telecommunications" title="Template:Telecommunications"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Telecommunications" title="Template talk:Telecommunications"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Telecommunications&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication" title="Telecommunication">Telecommunications</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <div class="floatright"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Telecom-icon.svg" class="image" title="Telecommunications symbol"><img alt="Telecommunications symbol" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/50px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" width="50" height="50" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/75px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/100px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500"/></a></div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semaphore_line#History" title="Semaphore line">Optical telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_prepaid_mobile_phone" title="History of the prepaid mobile phone">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li> <li><strong class="selflink">Radio</strong></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></i></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_communication_technology" title="Timeline of communication technology">Timeline of communication technology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videoconferencing#History" title="Videoconferencing">Videoconferencing</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videophone#Early_history" title="Videophone">Videophone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Pioneers</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Papin_Tissot" title="Camille Papin Tissot">Camille Papin Tissot</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br/> media</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_line" title="Telephone line">Telephone lines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave#Communication" title="Microwave">Terrestrial microwave</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_P1906.1" title="IEEE P1906.1">Molecules</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br/> and switching</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">Terminal node</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a> (<a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a>)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-user_MIMO#SDMA" title="Multi-user MIMO">Space-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_division_multiple_access" title="Code division multiple access">Code-division</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Networks</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_network" title="Television network">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">By continent</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"></div> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Africa_topic" title="Template:Africa topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Africa_topic" title="Template talk:Africa topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Africa_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Africa</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Algeria" title="Telecommunications in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Angola" title="Telecommunications in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Benin" title="Telecommunications in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Botswana" title="Telecommunications in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Telecommunications in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burundi" title="Telecommunications in Burundi" class="mw-redirect">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cameroon" title="Telecommunications in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cape_Verde" title="Telecommunications in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Chad" title="Telecommunications in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Comoros" title="Telecommunications in Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Telecommunications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Djibouti" title="Telecommunications in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Eritrea" title="Telecommunications in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ethiopia" title="Telecommunications in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Gabon" title="Telecommunications in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Gambia" title="Telecommunications in the Gambia">The Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ghana" title="Telecommunications in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Telecommunications in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Telecommunications in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kenya" title="Telecommunications in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lesotho" title="Telecommunications in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Liberia" title="Telecommunications in Liberia" class="mw-redirect">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Libya" title="Telecommunications in Libya" class="mw-redirect">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madagascar" title="Telecommunications in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malawi" title="Telecommunications in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mali" title="Telecommunications in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mauritania" title="Telecommunications in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mauritius" title="Telecommunications in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Morocco" title="Telecommunications in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mozambique" title="Telecommunications in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Namibia" title="Telecommunications in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Niger" title="Telecommunications in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nigeria" title="Telecommunications in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Rwanda" title="Telecommunications in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Telecommunications in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Senegal" title="Telecommunications in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Seychelles" title="Telecommunications in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Telecommunications in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Somalia" title="Telecommunications in Somalia" class="mw-redirect">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Africa" title="Telecommunications in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Sudan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Sudan (page does not exist)">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sudan" title="Telecommunications in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Swaziland" title="Telecommunications in Swaziland">Swaziland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tanzania" title="Telecommunications in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Togo" title="Telecommunications in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tunisia" title="Telecommunications in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uganda" title="Telecommunications in Uganda" class="mw-redirect">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Zambia" title="Telecommunications in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Zimbabwe" title="Telecommunications in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited<br/> recognition</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic" class="mw-redirect">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Somaliland" title="Telecommunications in Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br/> other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <div> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Canary_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Canary Islands" class="mw-redirect">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ceuta" title="Telecommunications in Ceuta" class="mw-redirect">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Melilla" title="Telecommunications in Melilla" class="mw-redirect">Melilla</a> / <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Plazas_de_soberan%C3%ADa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Plazas de soberanía (page does not exist)">Plazas de soberanía</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(Spain)</small></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Madeira" title="Telecommunications in Madeira" class="mw-redirect">Madeira</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(Portugal)</small></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mayotte" title="Telecommunications