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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Physical film frames</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_film_frames-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Video_frames" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Video_frames"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Video frames</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Video_frames-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Video frames subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Video_frames-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Line_and_resolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Line_and_resolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Line and resolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Line_and_resolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viewing_distance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viewing_distance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Viewing distance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viewing_distance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moving_picture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moving_picture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Moving picture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moving_picture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Example_(System_B)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Example_(System_B)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Example (System B)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Example_(System_B)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Still_frame" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Still_frame"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Still frame</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Still_frame-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Still frame subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Still_frame-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Investigations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Investigations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Investigations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Investigations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourth_wall_usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourth_wall_usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Fourth wall usage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourth_wall_usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Film frame</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%85" title="إطار الفيلم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إطار الفيلم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotograma" title="Fotograma – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fotograma" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80" title="Кадр – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кадр" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Кадар – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кадар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotograma_(cinema)" title="Fotograma (cinema) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fotograma (cinema)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einzelbild_(Film)" title="Einzelbild (Film) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Einzelbild (Film)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaader" title="Kaader – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kaader" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotograma" title="Fotograma – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fotograma" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotograma" title="Fotograma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Fotograma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%85_(%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%85)" title="فریم (فیلم) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فریم (فیلم)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%A1ma_scann%C3%A1in" title="Fráma scannáin – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fráma scannáin" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%84%EB%A6%84_%ED%94%84%EB%A0%88%EC%9E%84" title="필름 프레임 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="필름 프레임" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%A4%D6%80" title="Կադր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կադր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE" title="फिल्म फ्रेम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="फिल्म फ्रेम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadar" title="Kadar – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kadar" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotogramma" title="Fotogramma – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fotogramma" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D_(%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%9D)" title="פריים (צילום) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פריים (צילום)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80" title="Кадр – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кадр" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80" title="Кадр – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кадр" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photogramma" title="Photogramma – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Photogramma" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A1zisk%C3%A9p" title="Fáziskép – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fáziskép" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%97%E1%80%BD%E1%80%AE%E1%80%92%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%96%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA" title="ဗွီဒီယိုဖရိမ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဗွီဒီယိုဖရိမ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_(filmtechniek)" title="Frame (filmtechniek) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Frame (filmtechniek)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%9E_(%E6%98%A0%E7%94%BB%E3%83%BB%E6%BC%AB%E7%94%BB)" title="コマ (映画・漫画) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コマ (映画・漫画)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadr" title="Kadr – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kadr" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotograma" title="Fotograma – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fotograma" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Encadratur%C4%83" title="Încadratură – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Încadratură" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80" title="Кадр – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кадр" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filmski_kadar" title="Filmski kadar – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Filmski kadar" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bildruta" title="Bildruta – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bildruta" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kare_(sinema)" title="Kare (sinema) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kare (sinema)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80" title="Кадр – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кадр" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BD%B1%E7%89%87%E7%95%AB%E6%A0%BC" title="影片畫格 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="影片畫格" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BD%B1%E7%89%87%E7%95%AB%E6%A0%BC" title="影片畫格 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="影片畫格" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Still image frame of moving picture</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Still frame" redirects here. For the song, see <a href="/wiki/Still_Frame" title="Still Frame">Still Frame</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Film_frame" title="Special:EditPage/Film frame">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Film+frame%22">"Film frame"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Film+frame%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Film+frame%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Film+frame%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Film+frame%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Film+frame%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">filmmaking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_production" title="Video production">video production</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animation" title="Animation">animation</a>, and related fields, a <b>frame</b> is one of the many <i><a href="/wiki/Still_image" class="mw-redirect" title="Still image">still images</a></i> which compose the complete <i><a href="/wiki/Moving_picture" class="mw-redirect" title="Moving picture">moving picture</a></i>. The term is derived from the historical development of <a href="/wiki/Film_stock" title="Film stock">film stock</a>, in which the sequentially recorded single images look like a <a href="/wiki/Picture_frame" title="Picture frame">framed picture</a> when examined individually. </p><p>The term may also be used more generally as a noun or verb to refer to the edges of the image as seen in a camera viewfinder or projected on a screen. Thus, the camera operator can be said to keep a car in frame by panning with it as it speeds past. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_frame&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the moving picture is displayed, each frame is flashed on a screen for a short time (nowadays, usually 1/24, 1/25 or 1/30 of a second) and then immediately replaced by the next one. <a href="/wiki/Persistence_of_vision" title="Persistence of vision">Persistence of vision</a> blends the frames together, producing the <a href="/wiki/Optical_illusions" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical illusions">illusion</a> of a moving image. </p><p>The frame is also sometimes used as a unit of time, so that a momentary event might be said to last six frames, the actual duration of which depends on the <a href="/wiki/Frame_rate" title="Frame rate">frame rate</a> of the system, which varies according to the video or film standard in use. In North America and Japan, 30 frames per second (fps) is the broadcast standard, with 24 frames/s now common in production for high-definition video shot to look like film. In much of the rest of the world, 25 frames/s is standard. </p><p>In systems historically based on <a href="/wiki/NTSC" title="NTSC">NTSC</a> standards, for reasons originally related to the Chromilog NTSC TV systems, the exact frame rate is actually (3579545 / 227.5) / 525 = 29.970026164312 fps.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This leads to many synchronization problems which are unknown outside the NTSC world, and also brings about hacks such as <a href="/wiki/Drop-frame_timecode" class="mw-redirect" title="Drop-frame timecode">drop-frame timecode</a>. </p><p>In film projection, <a href="/wiki/24p" title="24p">24 fps</a> is the normal, except in some special venue systems, such as <a href="/wiki/IMAX" title="IMAX">IMAX</a>, <a href="/wiki/Showscan" title="Showscan">Showscan</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Iwerks_70&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iwerks 70 (page does not exist)">Iwerks 70</a>, where 30, 48 or even 60 frame/s have been used. Silent films and <a href="/wiki/8_mm_film" title="8 mm film">8 mm</a> amateur movies used 16 or 18 frame/s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_film_frames">Physical film frames</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_frame&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Physical film frames"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a strip of movie film, individual frames are separated by <a href="/wiki/Frame_line" title="Frame line">frame lines</a>. Normally, 24 frames are needed for one <a href="/wiki/Second" title="Second">second</a> of film. In ordinary filming, the frames are photographed automatically, one after the other, in a <a href="/wiki/Movie_camera" title="Movie camera">movie camera</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Special_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Special effects">special effects</a> or <a href="/wiki/Animation" title="Animation">animation</a> filming, the frames are often shot one at a time. </p><p>The size of a film frame varies, depending on the <a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">still film format</a> or the <a href="/wiki/List_of_film_formats" class="mw-redirect" title="List of film formats">motion picture film format</a>. In the smallest <a href="/wiki/8_mm_film" title="8 mm film">8 mm</a> amateur format for motion pictures film, it is only about 4.8 by 3.5 mm, while an <a href="/wiki/IMAX" title="IMAX">IMAX</a> frame is as large as 69.6 by 48.5 mm. The larger the frame size is in relation to the size of the <a href="/wiki/Projection_screen" title="Projection