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<span>Pre-independence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pre-independence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Pre-independence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Pre-independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Malay_nationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Malay_nationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Early Malay nationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Malay_nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Malayan_Union_(1946–48)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Malayan_Union_(1946–48)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>The Malayan Union (1946–48)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Malayan_Union_(1946–48)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Towards_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Towards_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Towards independence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Towards_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_origins_of_ketuanan_Melayu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_origins_of_ketuanan_Melayu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Possible origins of <i>ketuanan Melayu</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_origins_of_ketuanan_Melayu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Alliance_-_1955_Federal_Legislative_Council_elections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Alliance_-_1955_Federal_Legislative_Council_elections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>The Alliance - 1955 Federal Legislative Council elections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Alliance_-_1955_Federal_Legislative_Council_elections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Independence_and_formation_of_Malaysia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independence_and_formation_of_Malaysia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Independence and formation of Malaysia</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Independence_and_formation_of_Malaysia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Independence and formation of Malaysia subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Independence_and_formation_of_Malaysia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Independence_and_the_Constitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independence_and_the_Constitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Independence and the Constitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independence_and_the_Constitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Merger" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Merger"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Merger</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Merger-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Malaysian_Malaysia!"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Malaysian_Malaysia!""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>"Malaysian Malaysia!"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Malaysian_Malaysia!"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Separation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Separation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Separation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-13_May_and_the_New_Economic_Policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#13_May_and_the_New_Economic_Policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>13 May and the New Economic Policy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-13_May_and_the_New_Economic_Policy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle 13 May and the New Economic Policy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-13_May_and_the_New_Economic_Policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Issues_of_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues_of_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Issues of language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Issues_of_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-13_May" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#13_May"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>13 May</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-13_May-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Malay_Dilemma_and_New_Economic_Policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Malay_Dilemma_and_New_Economic_Policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span><i>The Malay Dilemma</i> and New Economic Policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Malay_Dilemma_and_New_Economic_Policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutional_amendments_and_other_policy_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_amendments_and_other_policy_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Constitutional amendments and other policy changes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_amendments_and_other_policy_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics_and_"Malay_dominance"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics_and_"Malay_dominance""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Politics and "Malay dominance"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics_and_"Malay_dominance"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mahathir's_first_premiership,_Malay_vs_Chinese,_new_economic_policies,_and_Bangsa_Malaysia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mahathir's_first_premiership,_Malay_vs_Chinese,_new_economic_policies,_and_Bangsa_Malaysia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Mahathir's first premiership, Malay vs Chinese, new economic policies, and <i>Bangsa Malaysia</i></span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mahathir's_first_premiership,_Malay_vs_Chinese,_new_economic_policies,_and_Bangsa_Malaysia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mahathir's first premiership, Malay vs Chinese, new economic policies, and <i>Bangsa Malaysia</i> subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mahathir's_first_premiership,_Malay_vs_Chinese,_new_economic_policies,_and_Bangsa_Malaysia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Affirmative_action_and_Chinese_protests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affirmative_action_and_Chinese_protests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Affirmative action and Chinese protests</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affirmative_action_and_Chinese_protests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reviewing_and_reworking_economic_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reviewing_and_reworking_economic_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Reviewing and reworking economic policies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reviewing_and_reworking_economic_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bangsa_Malaysia_and_political_liberalisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bangsa_Malaysia_and_political_liberalisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span><i>Bangsa Malaysia</i> and political liberalisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bangsa_Malaysia_and_political_liberalisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abdullah's_administration,_Ketuanan_Melayu,_and_meritocracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abdullah's_administration,_Ketuanan_Melayu,_and_meritocracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Abdullah's administration, <i>Ketuanan Melayu</i>, and meritocracy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Abdullah's_administration,_Ketuanan_Melayu,_and_meritocracy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Abdullah's administration, <i>Ketuanan Melayu</i>, and meritocracy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Abdullah's_administration,_Ketuanan_Melayu,_and_meritocracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reviewing_Ketuanan_Melayu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reviewing_Ketuanan_Melayu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Reviewing <i>Ketuanan Melayu</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reviewing_Ketuanan_Melayu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meritocracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meritocracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Meritocracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meritocracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Racial_politics"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Racial_politics""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>"Racial politics"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Racial_politics"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_BN_supermajority" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_BN_supermajority"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Loss of BN supermajority</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_BN_supermajority-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debates_about_direction_of_UMNO" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debates_about_direction_of_UMNO"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Debates about direction of UMNO</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debates_about_direction_of_UMNO-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_under_Pakatan_Harapan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_under_Pakatan_Harapan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Government under Pakatan Harapan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_under_Pakatan_Harapan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restoration_of_pro-Ketuanan_Melayu_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restoration_of_pro-Ketuanan_Melayu_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Restoration of pro-<i>Ketuanan Melayu</i> government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restoration_of_pro-Ketuanan_Melayu_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist" style="width:22.7em; border: 4px double #ffcc00;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><b><span style="color:var(--color-base, #101112)">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_Malaysia" title="Category:Politics of Malaysia">a series</a> on the</span></b></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#cd0000; border: 1px double #ffcc00;"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Malaysia" title="Politics of Malaysia"><span style="color:white;"><small>Politics of</small><br />Malaysia</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Malaysia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Coat_of_arms_of_Malaysia.svg/110px-Coat_of_arms_of_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Coat_of_arms_of_Malaysia.svg/165px-Coat_of_arms_of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Coat_of_arms_of_Malaysia.svg/220px-Coat_of_arms_of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background: #000066; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #ffcc00;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_of_Malaysia" title="Monarchies of Malaysia"><span style="color:#FFF;">Head of State</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_the_Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong_of_Malaysia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Arms_of_the_Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong_of_Malaysia.svg/30px-Arms_of_the_Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong_of_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Arms_of_the_Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong_of_Malaysia.svg/45px-Arms_of_the_Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong_of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Arms_of_the_Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong_of_Malaysia.svg/60px-Arms_of_the_Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong_of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1481" data-file-height="1398" /></a></span> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/King_of_Malaysia" title="King of Malaysia">Yang di-Pertuan Agong</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Iskandar_of_Johor" title="Ibrahim Iskandar of Johor">Ibrahim Iskandar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conference_of_Rulers" title="Conference of Rulers">Conference of Rulers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background: #000066; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #ffcc00;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Malaysia" title="Parliament of Malaysia"><span style="color:#FFF;">Legislature</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Parliament_Of_Malaysia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Parliament_Of_Malaysia.svg/30px-Parliament_Of_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Parliament_Of_Malaysia.svg/45px-Parliament_Of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Parliament_Of_Malaysia.svg/60px-Parliament_Of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Malaysia" title="Parliament of Malaysia">Parliament of Malaysia</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Members_of_the_Dewan_Rakyat,_15th_Malaysian_Parliament" title="Members of the Dewan Rakyat, 15th Malaysian Parliament">15th Parliament</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dewan_Negara_Parlimen_Malaysia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Dewan_Negara_Parlimen_Malaysia.svg/30px-Dewan_Negara_Parlimen_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Dewan_Negara_Parlimen_Malaysia.svg/45px-Dewan_Negara_Parlimen_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Dewan_Negara_Parlimen_Malaysia.svg/60px-Dewan_Negara_Parlimen_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Dewan_Negara" title="Dewan Negara">Senate (Dewan Negara)</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Dewan_Negara" title="President of the Dewan Negara">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Awang_Bemee_Awang_Ali_Basah" title="Awang Bemee Awang Ali Basah">Awang Bemee Awang Ali Basah</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dewan_Rakyat.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Dewan_Rakyat.svg/30px-Dewan_Rakyat.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Dewan_Rakyat.svg/45px-Dewan_Rakyat.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Dewan_Rakyat.svg/60px-Dewan_Rakyat.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Dewan_Rakyat" title="Dewan Rakyat">House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat)</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_Dewan_Rakyat" title="Speaker of the Dewan Rakyat">Speaker</a> <a href="/wiki/Johari_Abdul" title="Johari Abdul">Johari Abdul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malaysia" title="Prime Minister of Malaysia">Leader of the Government</a> <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Ibrahim" title="Anwar Ibrahim">Anwar Ibrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition_(Malaysia)" title="Leader of the Opposition (Malaysia)">Leader of the Opposition</a> <a href="/wiki/Hamzah_Zainudin" title="Hamzah Zainudin">Hamzah Zainudin</a></li></ul> <hr /></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background: #000066; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #ffcc00;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Malaysia#Executive" title="Government of Malaysia"><span style="color:#FFF;">Executive</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Malaysia" title="Cabinet of Malaysia">Cabinet</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malaysia" title="Prime Minister of Malaysia">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Ibrahim" title="Anwar Ibrahim">Anwar Ibrahim</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_in_Malaysia" title="Civil service in Malaysia">Civil service</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_ministries_and_agencies_in_Malaysia" title="List of federal ministries and agencies in Malaysia">agencies</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Secretary_to_the_Government_of_Malaysia" title="Chief Secretary to the Government of Malaysia">Chief Secretary</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamsul_Azri_Abu_Bakar" title="Shamsul Azri Abu Bakar">Shamsul Azri Abu Bakar</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background: #000066; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #ffcc00;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Malaysia" title="Judiciary of Malaysia"><span style="color:#FFF;">Judiciary</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Malaysia" title="Federal Court of Malaysia">Federal Court</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Malaysia" title="Chief Justice of Malaysia">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Tengku_Maimun_Tuan_Mat" title="Tengku Maimun Tuan Mat">Tengku Maimun Tuan Mat</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_of_Malaysia" title="Court of Appeal of Malaysia">Court of Appeal</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Court_of_Appeal_of_Malaysia" title="President of the Court of Appeal of Malaysia">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Abang_Iskandar_Abang_Hashim" title="Abang Iskandar Abang Hashim">Abang Iskandar