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Kings have always been defined and constrained by legal precedent." /> <meta name="pubdate" content="20240724" /> <meta name="commissioning-region" content="us" /> <meta name="searchtype" content="analysis" /> <meta name="original-source" content="https://theconversation.com/supreme-court-ruling-may-put-presidents-above-the-law-but-even-kings-never-were-234883" /> <meta name="news_keywords" content="Absolute immunity, Declaration of Independence, Donald Trump, King George III, Legal immunity, Magna Carta, Medieval history, Presidential immunity, SCOTUS, Sonia Sotomayor, Thomas Jefferson, UK parliament, US Supreme Court, US presidency, US presidents" /> <meta name="author" content="Jay Rubenstein" /> <meta name="institution" content="USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="The Conversation" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Supreme Court ruling may put presidents above the law – but even kings never were" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Even Louis XIV of France, the epitome of absolute monarchy, did not stand above the law. Kings have always been defined and constrained by legal precedent." /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://images.theconversation.com/files/607619/original/file-20240717-17-ukzsqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&rect=0%2C794%2C4500%2C2250&q=45&auto=format&w=1356&h=668&fit=crop" /> <meta property="og:updated_time" content="2024-07-25T12:29:16Z" /> <meta property="og:url" content="http://theconversation.com/supreme-court-ruling-may-put-presidents-above-the-law-but-even-kings-never-were-234883" /> <meta property="article:publisher" content="https://facebook.com/theConversationUS" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@ConversationUS" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://theconversation.com/supreme-court-ruling-may-put-presidents-above-the-law-but-even-kings-never-were-234883" /> <meta property="fb:pages" content="1453112561595308"> <script type="application/javascript"> window.PAGE_CONFIG 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style="background-image: url(https://images.theconversation.com/files/607619/original/file-20240717-17-ukzsqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&rect=0%2C794%2C4500%2C2250&q=45&auto=format&w=1356&h=668&fit=crop);"> <div class="placeholder-container" style="--aspect-ratio-percent:80.0%;--background-color:#986757"><img alt="A colorful woodcut of a man wearing a crown signing a document while surrounded by others in fancy medieval dress." class="lazyloaded" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/607619/original/file-20240717-17-ukzsqj.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&rect=40%2C33%2C4452%2C3556&q=20&auto=format&w=320&fit=clip&dpr=2&usm=12&cs=strip" data-id="607619" itemprop="image"></div> </div> <div class="wrapper"> <figcaption> King John of England signs the Magna Carta in 1215. <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/john-king-of-england-from-1199-king-john-signing-magna-news-photo/113636776">UniversalImagesGroup via Getty Images</a></span> </figcaption> </div> <div class="magazine-title"> <div class="wrapper"> <header class="content-header-container grid-twelve large-grid-eleven"> <div> <div class="content-header-block"> <h1 class="legacy entry-title instapaper_title" itemprop="headline"> <strong> Supreme Court ruling may put presidents above the law – but even kings never were </strong> </h1> </div> </div> <div class="timestamps"> <time datetime="2024-07-24T12:16:43Z" itemprop="datePublished" content="2024-07-24T12:16:43Z">Published: July 24, 2024 1.16pm BST</time> </div> </header> </div> </div> </figure> <div class="wrapper"> <div class="content-sidebar grid-four large-grid-four grid-last"> <section class="content-authors"> <div class="content-authors-synopsis"> <a href="#" class="content-authors-toggle"> <i class="icon-caret-down"></i> <i class="icon-caret-up"></i> <span class="nobr">Jay Rubenstein</span>, <em class="institution_name">USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences</em> </a> </div> <div class="content-authors-group"> <h3 