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L'idée de connaissance formelle </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="FORMALISME, Formalisme et logicisme" href="/encyclopedie/formalisme/2-formalisme-et-logicisme/"> 2. Formalisme et logicisme </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="FORMALISME, La notion de système formel" href="/encyclopedie/formalisme/3-la-notion-de-systeme-formel/"> 3. La notion de système formel </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="FORMALISME, La théorie de la formalisation" href="/encyclopedie/formalisme/4-la-theorie-de-la-formalisation/"> 4. La théorie de la formalisation </a> </li> <li class="list-group-item "> <a class="d-block" title="FORMALISME, Bibliographie" href="/encyclopedie/formalisme/5-bibliographie/"> 5. Bibliographie </a> </li> </ul> <button class="btn btn-sm btn-universalis" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#free-toc" aria-expanded="false" title="Afficher / masquer le sommaire"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-eye"></i> Sommaire </button> </div> <h1 class="mb-1"> <strong>FORMALISME</strong> </h1> <ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><p class="text-sm text-muted mb-1">Article modifié le <time datetime="2025-01-29"> 29/01/2025 </time></p><div class="content paged type-article" ><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yG972821_0"><i class="anchor" id="yG972821_0"></i><p>Au sens moderne la formalisation est la présentation des théories scientifiques – et, en premier lieu sinon exclusivement, des mathématiques – dans le cadre d'un <em>système formel</em>, permettant de caractériser sans ambiguïté les expressions du langage et les règles de démonstration recevables.</p><p>On aurait tort de considérer pour autant que l'importance scientifique de la formalisation se réduise à une question de formulation. La formalisation des théories mathématiques fondamentales, suscitée à l'origine par les problèmes de « fondement » des mathématiques, a conduit tout au long du <span class="pc">xx</span><sup>e</sup> siècle au développement autonome d'une logique <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La mathématique est une science hypothético-déductive qui, en développant un langage autonome, élabore et étudie des notions abstraites liées les unes aux autres et souvent capables de fournir des modèles et des processus opératoires permettant de mieux comprendre de nombreux aspects du monde observable, en particulier lorsque peuvent être invoquées des idées de quantité, de forme et ..." title="Article : MATHÉMATIQUE" href="/encyclopedie/mathematique/">mathématique</a> qui crée ses propres problèmes et concepts.</p><p>D'un autre côté, la formalisation des mathématiques est liée, dès son apparition, au développement de l' <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La méthode axiomatique est un mode d'exposition des sciences exactes fondé sur des propositions admises sans démonstration et nettement formulées et des raisonnements rigoureux. On se limitera ici à quelques indications méthodologiques et historiques, en renvoyant à l'article logique mathématique pour les problèmes posés par l'étude des systèmes d'axiomes.. L'axiomatique commence pa..." title="Article : AXIOMATIQUE" href="/encyclopedie/axiomatique/">axiomatique</a> et à l'étude des espèces de structures abstraites (selon la terminologie de Bourbaki), généralement « multivalentes », qui sont présentes dans les domaines les plus apparemment divers de la mathématique et en expliquent l'unité (structures algébriques surtout, à l'origine).</p><p>En ce sens, si le travail mathématique contemporain ne se déroule pas tout entier à l'intérieur d'un langage formalisé, on peut dire néanmoins qu'il met en évidence le formalisme, c'est-à-dire le caractère formel, de la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="La connaissance désigne un rapport de la pensée à la réalité extérieure et engage la notion de vérité comme adéquation de l' esprit et de la chose. Par extension, le terme connaissance désigne le contenu de la pensée qui correspond à la nature de la chose visée, et s'oppose à erreur ou illusion . Ses caractères sont l'universalité et la nécessité , ce qui suppose de réf..." title="Article : CONNAISSANCE" href="/encyclopedie/connaissance/">connaissance</a> mathématique.</p><div class="clearfix"></div></div><div class="block_1" data-ucode="yG972821_1"><i class="anchor" id="yG972821_1"></i><h2>L'idée de connaissance formelle</h2><p>L'idée d'une connaissance formelle est en un sens aussi ancienne que la réflexion sur la science, c'est-à-dire que la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Nul ne se demande « pourquoi des mathématiciens ? », dès lors que les mathématiques sont reconnues comme science. Mais « pourquoi des philosophes ? » ne revient pas à la question beaucoup plus classique « pourquoi la philosophie ? » à laquelle il est habituellement répondu par quelques variations sur un thème aristotélicien : argumenter contre une philosophie est encore phi..." title="Article : PHILOSOPHIE" href="/encyclopedie/philosophie/">philosophie</a>. Mais c'est une idée aussi multivoque, et capable de transformations, que la catégorie même de forme, et que les couples de forme et matière, forme et contenu, forme et signification.