Abang Hashim</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/High_Courts_of_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="High Courts of Malaysia">High Court in Malaya ∙ High Court in Sabah and Sarawak</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Judge_of_Malaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Judge of Malaya">Chief Judge of Malaya</a> <i>Vacant</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Judge_of_Sabah_and_Sarawak" title="Chief Judge of Sabah and Sarawak">Chief Judge of Sabah and Sarawak</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abdul_Rahman_Sebli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abdul Rahman Sebli (page does not exist)">Abdul Rahman Sebli</a></li></ul> <hr /></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background: #000066; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #ffcc00;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Malaysia" title="Elections in Malaysia"><span style="color:#FFF;">Elections</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Suruhanjaya_Pilihan_Raya_Malaysia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Suruhanjaya_Pilihan_Raya_Malaysia.svg/30px-Suruhanjaya_Pilihan_Raya_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Suruhanjaya_Pilihan_Raya_Malaysia.svg/45px-Suruhanjaya_Pilihan_Raya_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Suruhanjaya_Pilihan_Raya_Malaysia.svg/60px-Suruhanjaya_Pilihan_Raya_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="624" /></a></span> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Election_Commission_of_Malaysia" title="Election Commission of Malaysia">Election Commission of Malaysia</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Malaysia" title="Elections in Malaysia">General elections</a>: <a href="/wiki/2022_Malaysian_general_election" title="2022 Malaysian general election">2022</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Malaysian_electoral_districts" title="List of Malaysian electoral districts">Electoral districts</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background: #000066; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #ffcc00;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Malaysia" title="List of political parties in Malaysia"><span style="color:#FFF;">Political parties</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barisan_Nasional" title="Barisan Nasional">BN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakatan_Harapan" title="Pakatan Harapan">PH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perikatan_Nasional" title="Perikatan Nasional">PN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabungan_Parti_Sarawak" title="Gabungan Parti Sarawak">GPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabungan_Rakyat_Sabah" title="Gabungan Rakyat Sabah">GRS</a></li></ul> <hr /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Malaysia" title="List of political parties in Malaysia">List of political parties in Malaysia</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background: #000066; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #ffcc00;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_Malaysia" title="Federalism in Malaysia"><span style="color:#FFF;">Federalism</span></a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/State_governments_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="State governments in Malaysia">State governments</a></b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_ministers_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief ministers in Malaysia">Chief ministers of the states</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_assemblies_of_Malaysia" title="State legislative assemblies of Malaysia">State legislatures</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Malaysian_State_Assembly_Representatives_(2018%E2%80%93)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Malaysian State Assembly Representatives (2018–)">members</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Malaysia" title="Local government in Malaysia">Local governments</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_local_governments_in_Malaysia" title="List of local governments in Malaysia">list</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background: #000066; color:#FFF; border: 1px double #ffcc00;;color: var(--color-base)"><span style="color:#FFF;">Ideologies and concepts</span></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Malaysia" title="Anarchism in Malaysia">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism_in_Malaysia" title="Communism in Malaysia">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Malaysia" title="Conservatism in Malaysia">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Malaysia" title="Feminism in Malaysia">Feminism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rukun_Negara" title="Rukun Negara">Rukun Negara</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Malay_nationalism" title="Early Malay nationalism">Malay nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformasi_(Malaysia)" title="Reformasi (Malaysia)">Reformasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_Hadhari" title="Islam Hadhari">Islam Hadhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_values" title="Asian values">Asian values</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b>Race and politics</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dayaks_in_politics" title="Dayaks in politics">Dayaks in politics</a></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ketuanan Melayu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bumiputera_(Malaysia)" title="Bumiputera (Malaysia)"><i>Bumiputera</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Malaysia" title="Malaysian Malaysia">Malaysian Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract_(Malaysia)" title="Social contract (Malaysia)">Social contract</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/16px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/24px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/32px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffdd99;p">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; background:#ffdd99;"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emojione_1F6AB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/70px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/105px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/140px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">national</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Australian_sentiment" title="Anti-Australian sentiment">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Austrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Austrian sentiment">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Dutch_sentiment" title="Anti-Dutch sentiment">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-English_sentiment" title="Anti-English sentiment">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Estonian_sentiment" title="Anti-Estonian sentiment">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-French_sentiment" title="Anti-French sentiment">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Montenegrin_sentiment" title="Anti-Montenegrin sentiment">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusophobia" title="Lusophobia">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Spanish_sentiment" title="Anti-Spanish sentiment">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movemenet in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus"><i>Numerus clausus</i> (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination_sidebar" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">a series</a> of articles on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial and ethnic segregation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg/150px-ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg/225px-ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg/300px-ApartheidSignEnglishAfrikaans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="665" data-file-height="609" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Overview</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegations_of_apartheid_by_country" title="Allegations of apartheid by country">Allegations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental</a> / <a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">Institutional racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exclusionary_zoning" title="Exclusionary zoning">Exclusionary zoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Historical examples</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Australia_policy" title="White Australia policy">Australia</a></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pass_system_(Canadian_history)" title="Pass system (Canadian history)">Pass system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_separate_schools_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial separate schools (Canada)">Separate schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_hospital" title="Indian hospital">Indian hospitals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_racial_laws" title="Italian racial laws">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li>French colonial empire <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indig%C3%A9nat" title="Indigénat">Indigénat</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_exchange_between_Greece_and_Turkey" title="Population exchange between Greece and Turkey">Greek–Turkish<wbr /> population exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ghettos_in_Europe" title="Jewish ghettos in Europe">Jewish ghettos<wbr /> in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pale_of_Settlement" title="Pale of Settlement">Pale of Settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Portugal & Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform_in_Zimbabwe#Legal_situation_in_Southern_Rhodesia" title="Land reform in Zimbabwe">Rhodesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">South Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">Bantustans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pass_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Pass laws">Pass laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racial segregation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li>United States <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><span class="nowrap">Contemporary examples</span></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Anti-Romanyism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Italy#Environmental_racism" title="Racism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_people_in_Romania#Segregation" title="Romani people in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Erased" title="The Erased">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roma_wall" title="Roma wall">Roma walls</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina#Ethnic_and_religious_discrimination" title="Human rights in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia–Herzegovina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two_schools_under_one_roof" title="Two schools under one roof">Schools</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyprus_problem" title="Cyprus problem">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafala_system" title="Kafala system">Gulf states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_workers_in_Saudi_Arabia#Abuse_and_scandals" title="Foreign workers in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migrant_workers_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates#Human_rights" title="Migrant workers in the United Arab Emirates">UAE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_South_Asian_labourers_in_the_Gulf_Cooperation_Council_region" title="Treatment of South Asian labourers in the Gulf Cooperation Council region">South Asian labourers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uthapuram_caste_wall" title="Uthapuram caste wall">Uthapuram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_(Amendment)_Act,_2019" title="Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019">Muslims</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_apartheid" title="Israeli apartheid">Israel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_enclaves" title="Palestinian enclaves">Palestinian enclaves</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hafrada" title="Hafrada">Hafrada</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_law_in_the_West_Bank_settlements" title="Israeli law in the West Bank settlements">West Bank settlement law</a> / <a href="/wiki/West_Bank_barrier" title="West Bank barrier">barriers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Western_Sahara_Wall" title="Moroccan Western Sahara Wall">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allegations_of_apartheid_by_country#Myanmar" title="Allegations of apartheid by country">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Segregation in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Darfur#Allegations_of_apartheid" title="War in Darfur">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Academies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Housing segregation in the United States">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residential_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Residential segregation in the United States">Residential</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_internment_camps" title="Xinjiang internment camps">Xinjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muhamash%C4%ABn" title="Al-Muhamashīn">Yemen</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">Statelessness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_assimilation" title="Forced assimilation">Forced assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_apartheid" title="Gender apartheid">Gender apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Income inequality">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">Racial discrimination</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Segregation" title="Category:Segregation">Category</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Segregation" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Segregation">Commons</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Segregation" title="Template:Segregation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Segregation" title="Template talk:Segregation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Segregation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Segregation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b>Ketuanan Melayu</b></i> (<a href="/wiki/Jawi_script" title="Jawi script">Jawi</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1227789315">.mw-parser-output .script-arabic{font-family:"Scheherazade New","SF Arabic",Amiri,"Noto Naskh Arabic","Droid Arabic Naskh","Noto Sans Arabic","Sakkal Majalla","Harmattan","Arabic Typesetting","Arabic Transparent","Times New Roman",Arial,Calibri,"Microsoft Sans Serif","Segoe UI",serif,sans-serif;font-weight:normal}</style><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">كتوانن ملايو</span>‎; <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> "Malay <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/overlordship" class="extiw" title="wikt:overlordship">Overlordship</a>" or "Malay <a href="/wiki/Supremacism#Racial" title="Supremacism">Supremacy</a>") is a political concept that emphasises <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Malays" title="Malaysian Malays">Malay</a> <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a> and preeminence in present-day <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Malays" title="Malaysian Malays">Malaysian Malays</a> have claimed a special position and special rights owing to their longer history in the area<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the fact that the present Malaysian state itself evolved from a Malay polity.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest political institution in Malaysia is the system of <a href="/wiki/Malay_rulers" class="mw-redirect" title="Malay rulers">Malay rulers</a> of the nine <a href="/wiki/Malay_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Malay states">Malay states</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Melaka_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Melaka Sultanate">British colonial authorities</a> transformed the system and turned it first into <a href="/wiki/Federated_Malay_States#British_Protectorate" title="Federated Malay States">a system</a> of <a href="/wiki/Indirect_rule" title="Indirect rule">indirect rule</a>, then in 1948, using this culturally based institution, they incorporated the Malay <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchy</a> into the blueprints for the independent <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation of Malaya</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i><a href="/wiki/Tanah_Melayu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanah Melayu">Tanah Melayu</a></i> in its name, which literally means "Malay homeland", assumes proprietorship of the Malay states. In this method, the colonial government strengthened Malay ethno-nationalism, Malay ethnicity and culture and Malay sovereignty in the new nation-state. Though other cultures would continue to flourish, the identity of the emerging political community was to be shaped by the "historic" political culture of its dominant Malay ethnic group.