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of optical qualities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exploration_of_optical_qualities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proposed_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposed_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Proposed applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proposed_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marconi_and_radio_telegraphy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marconi_and_radio_telegraphy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Marconi and radio telegraphy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Marconi_and_radio_telegraphy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Marconi and radio telegraphy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Marconi_and_radio_telegraphy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nautical_and_transatlantic_transmissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nautical_and_transatlantic_transmissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Nautical and transatlantic transmissions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nautical_and_transatlantic_transmissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Audio_transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Audio_transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Audio transmission</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Audio_transmission-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Audio transmission subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Audio_transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Broadcasting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Broadcasting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Broadcasting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Broadcasting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wavelength_and_frequency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wavelength_and_frequency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Wavelength and frequency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wavelength_and_frequency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio_companies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_companies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Radio companies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Radio_companies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Radio companies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Radio_companies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British_Marconi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Marconi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>British Marconi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_Marconi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Telefunken" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telefunken"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Telefunken</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telefunken-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technological_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technological_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Technological development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Technological_development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Technological development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Technological_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Amplitude-modulated_(AM)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amplitude-modulated_(AM)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Amplitude-modulated (AM)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amplitude-modulated_(AM)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crystal_set_receivers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crystal_set_receivers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Crystal set receivers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crystal_set_receivers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vacuum_tubes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vacuum_tubes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Vacuum tubes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vacuum_tubes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loudspeakers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loudspeakers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Loudspeakers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loudspeakers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transistor_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transistor_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Transistor technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transistor_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Integrated_circuit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Integrated_circuit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Integrated circuit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Integrated_circuit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Car_radio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Car_radio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Car radio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Car_radio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio_telex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_telex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Radio telex</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_telex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio_navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Radio navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-FM" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#FM"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>FM</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-FM-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle FM subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-FM-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-FM_in_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#FM_in_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>FM in Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-FM_in_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Television" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Television"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Television</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Television-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Television subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Television-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Color_television" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Color_television"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Color television</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Color_television-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mobile_phones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mobile_phones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Mobile phones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mobile_phones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Broadcast_and_copyright" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Broadcast_and_copyright"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Broadcast and copyright</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Broadcast_and_copyright-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulations_of_radio_stations_in_the_U.S" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulations_of_radio_stations_in_the_U.S"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Regulations of radio stations in the U.S</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Regulations_of_radio_stations_in_the_U.S-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Regulations of radio stations in the U.S subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Regulations_of_radio_stations_in_the_U.S-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wireless_Ship_Act_of_1910" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wireless_Ship_Act_of_1910"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Wireless Ship Act of 1910</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wireless_Ship_Act_of_1910-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio_Act_of_1912" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_Act_of_1912"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Radio Act of 1912</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_Act_of_1912-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Radio_Act_of_1927" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Radio_Act_of_1927"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3</span> <span>The Radio Act of 1927</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Radio_Act_of_1927-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Communications_Act_of_1934" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Communications_Act_of_1934"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.4</span> <span>The Communications Act of 1934</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Communications_Act_of_1934-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Telecommunications_Act_of_1996" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Telecommunications_Act_of_1996"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.5</span> <span>The Telecommunications Act of 1996</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Telecommunications_Act_of_1996-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Licensed_commercial_public_radio_stations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Licensed_commercial_public_radio_stations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Licensed commercial public radio stations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Licensed_commercial_public_radio_stations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18.2</span> <span>Secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media_and_documentaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media_and_documentaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>Media and documentaries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media_and_documentaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">20</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of radio</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A" title="تاريخ الاتصال الراديوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الاتصال الراديوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_radio" title="Historia de la radio – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de la radio" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radionun_tarixi" title="Radionun tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Radionun tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="বেতারের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বেতারের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_la_r%C3%A0dio" title="Història de la ràdio – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de la ràdio" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_des_H%C3%B6rfunks" title="Geschichte des Hörfunks – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte des Hörfunks" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_radio" title="Historia de la radio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la radio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irratiaren_historia" title="Irratiaren historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Irratiaren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_radio" title="Histoire de la radio – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de la radio" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_radio" title="Historia da radio – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia da radio" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ռադիոյի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռադիոյի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_radio" title="Sejarah radio – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah radio" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" 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data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the controversy about who invented radio, see <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_radio" title="Invention of radio">Invention of radio</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_with_engineers_and_scientists_-_RCA_radio_station_-_Hagley_Archives_-_restoration1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Albert_Einstein_with_engineers_and_scientists_-_RCA_radio_station_-_Hagley_Archives_-_restoration1.jpg/310px-Albert_Einstein_with_engineers_and_scientists_-_RCA_radio_station_-_Hagley_Archives_-_restoration1.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Albert_Einstein_with_engineers_and_scientists_-_RCA_radio_station_-_Hagley_Archives_-_restoration1.jpg/465px-Albert_Einstein_with_engineers_and_scientists_-_RCA_radio_station_-_Hagley_Archives_-_restoration1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Albert_Einstein_with_engineers_and_scientists_-_RCA_radio_station_-_Hagley_Archives_-_restoration1.jpg/620px-Albert_Einstein_with_engineers_and_scientists_-_RCA_radio_station_-_Hagley_Archives_-_restoration1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5620" data-file-height="4035" /></a><figcaption>Early pioneers of radio science and technology in the United States including <a href="/wiki/Charles_Steinmetz" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Steinmetz">Charles Steinmetz</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Sarnoff" title="David Sarnoff">David Sarnoff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irving_Langmuir" title="Irving Langmuir">Irving Langmuir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Norton_Goldsmith" title="Alfred Norton Goldsmith">Alfred Goldsmith</a> in 1921, photographed next to the antenna feed wires of the <a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick_Marconi_Station" title="New Brunswick Marconi Station">New Brunswick Marconi Station</a>, one of the first transatlantic radio links. Photo includes <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> as a visiting guest.</figcaption></figure> <p>The early <b>history of radio</b> is the <a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">history of technology</a> that produces and uses <a href="/wiki/Radio_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio equipment">radio instruments</a> that use <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a>. Within the <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_radio" title="Timeline of radio">timeline of radio</a>, many people contributed theory and inventions in what became <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>. Radio development began as "<a href="/wiki/Wireless_telegraphy" title="Wireless telegraphy">wireless telegraphy</a>". Later radio history increasingly involves matters of <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcasting</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discovery">Discovery</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_radio" title="Invention of radio">Invention of radio</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz.jpg/220px-Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz.jpg/330px-Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz.jpg/440px-Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="558" data-file-height="646" /></a><figcaption>Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1856–1894) proved the existence of electromagnetic radiation.</figcaption></figure> <p>In an 1864 presentation, published in 1865, <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a> proposed theories of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a> and mathematical proofs demonstrating that light, radio and x-rays were all types of electromagnetic waves propagating through <a href="/wiki/Free_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Free space">free space</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sparkmuseum.com_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sparkmuseum.com-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-google.co.uk_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-google.co.uk-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1886 and 1888 <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Rudolf_Hertz" class="mw-redirect" title="Heinrich Rudolf Hertz">Heinrich Rudolf Hertz</a> published the results of experiments wherein he was able to transmit electromagnetic waves (radio waves) through the air, proving Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heinrich_1893_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heinrich_1893-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exploration_of_optical_qualities">Exploration of optical qualities</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Refraction_of_Hertzian_waves_by_a_paraffin_lens_1897.