</p><p>Les historiens de la logique, discutent toujours, à cet égard, sur l'interprétation de la syllogistique d'<a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie d'ARISTOTE (env. 385-322 av. J.-C.). Aristote n'est sans doute pas le philosophe le plus séduisant de l'Antiquité, celui auquel on se reporte le plus volontiers quand on veut remonter aux sources de ce que les Grecs ont nommé la « sagesse ». Mais nul n'a marqué autant que lui la philosophie et la science des siècles suivants, peut-être même – et cela jusqu'à nos jours in..." title="Article : ARISTOTE (env. 385-322 av. J.-C.)" href="/encyclopedie/aristote/">Aristote</a>, de la logique stoïcienne des énoncés ou de la théorie médiévale des « conséquences ». Mais ils s'accordent généralement à faire remonter quelques-unes des conceptions modernes sur la formalisation à la période classique et notamment à l'œuvre de Leibniz.</p><p>Le développement du calcul algébrique et de son symbolisme, l'explicitation des concepts de « relation » et de « fonction », sous-tendent, chez ce dernier, l'idée que le calcul, non seulement est la véritable forme du <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le mot de raisonnement est ambigu. On ne dispose pas, pour ce qu'il recouvre, de deux vocables, comme c'est le cas pour le concept et le terme qui le désigne, pour le jugement et la proposition qui l'exprime. Un raisonnement, c'est d'abord une certaine activité de l'esprit, une opération discursive par laquelle on passe de certaines propositions posées comme prémisses à une proposition n..." title="Article : RAISONNEMENT" href="/encyclopedie/raisonnement/">raisonnement</a> rigoureux, mais peut s'étendre à d'autres objets que les grandeurs numériques. Leibniz établit le principe d'un <em>calculus ratiocinator</em> destiné à mécaniser les opérations du raisonnement logique ; plus généralement, il concevait le projet d'exprimer toutes les idées dans une « caractéristique universelle » mettant en évidence symboliquement leurs relations de dépendance mutuelle et permettant de remplacer le travail de connaissance par le calcul analytique.</p><p>Il faut cependant remarquer que la pensée de Leibniz, pas plus que celle des logiciens antiques, n'est fondée sur la distinction de la forme et de la signification, puisqu'il veut représenter symboliquement les idées elles-mêmes et qu'il conçoit le raisonnement comme une analyse de leur compréhension, et en particulier la <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Le concept de relation apparaît comme l'un des concepts fondamentaux du discours rationnel. Il semble lié à la pratique de l'analyse, qui constitue elle-même l'un des aspects essentiels de la démarche discursive. L'analyse décompose les unités données dans l' expérience en éléments aussi simples que possible, mais elle n'est réellement éclairante que si elle s'accompagne, comme d'..." title="Article : RELATION" href="/encyclopedie/relation/">relation</a> de conséquence logique comme une relation d'inclusion entre idées. On peut dire que – à la différence du projet hobbesien et condillacien de la science entendue comme « langue bien faite », « langue des calculs » –, la pensée de Leibniz, dont l'influence historique a été considérable, est un formalisme non empiriste lié à une conception spiritualiste de la forme, comme seule véritable <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Une idée reçue particulièrement tenace occupe le devant de la scène philosophique depuis l'époque du positivisme d' Auguste Comte , c'est-à-dire depuis plus d'un siècle : l'idée selon laquelle la métaphysique serait morte avec Kant, à la fin du xviii e siècle, pour ne laisser la place qu'à des recherches éparses, empiriques et positives, se constituant comme sciences particuli..." title="Article : SUBSTANCE" href="/encyclopedie/substance/">substance</a>.