class="border">Author</h3> <ol> <li class="vcard" id="author-588992" itemprop="author" itemscope="" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"> <a rel="author" itemprop="url" href="/profiles/jay-rubenstein-1548711"> <img alt="" class="lazyload" data-src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/avatars/1548711/width170/image-20240716-17-ixdn4z.jpg" src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static/tc/author/width170_default-bea415b3a0223821a698f6e3f6d5ab99.jpg" itemprop="image"> <span class="fn author-name" itemprop="name"> Jay Rubenstein </span> </a> <p class="role"> Professor of History and Religion, USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences </p> </li> </ol> </div> </section> <section class="content-disclosure-statement"> <h3 class="border">Disclosure statement</h3> <p><span>Jay Rubenstein does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.</span></p> </section> <section class="content-partners"> <h3 class="border">Partners</h3> <p class="disclosure-logo clearfix"><a class="logo" href="/institutions/usc-dornsife-college-of-letters-arts-and-sciences-2669"><picture><source srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/partners/880/logos/logo-1470184280.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=170&h=170" media="(min-width:600px)"></source><img alt="USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences" src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs%3D" /></picture></a></p><p class="disclosure-logo clearfix"><a class="logo" href="/institutions/university-of-southern-california-1265"><picture><source srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/partners/1267/logos/logo-1551380060.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=170&h=170" media="(min-width:600px)"></source><img alt="University of Southern California" src="data:image/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAAD/ACwAAAAAAQABAAACADs%3D" 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data-href="https://theconversation.com/supreme-court-ruling-may-put-presidents-above-the-law-but-even-kings-never-were-234883" data-action="share/whatsapp/share" data-id="234883" target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="whatsapp://send?text=Supreme+Court+ruling+may+put+presidents+above+the+law+%E2%80%93+but+even+kings+never+were+https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fsupreme-court-ruling-may-put-presidents-above-the-law-but-even-kings-never-were-234883%3Futm_source%3Dwhatsapp%26utm_medium%3Dbylinewhatsappbutton"><i class="icon-whatsapp"></i> <span>WhatsApp</span></a> </div> <div class="fb-messenger"> <a class="fb-messenger-button" data-href="https://theconversation.com/supreme-court-ruling-may-put-presidents-above-the-law-but-even-kings-never-were-234883" data-action="share/fb-messenger/share" data-id="234883" target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="fb-messenger://share?link=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fsupreme-court-ruling-may-put-presidents-above-the-law-but-even-kings-never-were-234883%3Futm_source%3Dfb_messenger%26utm_medium%3Dbylinefb_messenger_button"><i class="icon-fb-messenger"></i> <span>Messenger</span></a> </div> </aside> </div> <div class="grid-ten large-grid-nine grid-last content-body content entry-content instapaper_body inline-promos" itemprop="articleBody"> <p>Many observers say a controversial U.S. Supreme Court decision from July 1, 2024, <a href="https://www.americanprogress.org/press/statement-supreme-court-far-right-justices-make-a-mockery-of-the-rule-of-law-caps-patrick-gaspard-says/">turns presidents into kings</a> – but they underestimate how truly radical the ruling actually may be. In fact, though the court’s majority <a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/603/23-939/#tab-opinion-4913924">said it was honoring constitutional tradition</a>, it appears to have created something entirely new: a legal tyrant, someone above the law, a privilege even kings never enjoyed.