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Refraction_of_Hertzian_waves_by_a_paraffin_lens_1897.png/220px-Refraction_of_Hertzian_waves_by_a_paraffin_lens_1897.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Refraction_of_Hertzian_waves_by_a_paraffin_lens_1897.png/330px-Refraction_of_Hertzian_waves_by_a_paraffin_lens_1897.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Refraction_of_Hertzian_waves_by_a_paraffin_lens_1897.png/440px-Refraction_of_Hertzian_waves_by_a_paraffin_lens_1897.png 2x" data-file-width="593" data-file-height="275" /></a><figcaption> Early experiment demonstrating refraction of microwaves by a paraffin lens by <a href="/wiki/John_Ambrose_Fleming" title="John Ambrose Fleming">John Ambrose Fleming</a> in 1897</figcaption></figure> <p>After their discovery many scientists and inventors experimented with transmitting and detecting "Hertzian waves" (it would take almost 20 years for the term "radio" to be universally adopted for this type of electromagnetic radiation).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maxwell's theory showing that light and Hertzian electromagnetic waves were the same phenomenon at different wavelengths led "Maxwellian" scientists such as John Perry, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Thomas_Trouton" title="Frederick Thomas Trouton">Frederick Thomas Trouton</a> and Alexander Trotter to assume they would be analogous to optical light.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following Hertz' untimely death in 1894, British physicist and writer <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a> presented a widely covered lecture on Hertzian waves at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Institution" title="Royal Institution">Royal Institution</a> on June 1 of the same year.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lodge focused on the optical qualities of the waves and demonstrated how to transmit and detect them (using an improved variation of French physicist <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Branly" title="Édouard Branly">Édouard Branly</a>'s detector Lodge named the "<a href="/wiki/Coherer" title="Coherer">coherer</a>").<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lodge further expanded on Hertz' experiments showing how these new waves exhibited like light <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diffraction" title="Diffraction">diffraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polarization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interference_(wave_motion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interference (wave motion)">interference</a> and <a href="/wiki/Standing_wave" title="Standing wave">standing waves</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> confirming that Hertz' waves and light waves were both forms of Maxwell's <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic wave">electromagnetic waves</a>. During part of the demonstration the waves were sent from the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Laboratory" title="Clarendon Laboratory">Clarendon Laboratory</a> building, and received by apparatus in the lecture theater.<sup id="cite_ref-antiquewireless.org_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-antiquewireless.org-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PSM_V83_D416_Oliver_Joseph_Lodge.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/PSM_V83_D416_Oliver_Joseph_Lodge.png/220px-PSM_V83_D416_Oliver_Joseph_Lodge.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/PSM_V83_D416_Oliver_Joseph_Lodge.png/330px-PSM_V83_D416_Oliver_Joseph_Lodge.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/PSM_V83_D416_Oliver_Joseph_Lodge.png/440px-PSM_V83_D416_Oliver_Joseph_Lodge.png 2x" data-file-width="1657" data-file-height="2398" /></a><figcaption>Oliver Lodge's 1894 lectures on Hertz demonstrated how to transmit and detect radio waves.</figcaption></figure> <p>After Lodge's demonstrations researchers pushed their experiments further down the electromagnetic spectrum towards visible light to further explore the <a href="/wiki/Quasioptics" title="Quasioptics">quasioptical</a> nature at these wavelengths.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augusto_Righi" title="Augusto Righi">Augusto Righi</a> experimented with 1.5 and 12 GHz microwaves respectively, generated by small metal ball spark resonators.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russian physicist <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Lebedev" title="Pyotr Lebedev">Pyotr Lebedev</a> in 1895 conducted experiments in the 50 GHz (6 millimeter) range.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarkar1_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarkar1-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bengali Indian physicist <a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a> conducted experiments at wavelengths of 60 GHz (5 millimeter) and invented <a href="/wiki/Waveguide_(electromagnetism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Waveguide (electromagnetism)">waveguides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horn_antenna" title="Horn antenna">horn antennas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> <a href="/wiki/Crystal_detector" title="Crystal detector">crystal detectors</a> for use in his experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He would later write an essay, "Adrisya Alok" ("Invisible Light") on how in November 1895 he conducted a public demonstration at the Town Hall of <a href="/wiki/Kolkata" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> using millimeter-range-wavelength microwaves to trigger detectors that ignited gunpowder and rang a bell at a distance.<sup id="cite_ref-Mukherji,_Visvapriya_1994_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mukherji,_Visvapriya_1994-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proposed_applications">Proposed applications</h2></div> <p>Between 1890 and 1892 physicists such as John Perry, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Thomas_Trouton" title="Frederick Thomas Trouton">Frederick Thomas Trouton</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes">William Crookes</a> proposed electromagnetic or Hertzian waves as a navigation aid or means of communication, with Crookes writing on the possibilities of wireless <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraphy</a> based on Hertzian waves in 1892.<sup id="cite_ref-Sungookp1to5_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sungookp1to5-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among physicists, what were perceived as technical limitations to using these new waves, such as delicate equipment, the need for large amounts of power to transmit over limited ranges, and its similarity to already existent optical light transmitting devices, lead them to a belief that applications were very limited. The Serbian American engineer <a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a> considered Hertzian waves relatively useless for long range transmission since "light" could not transmit further than <a href="/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation" title="Line-of-sight propagation">line of sight</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was speculation that this fog and stormy weather penetrating "invisible light" could be used in maritime applications such as lighthouses.<sup id="cite_ref-Sungookp1to5_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sungookp1to5-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The London journal <i>The Electrician</i> (December 1895) commented on Bose's achievements, saying "we may in time see the whole system of coast lighting throughout the navigable world revolutionized by an Indian Bengali scientist working single handed[ly] in our Presidency College Laboratory."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1895, adapting the techniques presented in Lodge's published lectures, Russian physicist <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a> built a <a href="/wiki/Lightning_detector" title="Lightning detector">lightning detector</a> that used a coherer based radio receiver.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He presented it to the Russian Physical and Chemical Society on May 7, 1895. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marconi_and_radio_telegraphy">Marconi and radio telegraphy</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Post_Office_Engineers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Post_Office_Engineers.jpg/220px-Post_Office_Engineers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Post_Office_Engineers.jpg/330px-Post_Office_Engineers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Post_Office_Engineers.jpg/440px-Post_Office_Engineers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4440" data-file-height="3065" /></a><figcaption>British Post Office engineers inspect Guglielmo Marconi's wireless telegraphy (radio) equipment in 1897.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1894, the young Italian inventor <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> began working on the idea of building long-distance a wireless transmission systems based on the use of Hertzian waves (radio waves), a line of inquiry that he noted other inventors did not seem to be pursuing.<sup id="cite_ref-ABC-CLIO_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABC-CLIO-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marconi read through the literature and used the ideas of others who were experimenting with radio waves but did a great deal to develop devices such as portable transmitters and receiver systems that could work over long distances,<sup id="cite_ref-ABC-CLIO_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABC-CLIO-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> turning what was essentially a laboratory experiment into a useful communication system.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By August 1895, Marconi was field testing his system but even with improvements he was only able to transmit signals up to one-half mile, a distance Oliver Lodge had predicted in 1894 as the maximum transmission distance for radio waves. Marconi raised the height of his antenna and hit upon the idea of grounding his transmitter and receiver. With these improvements the system was capable of transmitting signals up to 2 miles (3.2 km) and over hills.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This apparatus proved to be the first engineering-complete, commercially successful <a href="/wiki/Radio_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio transmission">radio transmission</a> system<sup id="cite_ref-SaturdayThompson_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SaturdayThompson-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Marconi went on to file British patent GB189612039A, <i>Improvements in transmitting electrical impulses and signals and in apparatus there-for</i>, in 1896. This patent was granted in the UK on 2 July 1897.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nautical_and_transatlantic_transmissions">Nautical and transatlantic transmissions</h3></div> <p>In 1897, Marconi established a radio station on the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a>, England and opened his "wireless" factory in the former <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>-works at Hall Street, <a href="/wiki/Chelmsford" title="Chelmsford">Chelmsford</a>, England, in 1898, employing around 60 people. </p><p>On 12 December 1901, using a 500-foot (150 m) kite-supported antenna for reception—signals transmitted by the company's new high-power station at <a href="/wiki/Poldhu" title="Poldhu">Poldhu</a>, Cornwall, Marconi transmitted a message across the Atlantic Ocean to <a href="/wiki/Signal_Hill_(Newfoundland_and_Labrador)" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal Hill (Newfoundland and Labrador)">Signal Hill</a> in <a href="/wiki/St._John%27s,_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador">St. John's</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KIT_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KIT-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ieeexplore.ieee.org_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ieeexplore.ieee.org-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-1890s_–_1930s:_Radio_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1890s_–_1930s:_Radio-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IEEEatlantic_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEEEatlantic-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marconi began to build high-powered stations on both sides of the Atlantic to communicate with ships at sea. In 1904, he established a commercial service to transmit nightly news summaries to subscribing ships, which could incorporate them into their on-board newspapers. A regular transatlantic radio-telegraph service was finally begun on 17 October 1907<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> between <a href="/wiki/Clifden" title="Clifden">Clifden</a>, Ireland, and <a href="/wiki/Glace_Bay" title="Glace Bay">Glace Bay</a>, but even after this the company struggled for many years to provide reliable communication to others. </p><p>Marconi's apparatus is also credited with saving the 700 people who survived the tragic <i><a href="/wiki/Titanic" title="Titanic">Titanic</a></i> disaster.<sup id="cite_ref-A_Short_History_of_Radio_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A_Short_History_of_Radio-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Audio_transmission">Audio transmission</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reginald_Fessenden,_probably_1906.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Reginald_Fessenden%2C_probably_1906.jpg/220px-Reginald_Fessenden%2C_probably_1906.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Reginald_Fessenden%2C_probably_1906.jpg/330px-Reginald_Fessenden%2C_probably_1906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Reginald_Fessenden%2C_probably_1906.jpg/440px-Reginald_Fessenden%2C_probably_1906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="635" data-file-height="357" /></a><figcaption>Reginald Fessenden (around 1906)</figcaption></figure> <p>In the late 1890s, Canadian-American inventor <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a> came to the conclusion that he could develop a far more efficient system than the spark-gap transmitter and coherer receiver combination.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To this end he worked on developing a high-speed alternator (referred to as "an alternating-current dynamo") that generated "pure sine waves" and produced "a continuous train of radiant waves of substantially uniform strength", or, in modern terminology, a <a href="/wiki/Continuous_wave" title="Continuous wave">continuous-wave</a> (CW) transmitter.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While working for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Weather_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Weather Bureau">United States Weather Bureau</a> on <a href="/wiki/Cobb_Island_(Maryland)" title="Cobb Island (Maryland)">Cobb Island</a>, Maryland, Fessenden researched using this setup for audio transmissions via radio. By fall of 1900, he successfully transmitted speech over a distance of about 1.6 kilometers (one mile),<sup id="cite_ref-experiments_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-experiments-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which appears to have been the first successful audio transmission using radio signals.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although successful, the sound transmitted was far too distorted to be commercially practical.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to some sources, notably Fessenden's wife Helen's biography, on <a href="/wiki/Christmas_Eve" title="Christmas Eve">Christmas Eve</a> 1906, <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a> used an <a href="/wiki/Alexanderson_alternator" title="Alexanderson alternator">Alexanderson alternator</a> and rotary <a href="/wiki/Spark-gap_transmitter" title="Spark-gap transmitter">spark-gap transmitter</a> to make the first radio audio broadcast, from <a href="/wiki/Ocean_Bluff-Brant_Rock,_Massachusetts" title="Ocean Bluff-Brant Rock, Massachusetts">Brant Rock, Massachusetts</a>. Ships at sea heard a broadcast that included Fessenden playing <i><a href="/wiki/O_Holy_Night" title="O Holy Night">O Holy Night</a></i> on the <a href="/wiki/Violin" title="Violin">violin</a> and reading a passage from the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around the same time American inventor <a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a> experimented with an <a href="/wiki/Arc_converter" title="Arc converter">arc transmitter</a>, which unlike the discontinuous pulses produced by spark transmitters, created steady "continuous wave" signal that could be used for <a href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulated" class="mw-redirect" title="Amplitude modulated">amplitude modulated</a> (AM) audio transmissions. In February 1907 he transmitted electronic <a href="/wiki/Telharmonium" title="Telharmonium">telharmonium</a> music from his laboratory station in New York City.