</p><div class="clearfix"></div></div><div class="clearfix"></div></div><ul class="pagination justify-content-center public-links "><li class="page-item active"><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 1" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">1</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 2" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">2</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 3" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">3</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 4" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">4</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 5" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">5</a></li><li class="page-item "><a href="/abonnement" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="page 6" class="page-link" title="Abonnez-vous" data-loaded="true">6</a></li></ul><div class="folio-block"><p class="folio-block-title text-center text-uc"><strong>La suite de cet article est accessible aux abonnés</strong></p><ul class="list-unstyled"><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Des contenus variés, complets et fiables</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Accessible sur tous les écrans</li><li><i class="fa fa-fw fa-check-circle"></i> Pas de publicité</li></ul><p class="text-center"><a href="/abonnement/" class="btn btn-cta text-uc" id="folio-button" data-matomo-category="Article" data-matomo-name="Folio" data-matomo-value="Block bottom">Découvrez nos offres </a></p><p class="text-center text-sm"> Déjà abonné ? <a href="/identification/" id="folio-login">Se connecter</a></p></div><div id="ad_mpuslot" class="pub-container text-center"><div class="pub-placeholder"></div></div><section class="mt-3 mb-5"><i class="anchor" id="G972821_AUTHORS"></i><p class="title-minor">Écrit par</p><ul class="list-group"><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="BALIBAR, Étienne"><a title="Auteur : Étienne BALIBAR" rel="author" href="/auteurs/etienne-balibar/"><strong>Étienne BALIBAR</strong></a> : philosophe, professeur à l'université de Paris-I </li><li class="list-group-item" data-dc-author="MACHEREY, Pierre"><a title="Auteur : Pierre MACHEREY" rel="author" href="/auteurs/pierre-macherey/"><strong>Pierre MACHEREY</strong></a> : maître assistant à l'université de Paris-I </li></ul></section><section class="mb-5"><div class="text-center mb-3 d-print-none"><a class="d-inline-flex flex-row justify-content-center align-items-center btn btn-light btn-large text-start" title="Carte mentale : FORMALISME" href="/carte-mentale/formalisme/"><i class="fa fa-sitemap fa-rotate-270 me-1 fs-1 text-universalis"></i><p class="m-0"><strong class="fs-4">Carte mentale</strong><br /> Élargissez votre recherche dans Universalis </p></a></div></section> <section class="mb-5 article-classification" data-print-label="la classification" data-print-target=".article-classification"> <i class="anchor" id="yG972821_ROOT_LINES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Classification</p> <nav aria-label="Classification 1"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Mathématiques" href="/classification/mathematiques/"> Mathématiques </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Logique mathématique et fondements des mathématiques"> <a title="Classification : Logique mathématique et fondements des mathématiques" href="/classification/mathematiques/logique-mathematique-et-fondements-des-mathematiques/"> Logique mathématique et fondements des mathématiques </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 2"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Philosophie" href="/classification/philosophie/"> Philosophie </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Philosophie des sciences" href="/classification/philosophie/philosophie-des-sciences/"> Philosophie des sciences </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Formalisation"> <a title="Classification : Formalisation" href="/classification/philosophie/philosophie-des-sciences/formalisation/"> Formalisation </a> </li> </ol> </nav> <nav aria-label="Classification 3"> <ol class="breadcrumb"> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Mathématiques" href="/classification/mathematiques/"> Mathématiques </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item"> <a title="Classification : Mathématiques: généralités" href="/classification/mathematiques/mathematiques-generalites/"> Mathématiques: généralités </a> </li> <li class="breadcrumb-item active" data-dc-subject="Mathématiques: thèmes généraux"> <a title="Classification : Mathématiques: thèmes généraux" href="/classification/mathematiques/mathematiques-generalites/mathematiques-themes-generaux/"> Mathématiques: thèmes généraux </a> </li> </ol> </nav> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none"> <i class="anchor" id="yG972821_MEDIAS"></i> <p class="title-minor">Média</p> <div class="row"> <div class="col-12 col-md-12 text-center p-1"> <figure class="figure text-center w-100 mb-0 p-1" style="position: relative"> <a data-ucode="PH994270" data-showMediaPlayer="1" class="protected media-reference-copy " title="Média : Bertrand Russell" href="/media/bertrand-russell-ph994270/"> <img id="PH994270" loading="lazy" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/7/5/csm_ph994270_b96c46d4da.webp" class="figure-img rounded mx-auto media_resized" alt="Bertrand Russell - crédits : Kurt Hutton/ Picture Post/ Getty Images" data-description="Le philosophe anglais lord Bertrand Russell (1872-1970), en 1948. Scientifique et mathématicien, pacifiste militant, il reçoit le prix Nobel de