in Mayotte">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_R%C3%A9union" title="Telecommunications in Réunion">Réunion</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(France)</small></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Helena" title="Telecommunications in Saint Helena" class="mw-redirect">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ascension_Island" title="Telecommunications in Ascension Island" class="mw-redirect">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Telecommunications in Tristan da Cunha" class="mw-redirect">Tristan da Cunha</a> <small style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</small></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Western_Sahara" title="Telecommunications in Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Asia_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Asia</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Afghanistan" title="Telecommunications in Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Armenia" title="Telecommunications in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan" title="Telecommunications in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bahrain" title="Telecommunications in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bangladesh" title="Telecommunications in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bhutan" title="Telecommunications in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Brunei" title="Telecommunications in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Burma" title="Telecommunications in Burma">Burma (Myanmar)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cambodia" title="Telecommunications in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_China" title="Telecommunications in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_East_Timor" title="Telecommunications in East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Telecommunications in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India" title="Telecommunications in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Indonesia" title="Telecommunications in Indonesia" class="mw-redirect">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iran" title="Telecommunications in Iran" class="mw-redirect">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Israel" title="Telecommunications in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Japan" title="Telecommunications in Japan" class="mw-redirect">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jordan" title="Telecommunications in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_North_Korea" title="Telecommunications in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Korea" title="Telecommunications in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kuwait" title="Telecommunications in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Telecommunications in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Laos" title="Telecommunications in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lebanon" title="Telecommunications in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malaysia" title="Telecommunications in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Maldives" title="Telecommunications in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mongolia" title="Telecommunications in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nepal" title="Telecommunications in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Oman" title="Telecommunications in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Pakistan" title="Telecommunications in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Philippines" title="Telecommunications in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Qatar" title="Telecommunications in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Telecommunications in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Singapore" title="Telecommunications in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Telecommunications in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tajikistan" title="Telecommunications in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Thailand" title="Telecommunications in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkmenistan" title="Telecommunications in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Telecommunications in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uzbekistan" title="Telecommunications in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vietnam" title="Telecommunications in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Yemen" title="Telecommunications in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br/> limited recognition</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Nagorno-Karabakh_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic" class="mw-redirect">Nagorno-Karabakh</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Northern Cyprus" class="mw-redirect">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Palestinian_territories" title="Telecommunications in the Palestinian territories" class="mw-redirect">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Taiwan" title="Telecommunications in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br/> other territories</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Hong_Kong" title="Telecommunications in Hong Kong" class="mw-redirect">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Macau" title="Telecommunications in Macau">Macau</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Europe_topic" title="Template:Europe topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Europe_topic" title="Template talk:Europe topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Europe_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="Telecommunications in Europe" class="mw-redirect">Telecommunications in Europe</a></div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Albania" title="Telecommunications in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Andorra" title="Telecommunications in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Armenia" title="Telecommunications in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Austria" title="Telecommunications in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Azerbaijan" title="Telecommunications in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belarus" title="Telecommunications in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belgium" title="Telecommunications in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Telecommunications in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bulgaria" title="Telecommunications in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Croatia" title="Telecommunications in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Denmark" title="Telecommunications in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Estonia" title="Telecommunications in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Finland" title="Telecommunications in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_France" title="Telecommunications in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Telecommunications in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Germany" title="Telecommunications in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Greece" title="Telecommunications in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Hungary" title="Telecommunications in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iceland" title="Telecommunications in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kazakhstan" title="Telecommunications in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Latvia" title="Telecommunications in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Liechtenstein" title="Telecommunications in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lithuania" title="Telecommunications in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Luxembourg" title="Telecommunications in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Republic_of_Macedonia" title="Telecommunications in the Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malta" title="Telecommunications in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Moldova" title="Telecommunications in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Monaco" title="Telecommunications in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Montenegro" title="Telecommunications in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Netherlands" title="Telecommunications in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Norway" title="Telecommunications in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Poland" title="Telecommunications in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Portugal" title="Telecommunications in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Romania" title="Telecommunications in