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Chinese" title="Malaysian Chinese">Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Malaysian" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Malaysian">Indian</a> immigrants, who form a significant minority in Malaysia, are considered beholden to the Malays for granting them citizenship in return for special privileges as set out in <a href="/wiki/Article_153_of_the_Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia">Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia</a>. This <i><a href="/wiki/Quid_pro_quo" title="Quid pro quo">quid pro quo</a></i> arrangement is usually referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Social_contract_(Malaysia)" title="Social contract (Malaysia)">Malaysian social contract</a>. The concept of <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> is usually cited by politicians, particularly those from the <a href="/wiki/United_Malays_National_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="United Malays National Organisation">United Malays National Organisation</a> (<a href="/wiki/UMNO" title="UMNO">UMNO</a>). </p><p>The phrase <i>Ketuanan Melayu</i> did not come into vogue until the early 2000s decade. Historically, the most vocal political opposition towards the concept has come from non-Malay-based parties, such as the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_People%27s_Movement_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaysian People's Movement Party">Malaysian People's Movement Party</a> (Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia) and <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Action_Party" title="Democratic Action Party">Democratic Action Party</a> (DAP); in the 2000s decade, the multiracial (<a href="/wiki/Parti_Keadilan_Rakyat" class="mw-redirect" title="Parti Keadilan Rakyat">Parti Keadilan Rakyat</a>, or PKR) also positioned itself against <i>Ketuanan Melayu</i>, advocating instead <i>Ketuanan Rakyat</i> (supremacy of the people). The idea of Malay nationalism gained attention in the 1940s, when the Malays organised themselves to protest the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Union" title="Malayan Union">Malayan Union</a>'s establishment by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a>, and later fought for independence. During the 1960s, there was a substantial effort challenging <i>Malay nationalism</i> led by the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Action_Party" title="People's Action Party">People's Action Party</a> (PAP) of <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> — which was a state in Malaysia from 1963 to 1965 — and the DAP after Singapore's <a href="/wiki/Singapore_in_Malaysia#Expulsion" title="Singapore in Malaysia">expulsion</a>. However, the portions of the Constitution related to <i><a href="/wiki/Malay_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Malay nationalism">Malay nationalism</a></i> were "<a href="/wiki/Entrenched_clause" title="Entrenched clause">entrenched</a>" after the <a href="/wiki/13_May_incident" title="13 May incident">race riots of 13 May 1969</a>, which followed an election campaign focused on the issue of non-Malay rights and <i>Malay nationalism</i>. This period also saw the rise of "<a href="/wiki/Ultra_(Malaysia)" title="Ultra (Malaysia)">ultras</a>" who advocated for a Malay supremacist <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> led by UMNO, and an increased emphasis on the Malays being the "definitive people" of Malaysia — i.e., only a Malay could be a true Malaysian. </p><p>The riots caused a major change in the government's approach to racial issues, and led to the introduction of an aggressive <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a> policy strongly favouring the Malays, the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_New_Economic_Policy" title="Malaysian New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> (NEP). The <a href="/wiki/National_Culture_Policy" title="National Culture Policy">National Culture Policy</a>, also introduced in 1970, emphasised an assimilation of the non-Malays into the Malay ethnic group. During the 1990s, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir Mohamad</a> toned down this approach, with his <i><a href="/wiki/Bangsa_Malaysia" title="Bangsa Malaysia">Bangsa Malaysia</a></i> policy emphasising a Malaysian instead of Malay identity for the state. However, since the 2010s, politicians particularly from the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_United_Indigenous_Party" title="Malaysian United Indigenous Party">Malaysian United Indigenous Party</a> (BERSATU) and the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Islamic_Party" title="Malaysian Islamic Party">Malaysian Islamic Party</a> (PAS) began re-emphasising the phrase, as they deemed such rights as being threatened under a <a href="/wiki/Pakatan_Harapan" title="Pakatan Harapan">Pakatan Harapan</a> (PH)–led government, and publicly chastised government ministers from the coalition who questioned the concept as being in violation of the supposed social contract. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Malaysian_Malays">Malaysian Malays</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Malaysian Malays"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_Malays" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic Malays">Ethnic Malays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malay_race" title="Malay race">Malay race</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Malays" title="Malaysian Malays">Malaysian Malays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malayisation" title="Malayisation">Malayisation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Article_160_of_the_Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia">Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sultans_at_the_first_Malayan_Durbar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Sultans_at_the_first_Malayan_Durbar.jpg/220px-Sultans_at_the_first_Malayan_Durbar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Sultans_at_the_first_Malayan_Durbar.jpg/330px-Sultans_at_the_first_Malayan_Durbar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Sultans_at_the_first_Malayan_Durbar.jpg/440px-Sultans_at_the_first_Malayan_Durbar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1301" data-file-height="1044" /></a><figcaption>The British recognised the Malay Rulers as sovereign over Malaya.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_Malays" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic Malays">Ethnic Malays</a> which make up the majority <a href="/wiki/Malaysia#Demographics" title="Malaysia">population of Malaysia</a> at 50.4%, are an ethnic group of <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Austronesian people">Austronesian people</a> predominantly inhabiting the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Thailand" title="Southern Thailand">southernmost parts of Thailand</a>, the east coast of <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, the coast of <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a>, and the smaller islands which lie between these locations. The true origin of ethnic Malays is still the subject of studies among historians, anthropologists and linguists. A popular theory suggested that the people who spoke <a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian languages</a> first arrived in <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">Maritime Southeast Asia</a> between 2,500BCE and 1,500BCE, as a part of Austronesian expansion from <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> to <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, a recent genetic studies carried out by HUGO (<a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Organisation" title="Human Genome Organisation">Human Genome Organisation</a>) involving almost 2,000 people across Asia, points to another theory of Asian migration pattern. The HUGO findings support the hypothesis that Asia was populated primarily through a single migration event from the south and that the South East Asian region was populated first which contained the most diversity, then continuing slowly North with its diversity being lost.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hindu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> influences arrived through trade contacts with the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. The beginning of the first <a href="/wiki/Millennium" title="Millennium">Millennium</a> saw the rise of ancient Malay states in the coastal areas of <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a>, notably the <a href="/wiki/Red_Earth_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Earth Kingdom">Red Earth Kingdom</a> (1st century), <a href="/wiki/Gangga_Negara" title="Gangga Negara">Gangga Negara</a> (2nd century), <a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a> (2nd century), <a href="/wiki/Bujang_Valley" title="Bujang Valley">Kedah</a> (2nd century) and <a href="/wiki/Old_Pahang_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Pahang Kingdom">Pahang</a> (5th century). Between 7th and 13th centuries, many of these small, often prosperous peninsular maritime trading states became part of the <a href="/wiki/Srivijaya_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Srivijaya empire">Srivijaya empire</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a kingdom centred in <a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 15th century, the <a href="/wiki/Malacca_Sultanate" title="Malacca Sultanate">Malacca Sultanate</a>, whose hegemony reached over much of the western Malay archipelago, had become the centre of <a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamization</a> in the east. The Malaccan tradition was transmitted onwards and fostered a vigorous ethos of Malay identity.<sup id="cite_ref-T._N_Harper_page_15_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-T._N_Harper_page_15-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since this era, the Islamic faith became closely identified with Malay society and played a significant role in defining the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Islamic_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Malay Islamic identity">Malay identity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Barbara_Watson_Andaya,_Leonard_Y._Andaya_page_55_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barbara_Watson_Andaya,_Leonard_Y._Andaya_page_55-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The close identification of the Malays with Islam continued until the 20th century and was finally entrenched in the <a href="/wiki/Article_160_of_the_Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia">Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia</a> as well as in the national philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Islamic_Monarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Malay Islamic Monarchy">Malay Islamic Monarchy</a>. </p><p>The present-day Malaysian Malays are divided broadly into "Malays proper" or "Peninsular Malays" (<i>Melayu Anak Jati</i> or <i>Melayu Semenanjung</i>) and "foreign Malays" or "Islander Malay" (<i>Melayu Anak Dagang</i> or "Melayu Kepulauan"). The Malays proper consist of those individuals who adhere to the Malay culture which has developed in the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among notable groups are <a href="/wiki/Kedahan_Malay" class="mw-redirect" title="Kedahan Malay">Kedahan Malays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kelantanese_Malay" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelantanese Malay">Kelantanese Malays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terengganuan_Malay" class="mw-redirect" title="Terengganuan Malay">Terengganuan Malays</a>. The foreign Malays consist of descendants of immigrants from other part of <a href="/wiki/Malay_Archipelago" title="Malay Archipelago">Malay Archipelago</a> who became the citizens of the Malay sultanates and were absorbed and assimilated into Malay culture at different times, aided by similarity in lifestyle and common religion (<a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>). Among notable groups are the <a href="/wiki/Javanese_people" title="Javanese people">Javanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minangkabau_people" title="Minangkabau people">Minangkabau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bugis" title="Bugis">Bugis</a> Malays.<sup id="cite_ref-Gulrose_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gulrose-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Joseph&_Najmabadi_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joseph&_Najmabadi-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia defines a <i>Malay</i> as a Malaysian citizen born to a Malaysian citizen who professes to be a Muslim, habitually speaks the Malay language, adheres to Malay customs, and is domiciled in Malaysia or Singapore.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though this definition is not according to ancestry lineage, it is however correct in the sense of social behaviours. Culture, which controls a great proportion of general mentality and social behaviour, is succeeded through the mother tongue and religion. Article 160 unites Malays from different <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic groups</a> as the prevailing <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a> and thus embraces them with the political prowess to dominate and rule over other races: Chinese, Indians, <a href="/wiki/Kadazan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadazan">Kadazan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iban_people" title="Iban people">Iban</a>, Orang Asli etc. This is also apparent from the name of <a href="/wiki/UMNO" title="UMNO">UMNO</a> (United Malays National Organisation), who are a staunch political proponent of this role. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pre-independence">Pre-independence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Pre-independence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Malay_nationalism" title="Early Malay nationalism">Early Malay nationalism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Malay_nationalism">Early Malay nationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early Malay nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Malay nationalism as an organised political movement existed since the invasion by foreign powers. However, the ethnic Chinese and Indian immigrants, forming a minority of the population, did not see themselves as Malayans.<sup id="cite_ref-Lin-Sheng_2003_pp._26_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lin-Sheng_2003_pp._26-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A report by the <a href="/wiki/Permanent_Under-Secretary_of_State_for_the_Colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Permanent Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies">Permanent Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies</a> in the early 1930s found that "the number of non-Malays who have adopted Malaya as their home is only a very small proportion of the whole population".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the British effectively held <i><a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a></i> control over Malaya, <i><a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i> the country was governed by the Malays themselves, and merely being temporarily administered by the British. The High Commissioner, <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Clifford_(colonial_administrator)" title="Hugh Clifford (colonial administrator)">Sir Hugh Clifford</a> made a speech outlining the British ideology during their rule in Malaysia,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which he urged "everyone in this country [to] be mindful of the fact that this is a Malay country, and we British came here at the invitation of Their Highnesses the Malay Rulers, and it is our duty to help the Malays to rule their own country."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The colonial authorities adopted an open "Pro-Malay" policy so the Malays could, in the words of High Commissioner <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Guillemard" title="Laurence Guillemard">Sir Laurence Guillemard</a>, be equipped "to take their proper place in the administrative and commercial life of these States."<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In reality, the non-elite Malays felt marginalised by the economic and political policies of the colonial government, and felt increasingly separated and disconnected from the Malay elite.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The local-born non-Malay communities soon began a campaign for self-rule. In 1936, the Malayan-born Indian community asked High Commissioner <a href="/wiki/Shenton_Thomas" title="Shenton Thomas">Sir Shenton Thomas</a> to grant them a share of administrative appointments. Thomas rejected the request, referring to the local-born Indians as "foreigners".