</p> <p>Specifically, the court ruled that presidents of the United States enjoy “<a href="https://www.reuters.com/legal/us-supreme-court-due-rule-trumps-immunity-bid-blockbuster-case-2024-07-01/">some immunity for official acts</a>” during their terms of office and absolute immunity for acts pertaining to their “core constitutional powers.” Legal scholars are still <a href="https://www.lawfaremedia.org/article/don-t-overread-the-court-s-immunity-opinion">sorting out what exactly this means</a> and <a href="https://thehill.com/opinion/4771547-supreme-court-presidential-immunity-rule/">what could be considered an official act</a>.</p> <p>But criticism was immediate. For instance, <a href="https://msmagazine.com/2024/07/01/sonia-sotomayor-dissent-trump-immunity/">Justice Sonia Sotomayor dissented</a>, declared: “In every use of official power, the President is now a king above the law.” </p> <p>But as a <a href="https://www.macfound.org/fellows/class-of-2007/jay-rubenstein">historian of medieval power</a>, I know there is a problem with Sotomayor’s argument. Kings were never above the law. Even the epitome of absolute monarchy, <a href="https://en.chateauversailles.fr/discover/history/great-characters/louis-xiv">Louis XIV of France, who ruled from 1643 to 1715</a>, did not stand above the law. He embodied the law. Known as “the Sun King,” the law flowed through him and spread over his realm like rays of light. He couldn’t break the law, because he was the law.</p><div class="slot clear" data-id="17"> <div class="inline-promos-skeleton"> <h5></h5> <button></button> </div> </div> <figure class="align-right zoomable"> <a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/607612/original/file-20240717-19-bl8ffp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><div class="placeholder-container" style="--aspect-ratio-percent:149.36708860759492%;--background-color:#4d382a"><img alt="A detailed depiction of a man in a robe and hat sitting on a wooden chair speaking to a group of standing people." class="lazyload" data-src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/607612/original/file-20240717-19-bl8ffp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=237&fit=clip" data-srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/607612/original/file-20240717-19-bl8ffp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=896&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/607612/original/file-20240717-19-bl8ffp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=896&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/607612/original/file-20240717-19-bl8ffp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=896&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/607612/original/file-20240717-19-bl8ffp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=1126&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/607612/original/file-20240717-19-bl8ffp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=1126&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/607612/original/file-20240717-19-bl8ffp.jpeg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=1126&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></div></a> <figcaption> <span class="caption">John of Salisbury, at left, teaches a group of students.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Policraticon_de_Jean_de_Salisbury_-_BSG_Ms1145_f3r_(Jean_de_Salisbury_enseignant).jpeg">Étienne Colaud/Bibliothèque nationale de France via Wikimedia Commons</a></span> </figcaption> </figure> <h2>A narrow distinction</h2> <p>This line between being above the law and the actual embodiment of law is an admittedly fine one. One of the first European thinkers to try to explain this difference with precision was a brilliant 12th-century politician named <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/john-salisbury/#BodyPoli">John of Salisbury</a>.</p> <p>John wrote that a king is “<a href="https://archive.org/details/statesmansbookof0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up">a law unto himself</a>,” but that at the same time he was “a servant of law.”</p> <p>According to John, a king would always instinctively place the benefit of the whole community over his own private desires. If he acted otherwise, then he ceased to be a king and became a tyrant. Confusingly, tyrants were, for John, not entirely illicit: God sometimes used tyrants to punish an unrighteous people.