Romania" class="mw-redirect">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Russia" title="Telecommunications in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_San_Marino" title="Telecommunications in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Serbia" title="Telecommunications in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Slovakia" title="Telecommunications in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Slovenia" title="Telecommunications in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Spain" title="Telecommunications in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Sweden" title="Telecommunications in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Switzerland" title="Telecommunications in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Turkey" title="Telecommunications in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ukraine" title="Telecommunications in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Telecommunications in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited<br/> recognition</a></div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kosovo" title="Telecommunications in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Nagorno-Karabakh_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic" class="mw-redirect">Nagorno-Karabakh</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Northern_Cyprus" title="Telecommunications in Northern Cyprus" class="mw-redirect">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Transnistria" title="Telecommunications in Transnistria">Transnistria</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br/> other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Faroe_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Gibraltar" title="Telecommunications in Gibraltar" class="mw-redirect">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Guernsey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Guernsey (page does not exist)">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jersey" title="Telecommunications in Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Telecommunications in the Isle of Man" class="mw-redirect">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Other entities</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_European_Union" title="Telecommunications in the European Union" class="mw-redirect">European Union</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:North_America_topic" title="Template:North America topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:North_America_topic" title="Template talk:North America topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:North_America_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in North America</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Sovereign states</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Telecommunications in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Bahamas" title="Telecommunications in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Barbados" title="Telecommunications in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Belize" title="Telecommunications in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Canada" title="Telecommunications in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Costa_Rica" title="Telecommunications in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cuba" title="Telecommunications in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Dominica" title="Telecommunications in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Telecommunications in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_El_Salvador" title="Telecommunications in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Grenada" title="Telecommunications in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guatemala" title="Telecommunications in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Haiti" title="Telecommunications in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Honduras" title="Telecommunications in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Jamaica" title="Telecommunications in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Mexico" title="Telecommunications in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nicaragua" title="Telecommunications in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Panama" title="Telecommunications in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Telecommunications in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Lucia" title="Telecommunications in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Telecommunications in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Telecommunications in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States" title="Telecommunications in the United States" class="mw-redirect">United States</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;">Dependencies and<br/> other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Anguilla" title="Telecommunications in Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Aruba" title="Telecommunications in Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bermuda" title="Telecommunications in Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Telecommunications in Curaçao">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Greenland" title="Telecommunications in Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guadeloupe" title="Telecommunications in Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Martinique" title="Telecommunications in Martinique">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Montserrat" title="Telecommunications in Montserrat">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Navassa_Island" title="Telecommunications in Navassa Island" class="mw-redirect">Navassa Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Telecommunications in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Telecommunications in Saint Barthélemy" class="mw-redirect">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Telecommunications in Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Saba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Saba (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Template:Oceania topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Oceania_topic" title="Template talk:Oceania topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Oceania_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in Oceania</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Australia" title="Telecommunications in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Fiji" title="Telecommunications in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Indonesia" title="Telecommunications in Indonesia" class="mw-redirect">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Kiribati" title="Telecommunications in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Marshall Islands" class="mw-redirect">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Telecommunications in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nauru" title="Telecommunications in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_New_Zealand" title="Telecommunications in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Palau" title="Telecommunications in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Telecommunications in Papua New Guinea" class="mw-redirect">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Samoa" title="Telecommunications in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Solomon_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tonga" title="Telecommunications in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Tuvalu" title="Telecommunications in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Vanuatu" title="Telecommunications in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realm_of_New_Zealand" title="Realm of New Zealand">Associated states<br/> of New Zealand</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Niue" title="Telecommunications in Niue" class="mw-redirect">Niue</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a><br/> and other territories</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_American_Samoa" title="Telecommunications in American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Easter Island (page does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_French_Polynesia" title="Telecommunications in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guam" title="Telecommunications in Guam" class="mw-redirect">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Hawaii (page does not exist)">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_New_Caledonia" title="Telecommunications in New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Norfolk Island (page does not exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Northern Mariana Islands (page does not exist)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_the_Pitcairn_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in the Pitcairn Islands (page does