screen">projection screen</a>, the sharper the image will appear. </p><p>The size of the film frame of <a href="/wiki/List_of_film_formats" class="mw-redirect" title="List of film formats">motion picture film</a> also depends on the location of the holes, the size of the holes, the shape of the holes. and the location and type of sound stripe. </p><p>The most common film format, <a href="/wiki/35mm_movie_film" class="mw-redirect" title="35mm movie film">35 mm</a>, has a frame size of 36 by 24 mm when used in a still 35 mm camera where the film moves horizontally, but the frame size varies when used for motion picture where the film moves vertically (with the exception of <a href="/wiki/VistaVision" title="VistaVision">VistaVision</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technirama" title="Technirama">Technirama</a> where the film moves horizontally). Using a <a href="/w/index.php?title=4-perf_pulldown&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="4-perf pulldown (page does not exist)">4-perf pulldown</a>, there are exactly 16 frames in one foot of 35 mm film, leading to film frames sometimes being counted in terms of "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Feet_and_frames&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Feet and frames (page does not exist)">feet and frames</a>". The maximum frame size is 18 by 24 mm, (silent/full aperture), but this is significantly reduced by the application of sound track(s). A system called <a href="/wiki/KeyKode" class="mw-redirect" title="KeyKode">KeyKode</a> is often used to identify specific physical film frames in a production. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Video_frames">Video frames</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_frame&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Video frames"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historically, video frames were represented as <a href="/wiki/Analog_waveform" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog waveform">analog waveforms</a> in which varying voltages represented the intensity of light in an analog <a href="/wiki/Raster_scan" title="Raster scan">raster scan</a> across the screen. Analog <a href="/wiki/Blanking_interval" class="mw-redirect" title="Blanking interval">blanking intervals</a> separated video frames in the same way that frame lines did in film. For historical reasons, most systems used an <a href="/wiki/Interlaced_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="Interlaced scan">interlaced scan</a> system in which the frame typically consisted of two <a href="/wiki/Video_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Video field">video fields</a> sampled over two slightly different periods of time. This meant that a single video frame was usually not a good still picture of the scene, unless the scene being shot was completely still. </p><p>With the dominance of digital technology, modern video systems now represent the video frame as a rectangular <a href="/wiki/Raster_scan" title="Raster scan">raster</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pixel" title="Pixel">pixels</a>, either in an RGB color space or a color space such as YCbCr, and the analog waveform is typically found nowhere other than in legacy I/O<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="is this supposed to mean VHS? (April 2020)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> devices. </p><p>Standards for the digital video frame raster include <a href="/wiki/Rec._601" title="Rec. 601">Rec. 601</a> for <a href="/wiki/Standard-definition_television" title="Standard-definition television">standard-definition television</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rec._709" title="Rec. 709">Rec. 709</a> for <a href="/wiki/High-definition_television" title="High-definition television">high-definition television</a>. </p><p>Video frames are typically identified using <a href="/wiki/SMPTE_time_code" class="mw-redirect" title="SMPTE time code">SMPTE time code</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Line_and_resolution">Line and resolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_frame&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Line and resolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Video" title="Video">Video</a></div> <p>The frame is composed of picture elements just like a chess board. Each horizontal set of picture elements is known as a <a href="/wiki/Line_(video)" class="mw-redirect" title="Line (video)">line</a>. The picture elements in a line are transmitted as <a href="/wiki/Sine_wave" title="Sine wave">sine</a> signals where a pair of dots, one dark and one light can be represented by a single sine. The product of the number of lines and the number of maximum sine signals per line is known as the total resolution of the frame. The higher the resolution the more faithful the displayed image is to the original image. But higher resolution introduces technical problems and extra cost. So a compromise should be reached in system designs both for satisfactory image quality and affordable price. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viewing_distance">Viewing distance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_frame&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Viewing distance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The key parameter to determine the lowest resolution still satisfactory to viewers is the viewing distance, i.e. the distance between the eyes and the monitor. The total resolution is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. If <b>d</b> is the distance, <b>r</b> is the required minimum resolution and <b>k</b> is the proportionality constant which depends on the size of the monitor; </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r=k^{2}\cdot {\frac {1}{d^{2}}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>r</mi> <mo>=</mo> <msup> <mi>k</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <msup> <mi>d</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r=k^{2}\cdot {\frac {1}{d^{2}}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2a91502ee5ee3c940a6a43f088130a8eb426ffa8" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:11.2ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r=k^{2}\cdot {\frac {1}{d^{2}}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>Since the number of lines is approximately proportional to the resolution per line, the above relation can also be written as </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle n=k\cdot {\frac {1}{d}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>n</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>k</mi> <mo>⋅</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>1</mn> <mi>d</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle n=k\cdot {\frac {1}{d}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/acb5d36349534abf9d952d3397a927fea6096b22" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:9.436ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle n=k\cdot {\frac {1}{d}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <b>n</b> is the number of lines. That means that the required resolution is proportional to the height of the monitor and inversely proportional to the viewing distance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moving_picture">Moving picture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_frame&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Moving picture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In moving picture (TV) the number of frames scanned per second is known as the frame rate. The higher the frame rate, the better the sense of motion. But again, increasing the frame rate introduces technical difficulties. So the frame rate is fixed at 25 (<a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_B" title="CCIR System B">System B/G</a>) or 29.97 (<a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_M" title="CCIR System M">System M</a>). To increase the sense of motion it is customary to scan the very same frame in two consecutive phases. In each phase only half of the lines are scanned; only the lines with odd numbers in the first phase and only the lines with even numbers in the second phase. Each scan is known as a <a href="/wiki/Field_(video)" title="Field (video)">field</a>. So the field rate is two times the frame rate. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Example_(System_B)"><span id="Example_.28System_B.29"></span>Example (System B)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_frame&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Example (System B)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_B" title="CCIR System B">CCIR System B</a></div> <p>In system B the number of lines is 625 and the frame rate is 25. The maximum video bandwidth is 5 MHz.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The maximum number of sine signals the system is theorically capable of transmitting is given as follows: </p><p>The system is able to transmit 5 000 000 sine signals in a second. Since the frame rate is 25, the maximum number of sine signals per frame is 200 000. Dividing this number by the number of lines gives the maximum number of sine signals in a line which is 320. (Actually about 19% of each line is devoted to auxiliary services. So the number of maximum useful sine signals is about 260.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Still_frame">Still frame</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_frame&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Still frame"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/220px-seek%3D23-2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="47" data-mwtitle="2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="3840" data-height="2160" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A default still at the halfway point of a video of a Salt Flats Racing event, showing only a small dot in the distance</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/220px-seek%3D9-2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="47" data-mwtitle="2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="3840" data-height="2160" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm/2024_USFRA_Test-n-Tune.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A selected better still of the same video, showing the vehicle before it has driven away</div></div></div></div></div> <p>A <b>still frame</b> is a single static <a href="/wiki/Image" title="Image">image</a> taken from a <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">film</a> or <a href="/wiki/Video" title="Video">video</a>, which are kinetic (moving) images. Still frames are also called <b>freeze frame</b>, video prompt, preview or misleadingly <a href="/wiki/Thumbnail" title="Thumbnail">thumbnail</a>, <a href="/wiki/Key_frame" title="Key frame">keyframe</a>, poster frame,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Screenshot" title="Screenshot">screen shot/grab/capture/dump</a>. Freeze frames are widely used on <a href="/wiki/Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">video platforms</a> and in video galleries, to show viewers a preview or a <a href="/wiki/Teaser_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Teaser campaign">teaser</a>. Many video platforms have a standard to display a frame from mid-time of the video. Some platforms offer the option to choose a different frame individually.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Video and film artists sometimes use still frames within the video/film to achieve <a href="/wiki/Special_effect" title="Special effect">special effects</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Freeze-frame_shot" title="Freeze-frame shot">freeze-frame shots</a> or <a href="/wiki/Still_motion" title="Still motion">still motion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Investigations">Investigations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_frame&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Investigations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For criminal investigations it has become a frequent use to publish still frames from <a href="/wiki/Surveillance" title="Surveillance">surveillance</a> videos in order to identify suspect persons and to find more witnesses.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Videos of the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">J.F. Kennedy assassination</a> have been often discussed frame-by-frame for various interpretations.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For medical diagnostics it is very useful to watch still frames of <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">Magnetic resonance imaging</a> videos.