</p> <p>How to respond to a tyrannical king, legally, remained a nearly insoluble problem.</p> <h2>A concrete solution</h2> <p>John of Salisbury’s discussion of these issues stayed on the level of abstraction. However, only a few years after his death in 1180, in England, his theoretical writings became real political concerns. The mercurial <a href="https://www.royal.uk/john-lackland">King John, who reigned from 1199 to 1216</a>, flirted with tyrannical behavior. </p> <p>Specifically, he imposed fines on people for the purported crime of making him angry. There was nothing illegal about these fines. They were called “<a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/amercement">amercements</a>” – literally, you paid money to the king for his mercy, so that he would cease being upset with you. John’s use of the practice, however, was so erratic and so transparently cruel that his barons revolted and threatened to dethrone him in favor of a prince from France.</p> <p>To pacify the realm, in 1215, King John and the barons negotiated the famous <a href="https://www.parliament.uk/magnacarta/">Magna Carta</a>, long regarded as a central document in Western legal tradition, and <a href="https://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/facsch_lawrev/978/">cited, for example, in more than 170 Supreme Court decisions</a>. </p> <p>In the Magna Carta, John accepted the barons’ demands that he regularize and limit his use of customary fines, among other punitive practices. To ensure that he would abide by his promises, the Magna Carta further established a council of 25 barons to inform him if he had exceeded his legal authority. If the king did not heed their advice, then “the whole community of the land” was empowered <a href="https://publicpolicy.pepperdine.edu/academics/research/faculty-research/american-founding/founding-documents/magna_carta.htm">“to distrain and distress”</a> him by attacking his castles and properties and making his life miserable.</p> <p>The king had never been above the law, and now that concept was enshrined in the law.</p> <figure class="align-center zoomable"> <a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/607620/original/file-20240717-19-60y7vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><div class="placeholder-container" style="--aspect-ratio-percent:63.52785145888594%;--background-color:#898579"><img alt="A large document handwritten in Latin." class="lazyload" data-src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/607620/original/file-20240717-19-60y7vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" data-srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/607620/original/file-20240717-19-60y7vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/607620/original/file-20240717-19-60y7vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/607620/original/file-20240717-19-60y7vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=381&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/607620/original/file-20240717-19-60y7vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/607620/original/file-20240717-19-60y7vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/607620/original/file-20240717-19-60y7vp.jpg?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=479&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px"></div></a> <figcaption> <span class="caption">An image of the Magna Carta.</span> <span class="attribution"><a class="source" href="https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/news-photo/magna-carta-signed-june-1215-document-producecd-by-barons-news-photo/173279670">Culture Club via Getty Images</a></span> </figcaption> </figure> <h2>A transfer to democracy</h2> <p>Never fully implemented, Magna Carta nonetheless reshaped the culture of the English monarchy.</p> <p>If John had not died in 1216 <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/john.shtml">during another war with his barons</a>, he would have likely been overthrown. His son Henry III <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/henry_iii_king.shtml">narrowly survived a major rebellion</a> during his reign. In 1326, a disgruntled Parliament and baronage <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/edward_ii_king.shtml">deposed Henry III’s grandson Edward II</a>, who died in prison in 1327.