not exist)">Pitcairn Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Tokelau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Tokelau (page does not exist)">Tokelau</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Telecommunications_in_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telecommunications in Wallis and Futuna (page does not exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <table class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:South_America_topic" title="Template:South America topic"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:South_America_topic" title="Template talk:South America topic"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:South_America_topic&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div style="font-size:110%">Telecommunications in South America</div> </th> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Argentina" title="Telecommunications in Argentina" class="mw-redirect">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Bolivia" title="Telecommunications in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Brazil" title="Telecommunications in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Chile" title="Telecommunications in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Colombia" title="Telecommunications in Colombia" class="mw-redirect">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Ecuador" title="Telecommunications in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Guyana" title="Telecommunications in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Paraguay" title="Telecommunications in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Peru" title="Telecommunications in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Suriname" title="Telecommunications in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Uruguay" title="Telecommunications in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Venezuela" title="Telecommunications in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"> <div style="padding:0.1em 0;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br/> other territories</div> </th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_the_Falkland_Islands" title="Telecommunications in the Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_French_Guiana" title="Telecommunications in French Guiana">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands" title="Telecommunications in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands" class="mw-redirect"><span style="white-space:normal;">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"> <div> <ul> <li><img alt="Category" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/16px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png" title="Category" width="16" height="14" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/24px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg/32px-Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="31"/> <b><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" title="Category:Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></b></li> <li><img alt="Commons page" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" title="Commons page" width="12" height="16" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"/> <b><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunication" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Telecommunication">Telecommunication</a></b></li> <li><img alt="Portal" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28"/> <b><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunication">Telecommunication</a></b></li> <li><img alt="Portal" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/16px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png" title="Portal" width="16" height="14" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/24px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg/32px-Portal-puzzle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="32" data-file-height="28"/> <b><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mass_surveillance" title="Portal:Mass surveillance">Mass surveillance</a></b></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </td> </tr> </table>    <noscript><img src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" title="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"/></noscript></div> <div class="printfooter"> Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_radio&oldid=653330802">http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_radio&oldid=653330802</a>" </div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_radio" title="Category:History of radio">History of radio</a></li><li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Category:Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_dates" title="Category:CS1 errors: dates">CS1 errors: dates</a></li><li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Russian-language_external_links" title="Category:Articles with Russian-language external links">Articles with Russian-language external links</a></li><li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Articles_to_be_merged_from_November_2014" title="Category:Articles to be merged from November 2014">Articles to be merged from November 2014</a></li><li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:All_articles_to_be_merged" title="Category:All articles to be merged">All articles to be merged</a></li><li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Articles_to_be_split_from_November_2014" title="Category:Articles to be split from November 2014">Articles to be split from November 2014</a></li><li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:All_articles_to_be_split" title="Category:All articles to be split">All articles to be split</a></li><li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia semi-protected pages">Wikipedia semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Commons_category_with_local_link_same_as_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category with local link same as on Wikidata">Commons category with local link same as on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> <div class="visualClear"></div> </div> </div> <div id="mw-navigation"> <h2>Navigation menu</h2> <div id="mw-head"> <div id="p-personal" role="navigation" class="" aria-labelledby="p-personal-label"> <h3 id="p-personal-label">Personal tools</h3> <ul> <li id="pt-createaccount"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+radio&type=signup" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory">Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+radio" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o">Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="left-navigation"> <div id="p-namespaces" role="navigation" class="vectorTabs" aria-labelledby="p-namespaces-label"> <h3 id="p-namespaces-label">Namespaces</h3> <ul> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected"><span><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radio" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></span></li> <li id="ca-talk"><span><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:History_of_radio" title="Discussion about the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></span></li> </ul> </div> <div id="p-variants" role="navigation" class="vectorMenu emptyPortlet" aria-labelledby="p-variants-label"> <h3 id="p-variants-label"><span>Variants</span><a href="#"></a></h3> <div class="menu"> <ul> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="right-navigation"> <div id="p-views" role="navigation" class="vectorTabs" aria-labelledby="p-views-label"> <h3 id="p-views-label">Views</h3> <ul> <li id="ca-view" class="selected"><span><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radio">Read</a></span></li> <li id="ca-viewsource"><span><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_radio&action=edit" title="This page is protected. You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e">View source</a></span></li> <li id="ca-history" class="collapsible"><span><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_radio&action=history" title="Past versions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></span></li> </ul> </div> <div id="p-cactions" role="navigation" class="vectorMenu emptyPortlet" aria-labelledby="p-cactions-label"> <h3 id="p-cactions-label"><span>More</span><a href="#"></a></h3> <div class="menu"> <ul> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-search" role="search"> <h3> <label for="searchInput">Search</label> </h3> <form action="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php" id="searchform"> <div id="simpleSearch"> <input type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput"/><input type="hidden" value="Special:Search" name="title"/><input type="submit" name="fulltext" value="Search" title="Search Wikipedia for this text" id="mw-searchButton" class="searchButton mw-fallbackSearchButton"/><input type="submit" name="go" value="Go" title="Go to a page