littérature en 1950 pour son œuvre écrite." data-copyright="Kurt Hutton/ Picture Post/ Getty Images" width="1024" height="714" /> </a> <figcaption class="figure-caption"> <p class="m-0 mt-1 fw-bold text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Bertrand Russell </p> <p class="m-0 copyright text-sm text-gray-700 text-truncate"> Kurt Hutton/ Picture Post/ Getty Images </p> </figcaption> </figure> </div> </div> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yG972821_REFERENCES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Autres références</p> <ul class="list-group"> <li class="list-group-item"> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/formalisme-arts/"> <span class="rg">FORMALISME </span><span class="rm">(arts)</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">François-René MARTIN</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">1 871 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p>En histoire de l'art, le formalisme ne peut être dissocié d'une interrogation sur le style. En cela, son objet est l'analyse de l'art, conçu, pour reprendre les termes de l'historien de l'art et critique <a data-bs-toggle="popover" data-bs-content="Biographie de MEYER SCHAPIRO (1904-1996). Meyer Schapiro est un des plus grands historiens et critiques d'art contemporains, ayant vécu outre-Atlantique. D'origine juive, né en Lituanie, à Siauliai, le 23 septembre 1904, il partit pour les États-Unis à l'âge de trois ans et y demeura jusqu'à sa mort, le 3 mars 1996, à New York. Il s'y fit reconnaître, dès les années 1929-1930, pour se..." title="Article : MEYER SCHAPIRO (1904-1996)" href="/encyclopedie/meyer-schapiro/">Meyer Schapiro</a> (1904-1996), comme « un système de formes qui...</p> </div> </li> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/abstraction/"> <span class="rg">ABSTRACTION</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Alain DELAUNAY</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">907 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> <p> Terme qui renvoie à tout au moins quatre significations, à la fois indépendantes les unes des autres et pourtant reliées par un jeu de correspondances profondes.</p><p>Un sens premier du mot abstraction est le suivant : négliger toutes les circonstances environnant un acte, ne pas tenir compte...</p> </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/analogie/#c1"> <span class="rg">ANALOGIE</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Pierre DELATTRE</span> , <span rel="author"> Encyclopædia Universalis</span> et <span rel="author">Alain de LIBERA</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">10 429 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> Les situations propres au travail scientifique, dans lesquelles on utilise des énoncés théoriques plus ou moinsformalisés pour rendre compte du comportement des systèmes autres que le langage théorique lui-même, ne sont pas dans leur principe différentes de celle qui vient d'être évoquée. Le langage... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/axiomatique/#c1"> <span class="rg">AXIOMATIQUE</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Georges GLAESER</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">2 037 mots</li> </ul> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> On remarquera qu'il y a un lien essentiel entre axiomatisation etformalisation. Ce lien nous éclaire sur la nature profonde de la science qui d'une certaine manière tourne le dos à l'empirique pour constituer des systèmes cohérents de concepts et de relations. La coupure épistémologique entre le pur... </div> </li> <li class="list-group-item"> <h3 class="fs-5 m-0 mt-1"> <a href="/encyclopedie/causalite/#c1"> <span class="rg">CAUSALITÉ</span> </a> </h3> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-1 text-muted"> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">Écrit par <span rel="author">Raymond BOUDON</span> , <span rel="author">Marie GAUTIER</span> et <span rel="author">Bertrand SAINT-SERNIN</span> </li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">12 990 mots</li> <li class="list-inline-item text-sm">3 médias </li> </ul> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block float-start me-3"> <a class="protected" title="Article : CAUSALIT&Eacute;" href="/encyclopedie/causalite/"> <img class="rounded shadow" loading="lazy" alt="Âge, état-civil, suicide - crédits : Encyclopædia Universalis France" width="125" height="125" src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/1/b/csm_v050148a_3fe1d4ac4d.webp"/> </a> </div> <div class="snippet-content mt-3"> La mécanique newtonienne, extraordinaire par sa précision et son ampleur, a servi de modèle – malgré les doutes de son fondateur sur la notion de cause – à la conception classique de la théorie physique. En premier lieu, le vocabulaire de la théorie ne comporte qu'un nombre restreint de termes primitifs... </div> </li> <li class="list-unstyled