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fourth_wall_usage">Fourth wall usage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_frame&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Fourth wall usage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some humor in animation is based on the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_wall" title="Fourth wall">fourth wall</a> aspect of the film frame itself, with some animation showing characters leaving what is assumed to be the edge of the film or the film malfunctioning. This latter one is used often in films as well. This hearkens back to some early cartoons, where characters were aware that they were in a cartoon, specifically that they could look at the credits and be aware of something that isn't part of the story as presented. These jokes include: </p> <ul><li>Split frames – Where the <i>fourth wall</i> is broken by two frames, the lower half of the previous frame and the upper part of the next frame, showing at once, usually showing <a href="/wiki/Frame_line" title="Frame line">frame lines</a>, with jokes involving them including a character crossing the frame itself.</li> <li><i>Film break</i> – A famous form of the joke, where the film either snaps or is deliberately broken, with often the <i>fourth wall</i> coming into play during this period when, rightfully, there should be nothing on screen.</li> <li><i>Gate hair</i> – A famous form of joke where the animator intentionally places fake "gate hairs" within the frame, which one of the animated characters plucks and removes from the frame.</li> <li>Editorial marks – Where those marks which an editor would normally employ on a <a href="/wiki/Workprint" title="Workprint">"work print"</a> to indicate the intended presence of a fade or a dissolve or a "wipe" to the SFX department are animated, and the film follows suit, or doesn't, depending upon the intended effect.</li> <li>Cue marks – Where those marks, usually circular for non-Technicolor titles and "serrated" for Technicolor titles to indicate a reel changeover are animated for a humorous effect. This could also be employed for the famous <a href="/wiki/False_ending#Examples" title="False ending">"false ending"</a> effect, employed even today in popular songs. For <i><a href="/wiki/Inglourious_Basterds" title="Inglourious Basterds">Inglourious Basterds</a></i>, the cue marks for the reel changes of the <i>Nation's Pride</i> pseudo-documentary employed exceptionally large scribed circles with a large "X" scribed within it—marks which would never be utilized in actual editorial practice (motor and changeover cue marks are supposed to be clearly visible to the projectionist, but not obvious to the audience).</li> <li>Exiting the frame – This joke, an extension of the split frames joke, has characters depart from the sides of the frame, sometimes finding themselves falling out of the cartoon entirely.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_frame&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akinetopsia" title="Akinetopsia">Akinetopsia</a> (motion blindness)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspect_ratio_(image)" title="Aspect ratio (image)">Aspect ratio (image)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeze_frame_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Freeze frame (disambiguation)">Freeze frame (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeze_frame_television" title="Freeze frame television">Freeze frame television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_grammar" title="Film grammar">Film grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame_rate" title="Frame rate">Frame rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame_grabber" title="Frame grabber">Frame grabber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_frame" title="Key frame">Key frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_film_formats" class="mw-redirect" title="List of film formats">List of film formats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shot_(filmmaking)" title="Shot (filmmaking)">Shot (filmmaking)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_motion" title="Slow motion">Slow motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thumbshot" title="Thumbshot">Thumbshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Widescreen" title="Widescreen">Widescreen</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_frame&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In actual practice, the master oscillator is 14.31818 MHz, which is divided by 4 to give the 3.579545 MHz color "burst" frequency, which is further divided by 455 to give the 31468.5275 kHz "equalizing pulse" frequency, this is further divided by 2 toorizontal line rate), the "equalizing pulse" frequency is divided by 525 to give the 59.9401 Hz "vertical drive" frequency, and this is further divided by 2 to give the 29.9700 vertical frame rate. "Equalizing pulses" perform two essential functions: 1) their use during the vertical retrace interval allows for the vertical synch to be more effectively separated from the horizontal synch, as these, along with the video itself, are an example of "in band" signaling, and 2) by alternately including or excluding one "equalizing pulse", the required half-line offset necessary for interlaced video may be accommodated.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_frame&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Reference Data for Radio Engineers</i>, ITT Howard W.Sams Co., New York, 1977, section 30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://office.microsoft.com/en-us/powerpoint-help/add-a-poster-frame-to-your-video-HA010375851.aspx">Add a poster frame to your video</a>, retrieved 29 June 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Indezine: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indezine.com/products/powerpoint/learn/multimedia/add-poster-frame-for-video-ppt2010.html">Poster Frames for Videos in PowerPoint 2010 for Windows</a>, retrieved 29 June 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vimeo: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vimeo.com/help/faq/managing-your-videos/video-settings#how-do-i-change-the-thumbnail-of-my-video">How do I change the thumbnail of my video?</a>, retrieved 29 June 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MyVideo: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.myvideo.de/Community/Mein_Profil/Meine_Videos/Mein_Video_bearbeiten">Editing my video</a>, retrieved 29 June 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Willie Witte: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vimeo.com/64686559">SCREENGRAB</a>, retrieved 29 June 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wistv: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wistv.com/story/19627198/two-weekend-assault-cases-in-five-points-under-investigation">Assaults, shooting in Five Points under investigation</a>, retrieved 29 June 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121130024759/http://motherboard.vice.com/blog/the-other-shooter-the-saddest-and-most-expensive-26-seconds-of-amateur-film-ever-made">"The Other Shooter: The Saddest and Most Expensive 26 Seconds of Amateur Film Ever Made | Motherboard"</a>. <i>motherboard.vice.