</p> <p>At the end of the 14th century, the barons and <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/richard_ii_king.shtml">Parliament overthrew Richard II</a>, who likewise died in prison. Never above the law, kings found themselves increasingly constrained both by law and parliamentary practice.</p> <p>By the time of the American Revolution, English kings had ceded all meaningful authority to Parliament. When Thomas Jefferson <a href="https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/declaration-transcript">railed against George III in the Declaration of Independence</a>, he was using the monarch as a symbol for the English government more generally.</p> <p>“A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people,” <a href="https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs/declaration-transcript">Jefferson wrote in 1776</a>. Despite historical distance and legal difference, John of Salisbury could not have put it better.</p> <p>Unlike, apparently, future U.S. presidents, kings have never been immune from the law. 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i=arguments.length>3&&void 0!==arguments[3]?arguments[3]:{};return this.i18nFormat&&this.i18nFormat.getResource?this.i18nFormat.getResource(e,t,s,i):this.resourceStore.getResource(e,t,s,i)}getUsedParamsDetails(){let e=arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{};const t=["defaultValue","ordinal","context","replace","lng","lngs","fallbackLng","ns","keySeparator","nsSeparator","returnObjects","returnDetails","joinArrays","postProcess","interpolation"],s=e.replace&&"string"!=typeof e.replace;let i=s?e.replace:e;if(s&&void 0!==e.count&&(i.count=e.count),this.options.interpolation.defaultVariables&&(i={...this.options.interpolation.defaultVariables,...i}),!s){i={...i};for(const e of t)delete i[e]}return i}static hasDefaultValue(e){const t="defaultValue";for(const s in e)if(Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(e,s)&&t===s.substring(0,12)&&void 0!==e[s])return!0;return!1}}const R=e=>e.charAt(0).toUpperCase()+e.slice(1);class C{constructor(e){this.options=e,this.supportedLngs=this.options.supportedLngs||!1,this.logger=o.create("languageUtils")}getScriptPartFromCode(e){if(!(e=S(e))||e.indexOf("-")<0)return null;const t=e.split("-");return 2===t.length?null:(t.pop(),"x"===t[t.length-1].toLowerCase()?null:this.formatLanguageCode(t.join("-")))}getLanguagePartFromCode(e){if(!(e=S(e))||e.indexOf("-")<0)return e;const t=e.split("-");return this.formatLanguageCode(t[0])}formatLanguageCode(e){if("string"==typeof e&&e.indexOf("-")>-1){if("undefined"!=typeof Intl&&void 0!==Intl.getCanonicalLocales)try{let t=Intl.getCanonicalLocales(e)[0];if(t&&this.options.lowerCaseLng&&(t=t.toLowerCase()),t)return t}catch(e){}const t=["hans","hant","latn","cyrl","cans","mong","arab"];let s=e.split("-");return this.options.lowerCaseLng?s=s.map((e=>e.toLowerCase())):2===s.length?(s[0]=s[0].toLowerCase(),s[1]=s[1].toUpperCase(),t.indexOf(s[1].toLowerCase())>-1&&(s[1]=R(s[1].toLowerCase()))):3===s.length&&(s[0]=s[0].toLowerCase(),2===s[1].length&&(s[1]=s[1].toUpperCase()),"sgn"!==s[0]&&2===s[2].length&&(s[2]=s[2].toUpperCase()),t.indexOf(s[1].toLowerCase())>-1&&(s[1]=R(s[1].toLowerCase())),t.indexOf(s[2].toLowerCase())>-1&&(s[2]=R(s[2].toLowerCase()))),s.join("-")}return this.options.cleanCode||this.options.lowerCaseLng?e.toLowerCase():e}isSupportedCode(e){return("languageOnly"===this.options.load||this.options.nonExplicitSupportedLngs)&&(e=this.getLanguagePartFromCode(e)),!this.supportedLngs||!this.supportedLngs.length||this.supportedLngs.indexOf(e)>-1}getBestMatchFromCodes(e){if(!e)return null;let t;return e.forEach((e=>{if(t)return;const s=this.formatLanguageCode(e);this.options.supportedLngs&&!this.isSupportedCode(s)||(t=s)})),!t&&this.options.supportedLngs&&e.forEach((e=>{if(t)return;const s=this.getLanguagePartFromCode(e);if(this.isSupportedCode(s))return t=s;t=this.options.supportedLngs.find((e=>e===s?e:e.indexOf("-")<0&&s.indexOf("-")<0?void 