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was followed by tests that included, in the fall, <a href="/wiki/Eugenia_Farrar" title="Eugenia Farrar">Eugenia Farrar</a> singing "I Love You Truly".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 1907 he made ship-to-shore transmissions by radiotelephone—race reports for the Annual Inter-Lakes Yachting Association (I-LYA) Regatta held on <a href="/wiki/Lake_Erie" title="Lake Erie">Lake Erie</a>—which were sent from the steam yacht <i>Thelma</i> to his assistant, Frank E. Butler, located in the Fox's Dock Pavilion on <a href="/wiki/South_Bass_Island" title="South Bass Island">South Bass Island</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Broadcasting">Broadcasting</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Old-time_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="Old-time radio">Old-time radio</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">History of broadcasting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio_broadcasting#History" title="Radio broadcasting">Radio broadcasting § History</a>, <a href="/wiki/AM_broadcasting#History" title="AM broadcasting">AM broadcasting § History</a>, and <a href="/wiki/FM_broadcasting#History" title="FM broadcasting">FM broadcasting § History</a></div> <p>The Dutch company <i>Nederlandsche Radio-Industrie</i> and its owner-engineer, <a href="/wiki/Hanso_Idzerda" title="Hanso Idzerda">Hanso Idzerda</a>, made its first regular entertainment radio broadcast over station <a href="/wiki/PCGG" title="PCGG">PCGG</a> from its workshop in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a> on 6 November 1919. The company manufactured both transmitters and receivers. Its popular program was broadcast four nights per week using narrow-band FM transmissions on 670 metres (448 kHz),<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> until 1924 when the company ran into financial trouble. </p><p>Regular entertainment broadcasts began in <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Enrique_Tel%C3%A9maco_Susini" title="Enrique Telémaco Susini">Enrique Telémaco Susini</a> and his associates. At 9 pm on August 27, 1920, Sociedad Radio Argentina aired a live performance of Richard Wagner's opera <i>Parsifal</i> from the Coliseo Theater in downtown <a href="/wiki/Buenos_Aires" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>. Only about twenty homes in the city had receivers to tune in this program. </p><p>On 31 August 1920 the <i><a href="/wiki/Detroit_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Detroit News">Detroit News</a></i> began publicized daily news and entertainment "Detroit News Radiophone" broadcasts, originally as licensed amateur station 8MK, then later as WBL and <a href="/wiki/WWJ_(AM)" title="WWJ (AM)">WWJ</a> in <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit, Michigan</a>. </p><p>Union College in Schenectady, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> began broadcasting on October 14, 1920, over <a href="/wiki/WRUC" title="WRUC">2ADD</a>, an amateur station licensed to Wendell King, an <a href="/wiki/African-American" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American">African-American</a> student at the school.<sup id="cite_ref-Radio_Broadcasting_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radio_Broadcasting-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Broadcasts included a series of Thursday night concerts initially heard within a 100-mile (160 km) radius and later for a 1,000-mile (1,600 km) radius.<sup id="cite_ref-Radio_Broadcasting_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radio_Broadcasting-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1922 regular audio broadcasts for entertainment began in the UK from the <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Marconi</a> Research Centre <a href="/wiki/2MT" title="2MT">2MT</a> at <a href="/wiki/Writtle" title="Writtle">Writtle</a> near <a href="/wiki/Chelmsford,_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelmsford, England">Chelmsford, England</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wavelength_and_frequency">Wavelength and frequency</h4></div> <p>In early radio, and to a limited extent much later, the transmission signal of the radio station was specified in meters, referring to the <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a>, the length of the radio wave. This is the origin of the terms <a href="/wiki/Long_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Long wave">long wave</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">medium wave</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Short_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Short wave">short wave</a> radio.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Portions of the radio spectrum reserved for specific purposes were often referred to by wavelength: the <a href="/wiki/40-meter_band" title="40-meter band">40-meter band</a>, used for <a href="/wiki/History_of_amateur_radio" title="History of amateur radio">amateur radio</a>, for example. The relation between wavelength and frequency is reciprocal: the higher the frequency, the shorter the wave, and vice versa. </p><p>As equipment progressed, precise frequency control became possible; early stations often did not have a precise frequency, as it was affected by the temperature of the equipment, among other factors. Identifying a radio signal by its frequency rather than its length proved much more practical and useful, and starting in the 1920s this became the usual method of identifying a signal, especially in the United States. Frequencies specified in number of cycles per second (kilocycles, megacycles) were replaced by the more specific designation of <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">hertz</a> (cycles per second) about 1965. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radio_companies">Radio companies</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg/222px-Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg" decoding="async" width="222" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg/333px-Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg/444px-Donald_Manson_working_as_an_employee_of_the_Marconi_Company.jpg 2x" data-file-width="633" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Donald Manson working as an employee of the Marconi Company (England, 1906)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_Marconi">British Marconi</h3></div> <p>Using various <a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">patents</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Marconi_Company" title="Marconi Company">British Marconi</a> company was established in 1897 by Guglielmo Marconi and began communication between <a href="/wiki/Coast_radio_station" title="Coast radio station">coast radio stations</a> and ships at sea.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A year after, in 1898, they successfully introduced their first radio station in Chelmsford. This company, along with its subsidiaries <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Marconi_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Marconi Company">Canadian Marconi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marconi_Wireless_Telegraph_Company_of_America" title="Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of America">American Marconi</a>, had a stranglehold on ship-to-shore communication. It operated much the way <a href="/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation" title="AT&T Corporation">American Telephone and Telegraph</a> operated until 1983, owning all of its equipment and refusing to communicate with non-Marconi equipped ships. Many inventions improved the quality of radio, and amateurs experimented with uses of radio, thus planting the first seeds of broadcasting. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telefunken">Telefunken</h3></div> <p>The company <a href="/wiki/Telefunken" title="Telefunken">Telefunken</a> was founded on May 27, 1903, as "Telefunken society for wireless telefon" of <a href="/wiki/Siemens_%26_Halske" title="Siemens & Halske">Siemens & Halske</a> (S & H) and the <a href="/wiki/AEG_(German_company)" title="AEG (German company)">Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft (<i>General Electricity Company</i>)</a> as joint undertakings for radio engineering in Berlin.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It continued as a joint venture of <a href="/wiki/AEG_(German_company)" title="AEG (German company)">AEG</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siemens_AG" class="mw-redirect" title="Siemens AG">Siemens AG</a>, until Siemens left in 1941. In 1911, <a href="/wiki/Kaiser_Wilhelm_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaiser Wilhelm II">Kaiser Wilhelm II</a> sent Telefunken engineers to <a href="/wiki/West_Sayville,_New_York" title="West Sayville, New York">West Sayville</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> to erect three 600-foot (180-m) radio towers there. Nikola Tesla assisted in the construction. A similar station was erected in <a href="/wiki/Nauen" title="Nauen">Nauen</a>, creating the only wireless communication between North America and Europe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technological_development">Technological development</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amplitude-modulated_(AM)"><span id="Amplitude-modulated_.28AM.29"></span>Amplitude-modulated (AM)</h3></div> <p>The invention of amplitude-modulated (AM) radio, which allows more closely spaced stations to simultaneously send signals (as opposed to spark-gap radio, where each transmission occupies a wide bandwidth) is attributed to <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valdemar_Poulsen" title="Valdemar Poulsen">Valdemar Poulsen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crystal_set_receivers">Crystal set receivers</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NBS_120_Set.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/NBS_120_Set.jpg/220px-NBS_120_Set.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/NBS_120_Set.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="274" data-file-height="222" /></a><figcaption>In the 1920s, the <a href="/wiki/Copyright_status_of_works_by_the_federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States">United States government publication</a>, "<i>Construction and Operation of a Simple Homemade Radio Receiving Outfit</i>", showed how almost any person handy with simple tools could a build an effective <a href="/wiki/Crystal_radio" title="Crystal radio">crystal radio</a> receiver.</figcaption></figure> <p>The most common type of receiver before vacuum tubes was the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_radio" title="Crystal radio">crystal set</a>, although some early radios used some type of amplification through electric current or battery. Inventions of the <a href="/wiki/Triode_amplifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Triode amplifier">triode amplifier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motor-generator" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor-generator">motor-generator</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Detector_(radio)" title="Detector (radio)">detector</a> enabled audio radio. The use of <a href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">amplitude modulation</a> (<a href="/wiki/AM_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="AM radio">AM</a>), by which soundwaves can be transmitted over a continuous-wave radio signal of narrow bandwidth (as opposed to spark-gap radio, which sent rapid strings of damped-wave pulses that consumed much bandwidth and were only suitable for Morse-code telegraphy) was pioneered by Fessenden, Poulsen and Lee de Forest.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The art and science of crystal sets is still pursued as a hobby in the form of simple un-amplified radios that 'runs on nothing, forever'. They are used as a teaching tool by groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Boy_Scouts_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Boy Scouts of America">Boy Scouts of America</a> to introduce youngsters to electronics and radio. As the only energy available is that gathered by the antenna system, loudness is necessarily limited. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vacuum_tubes">Vacuum tubes</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_vacuum_tube_AM_radio_transmitter.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/First_vacuum_tube_AM_radio_transmitter.jpg/220px-First_vacuum_tube_AM_radio_transmitter.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/First_vacuum_tube_AM_radio_transmitter.jpg/330px-First_vacuum_tube_AM_radio_transmitter.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/First_vacuum_tube_AM_radio_transmitter.jpg/440px-First_vacuum_tube_AM_radio_transmitter.jpg 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>The first commercial AM <a href="/wiki/Audion" title="Audion">Audion</a> <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a> <a href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">radio transmitter</a>, built in 1914 by <a href="/wiki/Lee_De_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee De Forest">Lee De Forest</a> who invented the Audion (<a href="/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">triode</a>) in 1906</figcaption></figure> <p>During the mid-1920s, amplifying <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> revolutionized <a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">radio receivers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitters</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Ambrose_Fleming" title="John Ambrose Fleming">John Ambrose Fleming</a> developed a vacuum tube <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diode</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a> placed a screen, added a <a href="/wiki/Control_grid" title="Control grid">"grid" electrode</a>, creating the <a href="/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">triode</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early radios ran the entire power of the transmitter through a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_microphone" title="Carbon microphone">carbon microphone</a>. In the 1920s, the <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_(1886)" class="mw-redirect" title="Westinghouse Electric (1886)">Westinghouse company</a> bought Lee de Forest's and <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Armstrong" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Armstrong">Edwin Armstrong</a>'s patent. During the mid-1920s, Amplifying <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> revolutionized <a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">radio receivers</a> and transmitters. Westinghouse engineers developed a more modern vacuum tube. </p><p>The first radios still required batteries, but in 1926 the "<a href="/wiki/Battery_eliminator" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery eliminator">battery eliminator</a>" was introduced to the market. This tube technology allowed radios to be powered through the grid instead. They still required batteries to heat up the vacuum-tube filaments, but after the invention of <a href="/wiki/Hot_cathode" title="Hot cathode">indirectly heated vacuum tubes</a>, the first completely battery free radios became available in 1927.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1929 a new screen grid tube called UY-224 was introduced, an amplifier designed to operate directly on alternating current.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A problem with the early radios was fading stations and fluctuating volume. The invention of the <a href="/wiki/Superheterodyne_receiver" title="Superheterodyne receiver">superheterodyne receiver</a> solved this problem, and the first radios with a heterodyne radio receiver went for sale in 1924. But it was costly, and the technology was shelved while waiting for the technology to mature, and in 1929 the Radiola 66 and Radiola 67 went for sale.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loudspeakers">Loudspeakers</h3></div> <p>In the early days one had to use headphones to listen to radio. Later loudspeakers in the form of a horn of the type used by phonographs, equipped with a telephone receiver, became available. But the sound quality was poor. In 1926 the first radios with electrodynamic loudspeakers went for sale, which improved the quality significantly. At first the loudspeakers were separated from the radio, but soon radios would come with a built-in loudspeaker.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other inventions related to sound included the automatic volume control (AVC), first commercially available in 1928.