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://motherboard.vice.com/blog/the-other-shooter-the-saddest-and-most-expensive-26-seconds-of-amateur-film-ever-made">the original</a> on 30 November 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=motherboard.vice.com&rft.atitle=The+Other+Shooter%3A+The+Saddest+and+Most+Expensive+26+Seconds+of+Amateur+Film+Ever+Made+%26%23124%3B+Motherboard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmotherboard.vice.com%2Fblog%2Fthe-other-shooter-the-saddest-and-most-expensive-26-seconds-of-amateur-film-ever-made&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFilm+frame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lister Hill National Center for Biomedical Communications: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openi.nlm.nih.gov/detailedresult.php?img=2516443_umj7702-127-f3&req=4">A classic diagnosis with a new ‘spin’</a>, retrieved 29 June 2014</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Film_frame&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sparetimelabs.com/animato/animato/areas/areas.html">The image areas on a 35 mm film frame</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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href="/wiki/343-line_television_system" title="343-line television system">343-line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/375-line_television_system" title="375-line television system">375-line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/405-line_television_system" title="405-line television system">405-line</a> (<a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_A" title="CCIR System A">System A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/441-line_television_system" title="441-line television system">441-line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/455-line_television_system" title="455-line television system">455-line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/525-line_television_system" class="mw-redirect" title="525-line television system">525-line</a> (<a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_M" title="CCIR System M">System M</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/625-line_television_system" class="mw-redirect" title="625-line television system">625-line</a> (<a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_B" title="CCIR System B">System B</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_C" title="CCIR System C">System C</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_D" title="CCIR System D">System D</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_G" title="CCIR System G">System G</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_H" title="CCIR System H">System H</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_I" title="CCIR System I">System I</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_K" title="CCIR System K">System K</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_L" title="CCIR System L">System L</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_N" title="CCIR System N">System N</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/819_line" title="819 line">819-line</a> (<a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_E" title="CCIR System E">System E</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_E#System_F" title="CCIR System E">System F</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Color systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NTSC" title="NTSC">NTSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NTSC-J" title="NTSC-J">NTSC-J</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clear-Vision" title="Clear-Vision">Clear-Vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PAL" title="PAL">PAL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PAL-M" title="PAL-M">PAL-M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PAL-S" title="PAL-S">PAL-S</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PALplus" title="PALplus">PALplus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SECAM" title="SECAM">SECAM</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Video</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analog_television#Structure_of_a_video_signal" title="Analog television">Back porch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Analog_television#Structure_of_a_video_signal" title="Analog television">front porch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_level" title="Black level">Black level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanking_level" title="Blanking level">Blanking level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrominance" title="Chrominance">Chrominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrominance_subcarrier" title="Chrominance subcarrier">Chrominance subcarrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorburst" title="Colorburst">Colorburst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_killer" title="Color killer">Color killer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_television" title="Color television">Color TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composite_video" title="Composite video">Composite video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame_(video)" class="mw-redirect" title="Frame (video)">Frame (video)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_scan_rate" title="Horizontal scan rate">Horizontal scan rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_blanking_interval" title="Horizontal blanking interval">Horizontal blanking interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luma_(video)" title="Luma (video)">Luma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominal_analogue_blanking" title="Nominal analogue blanking">Nominal analogue blanking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overscan" title="Overscan">Overscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raster_scan" title="Raster scan">Raster scan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_area_(television)" title="Safe area (television)">Safe area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_lines" title="Television lines">Television lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_blanking_interval" title="Vertical blanking interval">Vertical blanking interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_clipper" title="White clipper">White