0:e.indexOf("-")>0&&s.indexOf("-")<0&&e.substring(0,e.indexOf("-"))===s||0===e.indexOf(s)&&s.length>1?e:void 0))})),t||(t=this.getFallbackCodes(this.options.fallbackLng)[0]),t}getFallbackCodes(e,t){if(!e)return[];if("function"==typeof e&&(e=e(t)),"string"==typeof e&&(e=[e]),Array.isArray(e))return e;if(!t)return e.default||[];let s=e[t];return s||(s=e[this.getScriptPartFromCode(t)]),s||(s=e[this.formatLanguageCode(t)]),s||(s=e[this.getLanguagePartFromCode(t)]),s||(s=e.default),s||[]}toResolveHierarchy(e,t){const s=this.getFallbackCodes(t||this.options.fallbackLng||[],e),i=[],n=e=>{e&&(this.isSupportedCode(e)?i.push(e):this.logger.warn(`rejecting language code not found in supportedLngs: ${e}`))};return"string"==typeof e&&(e.indexOf("-")>-1||e.indexOf("_")>-1)?("languageOnly"!==this.options.load&&n(this.formatLanguageCode(e)),"languageOnly"!==this.options.load&&"currentOnly"!==this.options.load&&n(this.getScriptPartFromCode(e)),"currentOnly"!==this.options.load&&n(this.getLanguagePartFromCode(e))):"string"==typeof e&&n(this.formatLanguageCode(e)),s.forEach((e=>{i.indexOf(e)<0&&n(this.formatLanguageCode(e))})),i}}let N=[{lngs:["ach","ak","am","arn","br","fil","gun","ln","mfe","mg","mi","oc","pt","pt-BR","tg","tl","ti","tr","uz","wa"],nr:[1,2],fc:1},{lngs:["af","an","ast","az","bg","bn","ca","da","de","dev","el","en","eo","es","et","eu","fi","fo","fur","fy","gl","gu","ha","hi","hu","hy","ia","it","kk","kn","ku","lb","mai","ml","mn","mr","nah","nap","nb","ne","nl","nn","no","nso","pa","pap","pms","ps","pt-PT","rm","sco","se","si","so","son","sq","sv","sw","ta","te","tk","ur","yo"],nr:[1,2],fc:2},{lngs:["ay","bo","cgg","fa","ht","id","ja","jbo","ka","km","ko","ky","lo","ms","sah","su","th","tt","ug","vi","wo","zh"],nr:[1],fc:3},{lngs:["be","bs","cnr","dz","hr","ru","sr","uk"],nr:[1,2,5],fc:4},{lngs:["ar"],nr:[0,1,2,3,11,100],fc:5},{lngs:["cs","sk"],nr:[1,2,5],fc:6},{lngs:["csb","pl"],nr:[1,2,5],fc:7},{lngs:["cy"],nr:[1,2,3,8],fc:8},{lngs:["fr"],nr:[1,2],fc:9},{lngs:["ga"],nr:[1,2,3,7,11],fc:10},{lngs:["gd"],nr:[1,2,3,20],fc:11},{lngs:["is"],nr:[1,2],fc:12},{lngs:["jv"],nr:[0,1],fc:13},{lngs:["kw"],nr:[1,2,3,4],fc:14},{lngs:["lt"],nr:[1,2,10],fc:15},{lngs:["lv"],nr:[1,2,0],fc:16},{lngs:["mk"],nr:[1,2],fc:17},{lngs:["mnk"],nr:[0,1,2],fc:18},{lngs:["mt"],nr:[1,2,11,20],fc:19},{lngs:["or"],nr:[2,1],fc:2},{lngs:["ro"],nr:[1,2,20],fc:20},{lngs:["sl"],nr:[5,1,2,3],fc:21},{lngs:["he","iw"],nr:[1,2,20,21],fc:22}],j={1:e=>Number(e>1),2:e=>Number(1!=e),3:e=>0,4:e=>Number(e%10==1&&e%100!=11?0:e%10>=2&&e%10<=4&&(e%100<10||e%100>=20)?1:2),5:e=>Number(0==e?0:1==e?1:2==e?2:e%100>=3&&e%100<=10?3:e%100>=11?4:5),6:e=>Number(1==e?0:e>=2&&e<=4?1:2),7:e=>Number(1==e?0:e%10>=2&&e%10<=4&&(e%100<10||e%100>=20)?1:2),8:e=>Number(1==e?0:2==e?1:8!=e&&11!=e?2:3),9:e=>Number(e>=2),10:e=>Number(1==e?0:2==e?1:e<7?2:e<11?3:4),11:e=>Number(1==e||11==e?0:2==e||12==e?1:e>2&&e<20?2:3),12:e=>Number(e%10!=1||e%100==11),13:e=>Number(0!==e),14:e=>Number(1==e?0:2==e?1:3==e?2:3),15:e=>Number(e%10==1&&e%100!=11?0:e%10>=2&&(e%100<10||e%100>=20)?1:2),16:e=>Number(e%10==1&&e%100!=11?0:0!==e?1:2),17:e=>Number(1==e||e%10==1&&e%100!=11?0:1),18:e=>Number(0==e?0:1==e?1:2),19:e=>Number(1==e?0:0==e||e%100>1&&e%100<11?1:e%100>10&&e%100<20?2:3),20:e=>Number(1==e?0:0==e||e%100>0&&e%100<20?1:2),21:e=>Number(e%100==1?1:e%100==2?2:e%100==3||e%100==4?3:0),22:e=>Number(1==e?0:2==e?1:(e<0||e>10)&&e%10==0?2:3)};const $=["v1","v2","v3"],A=["v4"],E={zero:0,one:1,two:2,few:3,many:4,other:5};class I{constructor(e){let t=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{};this.languageUtils=e,this.options=t,this.logger=o.create("pluralResolver"),this.options.compatibilityJSON&&!A.includes(this.options.compatibilityJSON)||"undefined"!