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1930 a tone control knob was added to the radios. This allowed listeners to improve imperfect broadcasting.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_cartridge" title="Magnetic cartridge">magnetic cartridge</a>, which was introduced in the mid 20's, greatly improved the broadcasting of music. When playing music from a phonograph before the magnetic cartridge, a microphone had to be placed close to a horn loudspeaker. The invention allowed the electric signals to be amplified and then fed directly to the <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_transmitter" title="Broadcast transmitter">broadcast transmitter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transistor_technology">Transistor technology</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vintage_Regency_TR-1_4-Transistor_Radio,_Mandarin_Red,_Made_in_USA,_Introduced_In_1954_(8622359295).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Vintage_Regency_TR-1_4-Transistor_Radio%2C_Mandarin_Red%2C_Made_in_USA%2C_Introduced_In_1954_%288622359295%29.jpg/170px-Vintage_Regency_TR-1_4-Transistor_Radio%2C_Mandarin_Red%2C_Made_in_USA%2C_Introduced_In_1954_%288622359295%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Vintage_Regency_TR-1_4-Transistor_Radio%2C_Mandarin_Red%2C_Made_in_USA%2C_Introduced_In_1954_%288622359295%29.jpg/255px-Vintage_Regency_TR-1_4-Transistor_Radio%2C_Mandarin_Red%2C_Made_in_USA%2C_Introduced_In_1954_%288622359295%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Vintage_Regency_TR-1_4-Transistor_Radio%2C_Mandarin_Red%2C_Made_in_USA%2C_Introduced_In_1954_%288622359295%29.jpg/340px-Vintage_Regency_TR-1_4-Transistor_Radio%2C_Mandarin_Red%2C_Made_in_USA%2C_Introduced_In_1954_%288622359295%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1781" data-file-height="2424" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Regency_TR-1" title="Regency TR-1">Regency TR-1</a>, which used <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a>' <a href="/wiki/NPN_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="NPN transistor">NPN transistors</a>, was the world's first commercially produced <a href="/wiki/Transistor_radio" title="Transistor radio">transistor radio</a> in 1954. Size: 3×5×1.25 inch (7.6×12.7×3.2 cm)</figcaption></figure> <p>Following development of <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> technology, <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">bipolar junction transistors</a> led to the development of the <a href="/wiki/Transistor_radio" title="Transistor radio">transistor radio</a>. In 1954, the Regency company introduced a pocket transistor radio, the <a href="/wiki/Regency_TR-1" title="Regency TR-1">TR-1</a>, powered by a "standard 22.5 V Battery." In 1955, the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a> company introduced its first transistorized radio, the <a href="/wiki/TR-55" title="TR-55">TR-55</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pbs_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pbs-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was small enough to fit in a <a href="/wiki/Waistcoat" title="Waistcoat">vest</a> pocket, powered by a small battery. It was durable, because it had no vacuum tubes to burn out. In 1957, Sony introduced the TR-63, the first mass-produced transistor radio, leading to the mass-market penetration of transistor radios.<sup id="cite_ref-Skrabec_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skrabec-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the next 20 years, transistors replaced tubes almost completely except for high-power <a href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitters</a>. </p><p>By the mid-1960s, the <a href="/wiki/Radio_Corporation_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio Corporation of America">Radio Corporation of America</a> (RCA) were using <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor_field-effect_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor">metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors</a> (MOSFETs) in their consumer products, including <a href="/wiki/FM_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="FM radio">FM radio</a>, television and <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplifiers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrison_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor">Metal–oxide–semiconductor</a> (MOS) <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale integration">large-scale integration</a> (LSI) provided a practical and economic solution for radio technology, and was used in <a href="/wiki/Mobile_radio" title="Mobile radio">mobile radio</a> systems by the early 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Zeidler_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeidler-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Integrated_circuit">Integrated circuit</h3></div> <p>The first integrated circuit (IC) radio, P1740 by <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>, became available in 1966.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Car_radio">Car radio</h3></div> <p>The first car radio was introduced in 1922, but it was so large that it took up too much space in the car.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first commercial car radio that could easily be installed in most cars went for sale in 1930.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radio_telex">Radio telex</h2></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a> did not go away on radio. Instead, the degree of automation increased. On land-lines in the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Teletypewriter" class="mw-redirect" title="Teletypewriter">teletypewriters</a> automated encoding, and were adapted to pulse-code dialing to automate routing, a service called <a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">telex</a>. For thirty years, telex was the cheapest form of long-distance communication, because up to 25 telex channels could occupy the same bandwidth as one voice channel. For business and government, it was an advantage that telex directly produced written documents. </p><p>Telex systems were adapted to short-wave radio by sending tones over <a href="/wiki/Single_sideband" class="mw-redirect" title="Single sideband">single sideband</a>. <a href="/wiki/ITU-T" title="ITU-T">CCITT</a> R.44 (the most advanced pure-telex standard) incorporated character-level error detection and retransmission as well as automated encoding and routing. For many years, telex-on-radio (TOR) was the only reliable way to reach some third-world countries. TOR remains reliable, though less-expensive forms of e-mail are displacing it. Many national telecom companies historically ran nearly pure telex networks for their governments, and they ran many of these links over short wave radio. </p><p>Documents including maps and photographs went by <a href="/wiki/Radiofax" title="Radiofax">radiofax</a>, or wireless photoradiogram, invented in 1924 by <a href="/wiki/Richard_H._Ranger" title="Richard H. Ranger">Richard H. Ranger</a> of <a href="/wiki/Radio_Corporation_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio Corporation of America">Radio Corporation of America</a> (RCA). This method prospered in the mid-20th century and faded late in the century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Radio_navigation">Radio navigation</h2></div> <p>One of the first developments in the early 20th century was that aircraft used commercial AM radio stations for navigation, AM stations are still marked on U.S. aviation charts. <a href="/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation">Radio navigation</a> played an important role during war time, especially in World War II. Before the discovery of the crystal oscillator, radio navigation had many limits.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as radio technology expanding, navigation is easier to use, and it provides a better position. Although there are many advantages, the radio navigation systems often comes with complex equipment such as the radio compass receiver, compass indicator, or the radar plan position indicator. All of these require users to obtain certain knowledge. </p><p>In the 1960s <a href="/wiki/VHF_omnidirectional_range" title="VHF omnidirectional range">VOR</a> systems became widespread. In the 1970s, <a href="/wiki/LORAN" title="LORAN">LORAN</a> became the premier radio navigation system. Soon, the US Navy experimented with <a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">satellite navigation</a>. In 1987, the <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a> (GPS) constellation of <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a> was launched; it was followed by other <a href="/wiki/GNSS" class="mw-redirect" title="GNSS">GNSS</a> systems like <a href="/wiki/Glonass" class="mw-redirect" title="Glonass">Glonass</a>, <a href="/wiki/BeiDou" title="BeiDou">BeiDou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galileo_(satellite_navigation)" title="Galileo (satellite navigation)">Galileo</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="FM">FM</h2></div> <p>In 1933, <a href="/wiki/FM_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="FM radio">FM radio</a> was patented by inventor <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Armstrong" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Armstrong">Edwin H. Armstrong</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> FM uses <a href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">frequency modulation</a> of the radio wave to reduce <a href="/wiki/White_noise" title="White noise">static</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency_interference" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio frequency interference">interference</a> from electrical equipment and the atmosphere. In 1937, <a href="/wiki/WGTR_(Massachusetts)" title="WGTR (Massachusetts)">W1XOJ</a>, the first experimental FM radio station after Armstrong's <a href="/wiki/W2XMN" title="W2XMN">W2XMN</a> in Alpine, New Jersey, was granted a construction permit by the US <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="FM_in_Europe">FM in Europe</h3></div> <p>After World War II, <a href="/wiki/FM_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="FM radio">FM radio</a> broadcasting was introduced in Germany. At a meeting in <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> in 1948, a new <a href="/wiki/Wavelength_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Wavelength plan">wavelength plan</a> was set up for Europe. Because of the recent war, Germany (which did not exist as a state and so was not invited) was only given a small number of <a href="/wiki/Mediumwave" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediumwave">medium-wave</a> frequencies, which were not very good for broadcasting. For this reason Germany began broadcasting on UKW ("Ultrakurzwelle", i.e. ultra short wave, nowadays called <a href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">VHF</a>) which was not covered by the Copenhagen plan. After some <a href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">amplitude modulation</a> experience with VHF, it was realized that FM radio was a much better alternative for VHF radio than AM. Because of this history, FM radio is still referred to as "UKW Radio" in Germany. Other European nations followed a bit later, when the superior sound quality of FM and the ability to run many more local stations because of the more limited range of VHF broadcasts were realized. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Television">Television</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">History of television</a></div> <p>In the 1930s, regular <a href="/wiki/Analog_television" title="Analog television">analog television</a> broadcasting began in some parts of Europe and North America. By the end of the decade there were roughly 25,000 all-electronic television receivers in existence worldwide, the majority of them in the UK. In the US, Armstrong's FM system was designated by the FCC to transmit and receive television sound. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Color_television">Color television</h3></div> <ul><li>1953: <a href="/wiki/NTSC" title="NTSC">NTSC</a> compatible <a href="/wiki/Color_television" title="Color television">color television</a> introduced in the US.</li> <li>1962: <a href="/wiki/Telstar" title="Telstar">Telstar 1</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">communications satellite</a>, relayed the first publicly available live transatlantic <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> signal.</li> <li>Mid-1960s: <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor_field-effect_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor">Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor</a> (MOSFET) first used for television, by the <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">Radio Corporation of America</a> (RCA).<sup id="cite_ref-Harrison_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">power MOSFET</a> was later widely adopted for <a href="/wiki/Television_receiver" class="mw-redirect" title="Television receiver">television receiver</a> circuits.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>By 1963, <a href="/wiki/Color_television" title="Color television">color television</a> was being broadcast commercially (though not all broadcasts or programs were in color), and the first (radio) <a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">communication satellite</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Telstar" title="Telstar">Telstar</a></i>, was launched. In the 1970s, </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mobile_phones">Mobile phones</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">History of mobile phones</a></div> <p>In 1947 AT&T commercialized the <a href="/wiki/Mobile_Telephone_Service" title="Mobile Telephone Service">Mobile Telephone Service</a>. From its start in St. Louis in 1946, AT&T then introduced Mobile Telephone Service to one hundred towns and highway corridors by 1948. Mobile Telephone Service was a rarity with only 5,000 customers placing about 30,000 calls each week. Because only three radio channels were available, only three customers in any given city could make mobile telephone calls at one time.<sup id="cite_ref-GS2006_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GS2006-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mobile Telephone Service was expensive, costing US$15 per month, plus $0.30–0.40 per local call, equivalent to (in 2012 US dollars) about $176 per month and $3.50–4.75 per call.<sup id="cite_ref-att1946_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-att1946-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Mobile_Phone_System" title="Advanced Mobile Phone System">Advanced Mobile Phone System</a> analog mobile phone system, developed by <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a>, was introduced in the Americas in 1978,<sup id="cite_ref-Testing_the_First_Cell_Phone_Network_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Testing_the_First_Cell_Phone_Network-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PrivateLine_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PrivateLine-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MilestonesPast_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MilestonesPast-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> gave much more capacity. It was the primary analog mobile phone system in North America (and other locales) through the 1980s and into the 2000s. </p><p>The development of <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor">metal–oxide–semiconductor</a> (MOS) <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale integration">large-scale integration</a> (LSI) technology, <a href="/wiki/Information_theory" title="Information theory">information theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">cellular networking</a> led to the development of affordable <a href="/wiki/Mobile_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile communications">mobile communications</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Srivastava_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Srivastava-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Mobile_Phone_System" title="Advanced Mobile Phone System">Advanced Mobile Phone System</a> analog mobile phone system, developed by <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> and introduced in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> in 1978,<sup id="cite_ref-Testing_the_First_Cell_Phone_Network_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Testing_the_First_Cell_Phone_Network-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PrivateLine_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PrivateLine-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MilestonesPast_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MilestonesPast-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> gave much more capacity. It was the primary analog mobile phone system in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> (and other locales) through the 1980s and into the 2000s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Broadcast_and_copyright">Broadcast and copyright</h2></div> <p>The British government and the state-owned postal services found themselves under massive pressure from the wireless industry (including telegraphy) and early radio adopters to open up to the new medium. In an internal confidential report from February 25, 1924, the <i>Imperial Wireless Telegraphy Committee</i> stated: </p> <dl><dd>"We have been asked 'to consider and advise on the policy to be adopted as regards the Imperial Wireless Services so as to protect and facilitate public interest.' It was impressed upon us that the question was urgent. We did not feel called upon to explore the past or to comment on the delays which have occurred in the building of the Empire Wireless Chain. We concentrated our attention on essential matters, examining and considering the facts and circumstances which have a direct bearing on policy and the condition which safeguard public interests."