clipper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sound</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multichannel_television_sound" class="mw-redirect" title="Multichannel television sound">Multichannel television sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NICAM" title="NICAM">NICAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound-in-Syncs" title="Sound-in-Syncs">Sound-in-Syncs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zweikanalton" title="Zweikanalton">Zweikanalton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">Frequency modulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrature_amplitude_modulation" title="Quadrature amplitude modulation">Quadrature amplitude modulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-sideband_modulation#Vestigial_sideband_(VSB)" title="Single-sideband modulation">Vestigial sideband modulation (VSB)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transmission</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amplifier#Electronic_amplifiers" title="Amplifier">Amplifiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)">Antenna (radio)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_transmitter" title="Broadcast transmitter">Broadcast transmitter</a>/<a href="/wiki/Transmitter_station" title="Transmitter station">Transmitter station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resonator#Electromagnetic" title="Resonator">Cavity amplifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_gain" title="Differential gain">Differential gain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_phase" title="Differential phase">Differential phase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplexer" title="Diplexer">Diplexer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dipole_antenna" title="Dipole antenna">Dipole antenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummy_load" title="Dummy load">Dummy load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_mixer" title="Frequency mixer">Frequency mixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercarrier_method" title="Intercarrier method">Intercarrier method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_frequency" title="Intermediate frequency">Intermediate frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Output_power_of_an_analog_TV_transmitter" title="Output power of an analog TV transmitter">Output power of an analog TV transmitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-emphasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-emphasis">Pre-emphasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residual_carrier" title="Residual carrier">Residual carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_sound_system" title="Split sound system">Split sound system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superheterodyne_transmitter" title="Superheterodyne transmitter">Superheterodyne transmitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_receive-only" title="Television receive-only">Television receive-only</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct-broadcast_satellite_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct-broadcast satellite television">Direct-broadcast satellite television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_transmitter" title="Television transmitter">Television transmitter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_television" title="Terrestrial television">Terrestrial television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transposer" title="Transposer">Transposer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television_transition" title="Digital television transition">Digital television transition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radio_frequency" title="Radio frequency">Frequencies</a> & bands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frequency_offset" title="Frequency offset">Frequency offset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_transmission" title="Microwave transmission">Microwave transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_channel_frequencies" title="Television channel frequencies">Television channel frequencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">UHF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_high_frequency" title="Very high frequency">VHF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radio_propagation" title="Radio propagation">Propagation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beam_tilt" title="Beam tilt">Beam tilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distortion" title="Distortion">Distortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_bulge" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth bulge">Earth bulge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_strength_in_free_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Field strength in free space">Field strength in free space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_(electronics)" title="Noise (electronics)">Noise (electronics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_fill" title="Null fill">Null fill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Path_loss" title="Path loss">Path loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_pattern" title="Radiation pattern">Radiation pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skew_(antenna)" title="Skew (antenna)">Skew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_interference" title="Television interference">Television interference</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Testing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distortionmeter" title="Distortionmeter">Distortionmeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_strength_meter" title="Field strength meter">Field strength meter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vectorscope" title="Vectorscope">Vectorscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VIT_signals" title="VIT signals">VIT signals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_reference_pulse" title="Zero reference pulse">Zero reference pulse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artifacts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dot_crawl" title="Dot crawl">Dot crawl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosting_(television)" title="Ghosting (television)">Ghosting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanover_bars" title="Hanover bars">Hanover bars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sparklies" title="Sparklies">Sparklies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th 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