=typeof Intl&&Intl.PluralRules||(this.options.compatibilityJSON="v3",this.logger.error("Your environment seems not to be Intl API compatible, use an Intl.PluralRules polyfill. Will fallback to the compatibilityJSON v3 format handling.")),this.rules=(()=>{const e={};return N.forEach((t=>{t.lngs.forEach((s=>{e[s]={numbers:t.nr,plurals:j[t.fc]}}))})),e})(),this.pluralRulesCache={}}addRule(e,t){this.rules[e]=t}clearCache(){this.pluralRulesCache={}}getRule(e){let t=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{};if(this.shouldUseIntlApi())try{const s=S("dev"===e?"en":e),i=t.ordinal?"ordinal":"cardinal",n=JSON.stringify({cleanedCode:s,type:i});if(n in this.pluralRulesCache)return this.pluralRulesCache[n];const o=new Intl.PluralRules(s,{type:i});return this.pluralRulesCache[n]=o,o}catch(e){return}return this.rules[e]||this.rules[this.languageUtils.getLanguagePartFromCode(e)]}needsPlural(e){let t=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{};const s=this.getRule(e,t);return this.shouldUseIntlApi()?s&&s.resolvedOptions().pluralCategories.length>1:s&&s.numbers.length>1}getPluralFormsOfKey(e,t){let s=arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2]?arguments[2]:{};return this.getSuffixes(e,s).map((e=>`${t}${e}`))}getSuffixes(e){let t=arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{};const s=this.getRule(e,t);return s?this.shouldUseIntlApi()?s.resolvedOptions().pluralCategories.sort(((e,t)=>E[e]-E[t])).map((e=>`${this.options.prepend}${t.ordinal?`ordinal${this.options.prepend}`:""}${e}`)):s.numbers.map((s=>this.getSuffix(e,s,t))):[]}getSuffix(e,t){let s=arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2]?arguments[2]:{};const i=this.getRule(e,s);return i?this.shouldUseIntlApi()?`${this.options.prepend}${s.ordinal?`ordinal${this.options.prepend}`:""}${i.select(t)}`:this.getSuffixRetroCompatible(i,t):(this.logger.warn(`no plural rule found for: ${e}`),"")}getSuffixRetroCompatible(e,t){const s=e.noAbs?e.plurals(t):e.plurals(Math.abs(t));let i=e.numbers[s];this.options.simplifyPluralSuffix&&2===e.numbers.length&&1===e.numbers[0]&&(2===i?i="plural":1===i&&(i=""));const n=()=>this.options.prepend&&i.toString()?this.options.prepend+i.toString():i.toString();return"v1"===this.options.compatibilityJSON?1===i?"":"number"==typeof i?`_plural_${i.toString()}`:n():"v2"===this.options.compatibilityJSON||this.options.simplifyPluralSuffix&&2===e.numbers.length&&1===e.numbers[0]?n():this.options.prepend&&s.toString()?this.options.prepend+s.toString():s.toString()}shouldUseIntlApi(){return!$.includes(this.options.compatibilityJSON)}}const T=function(e,t,s){let i=arguments.length>3&&void 0!==arguments[3]?arguments[3]:".",n=!(arguments.length>4&&void 0!==arguments[4])||arguments[4],o=((e,t,s)=>{const i=d(e,s);return void 0!==i?i:d(t,s)})(e,t,s);return!o&&n&&"string"==typeof s&&(o=k(e,s,i),void 0===o&&(o=k(t,s,i))),o},D=e=>e.replace(/\$/g,"$$$$");class F{constructor(){let e=arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{};this.logger=o.create("interpolator"),this.options=e,this.format=e.interpolation&&e.interpolation.format||(e=>e),this.init(e)}init(){let e=arguments.length>0&&void 0!==arguments[0]?arguments[0]:{};e.interpolation||(e.interpolation={escapeValue:!0});const{escape:t,escapeValue:s,useRawValueToEscape:i,prefix:n,prefixEscaped:o,suffix:r,suffixEscaped:a,formatSeparator:l,unescapeSuffix:c,unescapePrefix:u,nestingPrefix:h,nestingPrefixEscaped:p,nestingSuffix:g,nestingSuffixEscaped:d,nestingOptionsSeparator:f,maxReplaces:y,alwaysFormat:b}=e.interpolation;this.escape=void 0!==t?t:v,this.escapeValue=void 0===s||s,this.useRawValueToEscape=void 0!==i&&i,this.prefix=n?m(n):o||"{{",this.suffix=r?m(r):a||"}}",this.formatSeparator=l||",",this.unescapePrefix=c?"":u||"-",this.unescapeSuffix=this.unescapePrefix?"":c||"",this.nestingPrefix=h?m(h):p||m("$t("),this.nestingSuffix=g?m(g):d||m(")"),this.nestingOptionsSeparator=f||",",this.maxReplaces=y||1e3,this.alwaysFormat=void 0!==b&&b,this.resetRegExp()}reset(){this.options&&this.init(this.options)}resetRegExp(){const e=(e,t)=>e&&e.source===t?(e.lastIndex=0,e):new RegExp(t,"g");this.regexp=e(this.regexp,`${this.prefix}(.+?)${this.suffix}`),this.regexpUnescape=e(this.regexpUnescape,`${this.prefix}${this.unescapePrefix}(.+?)${this.unescapeSuffix}${this.suffix}`),this.nestingRegexp=e(this.nestingRegexp,`${this.nestingPrefix}(.+?)