<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>When radio was introduced in the early 1920s, many predicted it would kill the <a href="/wiki/Phonograph_record" title="Phonograph record">phonograph record</a> industry. Radio was a free medium for the public to hear music for which they would normally pay. While some companies saw radio as a new avenue for promotion, others feared it would cut into profits from record sales and live performances. Many record companies would not license their records to be played over the radio, and had their major stars sign agreements that they would not perform on radio broadcasts.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indeed, the music recording industry had a severe drop in profits after the introduction of the radio. For a while, it appeared as though radio was a definite threat to the record industry. Radio ownership grew from two out of five homes in 1931 to four out of five homes in 1938. Meanwhile, record sales fell from $75 million in 1929 to $26 million in 1938 (with a low point of $5 million in 1933), though the economics of the situation were also affected by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The copyright owners were concerned that they would see no gain from the popularity of radio and the 'free' music it provided. What they needed to make this new medium work for them already existed in previous copyright law. The copyright holder for a song had control over all public performances 'for profit.' The problem now was proving that the radio industry, which was just figuring out for itself how to make money from advertising and currently offered free music to anyone with a receiver, was making a profit from the songs. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Test_case_(law)" title="Test case (law)">test case</a> was against <a href="/wiki/Bamberger%27s" title="Bamberger's">Bamberger's</a> Department Store in <a href="/wiki/Newark,_New_Jersey" title="Newark, New Jersey">Newark, New Jersey</a> in 1922. The store was broadcasting music from its store on the radio station WOR. No advertisements were heard, except at the beginning of the broadcast which announced "L. Bamberger and Co., One of America's Great Stores, Newark, New Jersey." It was determined through this and previous cases (such as the lawsuit against Shanley's Restaurant) that Bamberger was using the songs for commercial gain, thus making it a public performance for profit, which meant the copyright owners were due payment. </p><p>With this ruling the <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Composers,_Authors_and_Publishers" title="American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers">American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers</a> (ASCAP) began collecting licensing fees from radio stations in 1923. The beginning sum was $250 for all music protected under ASCAP, but for larger stations the price soon ballooned to $5,000. Edward Samuels reports in his book <i>The Illustrated Story of Copyright</i> that "radio and TV licensing represents the single greatest source of revenue for ASCAP and its composers […] and [a]n average member of ASCAP gets about $150–$200 per work per year, or about $5,000-$6,000 for all of a member's compositions." Not long after the Bamberger ruling, ASCAP had to once again defend their right to charge fees, in 1924. The Dill Radio Bill would have allowed radio stations to play music without paying and licensing fees to ASCAP or any other music-licensing corporations. The bill did not pass.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regulations_of_radio_stations_in_the_U.S">Regulations of radio stations in the U.S</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wireless_Ship_Act_of_1910">Wireless Ship Act of 1910</h3></div> <p>Radio technology was first used for ships to communicate at sea. To ensure safety, the <a href="/wiki/Wireless_Ship_Act_of_1910" title="Wireless Ship Act of 1910">Wireless Ship Act of 1910</a> marks the first time the U.S. government implies regulations on radio systems on ships.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This act requires ships to have a radio system with a professional operator if they want to travel more than 200 miles offshore or have more than 50 people on board. However, this act had many flaws including the competition of <a href="/wiki/Radio_operator" title="Radio operator">radio operators</a> including the two majors company (British and American Marconi). They tended to delay communication for ships that used their competitor's system. This contributed to the tragic incident of the sinking of the <a href="/wiki/Titanic" title="Titanic">Titanic</a> in 1912. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radio_Act_of_1912">Radio Act of 1912</h3></div> <p>In 1912, distress calls to aid the sinking <i>Titanic</i> were met with a large amount of interfering radio traffic, severely hampering the rescue effort. Subsequently, the US government passed the <a href="/wiki/Radio_Act_of_1912" title="Radio Act of 1912">Radio Act of 1912</a> to help mitigate the repeat of such a tragedy. The act helps distinguish between normal radio traffic and (primarily maritime) emergency communication, and specifies the role of government during such an emergency.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Radio_Act_of_1927">The Radio Act of 1927</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Radio_Act_of_1927" title="Radio Act of 1927">Radio Act of 1927</a> gave the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Radio_Commission" title="Federal Radio Commission">Federal Radio Commission</a> the power to grant and deny licenses, and to assign frequencies and power levels for each licensee. In 1928 it began requiring licenses of existing stations and setting controls on who could broadcast from where on what frequency and at what power. Some stations could not obtain a license and ceased operations. In section 29, the Radio Act of 1927 mentioned that the content of the broadcast should be freely present, and the government cannot interfere with this.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Communications_Act_of_1934">The Communications Act of 1934</h3></div> <p>The introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Communications_Act_of_1934" title="Communications Act of 1934">Communications Act of 1934</a> led to the establishment of the Federal Communications Commissions (FCC). The FCC's responsibility is to control the industry including "telephone, telegraph, and radio communications."<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under this Act, all carriers have to keep records of authorized interference and unauthorized interference. This Act also supports the President in time of war. If the government needs to use the communication facilities in time of war, they are allowed to. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Telecommunications_Act_of_1996">The Telecommunications Act of 1996</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_Act_of_1996" title="Telecommunications Act of 1996">Telecommunications Act of 1996</a> was the first significant overhaul in over 60 years amending the work of the Communications Act of 1934. Coming only two dozen years after the breakup of AT&T, the act sets out to move telecommunications into a state of competition with their markets and the networks they are a part of.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Up to this point the effects of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 have been seen, but some of the changes the Act set out to fix are still ongoing problems, such as being unable to create an open competitive market. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Licensed_commercial_public_radio_stations">Licensed commercial public radio stations</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brox_(Sisters)_LCCN2014717186.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Brox_%28Sisters%29_LCCN2014717186.jpg/220px-Brox_%28Sisters%29_LCCN2014717186.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Brox_%28Sisters%29_LCCN2014717186.jpg/330px-Brox_%28Sisters%29_LCCN2014717186.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Brox_%28Sisters%29_LCCN2014717186.jpg/440px-Brox_%28Sisters%29_LCCN2014717186.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4528" data-file-height="3336" /></a><figcaption>Around 1920, radio broadcasting started to get popular. The <a href="/wiki/Brox_Sisters" title="Brox Sisters">Brox Sisters</a>, a popular singing group, gathered around the radio at the time.</figcaption></figure> <p>The question of the 'first' publicly targeted licensed radio station in the U.S. has more than one answer and depends on semantics. Settlement of this 'first' question may hang largely upon what constitutes 'regular' programming </p> <ul><li>It is commonly attributed to <a href="/wiki/KDKA_(AM)" title="KDKA (AM)">KDKA</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, which in October 1920 received its license and went on the air as the first US licensed commercial broadcasting station on November 2, 1920, with the presidential election results as its inaugural show, but was not broadcasting daily until 1921. (Their engineer <a href="/wiki/Frank_Conrad" title="Frank Conrad">Frank Conrad</a> had been broadcasting from on the two call sign signals of 8XK and 8YK since 1916.) Technically, KDKA was the first of several already-extant stations to receive a 'limited commercial' license.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>On February 17, 1919, station 9XM at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Madison" title="University of Wisconsin–Madison">University of Wisconsin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Madison,_Wisconsin" title="Madison, Wisconsin">Madison</a> broadcast human speech to the public at large. 9XM was first experimentally licensed in 1914, began regular <a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">Morse code</a> transmissions in 1916, and its first music broadcast in 1917. Regularly scheduled broadcasts of voice and music began in January 1921. That station is still on the air today as <a href="/wiki/WHA_(AM)" title="WHA (AM)">WHA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>On August 20, 1920, 8MK, began broadcasting daily and was later claimed by famed inventor <a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a> as the first commercial station. 8MK was licensed to a teenager, Michael DeLisle Lyons, and financed by <a href="/wiki/E._W._Scripps" title="E. W. Scripps">E. W. Scripps</a>. In 1921 8MK changed to WBL and then to <a href="/wiki/WWJ_(AM)" title="WWJ (AM)">WWJ</a> in 1922, in <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>. It has carried a regular schedule of programming to the present and also broadcast the 1920 presidential election returns just as KDKA did.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inventor Lee de Forest claims to have been present during 8MK's earliest broadcasts, since the station was using a transmitter sold by his company.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The first station to receive a commercial license was <a href="/wiki/WBZ_(AM)" title="WBZ (AM)">WBZ</a>, then in <a href="/wiki/Springfield,_Massachusetts" title="Springfield, Massachusetts">Springfield, Massachusetts</a>. Lists provided to the <i><a href="/wiki/Boston_Globe" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston Globe">Boston Globe</a></i> by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Commerce" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Commerce">U.S. Department of Commerce</a> showed that WBZ received its commercial license on 15 September 1921; another Westinghouse station, <a href="/wiki/WABC_(AM)" title="WABC (AM)">WJZ</a>, then in <a href="/wiki/Newark,_New_Jersey" title="Newark, New Jersey">Newark, New Jersey</a>, received its commercial license on November 7, the same day as KDKA did.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What separates WJZ and WBZ from KDKA is the fact that neither of the former stations remain in their original city of license, whereas KDKA has remained in Pittsburgh for its entire existence.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2XG" class="mw-redirect" title="2XG">2XG</a>: Launched by Lee de Forest in the <a href="/wiki/High_Bridge_(New_York_City)" title="High Bridge (New York City)">Highbridge</a> section of New York City, that station began daily broadcasts in 1916.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like most experimental radio stations, however, it had to go off the air when the U.S. entered World War I in 1917, and did not return to the air.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/WGI_(radio_station)" title="WGI (radio station)">1XE</a>: Launched by Harold J. Power in <a href="/wiki/Medford,_Massachusetts" title="Medford, Massachusetts">Medford, Massachusetts</a>, 1XE was an experimental station that started broadcasting in 1917. It had to go off the air during World War I, but started up again after the war, and began regular voice and music broadcasts in 1919. However, the station did not receive its commercial license, becoming <a href="/wiki/WGI_(radio_station)" title="WGI (radio station)">WGI</a>, until 1922.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WWV_(radio_station)" title="WWV (radio station)">WWV</a>, the U.S. Government time service, which was believed to have started 6 months before KDKA in Washington, D.C. but in 1966 was transferred to Ft. Collins, Colorado.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WRUC" title="WRUC">WRUC</a>, the Wireless Radio Union College, located on <a href="/wiki/Union_College" title="Union College">Union College</a> in <a href="/wiki/Schenectady,_New_York" title="Schenectady, New York">Schenectady, New York</a>; was launched as W2XQ <sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KQV" title="KQV">KQV</a>, one of Pittsburgh's five original AM stations, signed on as amateur station "8ZAE" on November 19, 1919, but did not receive a commercial license until January 9, 1922.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electrical_engineering" title="History of electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetic_theory" title="History of electromagnetic theory">History of electromagnetic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_amateur_radio" title="History of amateur radio">History of amateur radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">History of broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_podcasting" title="History of podcasting">History of podcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radar" title="History of radar">History of radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio_receivers" title="History of radio receivers">History of radio receivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History of telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">History of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A.S._Popov_Central_Museum_of_Communications" title="A.S. Popov Central Museum of Communications">A.S. Popov Central Museum of Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_audio_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital audio broadcasting">Digital audio broadcasting</a> (DAB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_radio" title="Internet radio">Internet radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spark-gap_transmitter" title="Spark-gap transmitter">Spark-gap transmitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_introduction_of_radio_in_countries" title="Timeline of the introduction of radio in countries">Timeline of the introduction of radio in countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">Wireless</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_LAN" title="Wireless LAN">Wireless LANs</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-sparkmuseum.com-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sparkmuseum.com_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_MAXWELL.HTM">"James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)"</a>. <i>(sparkmuseum.com)</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%28sparkmuseum.com%29&rft.atitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell+%281831%E2%80%931879%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sparkmuseum.com%2FBOOK_MAXWELL.HTM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-google.co.uk-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-google.co.uk_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRalph_Baierlein1992" class="citation book cs1">Ralph Baierlein (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5HVlBG_8nWIC&q=Maxwell+Predicts+Waves&pg=PA122"><i>Newton to Einstein: The Trail of Light</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521423236" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521423236"><bdi>978-0521423236</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Newton+to+Einstein%3A+The+Trail+of+Light&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0521423236&rft.au=Ralph+Baierlein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5HVlBG_8nWIC%26q%3DMaxwell%2BPredicts%2BWaves%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. R. M. Garratt, <i>The Early History of Radio: From Faraday to Marconi</i>, IET – 1994, p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-physics/chapter/magnetic-fields-and-maxwell-revisited/">"Magnetic Fields and Maxwell Revisited"</a>. <i>lumenlearning.