<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the colonial government appeared to view the Chinese as a "transient labor force," with statistics indicating most Chinese migrants eventually returned home, some historians have contended that the local-born Chinese population was steadily growing during the period. Nevertheless, the colonial government insisted it would be dangerous to consider the Chinese as having "a tendency to permanent settlement"; the locally born Indian community — comprising 20% of the Indian population, the rest being manual labourers having migrated for similar reasons as the Chinese at around the same time — was likewise largely ignored.<sup id="cite_ref-roff_110,111_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roff_110,111-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The colonial government ensured that the Malays would continue to maintain their "traditional" peasant lifestyle as much as possible, restricting movement, economic enterprises and education. This policy was maintained in the belief that education of Bengalis in India had led to discontent and rebellion.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They involved only the Malay ruling class in government and administrative issues. Despite the exclusion of non-Malays from positions of authority, much of the civil service rank and file comprised non-Malays, many of them Indians who were specifically brought in for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-roff_110,111_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roff_110,111-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A number of historians have described the pro-Malay policies as designed merely to preserve the position of the colonial authorities, rather than to strengthen that of the Malays; some have characterised the approach as keeping "the races at just the right distance from each other to have the disparate elements of Malaya work in remote harmony".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1920s, the local-born Chinese, who retained significant economic power, began pushing for a greater role in Malayan government.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of the Chinese community, which now made up 45% of the Malayan population, still comprised <a href="/wiki/Transient_laborer" class="mw-redirect" title="Transient laborer">transient laborers</a>. Nevertheless, the <a href="/wiki/Straits_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Straits Chinese">Straits Chinese</a> — which comprised the bulk of local-born Chinese — wanted to be given government positions and recognised as Malayans. One Straits Chinese leader asked, "Who said this is a Malay country? ... When Captain [Francis] <a href="/wiki/Francis_Light" title="Francis Light">Light</a> arrived, did he find Malays, or Malay villages? Our forefathers came here and worked hard as <a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">coolies</a> — weren't ashamed to become coolies — and they didn't send their money back to China. They married and spent their money here, and in this way the Government was able to open up the country from jungle to civilization. We've become inseparable from this country. It's ours, our country..." Malay intellectuals objected to this reasoning, claiming that such reasoning is totally absurd and proposing an analogy with the Chinese as masons and Malaya as a house. A paid mason, they argued, was not entitled to a share in the ownership rights to a home he built. As such, they opposed any attempt to grant the Chinese citizenship or other political rights.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of Indonesian ethnic groups such as the <a href="/wiki/Javanese_people" title="Javanese people">Javanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bugis" title="Bugis">Bugis</a> had migrated within the Malay Archipelago throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and were most quickly assimilated into the Malay cultural identity.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, the Chinese-Malayan appeals appeared to have some impact on the British. In 1927, the Governor of the <a href="/wiki/Straits_Settlements" title="Straits Settlements">Straits Settlements</a> referred to the Chinese as "indigenous inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">British Malaya</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Just before the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, Malay nationalism began emphasising <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>, which had once been taken for granted. It was feared that British policies now seemed geared towards creating a common Malayan nationality inclusive of the Chinese and Indians. Some Malays thus sought to preserve the <i><a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">status quo</a></i> with the British as a bulwark against the non-Malays. Others began calling for an independent and sovereign Malay nation, such as "<a href="/wiki/Greater_Indonesia" title="Greater Indonesia">Greater Indonesia</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Malayan_Union_(1946–48)"><span id="The_Malayan_Union_.281946.E2.80.9348.29"></span>The Malayan Union (1946–48)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Malayan Union (1946–48)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the end of the Second World War, the British announced the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Union" title="Malayan Union">Malayan Union</a>, which would loosen immigration policies, reduce the sovereignty of the Malay rulers, and abstain from recognising Malay supremacy, establishing Malaya as a <a href="/wiki/British_protectorate" title="British protectorate">protectorate</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. As local-born residents, most Chinese and Indians qualified for citizenship under the Union's principle of <i><a href="/wiki/Jus_soli" title="Jus soli">jus soli</a></i>. With equal rights guaranteed to all, the Malays became dissatisfied with that. Even their traditional stronghold, the civil service, would be open to all Malayans.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the first place, the Malays did not consider themselves to be included under the label of "Malayans".<sup id="cite_ref-ongkili_59-66_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ongkili_59-66-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Malays became politically conscious, protesting the Union's formation. At one gathering, placards declared that "Malaya Belongs to the Malays. We do not want the other races to be given the rights and privileges of the Malays."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One Malay organisation informed the British that the Union's citizenship provisions would lead to "the wiping from existence of the Malay race along with their land and Rulers".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A group of Malay royalists and civil servants led by Dato' <a href="/wiki/Onn_Ja%27afar" class="mw-redirect" title="Onn Ja'afar">Onn Ja'afar</a> formed the <a href="/wiki/United_Malays_National_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="United Malays National Organisation">United Malays National Organisation</a> (UMNO) to protest the Malayan Union's formation.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the Union was established as planned, the campaign continued; in 1948, the British replaced the Malayan Union with the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation of Malaya</a>. The Federation restored sovereignty to the Malay rulers, tightened immigration and citizenship restrictions, and gave the Malays special privileges.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the avowed goal of the British remained the same as in 1946: to introduce "a form of common citizenship open to all those, irrespective of race, who regarded Malaya as their real home and as the object of their loyalty."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Limited opposition to <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> and UMNO during this period came from a coalition between the <a href="/wiki/All-Malaya_Council_of_Joint_Action" title="All-Malaya Council of Joint Action">All-Malaya Council of Joint Action</a> (AMCJA) and the <a href="/wiki/Pusat_Tenaga_Rakyat" class="mw-redirect" title="Pusat Tenaga Rakyat">Pusat Tenaga Rakyat</a> (PUTERA). Although one of PUTERA's constituent organisations had insisted on <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> as a "National Birthright" of the Malays, PUTERA joined the AMCJA in championing equal political rights for non-Malays. After the British refused to heed the PUTERA-AMCJA coalition, it pulled out of talks with the British, later launching a major <a href="/wiki/Hartal" title="Hartal">hartal</a> (general strike) to protest perceived defects in the new polity. After the Federation was formed over their objections, the coalition disbanded.<sup id="cite_ref-ongkili_59-66_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ongkili_59-66-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to the Federation, non-Malays were generally uninvolved in Malayan politics and nationalism, both essentially Malay in nature; being more interested in the politics of their respective homelands, non-Malays never significantly backed the Malayan Union openly but their silence was a support to it.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The AMCJA, though mostly non-Malay, did not represent a large section of the non-Malay communities in Malaya.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lack of interest in or loyalty to Malaya amongst the non-Malays seemed to justify <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> — Malay self-rule. </p><p>Some historians have argued the Union's failure made the Chinese aware of the need for political representation. The <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Chinese_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayan Chinese Association">Malayan Chinese Association</a> (MCA) — a communal political party campaigning for Chinese political rights — was formed soon after the Federation's formation.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others claim that the main driving force behind non-Malay involvement in Malayan politics, and their assertion of certain rights, was the increasing number of local-born non-Malays. The same report from the British Permanent Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies cited earlier stated that Malayan-born non-Malays "have never seen the land of their origin and they claim that their children and their children's children should have fair treatment."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inaugural President of the MCA was <a href="/wiki/Tan_Cheng_Lock" title="Tan Cheng Lock">Tan Cheng Lock</a>, a local-born Chinese who had led the AMCJA until its breaking up. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Towards_independence">Towards independence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Towards independence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Its initial goals achieved, UMNO established itself as a political party to fight for independence. At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Communist_Party" title="Malayan Communist Party">Malayan Communist Party</a> (MCP) launched an armed insurgency to form a communist government in Malaya, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a> which lasted until after independence. The insurgency was marked by a clear racial divide; opposition to the insurrection was almost entirely Malay, while Chinese dominated the communist ranks. The British encouraged the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Communities_Liaison_Committee" title="Communities Liaison Committee">Communities Liaison Committee</a> (CLC), comprising the top echelon of Malayan politicians from different communities, to address sensitive issues, especially those related to race. Compromises on a number of issues, including citizenship, education, democracy, and Malay supremacy, were agreed on. Eventually, a "bargain" between the Malays and non-Malays was formulated; in return for giving up <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>, the Malays would be assisted in closing the economic gap between the Malay and non-Malay communities. CLC member <a href="/wiki/E.E.C._Thuraisingham" class="mw-redirect" title="E.E.C. Thuraisingham">E.E.C. Thuraisingham</a> later said, "I and others believed that the backward Malays should be given a better deal. Malays should be assisted to attain parity with non-Malays to forge a united Malayan Nation of equals."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Problems continued to crop up. Many Chinese Malayan youths <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">drafted</a> into the army to stave off communist attacks fled the country; most participants were English- and not Chinese-educated. To the Malays, this indicated that the Chinese had no particular loyalty towards Malaya and justified <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>, heightening similar perceptions caused by the apparent racial dichotomy between those in fierce opposition to the communists and those supporting the MCP.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tunku_Abdul_Rahman_1960.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Tunku_Abdul_Rahman_1960.jpg/150px-Tunku_Abdul_Rahman_1960.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Tunku_Abdul_Rahman_1960.jpg/225px-Tunku_Abdul_Rahman_1960.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Tunku_Abdul_Rahman_1960.jpg/300px-Tunku_Abdul_Rahman_1960.jpg 2x" data-file-width="772" data-file-height="1099" /></a><figcaption>Tunku Abdul Rahman (the Tunku), father of the independence</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early 1950s, Onn Ja'afar proposed to open UMNO membership to all Malayans, and renaming it the United Malayan National Organisation, which would have diluted its identity as a champion of <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>. Defeated in an internal power struggle, he resigned in 1951 to found the <a href="/wiki/Independence_of_Malaya_Party" title="Independence of Malaya Party">Independence of Malaya Party</a> (IMP). He was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Tunku_Abdul_Rahman" title="Tunku Abdul Rahman">Tunku Abdul Rahman</a> (often known as "the Tunku"), who insisted on initial Malay sovereignty. Expressing concern over a lack of loyalty to Malaya among non-Malays, he demanded they clarify their allegiance before being accorded citizenship, going on to state: "For those who love and feel they owe undivided loyalty to this country, we will welcome them as Malayans. They must truly be Malayans, and they will have the same rights and privileges as the Malays."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not long after, in 1952, however, he appeared to contradict himself, and insisted that Malays safeguard their special position: "Malaya is for the Malays and it should not be governed by a mixture of races."<sup id="cite_ref-josey_83-84_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-josey_83-84-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Penang_State_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Penang_State_Map.jpg/220px-Penang_State_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Penang_State_Map.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="279" data-file-height="347" /></a><figcaption>During the early 1950s, there was an active <a href="/wiki/Straits_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Straits Chinese">Straits Chinese</a> secessionist movement in Penang agitating against <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>During this period, some <a href="/wiki/Straits_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Straits Chinese">Straits Chinese</a> began taking interest in local politics, especially in <a href="/wiki/Penang" title="Penang">Penang</a>, where there was an active Chinese <a href="/w/index.php?title=Seccessionism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Seccessionism (page does not exist)">secessionist</a> movement. Identifying more with the British than the Malays, they were especially angered by references to them as <i><a href="/wiki/Pendatang_asing" title="Pendatang asing">pendatang asing</a></i> (foreigners). Avoiding both UMNO and the MCA, they believed that while UMNO and Malay extremists were intent on extending Malay privileges and restricting Chinese rights, the MCA was too "selfish", and could not be relied on.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Uncomfortable about the merger of the Straits Settlements with Malaya, they did not feel a sense of belonging in a "Malaya for the Malays" where they were not considered <i><a href="/wiki/Bumiputra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bumiputra">bumiputra</a></i> ("sons of the soil"). One Straits Chinese leader indignantly declared, "I can claim to be more <i>anak Pulau Pinang</i> [a son of Penang] than 99 per cent of the Malays living here today." With the government's stout rejection of secession, the movement eventually petered out.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some suggested that the non-Malays did not feel loyal to Malaya because they did not consider themselves to be of Malayan <a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">nationality</a> and adhere strictly to their own ethnic cultural backgrounds. To counter this, in 1952 citizenship was granted to nearly all local-born non-Malays, and <a href="/wiki/Dual_citizenship" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual citizenship">dual citizenship</a> prohibited, forcing non-Malays to choose between their ancestral homeland and Malaya.