with this exact name if one exists" id="searchButton" class="searchButton"/> </div> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div id="mw-panel"> <div id="p-logo" role="banner"><a class="mw-wiki-logo" href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page"></a></div> <div class="portal" role="navigation" id="p-navigation" aria-labelledby="p-navigation-label"> <h3 id="p-navigation-label">Navigation</h3> <div class="body"> <ul> <li id="n-mainpage-description"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li> <li id="n-contents"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li> <li id="n-featuredcontent"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Featured_content" title="Featured content – the best of Wikipedia">Featured content</a></li> <li id="n-currentevents"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Find background information on current events">Current events</a></li> <li id="n-randompage"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Random" title="Load a random article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li> <li id="n-sitesupport"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" title="Support us">Donate to Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="n-shoplink"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://shop.wikimedia.org/" title="Visit the Wikimedia Shop">Wikipedia store</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="portal" role="navigation" id="p-interaction" aria-labelledby="p-interaction-label"> <h3 id="p-interaction-label">Interaction</h3> <div class="body"> <ul> <li id="n-help"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li> <li id="n-aboutsite"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Find out about Wikipedia">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="n-portal"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="About the project, what you can do, where to find things">Community portal</a></li> <li id="n-recentchanges"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes in the wiki [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li> <li id="n-contactpage"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact page</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="portal" role="navigation" id="p-tb" aria-labelledby="p-tb-label"> <h3 id="p-tb-label">Tools</h3> <div class="body"> <ul> <li id="t-whatlinkshere"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/History_of_radio" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li> <li id="t-recentchangeslinked"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/History_of_radio" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li> <li id="t-upload"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li> <li id="t-specialpages"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li> <li id="t-permalink"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_radio&oldid=653330802" title="Permanent link to this revision of the page">Permanent link</a></li> <li id="t-info"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_radio&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li> <li id="t-wikibase"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1517374" title="Link to connected data repository item [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> <li id="t-cite"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=History_of_radio&id=653330802" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="portal" role="navigation" id="p-coll-print_export" aria-labelledby="p-coll-print_export-label"> <h3 id="p-coll-print_export-label">Print/export</h3> <div class="body"> <ul> <li id="coll-create_a_book"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&bookcmd=book_creator&referer=History+of+radio">Create a book</a></li> <li id="coll-download-as-rdf2latex"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Book&bookcmd=render_article&arttitle=History+of+radio&oldid=653330802&writer=rdf2latex">Download as PDF</a></li> <li id="t-print"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_radio&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="portal" role="navigation" id="p-lang" aria-labelledby="p-lang-label"> <h3 id="p-lang-label">Languages</h3> <div class="body"> <ul> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_la_r%C3%A0dio" title="Història de la ràdio – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_des_H%C3%B6rfunks" title="Geschichte des Hörfunks – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_radio" title="Historia de la radio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_radio" title="Histoire de la radio – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_radio" title="Historia da radio – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_radio" title="Sejarah radio – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronologia_della_radio" title="Cronologia della radio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohistorie" title="Radiohistorie – Norwegian (bokmål)" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%88%DB%8C%D9%88_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="ریڈیو دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%BB" title="ប្រវត្តិវិទ្យុ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_radia_%E2%80%93_kalendarium" title="Historia radia – kalendarium – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li> <li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1517374#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="footer" role="contentinfo"> <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last modified on 24 March 2015, at 17:08.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a rel="license" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_3.0_Unported_License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License</a><a rel="license" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/" style="display:none;"></a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Terms_of_Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://www.wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://wikimediafoundation.org/wiki/Privacy_policy" title="wikimedia:Privacy policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimer"><a href="/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer" title="Wikipedia:General disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/How_to_contribute">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_radio&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"> <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://wikimediafoundation.org/"><img src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://bits.wikimedia.org/images/wikimedia-button.png" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://bits.wikimedia.org/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://bits.wikimedia.org/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x" width="88" height="31" alt="Wikimedia Foundation"/></a> </li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"> <a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424/https://www.mediawiki.org/"><img src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.25wmf22/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki_88x31.png" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.25wmf22/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326200424im_/https://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.25wmf22/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x" width="88" height="31"/></a> </li> </ul> <div style="clear:both"></div> </div> <script>/*<![CDATA[*/window.jQuery && jQuery.ready();/*]]>*/</script><script>var _mwq = _mwq || []; _mwq.push( function ( mw ) { mw.loader.state({"ext.globalCssJs.site":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","site":"loading","user":"ready","user.groups":"ready"}); } );</script> <script>var _mwq = _mwq || []; _mwq.push( function ( mw ) { mw.loader.load(["ext.cite","mediawiki.toc","mediawiki.action.view.postEdit","mediawiki.user","mediawiki.hidpi","mediawiki.page.ready","mediawiki.searchSuggest","ext.gadget.teahouse","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.DRN-wizard","ext.gadget.charinsert","ext.gadget.refToolbar","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.featured-articles-links","ext.wikiEditor.init","mmv.bootstrap.autostart","ext.imageMetrics.loader","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.eventLogging.subscriber","ext.wikimediaEvents.statsd","ext.navigationTiming","schema.UniversalLanguageSelector","ext.uls.eventlogger","ext.uls.interlanguage"],null,true); } );</script> <script>var _mwq = _mwq || []; _mwq.push( function ( mw ) { document.write("\u003Cscript src=\"//bits.wikimedia.org/en.wikipedia.org/load.php?debug=false\u0026amp;lang=en\u0026amp;modules=site\u0026amp;only=scripts\u0026amp;skin=vector\u0026amp;*\"\u003E\u003C/script\u003E"); } );</script> <script>var _mwq = _mwq || []; _mwq.push( function ( mw ) { mw.config.set({"wgBackendResponseTime":122,"wgHostname":"mw1113"}); } );</script> </body> </html>