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=lumenlearning.com&rft.atitle=Magnetic+Fields+and+Maxwell+Revisited&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcourses.lumenlearning.com%2Fboundless-physics%2Fchapter%2Fmagnetic-fields-and-maxwell-revisited%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/electromagnetism.html">"Electromagnetism (glossary)"</a>. <i>uoregon.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=uoregon.edu&rft.atitle=Electromagnetism+%28glossary%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fabyss.uoregon.edu%2F~js%2Fglossary%2Felectromagnetism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Rowlands, <i>Oliver Lodge and the Liverpool Physical Society</i>, Liverpool University Press, 1990, p. 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heinrich_1893-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heinrich_1893_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electricwavesbe00jonegoog/page/n35"><i>Electric waves; being research on the propagation of electric action with finite velocity through space</i></a> by Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (English translation by Daniel Evan Jones), Macmillan and Co., 1893, pp. 1–5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earlyradiohistory.us/sec022.htm">"Section 22: Word Origins"</a>. <i>earlyradiohistory.us</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=earlyradiohistory.us&rft.atitle=Section+22%3A+Word+Origins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearlyradiohistory.us%2Fsec022.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. Bernard Carlson, <i>Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical Age</i>, 2013, pp. 125–126</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sungook Hong, <i>Wireless: From Marconi's Black-box to the Audion</i>, MIT Press, 2001, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221213124752/https://ethw.org/Thread:Milestone-Proposal_talk:First_generation_and_experimental_proof_of_electromagnetic_waves_1886-1888./Hertz_milestone_proposal/reply_(6)">"Thread:Milestone-Proposal talk:First generation and experimental proof of electromagnetic waves 1886–1888./Hertz milestone proposal/reply (6)"</a>. <i>ETHW</i>. December 11, 2018. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ethw.org/Thread:Milestone-Proposal_talk:First_generation_and_experimental_proof_of_electromagnetic_waves_1886-1888./Hertz_milestone_proposal/reply_(6)">the original</a> on December 13, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 15,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ETHW&rft.atitle=Thread%3AMilestone-Proposal+talk%3AFirst+generation+and+experimental+proof+of+electromagnetic+waves+1886%E2%80%931888.%2FHertz+milestone+proposal%2Freply+%286%29&rft.date=2018-12-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fethw.org%2FThread%3AMilestone-Proposal_talk%3AFirst_generation_and_experimental_proof_of_electromagnetic_waves_1886-1888.%2FHertz_milestone_proposal%2Freply_%286%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hugh G.J. Aitken, <i>Syntony and Spark – The Origins of Radio</i>, Princeton University Press – 2014, p. 103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sarkar1-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkar1_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkar1_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarkar1_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSarkarMaillouxOliner2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tapan_Sarkar" title="Tapan Sarkar">Sarkar, T. K.</a>; Mailloux, Robert; <a href="/wiki/Arthur_A._Oliner" title="Arthur A. Oliner">Oliner, Arthur A.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/HistoryOfWireless#page/n496/mode/2up"><i>History of Wireless</i></a>. John Wiley and Sons. pp. <span class="nowrap">474–</span>86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471783015" title="Special:BookSources/978-0471783015"><bdi>978-0471783015</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Wireless&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E474-%3C%2Fspan%3E86&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0471783015&rft.aulast=Sarkar&rft.aufirst=T.+K.&rft.au=Mailloux%2C+Robert&rft.au=Oliner%2C+Arthur+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2FHistoryOfWireless%23page%2Fn496%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-antiquewireless.org-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-antiquewireless.org_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James P. Rybak, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antiquewireless.org/uploads/1/6/1/2/16129770/48-oliver_lodge.pdf">Oliver Lodge: Almost the Father of Radio</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181003074015/http://www.antiquewireless.org/uploads/1/6/1/2/16129770/48-oliver_lodge.pdf">Archived</a> 2018-10-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, pp. 5–6, from Antique Wireless</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jagadis Chandra Bose, Prantosh Bhattacharyya, Meher H., J.C. <i>Bose and Microwaves: A Collection</i>, Bose Institute – 1995, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Visvapriya Mukherji, Jagadis Chandra Bose, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India · 1983, chapter 5 – Researches into Hertzian Waves</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mukherji,_Visvapriya_1994-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mukherji,_Visvapriya_1994_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mukherji, Visvapriya, <i>Jagadish Chandra Bose, 2nd ed.</i> 1994. Builders of Modern India series, Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8123000472" title="Special:BookSources/8123000472">8123000472</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sungookp1to5-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sungookp1to5_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sungookp1to5_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hong (2001) pp. 5–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThomas_H._White2012" class="citation web cs1">Thomas H. White (1 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earlyradiohistory.us/tesla.htm">"Nikola Tesla: The Guy Who DIDN'T 'Invent Radio'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>earlyradiohistory.us</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=earlyradiohistory.us&rft.atitle=Nikola+Tesla%3A+The+Guy+Who+DIDN%27T+%27Invent+Radio%27&rft.date=2012-11-01&rft.au=Thomas+H.+White&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearlyradiohistory.us%2Ftesla.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGhosh2022" class="citation web cs1">Ghosh, Kunal (July 4, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scroll.in/article/1027507/jagadish-chandra-bose-the-first-complete-biography-investigates-his-life-as-well-as-his-science">"Jagadish Chandra Bose: The first complete biography investigates his life as well as his science"</a>. <i>Scroll.in</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scroll.in&rft.atitle=Jagadish+Chandra+Bose%3A+The+first+complete+biography+investigates+his+life+as+well+as+his+science&rft.date=2022-07-04&rft.aulast=Ghosh&rft.aufirst=Kunal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscroll.in%2Farticle%2F1027507%2Fjagadish-chandra-bose-the-first-complete-biography-investigates-his-life-as-well-as-his-science&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher H. Sterling, <i>Encyclopedia of Radio</i>, Routledge – 2003, p. 1820</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ABC-CLIO-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ABC-CLIO_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ABC-CLIO_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJohn_W._Klooster2009" class="citation book cs1">John W. Klooster (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WKuG-VIwID8C&q=British+High+Court+upheld+patent+7777&pg=PA161"><i>Icons of Invention: the Makers of the Modern World from Gutenberg to Gates</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313347436" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313347436"><bdi>978-0313347436</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Icons+of+Invention%3A+the+Makers+of+the+Modern+World+from+Gutenberg+to+Gates&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0313347436&rft.au=John+W.+Klooster&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWKuG-VIwID8C%26q%3DBritish%2BHigh%2BCourt%2Bupheld%2Bpatent%2B7777%26pg%3DPA161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hong (2001) p. 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hong (2001) pp. 20–22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SaturdayThompson-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SaturdayThompson_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Correspondence to the editor of the Saturday Review, <i>The Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art</i>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gHVHAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA556">"The Inventor of Wireless Telegraphy: A Reply"</a> from Guglielmo Marconi (3 May 1902, pp. 556–58) and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gHVHAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA598">"Wireless Telegraphy: A Rejoinder"</a> from Silvanus P. Thompson (10 May 1902, pp. 598–99)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLodovico_Gualandi" class="citation web cs1">Lodovico Gualandi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radiomarconi.com/marconi/stravolgimento1.html">"Marconi e lo Stravolgimento della Verità Storica Sulla Sua Opera"</a>. <i>radiomarconi.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=radiomarconi.com&rft.atitle=Marconi+e+lo+Stravolgimento+della+Verit%C3%A0+Storica+Sulla+Sua+Opera&rft.au=Lodovico+Gualandi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radiomarconi.com%2Fmarconi%2Fstravolgimento1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-ZYZAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA294">"Wireless Telegraphy"</a> by G. Marconi (discussion), <i>Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers</i>, (vol. 28, March 2, 1899), p. 294.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/patent/search/family/032189896/publication/GB189612039A?q=pn%3DGB189612039A">https://worldwide.espacenet.com/patent/search/family/032189896/publication/GB189612039A?q=pn%3DGB189612039A</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KIT-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KIT_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kit.edu/kit/english/pi_2011_8434.php">"125 Years Discovery of Electromagnetic Waves"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Karlsruhe_Institute_of_Technology" title="Karlsruhe Institute of Technology">Karlsruhe Institute of Technology</a>. May 16, 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220714163329/https://www.kit.edu/kit/english/pi_2011_8434.php">Archived</a> from the original on July 14, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 14,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=125+Years+Discovery+of+Electromagnetic+Waves&rft.pub=Karlsruhe+Institute+of+Technology&rft.date=2022-05-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kit.edu%2Fkit%2Fenglish%2Fpi_2011_8434.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ieeexplore.ieee.org-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ieeexplore.ieee.org_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bondyopadhyay, Prebir K. (1995) "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4137304/?tp=&arnumber=4137304">Guglielmo Marconi – The father of long distance radio communication – An engineer's tribute"</a>, <i>25th European Microwave Conference: Volume 2</i>, pp. 879–85</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-1890s_–_1930s:_Radio-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1890s_–_1930s:_Radio_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elon.edu/u/imagining/time-capsule/150-years/back-1890-1930/">"1890s – 1930s: Radio"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Elon_University" title="Elon University">Elon University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220608035814/https://www.elon.edu/u/imagining/time-capsule/150-years/back-1890-1930/">Archived</a> from the original on June 8, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 14,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1890s+%E2%80%93+1930s%3A+Radio&rft.pub=Elon+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.elon.edu%2Fu%2Fimagining%2Ftime-capsule%2F150-years%2Fback-1890-1930%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IEEEatlantic-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-IEEEatlantic_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBelrose1995" class="citation web cs1">Belrose, John S. (5–7 September 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ewh.ieee.org/reg/7/millennium/radio/radio_differences.html">"Radio's First Message – Fessenden and Marconi"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-11-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+of+Electrical+and+Electronics+Engineers&rft.atitle=Radio%27s+First+Message+%E2%80%93+Fessenden+and+Marconi&rft.date=1995-09-05%2F1995-09-07&rft.aulast=Belrose&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fewh.ieee.org%2Freg%2F7%2Fmillennium%2Fradio%2Fradio_differences.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1">"The Clifden Station of the Marconi Wireless Telegraph System". <i>Scientific American</i>. 23 November 1907.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Clifden+Station+of+the+Marconi+Wireless+Telegraph+System&rft.date=1907-11-23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://marconi100.ca/clip/marconi-sydpost19071024.html">Second Test of the Marconi Over-Ocean Wireless System Proved Entirely Successful</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019025942/http://marconi100.ca/clip/marconi-sydpost19071024.html">Archived</a> 19 October 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Sydney Daily Post</i>. 24 October 1907.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-A_Short_History_of_Radio-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-A_Short_History_of_Radio_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://transition.fcc.gov/omd/history/radio/documents/short_history.pdf">"A Short History of Radio"</a>, Winter 2003–2004 (FCC.gov)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Continuous Wave</i> by Hugh G. J. Aitken, 1985, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fessenden, Helen (1940), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4540711&view=1up&seq=74">pp. 60–61, 76</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation patent"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US706737">US 706737</a></span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&rft.number=706737&rft.cc=US&rft.title="><span style="display: none;"> </span></span> patent: "Wireless Telegraphy"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-experiments-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-experiments_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Experiments and Results in Wireless Telephony" by John Grant, <i>The American Telephone Journal</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015057240221&view=1up&seq=111">Part I</a>: January 26, 1907, pp. 49–51; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015057240221&view=1up&seq=147">Part II</a>: February 2, 1907, pp. 68–70, 79–80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. K. Sarkar, Robert Mailloux, Arthur A. Oliner, <a href="/wiki/Magdalena_Salazar_Palma" title="Magdalena Salazar Palma">Magdalena Salazar Palma</a>, Dipak L. Sengupta, <i>History of Wireless</i>, Wiley – 2006, p. 92</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John W. Klooster, <i>Icons of Invention – The Makers of the Modern World from Gutenberg to Gates</i> – Vol. 1, Greenwood Press – 2009, p. 400</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hugh G. J. Aitken, <i>The Continuous Wave: Technology and American Radio, 1900–1932</i>. Princeton University Press. Princeton, New Jersey – 1985, p. 61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/radioindustrysto00harvrich/page/190/mode/1up">"The Early History of Radio in the United States"</a> by H. P. Davis, in <i>The Radio Industry: The Story of its Development</i>, 1928, p. 