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast to the Malay's hypothesis, a majority of the non-Malays remained, thus proving their allegiance to Malaya. They are the ancestor of modern-day non-Malay Malaysian. </p><p>As Malaya moved to self-government, the British initiated the <a href="/wiki/Member_System" title="Member System">Member System</a>, modelled on the <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet system">cabinet system</a>; like the CLC, it drew on members of different communities, and was later described as setting a precedent for the power-sharing multiracial Malayan and Malaysian cabinets post-independence. At the same time, the British also began laying the framework for a <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malaysia" title="Education in Malaysia">national education system</a> that would create "a sense of common citizenship". The <a href="/wiki/Barnes_Report" title="Barnes Report">Barnes Report</a> that they commissioned, however, was strongly objected to by the Chinese community for being "saturated with Malay nationalism" and bolstering <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fenn-Wu_Report&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fenn-Wu Report (page does not exist)">Fenn-Wu Report</a>, favoured by the Chinese, did not meet with Malay approval. In the end, the Barnes Report's recommendations for English-medium "national schools" were implemented by the 1952 Education Ordinance, over vocal Chinese protests, who were upset by the lack of provision for non-Malay vernacular schools. In 1956, a committee headed by <a href="/wiki/Tun_Abdul_Razak" class="mw-redirect" title="Tun Abdul Razak">Tun Abdul Razak</a> re-evaluated the education system. The "Razak Report" recommended that vernacular primary schools be permitted to continue, but share a common syllabus with national schools. Vernacular secondary schools would not be sanctioned; only national secondary schools would be funded. The Chinese community strenuously objected to the Razak Report as well, launching an organised campaign against it; the MCA's refusal to oppose the Report cost it politically in some Chinese constituencies.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the Razak Report's recommendations were largely successful, and many of them remain in place as of 2006. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possible_origins_of_ketuanan_Melayu">Possible origins of <i>ketuanan Melayu</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Possible origins of ketuanan Melayu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Income_disparity_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Income disparity in Malaysia">Income disparity in Malaysia</a></div> <p>According to many historians, the root cause of ethnic strife and <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> was a lack of mixing between the Malays and non-Malays. An exception to this were the Straits Chinese, who managed to assimilate reasonably well, despite the assimilation taking 600 years including intermarriage. According to the <a href="/wiki/Ming_Shi-lu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ming Shi-lu">Ming Shi-lu</a>, the ancestors of the Straits Chinese were "gifts" given to the Sultan of Malacca as a recognition of both bilateral ties between the Ming Dynasty and the sultanate, and of Malay sovereignty. At the time, most were rich merchants during British rule instead of manual labourers and many habitually spoke Malay, dressed in the Malay style, and preferred Malay cuisine.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British educational policies regards the different races in Malaysia — providing minimal public education for Malays, and leaving non-Malays to their own devices — did not help matters. The Malays, predominantly rural-dwellers, received no encouragement to socialise with the more urban non-Malays.<sup id="cite_ref-Hwang,_pp._30–31_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hwang,_pp._30–31-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The economic impoverishment of the Malays which set them apart from the better-off Chinese also fanned racial sentiments.<sup id="cite_ref-Hwang,_pp._30–31_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hwang,_pp._30–31-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another contributing factor to <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> was the World War II Japanese occupation. The war "awakened a keen political awareness among Malayan people by intensifying communalism and racial hatred". Japanese policies "politicised the Malay peasantry", intentionally fanning the flames of Malay nationalism. Two Malay historians wrote that "The Japanese hostile acts against the Chinese and their apparently more favourable treatments of the Malays helped to make the Chinese community feel its separate identity more acutely..." A foreign commentator agreed, stating that "During the occupation period ... Malay national sentiment had become a reality; it was strongly anti-Chinese, and its rallying cry [was] 'Malaya for the Malays'..."<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Alliance_-_1955_Federal_Legislative_Council_elections">The Alliance - 1955 Federal Legislative Council elections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The Alliance - 1955 Federal Legislative Council elections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although UMNO supported <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>, it formed an "Alliance" with the MCA and the <a href="/wiki/Malayan_Indian_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="Malayan Indian Congress">Malayan Indian Congress</a> (MIC) to contest the 1955 Federal Legislative Council elections. This took many by surprise, as the MCA had strenuously insisted on equal political rights for all citizens. Its President, <a href="/wiki/Tan_Cheng_Lock" title="Tan Cheng Lock">Tan Cheng Lock</a>, was himself a Straits Chinese, albeit not as extremist as the secessionists. Although initially dismissed as a marriage of convenience, the Alliance won 51 out of 52 seats available. The sole remaining seat went to the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Islamic_Party_(PAS)" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS)">Pan-Malayan Islamic Party</a> (PMIP; later known as PAS), a Malay-based party and strong advocate of <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>. The total defeat of non-communal parties led the Alliance to perceive the political atmosphere as inhospitable for multi-racial parties. A coalition government comprising mono-racial parties in which party leaders privately brokered compromise decisions was thought more stable and better suited to Malayan politics.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to the election, Dato' Onn Ja'afar had changed his approach, forming the <a href="/wiki/Parti_Negara" title="Parti Negara">Parti Negara</a> after IMP suffered crushing losses to the Alliance in local elections. Advocating stronger pro-Malay policies recognising Malay political dominance, the Parti Negara failed to shake the Alliance's grip on power. However, some believe Parti Negara's proposals helped sway UMNO politicians towards more radically pro-Malay policies.<sup id="cite_ref-iseas_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iseas-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British themselves insisted on handing over power only to a multiracial government, and the Alliance was considered to meet this requirement.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Independence_and_formation_of_Malaysia">Independence and formation of Malaysia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Independence and formation of Malaysia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independence_and_the_Constitution">Independence and the Constitution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Independence and the Constitution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="Constitution of Malaysia">Constitution of Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_contract_(Malaysia)" title="Social contract (Malaysia)">Social contract (Malaysia)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Article_153_of_the_Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia">Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya" title="Federation of Malaya">Federation of Malaya</a> became officially independent from the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> in 1957. The new state's <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="Constitution of Malaysia">Constitution</a> contained provisions, such as <a href="/wiki/Article_153_of_the_Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia">Article 153</a>, guaranteeing the <a href="/wiki/Malay_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Malay people">Malays</a> certain privileges as a form of <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Reid_Commission" title="Reid Commission">Reid Commission</a>, which drafted the Constitution, stated that Article 153 was to be temporary in nature, and should be reviewed by <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Malaysia" title="Parliament of Malaysia">Parliament</a> 15 years after independence.<sup id="cite_ref-ooi_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ooi-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Constitution itself did not explicitly state this, however, nor did it clarify the purpose of Article 153. It did declare all Malayans equal under the law, without mention of "Malay sovereignty" or any other ideas related to <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>. <i><a href="/wiki/Jus_soli" title="Jus soli">Jus soli</a></i> citizenship — the granting of citizenship to anyone born in the Federation — was also granted, albeit without <a href="/wiki/Retrospective_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Retrospective effect">retrospective effect</a>; it was a major concession by the Malays, who had vigorously campaigned against <i>jus soli</i> citizenship in the Malayan Union.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> became the national language and official religion, while the Malay rulers remained. This was taken to mean that the Malays were accorded deference as the definitive people of Malaya — i.e. being a Malayan would be the same as being a Malay — and in the eyes of many, gave Malaya a Malay identity.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One academic suggested that "The Malays have a deep-rooted feeling that they alone are the bumiputras, the sons of the soil, and as such have certain special rights over the land." Indeed, the Tunku said in 1964 that "It is understood by all that this country by its very name, its traditions and character, is Malay. ... In any other country where aliens try to dominate economic and other fields, eventually there is bitter opposition from the indigenous people. But not with the Malays. Therefore, in return, they must appreciate the position of the Malays..."<sup id="cite_ref-josey_83-84_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-josey_83-84-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that a Malaysian nationality did not emerge because "all the national symbols in Malaysia were derived from the Malay tradition".<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Constitutional restraint on the size of rural Parliamentary constituencies was later removed, providing what one commentator called "an indirect buttress" to Malay special rights; as Malays were concentrated in rural areas, this indirectly enhanced Malay political power. The original Constitution had implicitly followed "<a href="/wiki/One_man,_one_vote" title="One man, one vote">one man, one vote</a>". The change was denounced as "giving one man one vote, another a number of votes: not on the basis of, say, intellectual ability or geographical accident, but in order to ensure the dominance of a particular group."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The constitutional provisions, which have been referred to as the "<a href="/wiki/Malay_Agenda" title="Malay Agenda">Malay Agenda</a>", evoked little sentiment from non-Malays, despite most of them gaining citizenship and thus becoming theoretically equal to Malay citizens under the Constitution. This could be attributed to acceptance of the <a href="/wiki/Social_contract_(Malaysia)" title="Social contract (Malaysia)">social contract</a>, of which one historian wrote: "At the elite level, non-Malays recognized that Malays were politically superior by virtue of their indigenous status and that the Malaysian polity would have a Malay character ... Malays were to be assured of safe majorities in both the state and federal parliament ... Malays would control the highest positions of the government and ... dominate members of the federal cabinet." A Malay historian wrote that "In return the Chinese gained more than <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Chinese" title="Overseas Chinese">overseas Chinese</a> in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> had dreamed of — equal citizenship, political participation and office holding, unimpaired economic opportunity, and tolerance for their language, religion, and cultural institutions."<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some expressed trepidation at Article 153; shortly before independence, the <i><a href="/wiki/China_Press" title="China Press">China Press</a></i> suggested that while special rights "may be excusable at the start of the building of a nation," if "the period of 'special rights' is not restricted, or the scope of special rights is not clearly defined, then endless disputes ... will arise later on," and argued that special rights would eventually divide instead of unite Malayans.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, at the time of independence, some historians assert, "there was a genuine sense of common citizenship, common aspirations, a common destiny."<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was about to change. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Merger">Merger</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Merger"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1961, when the Malayan government began discussing a possible merger with neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sabah" title="Sabah">Sabah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarawak" title="Sarawak">Sarawak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a>, problems of ethnic power relations arose again. The "Malaysia" proposal sans Sabah and Sarawak went back more than a decade; earlier negotiations had proved fruitless. The Singaporeans themselves were not anxious to be ruled by what they considered a Malay government.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1961, however, Singapore had grown receptive to the idea of joining Malaysia, largely because of the prevailing idea at the time that industrial Singapore could not survive without access to Malayan markets.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Malayan government was not keen on having the Chinese Singaporean population push the Malays into a minority position in the new Malaysia. Many Malays felt that upsetting the Malay-dominated nature of the armed forces and police might place them in a dangerous situation. It was also argued that the inferior economic position of the Malays would be emphasised by the entry of even more rich Chinese, setting the stage for major discontent.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Malayans decided to resolve this by merging with Sabah and Sarawak; both of these colonies had large native populations whom the colonial authorities considered "Malay". Under <a href="/wiki/Article_160_of_the_Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia">Article 160 of the Constitution</a>, most of them were not Malay; the natives were mainly <a href="/wiki/Animist" class="mw-redirect" title="Animist">animists</a> or <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> instead of Muslims as required. To resolve this issue, the government expanded its informal definition of "Malay" to include these people.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sabahans and Sarawakians could not see how they would benefit from merger. Many regarded Malaya as being only for the Malays, a group they did not include themselves in. The spectre of "Malaysia" — the inclusion of the phrase "Malay" being considered frightening — with its official religion of Islam and official language of Malay, did nothing to soothe their fears of "Malay domination". For merger to come about, they insisted the natives of Sabah and Sarawak be awarded the same privileges as Malays.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/20-point_agreement_(Sabah)" class="mw-redirect" title="20-point agreement (Sabah)">20-point agreement</a> between Sabah and the Malayan government, and a slightly different 18-point agreement by Sarawak, was later agreed upon. After much negotiation and a show of support from the British for a merger, the impasse was resolved. Although natives of Borneo were denied the privileges of Malays, merger was effected on 16 September 1963. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Malaysian_Malaysia!""><span id=".22Malaysian_Malaysia.21.22"></span>"Malaysian Malaysia!"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: "Malaysian Malaysia!""