text-center mt-3"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-primary" title="Afficher la liste complète des références" rel="related" href="/index/formalisme/"> Afficher les 52 références <i aria-hidden="true" class="fa fa-fw fa-chevron-right"></i> </a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="mb-5 d-print-none article-indexes learn-more"> <i class="anchor" id="yG972821_INDEXES"></i> <p class="title-minor">Voir aussi</p> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet"> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : LOGIQUE MATHÉMATIQUE" href="/index/logique-mathematique/"> <span class="rg">LOGIQUE MATHÉMATIQUE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : DÉCIDABILITÉ" href="/index/decidabilite/"> <span class="rg">DÉCIDABILITÉ</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : THÉORÈME, mathématiques" href="/index/theoreme-mathematiques/"> <span class="rg">THÉORÈME, </span><em class="it">mathématiques</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : INCOMPLÉTUDE THÉORÈMES D'" href="/index/theoremes-d-incompletude/"> <span class="rg">INCOMPLÉTUDE </span><span class="pc">THÉORÈMES D'</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : GÖDEL THÉORÈME D'INCOMPLÉTUDE DE" href="/index/theoreme-d-incompletude-de-godel/"> <span class="rg">GÖDEL </span><span class="pc">THÉORÈME D'INCOMPLÉTUDE DE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : DÉMONSTRATION" href="/index/demonstration/"> <span class="rg">DÉMONSTRATION</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : VÉRITÉ, logique" href="/index/verite-logique/"> <span class="rg">VÉRITÉ, </span><em class="it">logique</em> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : AXIOME" href="/index/axiome/"> <span class="rg">AXIOME</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : MÉTAMATHÉMATIQUE" href="/index/metamathematique/"> <span class="rg">MÉTAMATHÉMATIQUE</span> </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item m-1"> <a title="Index : LOGICISME" href="/index/logicisme/"> <span class="rg">LOGICISME</span> </a> </li> </ul> </section> </div> <div class="col-lg-4 col-xl-3 px-0 d-none d-lg-block side-bar position-relative"> <div id="ad_rightslot" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <div id="ad_rightslot2" class="pub-container text-center"> <div class="pub-placeholder"></div> </div> <a class="wrapper cta" href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro" data-matomo-category="CTA" data-matomo-name="Clic" data-matomo-value="Col right"> <img src="/typo3temp/assets/_processed_/b/6/csm_abo-3_74169bae4d.webp" class="full-height" loading="lazy" width="290" height="476" alt="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro"> </a> <div id="newsletter_subscription" class="wrapper p-3"> <p class="fs-3 fw-bold text-center text-light mb-1">Rejoignez-nous</p> <p class="text-center"> Inscrivez-vous à notre <strong>newsletter</strong></p> <div class="input-group mb-3"> <input type="text" class="form-control" placeholder="votre email"> <div class="input-group-append"> <button id="newsletter_subscription_button" class="btn btn-primary text-uppercase" type="button"> <strong>S'inscrire</strong></button> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="bandeau-footer"> <div class="container"> <p><a href="/abonnement" title="Abonnez-vous à Universalis pour 1 euro">Accédez à l'intégralité d'Universalis.fr <strong>sans publicité</strong></a></p> </div> </div> <footer class="container footer text-center d-print-none"> <ul class="list-inline list-inline-bullet mb-2"> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="http://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/" title="Encyclopædia Universalis" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Encyclopædia Universalis </a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://www.encyclopaedia-universalis.fr/nous-contacter/infos/" title="Contactez-nous" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank">Contact</a></li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Mentions légales" rel="nofollow" href="/mentions-legales/">Mentions légales et politique de confidentialité</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a title="Crédits images Accueil" rel="nofollow" href="/credits-illustrations/">Crédits images</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="https://abonnement.universalis.fr/typo3conf/ext/mailer/Resources/Public/Pdf/cgv.pdf" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" title="Conditions générales de vente">CGV</a> </li> <li class="list-inline-item"> <a href="javascript:" id="rgpd" rel="nofollow" title="Consentement RGPD">RGPD</a> </li> </ul> <p class="mb-2">Consulter le <a title="Dictionnaire de l'Encyclopædia Universalis" href="/dictionnaire/"> dictionnaire </a> de l'Encyclopædia Universalis </p> <p class="mb-3">© 2025 Encyclopædia Universalis France. 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