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Helen M. 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Gow, Richard K. Smith <i>Mobile and wireless communications: an introduction</i>, McGraw-Hill International, 2006 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0335217613" title="Special:BookSources/0335217613">0335217613</a> p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-att1946-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-att1946_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121212113039/http://www.corp.att.com/attlabs/reputation/timeline/46mobile.html">"1946: First Mobile Telephone Call"</a>. <i>corp.att.com</i>. AT&T Intellectual Property. 2011. 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I thank Hajime Hori, Bob Kargoll, Steve Levinson, and two anonymous referees for helpful comments.1"</a>. <i>Japan and the World Economy</i>. <b>11</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">455–</span>83. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0922-1425%2898%2900056-5">10.1016/S0922-1425(98)00056-5</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0922-1425">0922-1425</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Japan+and+the+World+Economy&rft.atitle=The+Telecommunications+Act+of+1996+and+its+impact1Presented+at+the+Annual+Telecommunications+Policy+Conference%2C+Tokyo%2C+Japan%2C+4+December+1997.+I+thank+Hajime+Hori%2C+Bob+Kargoll%2C+Steve+Levinson%2C+and+two+anonymous+referees+for+helpful+comments.1&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E455-%3C%2Fspan%3E83&rft.date=1999-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0922-1425%2898%2900056-5&rft.issn=0922-1425&rft.aulast=Economides&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252FS0922-1425%252898%252900056-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801143557/http://pabook2.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/KDKA.html">"The Pennsylvania Center for the Book – KDKA"</a>. <i>pabook2.libraries.psu.edu</i>. 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Sterling. p. 847. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415995337" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415995337"><bdi>978-0415995337</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Encyclopedia+of+American+Radio&rft.pages=847&rft.pub=Sterling&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0415995337&rft.aulast=Sterling&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A Tower in Babel</i> by Eric Barnouw, 1966, pp. 62–64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Larry Wolters, "Radio Illusions Dispelled By DeForest." <i>Chicago Tribune</i>, 13 September 1936, p. SW 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Radio's Anniversary," <i>Boston Globe</i>, 30 September 1928, p. B27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earlyradiohistory.us/1917df.htm">"Highbridge Station Reports (1917)"</a>. <i>earlyradiohistory.us</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=earlyradiohistory.us&rft.atitle=Highbridge+Station+Reports+%281917%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearlyradiohistory.us%2F1917df.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDonna_L._Halper2001" class="citation web cs1">Donna L. Halper (2001-01-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bostonradio.org/essays/wgi.html">"The Rise and Fall of WGI"</a>. <i>The Boston Radio Archives (bostonradio.org)</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Boston+Radio+Archives+%28bostonradio.org%29&rft.atitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+WGI&rft.date=2001-01-02&rft.au=Donna+L.+Halper&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bostonradio.org%2Fessays%2Fwgi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFlombardi2010" class="citation journal cs1">lombardi (2010-05-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/time-services/nist-time-and-frequency-division-history">"NIST Time and Frequency Division History"</a>. <i>NIST</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NIST&rft.atitle=NIST+Time+and+Frequency+Division+History&rft.date=2010-05-11&rft.au=lombardi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fpml%2Ftime-and-frequency-division%2Ftime-services%2Fnist-time-and-frequency-division-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt" class="citation web cs1">Schmidt, Sarah. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801143726/https://libguides.union.edu/ArchivesandSpecialCollections/WRUC">"Subject Research, Course Guides, Documentation: Archives & Special Collections: WRUC (Union College Radio Station)"</a>. <i>libguides.union.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libguides.union.edu/ArchivesandSpecialCollections/WRUC">the original</a> on 2020-08-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=libguides.union.edu&rft.atitle=Subject+Research%2C+Course+Guides%2C+Documentation%3A+Archives+%26+Special+Collections%3A+WRUC+%28Union+College+Radio+Station%29&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibguides.union.edu%2FArchivesandSpecialCollections%2FWRUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+radio" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>De Lee Forest. <i>Father of Radio: The Autobiography of Lee de Forest</i> (1950).</li> <li>Gleason L. Archer Personal Papers (MS108), Suffolk University Archives, Suffolk University; Boston, Massachusetts. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080529075535/http://www.suffolk.edu/files/Archives/MS108_findaid.pdf">Gleason L. Archer Personal Papers (MS108) finding aid</a></li> <li>Kahn Frank J., ed. <i>Documents of American Broadcasting,</i> fourth edition (Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1984).</li> <li>Lichty Lawrence W., and Topping Malachi C., eds. <i>American Broadcasting: A Source Book on the History of Radio and Television</i> (Hastings House, 1975).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Aitkin, Hugh G. J. <i>The Continuous Wave: Technology and the American Radio, 1900–1932</i> (Princeton University Press, 1985).</li> <li>Anderson, Leland. "<i>Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power</i>", Sun Publishing Company, LC 92-60482, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0963265202" title="Special:BookSources/0963265202">0963265202</a> (<i>ed</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tfcbooks.com/tesla/nt_on_ac.htm">excerpts available online</a>)</li> <li>Anderson, Leland I. <i>Priority in the Invention of Radio – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/more/431pir.htm">Tesla vs. Marconi</a></i>, Antique Wireless Association monograph, 1980, examining the 1943 decision by the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> holding the key Marconi patent invalid (9 pages). (21st Century Books)</li> <li>Archer, Gleason L. Big Business and Radio (The American Historical Society, Inc., 1939)</li> <li>Archer, Gleason L. History of Radio to 1926 (The American Historical Society, Inc., 1938).</li> <li>Barnouw, Erik. <i>The Golden Web</i> (Oxford University Press, 1968); <i>The Sponsor</i> (1978); <i>A Tower in Babel</i> (1966).</li> <li>Belrose, John S., "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieee.ca/millennium/radio/radio_differences.html">Fessenden and Marconi: Their Differing Technologies and Transatlantic Experiments During the First Decade of this Century</a></i>". International Conference on 100 Years of Radio (5–7 September 1995).</li> <li>Briggs, Asa. <i>The BBC – the First Fifty Years</i> (Oxford University Press, 1984).</li> <li>Briggs, Asa. <i>The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom</i> (Oxford University Press, 1961).</li> <li>Brodsky, Ira. "The History of Wireless: How Creative Minds Produced Technology for the Masses" (Telescope Books, 2008)</li> <li>Butler, Lloyd (VK5BR), "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.qsl.net/vk5br/Before_Valve_Amp.pdf">Before Valve Amplification</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200808105830/http://www.qsl.net/vk5br/Before_Valve_Amp.pdf">Archived</a> 2020-08-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Wireless Communication of an Early Era</i>"</li> <li>Coe, Douglas and Kreigh Collins (ills), "<i>Marconi, pioneer of radio</i>". New York, J. Messner, Inc., 1943. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/43010048">43-10048</a></li> <li>Covert, Cathy and Stevens John L. <i>Mass Media Between the Wars</i> (Syracuse University Press, 1984).</li> <li>Craig, Douglas B. <i>Fireside Politics: Radio and Political Culture in the United States, 1920–1940</i> (2005)</li> <li>Crook, Tim. <i>International Radio Journalism: History, Theory and Practice</i> Routledge, 1998</li> <li>Douglas, Susan J., <i>Listening in : radio and the American imagination : from Amos 'n' Andy and Edward R. Murrow to Wolfman Jack and Howard Stern </i>, New York: Times Books, 1999.</li> <li>Ewbank Henry and Lawton Sherman P. <i>Broadcasting: Radio and Television</i> (Harper & Brothers, 1952).</li> <li>Garratt, G. R. M., "<i>The early history of radio : from Faraday to Marconi</i>", London, Institution of Electrical Engineers in association with the Science Museum, History of technology series, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0852968450" title="Special:BookSources/0852968450">0852968450</a> <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/94011611">94-11611</a></li> <li>Geddes, Keith, "<i>Guglielmo Marconi, 1874–1937</i>". London : H.M.S.O., A Science Museum booklet, 1974. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0112901980" title="Special:BookSources/0112901980">0112901980</a> <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/75329825">75-329825</a> (<i>ed</i>. Obtainable in the US from Pendragon House Inc., Palo Alto, California.)</li> <li>Gibson, George H. <i>Public Broadcasting; The Role of the Federal Government, 1919–1976</i> (Praeger Publishers, 1977).</li> <li>Hancock, Harry Edgar, "<i>Wireless at sea; the first fifty years. A history of the progress and development of marine wireless communications written to commemorate the jubilee of the Marconi International Marine Communication Company limited</i>". Chelmsford, Eng., Marconi International Marine Communication Co., 1950. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/51040529">51-40529</a></li> <li>Jackaway, Gwenyth L. <i>Media at War: Radio's Challenge to the Newspapers, 1924–1939</i> Praeger Publishers, 1995</li> <li>Journal of the Franklin Institute. "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b569540&view=1up&seq=493">Notes and comments; Telegraphy without wires</a></i>", Journal of the Franklin Institute, December 1897, pp. 463–64.</li> <li>Katz, Randy H., "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~randy/Courses/CS39C.S97/radio/radio.html">Look Ma, No Wires": Marconi and the Invention of Radio</a></i>". History of Communications Infrastructures.</li> <li>Lazarsfeld, Paul F. <i>The People Look at Radio</i> (University of North Carolina Press, 1946).</li> <li>Maclaurin, W. Rupert. <i>Invention and Innovation in the Radio Industry</i> (The Macmillan Company, 1949).</li> <li>Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company, "<i>Year book of wireless telegraphy and telephony</i>", London : Published for the Marconi Press Agency Ltd., by the St. Catherine Press / Wireless Press. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/14017875">14-17875</a> <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/86035439">86-35439</a></li> <li>Marincic, Aleksandar and Djuradj Budimir, "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080529075537/http://www.mwr.medianis.net/pdf/Vol7No2-05-AMarincic.pdf">Tesla contribution to radio wave propagation</a></i>". (<a href="/wiki/PDF" title="PDF">PDF</a>)</li> <li>Masini, Giancarlo. "<i>Guglielmo Marconi</i>". Turin: Turinese typographical-publishing union, 1975. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/77472455">77-472455</a> (<i>ed. Contains 32 tables outside of the text</i>)</li> <li>Massie, Walter Wentworth, "<i>Wireless telegraphy and telephony popularly explained</i>". New York, Van Nostrand, 1908.</li> <li>McChesney, Robert W. <i>Telecommunications, Mass Media, and Democracy: The Battle for the Control of U.S. Broadcasting, 1928–1935</i> Oxford University Press, 1994</li> <li>McCourt, Tom. <i>Conflicting Communication Interests in America: The Case of National Public Radio</i> Praeger Publishers, 1999</li> <li>McNicol, Donald. "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electricalexperi04gern/page/893/mode/1up">The Early Days of Radio in America</a></i>". <a href="/wiki/The_Electrical_Experimenter" title="The Electrical Experimenter">The Electrical Experimenter</a>, April 1917, pp. 893, 911.</li> <li>Peers, Frank W. <i>The Politics of Canadian Broadcasting, 1920–1951</i> (University of Toronto Press, 1969).</li> <li>Pimsleur, J. L. "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist/radio.html">Invention of Radio Celebrated in S.F.</a>; 100th birthday exhibit this weekend </i>". San Francisco Chronicle, 1995.</li> <li><i>The Prestige</i>, 2006, Touchstone Pictures.</li> <li>The Radio Staff of the Detroit News, <i>WWJ-The Detroit News</i> (The Evening News Association, Detroit, 1922).</li> <li>Ray, William B. <i>FCC: The Ups and Downs of Radio-TV Regulation</i> (Iowa State University Press, 1990).</li> <li>Rosen, Philip T. <i>The Modern Stentors; Radio Broadcasting and the Federal Government 1920–1934</i> (Greenwood Press, 1980). <ul><li>Rugh, William A. <i>Arab Mass Media: Newspapers, Radio, and Television in Arab Politics</i> Praeger, 2004</li></ul></li> <li>Scannell, Paddy, and Cardiff, David. <i>A Social History of British Broadcasting, Volume One, 1922–1939</i> (Basil Blackwell, 1991).</li> <li>Schramm Wilbur, ed. <i>Mass Communications</i> (University of Illinois Press, 1960).</li> <li>Schwoch James. <i>The American Radio Industry and Its Latin American Activities, 1900–1939</i> (University of Illinois Press, 1990).</li> <li>Seifer, Marc J., "<i>The Secret History of Wireless</i>". Kingston, Rhode Island.</li> <li>Slater, Robert. <i>This ... is CBS: A Chronicle of 60 Years</i> (Prentice Hall, 1988).</li> <li>Smith, F. Leslie, John W. Wright II, David H. Ostroff; <i>Perspectives on Radio and Television: Telecommunication in the United States</i> Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998</li> <li>Sterling, Christopher H. <i>Electronic Media, A Guide to Trends in Broadcasting and Newer Technologies 1920–1983</i> (Praeger, 1984).</li> <li>Sterling, Christopher, and Kittross John M. <i>Stay Tuned: A Concise History of American Broadcasting</i> (Wadsworth, 1978).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stone_Stone" title="John Stone Stone">Stone, John Stone</a>. "John Stone Stone on Nikola Tesla's Priority in Radio and Continuous-Wave Radiofrequency Apparatus". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/more/436ntpr.htm">Twenty First Century Books, 2005</a>.</li> <li>Sungook Hong, "<i>Wireless: from Marconi's Black-box to the Audion</i>", Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0262082985" title="Special:BookSources/0262082985">0262082985</a></li> <li>Waldron, Richard Arthur, "<i>Theory of guided electromagnetic waves</i>". London, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1970. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0442091672" title="Special:BookSources/0442091672">0442091672</a> <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/69019848">69-19848</a></li> <li>Weightman, Gavin, "<i>Signor Marconi's magic box : the most remarkable invention of the 19th century & the amateur inventor whose genius sparked a revolution</i>" 1st Da Capo Press ed., Cambridge, Massachusetts : Da Capo Press, 2003.</li> <li>White, Llewellyn. <i>The American Radio</i> (University of Chicago Press, 1947).</li> <li>White, Thomas H. "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earlyradiohistory.us/sec007.htm">Pioneering U.S. Radio Activities (1897–1917)</a></i>", United States Early Radio History.</li> <li>Wunsch, A. David "<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mercurians.org/1998_Fall/Misreading.htm">Misreading the Supreme Court: A Puzzling Chapter in the History of Radio</a></i>" Mercurians.org.