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Malaysia" title="Malaysian Malaysia">Malaysian Malaysia</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/1963_Singaporean_general_election" title="1963 Singaporean general election">1963 Singapore state elections</a>, the Alliance challenged the governing <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Action_Party" title="People's Action Party">People's Action Party</a> (PAP) through the <a href="/wiki/Singapore_Alliance_Party" title="Singapore Alliance Party">Singapore Alliance Party</a>. UMNO politicians actively campaigned in Singapore for the Singapore Alliance, contending that Singaporean Malays were being treated as <a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">second-class citizens</a> under the Chinese-dominated, though ostensibly multiracial, PAP government. However, all of the UMNO-backed Malay candidates lost to the PAP. The PAP politicians, who saw this as a betrayal of an earlier agreement with the Alliance not to contest elections in Malaya and Singapore (respectively), decided to run on the mainland in the <a href="/wiki/1964_Malaysian_general_election" title="1964 Malaysian general election">1964 general election</a>. Although the PAP attracted large crowds at its rallies, it won only one seat — that by <a href="/wiki/Devan_Nair" title="Devan Nair">Devan Nair</a>, who represented the <a href="/wiki/Bangsar" title="Bangsar">Bangsar</a> constituency. It is thought by some historians that Finance Minister and MCA President <a href="/wiki/Tan_Siew_Sin" title="Tan Siew Sin">Tan Siew Sin</a>'s appeal to the Chinese to avoid challenging the Malay special rights and risk merger with Indonesia helped the MCA retain its status as the "undisputed leader of the Chinese in the Malayan peninsula".<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, UMNO leaders were furious with the PAP.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-spark_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spark-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mr._Lee_Kuan_Yew_Mayoral_reception_1965_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Mr._Lee_Kuan_Yew_Mayoral_reception_1965_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Mr._Lee_Kuan_Yew_Mayoral_reception_1965_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Mr._Lee_Kuan_Yew_Mayoral_reception_1965_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Mr._Lee_Kuan_Yew_Mayoral_reception_1965_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Mr._Lee_Kuan_Yew_Mayoral_reception_1965_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Mr._Lee_Kuan_Yew_Mayoral_reception_1965_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew" title="Lee Kuan Yew">Lee Kuan Yew</a>, the leader of the Singapore government, publicly opposed <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>, and propagated his idea of a "<a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Malaysia" title="Malaysian Malaysia">Malaysian Malaysia</a>".</figcaption></figure> <p>New problems soon cropped up. <a href="/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew" title="Lee Kuan Yew">Lee Kuan Yew</a>, the leader of the Singaporean government and the PAP, declared his open opposition to <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>, calling for a "<a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Malaysia" title="Malaysian Malaysia">Malaysian Malaysia</a>" instead of the implied Malay Malaysia.<sup id="cite_ref-iseas_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iseas-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that "Malays began to migrate to Malaysia in noticeable numbers only about 700 years ago. Of the 39% Malays in Malaysia today, about one-third are comparatively new immigrants like (<a href="/wiki/Syed_Jaafar_Albar" title="Syed Jaafar Albar">Syed Jaafar Albar</a>), who came to Malaya from <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> just before the war at the age of more than thirty. Therefore, it is wrong and illogical for a particular racial group to think that they are more justified to be called Malaysians and that the others can become Malaysian only through their favour."<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lee later lamented: "Malaysia — to whom does it belong? To Malaysians. But who are Malaysians? I hope I am, Mr Speaker, Sir. But sometimes, sitting in this chamber, I doubt whether I am allowed to be a Malaysian. This is the doubt that hangs over many minds, and ... [once] emotions are set in motion, and men pitted against men along these unspoken lines, you will have the kind of warfare that will split the nation from top to bottom and undo Malaysia."<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At times, however, Lee worsened things by making racial comments of his own. Many of his speeches harped on the ethnic composition of Malaysia, reminding listeners that the non-Malays were now in the majority, with 61% of the population to the Malays' 39% asking at one point, "Why should we go back to old Singapore and once again reduce the non-Malays in Malaya to a minority?"<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lee exacerbated deteriorating <a href="/wiki/PAP%E2%80%93UMNO_relations" title="PAP–UMNO relations">PAP–UMNO relations</a> by constantly demanding that the federal government "smack down their '<a href="/wiki/Ultra_(Malaysia)" title="Ultra (Malaysia)">ultras</a>'", whose ranks included prominent UMNO leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Syed_Jaafar_Albar" title="Syed Jaafar Albar">Syed Jaafar Albar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syed_Nasir_Ismail" title="Syed Nasir Ismail">Syed Nasir Ismail</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lee's statements upset many, especially Alliance politicians. Tan Siew Sin called him the "greatest, disruptive force in the entire history of Malaysia and Malaya."<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tunku considered Lee too extremist in his views, while other UMNO politicians thought Lee was simply pandering to <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Chinese" title="Malaysian Chinese">Malaysian Chinese</a> with his rhetoric.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lee's statement about allegedly recent Malay migration met with stinging rebuttals; Albar declared: "To say that the Malays are in the same category as other races is an insult..." The UMNO newspaper <i>Malaya Merdeka</i> warned: "If the Malays are hard-pressed and their interests are not protected," they would merge Malaysia with <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was this that the Tunku feared the most. To him, the ultras were not the real extremists — it was those who sought a "Greater Indonesia" to "fix" the Chinese that were the real threat.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The strain in race relations led to the Singaporean <a href="/wiki/1964_Race_Riots" class="mw-redirect" title="1964 Race Riots">1964 Race Riots</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-spark_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spark-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which PAP Malay politician <a href="/wiki/Othman_Wok" title="Othman Wok">Othman Wok</a> later insinuated were planned beforehand by the <a href="/wiki/Ultra_(Malaysia)" title="Ultra (Malaysia)">ultras</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the year following the riots, tension continued growing. Syed Jaafar Albar declared that "Wherever I am, I am a Malay", drawing harsh return fire from Lee, who stated in Parliament: "If I had been going round and saying what [he] has been saying — wherever I am, I am a Chinese — where would we be? But I keep on reminding the people that I am a Malaysian. I am learning <i>Bahasa Kebangsaan</i> [Malay, the national language] and I accept <a href="/wiki/Article_153" class="mw-redirect" title="Article 153">Article 153</a> of the Constitution."<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lee insisted that he was not opposed to Malay special rights or Article 153, saying: "if the immigrant communities ... do not see the problems, if they can't feel what it is like to be a poor Malay, and don't feel for him, then I can say very soon he will manifest his disaffection in a very decisive way and the whole country will be thrown into turmoil."<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Few from the Alliance took this claim seriously. UMNO politicians insisted that a "Malaysian Malaysia" implied total equality, entailing the removal of Malay privileges.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Senu_Abdul_Rahman" title="Senu Abdul Rahman">Senu Abdul Rahman</a>, a federal Minister, felt Lee's advocacy of equality would deny the Malays the possibility of economic participation: "What we want is opportunity, the opportunity to obtain economic wealth for our people." Condemning Lee for stating he was a Malaysian by his own right, Senu asked: "The right which Lee is enjoying today did not fall from the sky or out of the blue. It was given to him. Doesn't he have some feeling of gratitude to the natives of this country?" Lee answered: "No, I am not enjoying anyone's hospitality. I am here as of right. And 61 per cent of the people of Malaysia have to stand by that or it is lost. Without it they would have no future."<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some, such as Syed Jaafar Albar, took Senu's stance further and referred to the Malays, as the Bumiputra, as "masters of the house", whose hospitality was being abused by the <i>bangsa asing</i> (aliens) or <i>orang tumpangan</i> (lodgers) such as Lee. This provoked a response from Cabinet member <a href="/wiki/Lim_Swee_Aun" title="Lim Swee Aun">Lim Swee Aun</a> insisting "we are co-owners, not lodgers, not guests."<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some went against the common view held in UMNO. <a href="/wiki/Ismail_Abdul_Rahman" title="Ismail Abdul Rahman">Ismail Abdul Rahman</a> told Parliament that "...both the Alliance and the PAP subscribe to the concept of a Malaysian Malaysia," but differed in their methods. Ismail characterised the PAP's approach as "non-communalism straightaway," while the Alliance required "two steps. First, inter-racial harmony; second, and ultimate state of non-communalism." Such statements were dismissed by Lee as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lip_service" class="extiw" title="wikt:lip service">lip service</a> that could not be taken seriously unless the ultras were reined in.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Separation">Separation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Separation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lee continued his campaign, forming the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Solidarity_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaysian Solidarity Council">Malaysian Solidarity Council</a> (MSC) comprising multi-racial parties such as the PAP, the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Progressive_Party_(Malaysia)" title="People's Progressive Party (Malaysia)">People's Progressive Party</a> (PPP) and the <a href="/wiki/United_Democratic_Party_(Malaysia)" title="United Democratic Party (Malaysia)">United Democratic Party</a> (UDP) in 1965. At the MSC's first and only general meeting, several leaders from these parties gave speeches supporting a Malaysian Malaysia. <a href="/wiki/D.R._Seenivasagam" class="mw-redirect" title="D.R. Seenivasagam">D.R. Seenivasagam</a> of the PPP accused the Alliance of using Article 153 to "bully non-Malays", while <a href="/wiki/Ong_Kee_Hui" title="Ong Kee Hui">Ong Kee Hui</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sarawak_United_Peoples%27_Party" title="Sarawak United Peoples' Party">Sarawak United Peoples' Party</a> (SUPP) said that "We see an attitude of intolerance and mounting signs of denial of political equality to people who are non-Malays. For the sake of our country and ourselves, this must be stopped and the drift to narrow racialism checked. Political equality should be accorded to all who live here and make this country their home, irrespective of their racial origin."<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Soon after, UMNO <a href="/wiki/Backbencher" title="Backbencher">backbencher</a> <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_bin_Mohamad" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahathir bin Mohamad">Mahathir bin Mohamad</a> attacked Lee in Parliament: "[The Singaporean Chinese] have never known Malay rule and cannot bear the idea that the people they have so long kept under their heels should now be in a position to rule them."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lee responded with an unscripted speech made entirely in Malay opposing the government's pro-Malay policies: "Of course there are Chinese millionaires in big cars and big houses. Is it the answer to make a few Malay millionaires with big cars and big houses? ... If we delude people into believing that they are poor because there are no Malay rights or because opposition members oppose Malay rights, where are we going to end up? You let people in the villages believe that they are poor because we don't speak Malay, because the government does not write in Malay, so he expects a miracle to take place [when Malay becomes the sole national language]. The moment we all start speaking Malay, he is going to have an uplift in the standard of living, and if doesn't happen, what happens then? Meanwhile, whenever there is a failure of economic, social and educational policies, you come back and say, oh, these wicked Chinese, Indian and others opposing Malay rights. They don't oppose Malay rights. They, the Malay, have the right as Malaysian citizens to go up to the level of training and education that the more competitive societies, the non-Malay society, has produced. That is what must be done, isn't it? Not to feed them with this obscurantist doctrine that all they have got to do is to get Malay rights for the few special Malays and their problem has been resolved."<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eventually, the Tunku — fed up with all the politicking and convinced that any further clashes of rhetoric would only degenerate into violence — asked Singapore to secede. Singapore became an independent nation in 1965, with Lee as its first <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Singapore" title="Prime Minister of Singapore">Prime Minister</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Article 152 of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Singapore" title="Constitution of Singapore">Constitution of Singapore</a> names the Malays as "indigenous people" of Singapore and mandates special safeguarding of their rights and privileges, the article does not specify any policies for such safeguarding. </p><p>Some later blamed the formation of Malaysia for strengthening <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>: "A reinforcement of Malay rights — which during the previous five or six years [prior to the formation of Malaysia] had been withering away as the Reid Commission might have suspected they would — took place against a background of general unequal treatment" after Malaysia's formation.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="13_May_and_the_New_Economic_Policy">13 May and the New Economic Policy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 13 May and the New Economic Policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Issues_of_language">Issues of language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Issues of language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Constitution specified a ten-year delay after independence in changing the national language from English to Malay. As the scheduled date in 1967 drew near some extremists Chinese began to agitate for a more liberal language policy permitting some instances of <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> in public affairs. Conservatives from UMNO and <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Islamic_Party_(PAS)" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS)">PAS</a> lashed out against them, but the Alliance proposed a compromise in the National Language Bill establishing Malay as the official language, but permitting English under certain circumstances and the use of non-Malay languages for non-official purposes. The Tunku described it as "a course guaranteeing peace",<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the Bill was widely derided by many Malays, who formed the National Language Action Front in hope of repealing or amending it. The leadership of the Tunku was also openly questioned.