${this.nestingSuffix}`)}interpolate(e,t,s,i){let n,o,r;const a=this.options&&this.options.interpolation&&this.options.interpolation.defaultVariables||{},c=e=>{if(e.indexOf(this.formatSeparator)<0){const n=T(t,a,e,this.options.keySeparator,this.options.ignoreJSONStructure);return this.alwaysFormat?this.format(n,void 0,s,{...i,...t,interpolationkey:e}):n}const n=e.split(this.formatSeparator),o=n.shift().trim(),r=n.join(this.formatSeparator).trim();return this.format(T(t,a,o,this.options.keySeparator,this.options.ignoreJSONStructure),r,s,{...i,...t,interpolationkey:o})};this.resetRegExp();const u=i&&i.missingInterpolationHandler||this.options.missingInterpolationHandler,h=i&&i.interpolation&&void 0!==i.interpolation.skipOnVariables?i.interpolation.skipOnVariables:this.options.interpolation.skipOnVariables;return[{regex:this.regexpUnescape,safeValue:e=>D(e)},{regex:this.regexp,safeValue:e=>this.escapeValue?D(this.escape(e)):D(e)}].forEach((t=>{for(r=0;n=t.regex.exec(e);){const s=n[1].trim();if(o=c(s),void 0===o)if("function"==typeof u){const t=u(e,n,i);o="string"==typeof t?t:""}else if(i&&Object.prototype.hasOwnProperty.call(i,s))o="";else{if(h){o=n[0];continue}this.logger.warn(`missed to pass in variable ${s} for interpolating ${e}`),o=""}else"string"==typeof o||this.useRawValueToEscape||(o=l(o));const a=t.safeValue(o);if(e=e.replace(n[0],a),h?(t.regex.lastIndex+=o.length,t.regex.lastIndex-=n[0].length):t.regex.lastIndex=0,r++,r>=this.maxReplaces)break}})),e}nest(e,t){let s,i,n,o=arguments.length>2&&void 0!==arguments[2]?arguments[2]:{};const r=(e,t)=>{const s=this.nestingOptionsSeparator;if(e.indexOf(s)<0)return e;const i=e.split(new RegExp(`${s}[ ]*{`));let o=`{${i[1]}`;e=i[0],o=this.interpolate(o,n);const r=o.match(/'/g),a=o.match(/"/g);(r&&r.length%2==0&&!a||a.length%2!=0)&&(o=o.replace(/'/g,'"'));try{n=JSON.parse(o),t&&(n={...t,...n})}catch(t){return this.logger.warn(`failed parsing options string in nesting for key ${e}`,t),`${e}${s}${o}`}return n.defaultValue&&n.defaultValue.indexOf(this.prefix)>-1&&delete n.defaultValue,e};for(;s=this.nestingRegexp.exec(e);){let a=[];n={...o},n=n.replace&&"string"!=typeof n.replace?n.replace:n,n.applyPostProcessor=!1,delete n.defaultValue;let c=!1;if(-1!==s[0].indexOf(this.formatSeparator)&&!/{.*}/.test(s[1])){const e=s[1].split(this.formatSeparator).map((e=>e.trim()));s[1]=e.shift(),a=e,c=!0}if(i=t(r.call(this,s[1].trim(),n),n),i&&s[0]===e&&"string"!=typeof i)return i;"string"!=typeof i&&(i=l(i)),i||(this.logger.warn(`missed to resolve ${s[1]} for nesting 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Intl.ListFormat(e,{...t});return e=>s.format(e)}))},this.init(e)}init(e){const t=(arguments.length>1&&void 0!==arguments[1]?arguments[1]:{interpolation:{}}).interpolation;this.formatSeparator=t.formatSeparator?t.formatSeparator:t.formatSeparator||","}add(e,t){this.formats[e.toLowerCase().trim()]=t}addCached(e,t){this.formats[e.toLowerCase().trim()]=V(t)}format(e,t,s){let i=arguments.length>3&&void 0!==arguments[3]?arguments[3]:{};const n=t.split(this.formatSeparator);if(n.length>1&&n[0].indexOf("(")>1&&n[0].indexOf(")")<0&&n.find((e=>e.indexOf(")")>-1))){const e=n.findIndex((e=>e.indexOf(")")>-1));n[0]=[n[0],...n.splice(1,e)].join(this.formatSeparator)}return n.reduce(((e,t)=>{const{formatName:n,formatOptions:o}=(e=>{let t=e.toLowerCase().trim();const s={};if(e.indexOf("(")>-1){const i=e.split("(");t=i[0].toLowerCase().trim();const 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t;t=51250,e(e.s=t)}]); //# sourceMappingURL=i18n_init-9f062a0de30195f0d756.js.map //]]> </script> <script src="https://cdn.theconversation.com/static/tc/runtime-8563a1641acaeb567def.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-vendor="c:smartocto-GJ7CA7CP"> var _ain = { access_level: "free", article_type: "analysis", authors: "USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences", id: "2743", maincontent: ".content-body", postid: "234883", pubdate: "2024-07-24T12:16:43Z", reader_type: "anonymous", sections: "us>Politics + Society", tags: "US Supreme Court, UK parliament, Donald Trump, US presidents, Thomas Jefferson, Magna Carta, Medieval history, SCOTUS, Sonia Sotomayor, US presidency, Declaration of Independence, King George III, Absolute immunity, King Louis XIV, Legal immunity, Absolute power, Presidential immunity, John of Salisbury, King John Lackland", title: "Supreme Court ruling may put presidents above the law – but even kings never were", }; (function (d, s) { var sf = 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