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Media_and_documentaries">Media and documentaries</h2></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_the_Air:_The_Men_Who_Made_Radio" title="Empire of the Air: The Men Who Made Radio">Empire of the Air: The Men Who Made Radio</a></i> (1992) by <a href="/wiki/Ken_Burns" title="Ken Burns">Ken Burns</a>, PBS documentary based on the 1991 book, <i>Empire of the Air: The Men Who Made Radio</i> by Tom Lewis, 1st ed., New York : E. Burlingame Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060182156" title="Special:BookSources/0060182156">0060182156</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_radio" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of radio">History of radio</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316" /><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>"<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tfcbooks.com/teslafaq/q&a_038.htm">A Comparison of the Tesla and Marconi Low-Frequency Wireless Systems</a> </i>". Twenty First Century Books, Breckenridge, Co.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zianet.com/sparks/sparkmakers2.html">Sparks Telegraph Key Review</a></li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lostartsmedia.com/nikolatesla.html">Presentation of the Edison Medal to Nikola Tesla</a>". Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Held at the Engineering Society Building, New York City, Friday evening, May 18, 1917.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ns1763.ca/radio30/radio-first-30yrs.html">Timeline of the First Thirty Years of Radio 1895–1925</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080331093640/http://ns1763.ca/radio30/radio-first-30yrs.html">Archived</a> 2008-03-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; An important chapter in the Death of Distance</i>. Nova Scotia, Canada, March 14, 2006.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cybertelecom.org/notes/history_wireless.htm">Cybertelecom :: Radio History (legal and regulatory)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230418122217/http://www.cybertelecom.org/notes/history_wireless.htm">Archived</a> 2023-04-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radioblvd.com/">Western Historic Radio Museum: Radio Communication Equipment from 1909 to 1959.</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">Radio</a> <a href="/wiki/Modulation" title="Modulation">modulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation" title="Amplitude modulation">AM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">FM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing">COFDM</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frequency_allocation" title="Frequency allocation">Frequency allocations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longwave" title="Longwave">LW</a> (<a href="/wiki/Low_frequency" title="Low frequency">LF</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">MW</a> (<a href="/wiki/Medium_frequency" title="Medium frequency">MF</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortwave_radio" title="Shortwave radio">SW</a> (<a href="/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">HF</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">VHF</a> (<a href="/wiki/Band_I" title="Band I">low</a> / <a href="/wiki/Band_II" title="Band II">mid</a> / <a href="/wiki/Band_III" title="Band III">high</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L_band" title="L band">L band</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">UHF</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Digital systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CAM-D" title="CAM-D">CAM-D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Audio_Broadcasting" title="Digital Audio Broadcasting">DAB/DAB+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Radio_Mondiale" title="Digital Radio Mondiale">DRM/DRM+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISDB-T#ISDB-Tsb" class="mw-redirect" title="ISDB-T">ISDB-Tsb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FMeXtra" title="FMeXtra">FMeXtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HD_Radio" title="HD Radio">HD Radio</a></li> <li>CDR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVB-T2" title="DVB-T2">DVB-T2 Lite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellite</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frequency allocations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/C_band_(IEEE)" title="C band (IEEE)">C band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">K<sub>u</sub> band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L_band" title="L band">L band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S_band" title="S band">S band</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Digital systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astra_Digital_Radio" title="Astra Digital Radio">ADR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_audio_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital audio broadcasting">DAB-S</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVB-SH" title="DVB-SH">DVB-SH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-DMB" title="S-DMB">S-DMB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ETSI_Satellite_Digital_Radio" title="ETSI Satellite Digital Radio">SDR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Commercial_broadcasting" title="Commercial broadcasting">Commercial radio</a> providers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sirius_XM" title="Sirius XM">Sirius XM</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sirius_XM_Canada" title="Sirius XM Canada">Canada</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Audio_codec" title="Audio codec">Codecs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Audio_Coding" title="Advanced Audio Coding">AAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_Adaptive_Multi-Rate_%E2%80%93_Wideband" title="Extended Adaptive Multi-Rate – Wideband">AMR-WB+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-Definition_Coding" title="High-Definition Coding">HDC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-Efficiency_Advanced_Audio_Coding" title="High-Efficiency Advanced Audio Coding">HE-AAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-1_Audio_Layer_II" title="MPEG-1 Audio Layer II">MPEG-1 Audio Layer II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_Resolution_Adaptation" title="Dynamic Resolution Adaptation">DRA+</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subcarrier" title="Subcarrier">Subcarrier</a> signals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amplitude_modulation_signalling_system" title="Amplitude modulation signalling system">AMSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DirectBand" title="DirectBand">DirectBand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Program-associated_data" title="Program-associated data">PAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_Data_System" title="Radio Data System">RDS/RBDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidiary_communications_authority" title="Subsidiary communications authority">SCA/SCMO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_Radio_Channel" title="Data Radio Channel">DARC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related_topics252" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical (audio)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_data_compression" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio data compression">Audio data compression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_signal_processing" title="Audio signal processing">Audio signal processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical (<a href="/wiki/AM_stereo" title="AM stereo">AM stereo</a> formats)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AM_stereo#Belar_System" title="AM stereo">Belar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-QUAM" title="C-QUAM">C-QUAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AM_stereo#Harris_System" title="AM stereo">Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AM_stereo#Kahn-Hazeltine" title="AM stereo">Kahn-Hazeltine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AM_stereo#Magnavox_System" title="AM stereo">Magnavox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical (emission)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AM_broadcasting" title="AM broadcasting">AM broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AM_expanded_band" title="AM expanded band">AM expanded band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_radio" title="Cable radio">Cable radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_radio" title="Digital radio">Digital radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Error_detection_and_correction" title="Error detection and correction">Error detection and correction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FM_broadcast_band" title="FM broadcast band">FM broadcast band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FM_broadcasting" title="FM broadcasting">FM broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FM_extended_band_in_Brazil" title="FM extended band in Brazil">FM extended band in Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multipath_propagation" title="Multipath propagation">Multipath propagation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortwave_relay_station" title="Shortwave relay station">Shortwave relay station</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_broadcasting" title="International broadcasting">International broadcasting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Radio_icon.png/21px-Radio_icon.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Radio_icon.png 1.5x" data-file-width="30" data-file-height="22" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Radio" title="Portal:Radio">Radio portal</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_radio_systems" title="Comparison of radio systems">Comparison of radio systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_Morse_code152" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Morse_code" title="Template:Morse code"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Morse_code" title="Template talk:Morse code"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Morse_code" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Morse code"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_Morse_code152" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Morse_code" title="Morse code">International Morse code</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;">Transmission methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On%E2%80%93off_keying" title="On–off keying">On–off keying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous_wave" title="Continuous wave">Continuous wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulated_continuous_wave" title="Modulated continuous wave">Modulated continuous wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph" title="Heliograph">Heliograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_lamp" title="Signal lamp">Signal lamp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;">Notable signals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SOS" title="SOS">SOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CQD" title="CQD">CQD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_code_mnemonics" title="Morse code mnemonics">Morse code mnemonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosigns_for_Morse_code" title="Prosigns for Morse code">Prosigns for Morse code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_code_abbreviations" title="Morse code abbreviations">Morse code abbreviations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q_code" title="Q code">Q code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z_code" title="Z code">Z code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Morse_code_for_non-Latin_alphabets" title="Morse code for non-Latin alphabets">Other writing systems<br />in Morse code</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Morse_code" title="American Morse code">American Morse code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_code_for_non-Latin_alphabets#Greek" title="Morse code for non-Latin alphabets">Greek alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_code_for_non-Latin_alphabets#Cyrillic" title="Morse code for non-Latin alphabets">Cyrillic script</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Morse_code" title="Russian Morse code">Russian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_code_for_non-Latin_alphabets#Hebrew" title="Morse code for non-Latin alphabets">Hebrew script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_code_for_non-Latin_alphabets#Arabic" title="Morse code for non-Latin alphabets">Arabic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabun_code" title="Wabun code">Wabun code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_telegraph_code" title="Chinese telegraph code">Chinese telegraph code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications802" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Telecommunications" title="Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Telecommunications" title="Template talk:Telecommunications"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Telecommunications" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telecommunications802" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable protection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding format">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">DCT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_coding_format" title="Video coding format">video</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_video" title="Internet video">Internet video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">online video platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edholm%27s_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_telegraph" title="Optical telegraph">Optical telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">Pager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_prepaid_mobile_phones" title="History of prepaid mobile phones">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore" title="Semaphore">Semaphore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phryctoria" title="Phryctoria">Phryctoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">transistor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</a> (teletype)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless revolution">Wireless revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Ahmed_(engineer)" title="Nasir Ahmed (engineer)">Nasir Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emile_Berliner" title="Emile Berliner">Emile Berliner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Blake_(inventor)" title="Francis Blake (inventor)">Francis Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bourseul" title="Charles Bourseul">Charles Bourseul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Davis_Jr." title="Daniel Davis Jr.">Daniel Davis Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erna_Schneider_Hoover" title="Erna Schneider Hoover">Erna Schneider Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins (physicist)">Harold Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardiner_Greene_Hubbard" title="Gardiner Greene Hubbard">Gardiner Greene Hubbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Landell_de_Moura" title="Roberto Landell de Moura">Roberto Landell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi Nishizawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Grafton_Page" title="Charles Grafton Page">Charles Grafton Page</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tivadar_Pusk%C3%A1s" title="Tivadar Puskás">Tivadar Puskás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almon_Brown_Strowger" title="Almon Brown Strowger">Almon Brown Strowger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)" title="Henry Sutton (inventor)">Henry Sutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charles Sumner Tainter">Charles Sumner Tainter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Watson" title="Thomas A. Watson">Thomas A. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">Internet pioneers</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br />media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_communication" title="Molecular communication">Molecular communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission line</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication circuit">telecommunication circuit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br />and switching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">Bandwidth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">terminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">Space-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">Code-division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Communication protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">Store and forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Types of network</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Notable networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BITNET" 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