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="13_May">13 May</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 13 May"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/13_May_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="13 May Incident">13 May Incident</a></div> <p>In 1969, a <a href="/wiki/1969_Malaysian_general_election" title="1969 Malaysian general election">general election</a> was held. It was the first to be contested on a major scale by non-Malay-based opposition parties, other than the 1964 election where the PAP challenged the Alliance in Peninsular Malaysia. The two main opposition parties on this front in 1969 were the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Action_Party_(Malaysia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Action Party (Malaysia)">Democratic Action Party</a> (DAP) — the Malaysian successor to the PAP, widely seen as Chinese-based — and the <a href="/wiki/Parti_Gerakan_Rakyat_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia">Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia</a> (Gerakan), an ostensibly multiracial party led by former MCA stalwart, <a href="/wiki/Lim_Chong_Eu" title="Lim Chong Eu">Lim Chong Eu</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Middle-class" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle-class">middle-class</a> intellectuals like <a href="/wiki/Tan_Chee_Khoon" title="Tan Chee Khoon">Tan Chee Khoon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syed_Hussein_Alatas" title="Syed Hussein Alatas">Syed Hussein Alatas</a>. Both proposed policies on language, education, and Malay rights that were diametrically opposed to those of the government, with the DAP continuing where Lee Kuan Yew had left off with the "Malaysian Malaysia" campaign. Some, mostly from the DAP, called for the elevation of <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tamil_language" title="Tamil language">Tamil</a> to official language status, along with Malay. Stronger government support for the Chinese education stream was also demanded.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>PAS, on the other hand, attempted to garner votes by accusing UMNO of selling out the Malays' indigenous rights to "<a href="/wiki/Pendatang_asing" title="Pendatang asing">pendatang asing</a>". When the results were released, PAS had made minor inroads, but the DAP and Gerakan managed to topple the Alliance from power in three states, and nearly eradicated the Alliance's traditional two-thirds majority in Parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large part of these gains came at the expense of the MCA, which soon announced that it would not participate in the new government after the election, as the MCA no longer had a mandate to represent Chinese interests in the government. The jubilant DAP and Gerakan organised victory parades in the national capital of <a href="/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur" title="Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a> on 11 and 12 May, where participants taunted the Malays while bearing slogans such as "Semua Melayu kasi habis" ("Finish off all the Malays"), "Ini negara Cina punya" (" This country is Chinese owned")<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Nevertheless, the shocked Malays blamed Chinese voters for betraying "the Alliance formula by voting for an opposition that had revived fundamental questions of language and Malay special rights".<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Malay conservatives welcomed the MCA's move, feeling an UMNO- and Malay-dominated government would better serve their purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> UMNO held its own rally, which soon became a riot, on 13 May. This would later be euphemistically labelled as the "<a href="/wiki/13_May_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="13 May Incident">13 May Incident</a>". UMNO supporters gathered at Harun's house on the evening of 13 May, where the rally was due to start, with many brandishing <a href="/wiki/Parang_(knife)" title="Parang (knife)">parangs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Machete" title="Machete">machetes</a>) and other weapons after hearing the Chinese was insulting Malay and killed a few Malay passer-by and motorists and looted Malay stores and destroyed their homes. Some leaders condemned the "insults" of the "infidels" at the previous victory parades, calling the counter-rally a means "to protect Malay dignity" . Soon, the crowd began attacking Chinese who is also armed with bat and machetes and ready to charge. The rioting spread, and, despite the military being called in, continued for another two days.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Secretary_Pompeo_and_Malaysian_Prime_Minister_Mahathir_Mohamad_(43814329771)_(Mahathir_cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Secretary_Pompeo_and_Malaysian_Prime_Minister_Mahathir_Mohamad_%2843814329771%29_%28Mahathir_cropped%29.jpg/150px-Secretary_Pompeo_and_Malaysian_Prime_Minister_Mahathir_Mohamad_%2843814329771%29_%28Mahathir_cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Secretary_Pompeo_and_Malaysian_Prime_Minister_Mahathir_Mohamad_%2843814329771%29_%28Mahathir_cropped%29.jpg/225px-Secretary_Pompeo_and_Malaysian_Prime_Minister_Mahathir_Mohamad_%2843814329771%29_%28Mahathir_cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Secretary_Pompeo_and_Malaysian_Prime_Minister_Mahathir_Mohamad_%2843814329771%29_%28Mahathir_cropped%29.jpg/300px-Secretary_Pompeo_and_Malaysian_Prime_Minister_Mahathir_Mohamad_%2843814329771%29_%28Mahathir_cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="1102" /></a><figcaption>Mahathir Mohamad</figcaption></figure> <p>As a result of the riots, <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Malaysia" title="Parliament of Malaysia">Parliament</a> was suspended, and a state of national emergency was declared. A <a href="/wiki/National_Operations_Council" title="National Operations Council">National Operations Council</a> (NOC) was formed to oversee the administration of the country under emergency rule. Although the rioting had died down, tensions continued to simmer. A non-Malay boycott of Malay goods and services received "near total" support, while many Malays, such as <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir Mohamad</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Raja_Muktaruddin_Daim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Raja Muktaruddin Daim (page does not exist)">Raja Muktaruddin Daim</a> began calling for an <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocracy</a> led by UMNO alone, and the removal of the Tunku. According to some sources, one group of "ultras", comprising <a href="/wiki/Syed_Nasir_Ismail" title="Syed Nasir Ismail">Syed Nasir Ismail</a>, <a href="/wiki/Musa_Hitam" title="Musa Hitam">Musa Hitam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tengku_Razaleigh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tengku Razaleigh">Tengku Razaleigh</a>, felt that the power-sharing Constitution had failed, and agreed that the country had to be "returned" to the Malays. They allegedly agreed to summon Mahathir to Kuala Lumpur, where he led his anti-Tunku campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mahathir wrote an <a href="/wiki/Open_letter" title="Open letter">open letter</a> to the Tunku, accusing him of "giving the Chinese what they demand ... you have given them too much face." Soon, students at higher educational institutions across the country began to hold mass demonstrations, calling for the Tunku to step down in favour of a leader who would restore "Malay sovereignty". Sporadic rioting, believed to have been instigated by the Tunku's opponents, broke out.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Instead of bowing to their demands, the Tunku had Mahathir and Musa Hitam expelled from UMNO. The Minister of Home Affairs, <a href="/wiki/Ismail_Abdul_Rahman" title="Ismail Abdul Rahman">Ismail Abdul Rahman</a>, alleged that "These ultras believe in the wild and fantastic theory of absolute dominion by one race over the other communities, regardless of the Constitution. ... Polarisation has taken place in Malaysian politics and the extreme racialists among the ruling party are making a desperate bid to topple the present leadership."<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Malay_Dilemma_and_New_Economic_Policy"><i>The Malay Dilemma</i> and New Economic Policy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The Malay Dilemma and New Economic Policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_New_Economic_Policy" title="Malaysian New Economic Policy">Malaysian New Economic Policy</a></div> <p>Mahathir spent his political exile writing <i><a href="/wiki/The_Malay_Dilemma" title="The Malay Dilemma">The Malay Dilemma</a></i>, where he contended "that the Malays are the original or indigenous people of Malaya and the only people who can claim Malaya as their one and only country. In accordance with practice all over the world, this confers on the Malays certain inalienable rights over the forms and obligations of citizenship which can be imposed on citizens of non-indigenous origin." (Referring to the <a href="/wiki/Social_contract_(Malaysia)" title="Social contract (Malaysia)">social contract</a>.)<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mahathir expressed discomfort with "far too many non-Malay citizens who can swamp the Malays"<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when "...suddenly it has dawned upon the Malay that he cannot even call Malaya his land. There is no more <i>Tanah Melayu</i> — land of the Malays. He is now a different person, a Malaysian, but a Malay Malaysian whose authority in Malaya — his land — is now not only shared with others, but shared unequally. And as if this is not enough, he is being asked to give up more and more of his share of influence."<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mahathir's defence of Malay rights focused both on the "definitive people" line of reasoning and the argument in favour of affirmative action, which the Reid Commission had chosen: "It is not... for reasons of Malay superiority that preferential treatment for Malays in scholarship awards was insisted upon. ... They are a means of breaking down the superior position of the non-Malays in the field of education. The Malays are not proud of this treatment."<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after becoming Prime Minister, Mahathir denied he had altered any of his views since he wrote the book.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Bumi_discount_mod.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/88/Bumi_discount_mod.jpg" decoding="async" width="344" height="269" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="344" data-file-height="269" /></a><figcaption>Under the NEP, Bumiputra <a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a> purchases were subsidised.</figcaption></figure> <p>Mahathir and Musa Hitam later rejoined UMNO and the government under <a href="/wiki/Tun_Abdul_Razak" class="mw-redirect" title="Tun Abdul Razak">Tun Abdul Razak</a>, the second Prime Minister, whose <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_New_Economic_Policy" title="Malaysian New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> (NEP), was based on some of the reforms Mahathir's book had advocated. The NEP's stated goal was elimination of "the identification of race with economic function".<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To achieve this, it targeted a 30% share of the economy for the "Bumiputra" — "sons of the soil," a term referring to Malays and other indigenous peoples — by 1990. This became known as the "30 per cent solution" setting the "Bumiputra quota" for many items, including new public share listings and new private housing schemes. Certain commentators alleged that this fostered "a close to '<a href="/wiki/Zero-sum" class="mw-redirect" title="Zero-sum">zero-sum</a>' attitude chiefly between the Malays and Chinese".<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NEP's stated aim, however, was not to directly redistribute wealth but to enlarge the economic pie while providing a larger share of the gains for Malays, thus increasing participation in the economy for all.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main rationale for the NEP as set out in the <a href="/wiki/Second_Malaysia_Plan" title="Second Malaysia Plan">Second Malaysia Plan</a> was to address the "economic imbalance" between the Chinese and Malays. In 1969, the Malay share of equity reportedly stood at 1.5% while the Chinese held 22.8%; the rest was largely in foreign hands.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some detractors argued that while the Chinese share of the economy had increased at the Malays' expense, more significant growth in inequality had occurred between the richest and poorest Malays — between 1957 and 1970, the wealthiest 20% of Malays' share in the Malay portion of the economy reportedly increased from 42.5% to 52.5% while the poorest 40% saw a decrease from 19.5% to 12.7%.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The NOC issued a report of its own analysing the root causes of the 13 May violence, suggesting that even in the civil service, a traditional Malay employer, non-Malays outnumbered the Malays in many areas, with substantial Malay majorities only in the Police and Armed Forces. The report concluded: "Allegations that the non-Malays are excluded are regarded by the Malays as deliberate distortion. The Malays who already felt excluded in the country's economic life, now began to feel a threat to their place in the public services. No mention was ever made by non-Malay politicians of the almost closed-door attitude to the Malays by non-Malays in large sections of the private sector in this country."<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the Second Malaysia Plan, the NEP aimed to "create a Malay commercial and industrial community" through "wholly owned enterprises and joint ventures". Prior to this, the government had, in the words of a local economist, played "administrative, supportive, and regulatory" roles in attempting to address the economic imbalance, but avoided "represent[ing] direct and active efforts in promoting" Malay interests.<sup id="cite_ref-hwang_113_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hwang_113-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Now, the government would not only "[limit] access of the Chinese and Indian population to universities, public jobs and public money," but also actively intervene in the economy to give "[the Bumiputra] a bigger piece of the business action".<sup id="cite_ref-pedersen_53_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pedersen_53-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One criticism of this increased intervention was that UMNO supposedly "became a major beneficiary of the expanded role of the state".<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There had been limited <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a> programmes before. However, these mostly focused on the civil service, as Article 153 of the Constitution did. Admission to higher education was largely merit-based. The Tunku government preferred <i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a></i> policies, minimising economic intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-iseas_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iseas-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although some agencies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Rural_Industrial_Development_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural Industrial Development Agency">Rural Industrial Development Agency</a> (RIDA), which attempted to aid Malay <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Entrepreneurs">entrepreneurs</a>, existed, their programs were criticised as being based on <a href="/wiki/Handout" title="Handout">handouts</a> and favouring the politically connected. RIDA was renamed as the <a href="/wiki/Majlis_Amanah_Rakyat" title="Majlis Amanah Rakyat">Majlis Amanah Rakyat</a> (The Indigenous People's Trust Council) or MARA in 1965, and came to symbolise the development of Malay entrepreneurship.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the NEP was aimed at addressing economic imbalances, it soon became associated with <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>. While the two were rarely directly equated, they were often mentioned together, with the implication that the NEP was derived from <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>. The NEP's greater intervention in the economy led some to "equate UMNO's monolithic image as the undisputed champion of Malay supremacy with the party's ability to shore up lucrative business deals."<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_amendments_and_other_policy_changes">Constitutional amendments and other policy changes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Constitutional amendments and other policy changes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MalaysianParliament.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/MalaysianParliament.jpg/220px-MalaysianParliament.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/MalaysianParliament.jpg/330px-MalaysianParliament.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/MalaysianParliament.jpg/440px-MalaysianParliament.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="563" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Malaysia" title="Parliament of Malaysia">Parliament</a> passed several amendments to the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="Constitution of Malaysia">Constitution</a> soon after the <a href="/wiki/13_May_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="13 May Incident">13 May Incident</a>, limiting <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Entrenched_clause" title="Entrenched clause">entrenching</a>" certain articles related to <a href="/wiki/Bumiputra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bumiputra">Bumiputra</a> special rights.</figcaption></figure> <p>Parliament finally reconvened in 1971. Although the NEP was passed without its approval, Parliament's consent was required to amend the Constitution. The government-tabled Constitution (Amendment) Act 1971, in conjunction with some amendments to the <a href="/wiki/Sedition_Act_1948" title="Sedition Act 1948">Sedition Act</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> limited freedom of speech on "sensitive issues" such as the national language, Malay special rights, the Malay rulers, and the provisions for citizenship. These restrictions also applied to Members of Parliament, over-ruling their previous <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_immunity" title="Parliamentary immunity">Parliamentary immunity</a>. The amendments also clarified Article 152's meaning, and included the "natives of any of the States of Sabah and Sarawak" under Article 153, extending the formerly Malay-only rights to all <a href="/wiki/Bumiputra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bumiputra">Bumiputra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-khoo_104_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-khoo_104-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong" class="mw-redirect" title="Yang di-Pertuan Agong">Yang di-Pertuan Agong</a> (King) could now direct any <a href="/wiki/University" title="University">university</a> or <a href="/wiki/College" title="College">college</a> to implement a proportion-based <a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">quota</a> system favouring the Bumiputra. All higher educational institutions immediately enacted quota systems on the orders of the Education Ministry; some later questioned the move's constitutionality on the grounds that the King himself had not issued any directive.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To cap all this, the amendment of articles touching on the "sensitive issues" mentioned, as well as the clause governing this rule on amendments, was forbidden without the consent of the <a href="/wiki/Conference_of_Rulers" title="Conference of Rulers">Conference of Rulers</a>. Effectively entrenching the "sensitive" Articles, this was heavily criticised by opposition MPs. It was claimed that if Parliament could be prevented from discussing particular issue, <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_sovereignty" title="Parliamentary sovereignty">Parliamentary sovereignty</a> was undermined. It was also unclear if the ban from speaking on "sensitive issues" applied to the ban itself. Nevertheless, the provisions were passed.<sup id="cite_ref-khoo_104_132-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-khoo_104-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Internal_Security_Act_1960" title="Internal Security Act 1960">Internal Security Act</a> (ISA), which effectively allows the government to detain anyone it deems a threat to national security for an indefinite period without <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a>, was also amended in 1971 to stress the "preservation of intercommunal harmony".<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of these changes saw fierce opposition in Parliament and abroad. When the proposed changes were first announced, the British press charged they would "preserve as immutable the <a href="/wiki/Feudal_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal system">feudal system</a> dominating Malay society" by "giving this archaic body of petty constitutional monarchs incredible blocking power". The censorship of sensitive issues was labelled as paradoxical when contrasted with Tun Abdul Razak's speaking of "the full realization that important matters must no longer be swept under the carpet..."<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other critics argued that Article 153 was nothing more than a "paper rice bowl", and in any case, did not even include the <i><a href="/wiki/Orang_asli" class="mw-redirect" title="Orang asli">orang asli</a></i> (native people) or aborigines within the scope of its privileges, rendering its rationale somewhat suspect.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another important policy change came in the field of education. In 1970, the government made Malay the medium of instruction for primary, secondary, and tertiary education, replacing English. Although government funding for the Chinese and Tamil education streams continued, many non-Malays considered this new policy to be "the most discriminatory" thus far. The government's rationale was that this would provide better educational opportunities for the Malays, especially those who formerly had to make the transition from Malay-medium primary and secondary schools to English-medium universities. It was also argued that uniting students under one language would provide for greater racial harmony, while indirectly underscoring the "Malay nature of the state".<sup id="cite_ref-hwang_113_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hwang_113-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The same year that the medium of instruction was changed to Malay, the <a href="/wiki/National_Culture_Policy" title="National Culture Policy">National Culture Policy</a> (NCP) was announced. <a href="/wiki/Syed_Nasir_Ismail" title="Syed Nasir Ismail">Syed Nasir Ismail</a> described the government's policies as aimed at creating a "Bumiputra Muslim identity" (<i>identiti Islam Kebumiputraan</i>) for Malaysians.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In essence, the NCP's goal was to eventually assimilate the non-indigenous peoples into an indigenous Malaysian identity. Despite stiff opposition from Chinese pressure groups, the government refused to withdraw the NCP.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To foster national unity, the <a href="/wiki/Rukunegara" class="mw-redirect" title="Rukunegara">Rukunegara</a>, or national ideology, was also introduced. Although the Rukunegara itself contains no references to <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> or the social contract, a government commentary mentioned the "position of Malays and other Natives, the legitimate interests of the other communities, and the conferment of citizenship" as key aspects of the Constitution while insisting: "No citizen should question the loyalty of another citizen on the ground that he belongs to a particular community." One political pundit described it as a formal declaration of the social contract or "Racial Bargain".<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics_and_"Malay_dominance""><span id="Politics_and_.22Malay_dominance.22"></span>Politics and "Malay dominance"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Politics and "Malay dominance""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The old Alliance model, where each race was represented by one party, was repudiated with the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Barisan_Nasional" title="Barisan Nasional">Barisan Nasional</a> (BN, or the National Front) in 1974. Several former opposition parties, including Gerakan, the PPP and PAS, joined the UMNO-led BN. Although the MCA and MIC were included, their influence was diluted by other non-Malay parties in the coalition. In 1977, PAS' expulsion left UMNO as the sole Malay representative in BN, although some ostensibly multiracial parties provided token Malay representation.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After its departure, PAS took a different approach to Malay privileges, denouncing the NEP as racial discrimination and "unIslamic".<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1974, Mahathir was appointed as a Minister in Tun Razak's Cabinet. He became the Deputy Prime Minister just two years later.<sup id="cite_ref-khoo_35_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-khoo_35-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1970s — the heyday of the NEP — "Malay dominance" was a largely accepted fact of life for Malaysians.<sup id="cite_ref-khoo_35_142-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-khoo_35-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas the 1957 to 1969 period was viewed as a time when "Malay dominance" was at least tempered by a form of "inter-ethnic bargaining" within the Alliance government, from the 13 May Incident onwards, political pundits argued that the political environment was now under marked "hegemonic control" from the Malays and UMNO;<sup id="cite_ref-hwang_10_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hwang_10-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1970, one Cabinet member pronounced that Malay special rights would remain for "hundreds of years to come".<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tunku observed in 1977 that "it appears in the minds of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Non-Bumiputras&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Non-Bumiputras (page does not exist)">non-Bumiputras</a> that they are being turned into second-class citizens in the country."<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government's ethnic policies continued to be based on and justified by the two basic arguments Mahathir had applied in his <i>Dilemma</i>; the "historical" status of Malay primacy over Malaya, and the "special needs" of the Malays.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As public discussion or questioning of these issues had been criminalised, there were few locally published works critically discussing Malay supremacy, complicating attempts to evaluate it or establish further grounds for government policy beyond the main two traditionally put forth. </p><p>The <i>ultras</i> who had allegedly plotted to exploit the post-13 May chaos were now in control of the country. Razaleigh, the Finance Minister, was hailed as the "Father of the <a href="/wiki/Bumiputra" class="mw-redirect" title="Bumiputra">Bumiputra</a> Economy".<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Musa Hitam and Mahathir, both rising stars on the political scene, maintained their image as "ultras", although it is unclear if this was their intention. Journalist <a href="/w/index.php?title=K._Das&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="K. Das (page does not exist)">K. Das</a> once claimed Musa had told him "that a young Malaysian politician has to <a href="/wiki/Race_card" title="Race card">play the race card</a> to the hilt even if there was not a single chauvinistic bone in his body."<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After retiring, Musa said that "the national leaders tend to look for a <a href="/wiki/Scapegoat" title="Scapegoat">scapegoat</a> when faced with a desperate crisis situation" and use racial tactics to fill their "empty stomach".<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>UMNO Youth in particular maintained its "ultra" image from the 1960s. One of its vice-presidents said in response to discussion of opening different teams in UMNO based on political ideology that "The original cause of UMNO is to fight for the interests of the Malay race and this must continue. We do not want factions in UMNO."<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mahathir took office in 1981, with Musa Hitam as his deputy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mahathir's_first_premiership,_Malay_vs_Chinese,_new_economic_policies,_and_Bangsa_Malaysia"><span id="Mahathir.27s_first_premiership.2C_Malay_vs_Chinese.2C_new_economic_policies.2C_and_Bangsa_Malaysia"></span>Mahathir's first premiership, Malay vs Chinese, new economic policies, and <i>Bangsa Malaysia</i></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Mahathir's first premiership, Malay vs Chinese, new economic policies, and Bangsa Malaysia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Affirmative_action_and_Chinese_protests">Affirmative action and Chinese protests</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Affirmative action and Chinese protests"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Operation_Lalang" title="Operation Lalang">Operation Lalang</a> and <a href="/wiki/1988_Malaysian_constitutional_crisis" title="1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis">1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis</a></div> <p>The affirmative action policies of the NEP continued under Mahathir. Political pundits considered this administration, in its early period, to be a continuation of the "hegemonic control" of Malaysian politics by the Malays, and by UMNO in particular.<sup id="cite_ref-hwang_10_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hwang_10-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, Mahathir focused on consolidating his power within UMNO and the government.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, there was little active confrontation between the Malays and the non-Malays on the issue of <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> at the time. </p><p>In 1981, the MCA assessed the NEP and other government policies from a Chinese point of view. Its findings expressed concern over a number of problems, including alleged disrespect of the citizenship of the Malaysian Chinese and the Malay-dominated civil service, claiming the NEP's goal of eradicating identification of race with economic function had been abrogated.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, it was argued that non-Malays were under-represented in Parliament and the Cabinet because of <a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">gerrymandering</a>; mostly Malay rural Parliamentary constituencies outnumbered heterogeneous urban constituencies, despite the total population of urban constituencies exceeding that of rural ones.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, UMNO avoided directly confronting the MCA over the issue. </p><p>Tensions rose after the <a href="/wiki/1986_Malaysian_general_election" title="1986 Malaysian general election">1986 general election</a> when it appeared that UMNO on its own commanded a working Parliamentary majority, allowing it to govern without the support of other parties. Several UMNO leaders seriously discussed the possibility of governing alone; one, <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Ahmad" title="Abdullah Ahmad">Abdullah Ahmad</a>, publicly espoused permanent Malay supremacy and relegating non-Malays to second-class citizenship. Such calls for unilateralism were eventually disregarded, and the Barisan Nasional government continued. However, some UMNO officials warned non-Malay parties to avoid "playing with fire" by questioning the Malays' special rights and privileges or <i>Hak Keistimewaan Orang Melayu</i>. At the UMNO General Assembly that year, Mahathir stated: "We do not wish to rob other people of their rights. But let no one try to rob us of our rights." When Parliament reconvened, the DAP began raising objections to what they alleged was the division of Malaysians into "first and second class citizens". In response, some UMNO MPs began referring to the non-Malays as <i><a href="/wiki/Pendatang_asing" title="Pendatang asing">pendatang asing</a></i> (foreign immigrants, or aliens) in Parliament. When the DAP attempted to enquire about the distribution of economic equity among the races to evaluate the NEP's progress, the Standing Orders of Parliament were amended to forbid such inquiries. This led the DAP to allege that the NEP's aims had been met, and that it could be allowed to expire in 1990.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some, such as <a href="/wiki/Petaling_Jaya" title="Petaling Jaya">Petaling Jaya</a> city councillor <a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Yeoh&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard Yeoh (page does not exist)">Richard Yeoh</a>, believe that Abdullah Ahmad, an aide of Mahathir's, was the first to use the term "<i>ketuanan Melayu</i>". Yeoh described the context in which Ahmad used it as "a fairly benign speech and most of us might have had no problem with it, but it has been taken to mean Malay supremacy by some Umno leaders who don't necessarily know what it means."<sup id="cite_ref-flay_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flay-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ethnic tension continued to grow shortly after Mahathir narrowly defeated <a href="/wiki/Tengku_Razaleigh_Hamzah" title="Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah">Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah</a> for the UMNO Presidency in 1987. Around this time, several <a href="/wiki/Deposit-taking_co-operative" title="Deposit-taking co-operative">deposit-taking co-operatives</a> (DTCs), some associated with the MCA, collapsed. To save Chinese investors, the MCA asked the government to bail out the DTCs, citing a previous bailout of Bumiputra financial institutions. UMNO's reluctance to acquiesce led MCA Deputy President <a href="/wiki/Lee_Kim_Sai" title="Lee Kim Sai">Lee Kim Sai</a> to warn that the MCA might quit the government. Later that year, the government posted several non-Chinese-educated staff to senior positions in Chinese vernacular schools. <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Ibrahim" title="Anwar Ibrahim">Anwar Ibrahim</a>, then Education Minister, refused to yield to protests from the MCA, and stated that the decision was final, despite a previous informal agreement on the issue between the Malay and Chinese communities.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Gerakan, MCA and DAP held rallies and boycotted classes in Chinese primary schools to protest the move;<sup id="cite_ref-hwang_151_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hwang_151-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> UMNO Youth held its own rallies to assert <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>, hosting banners with slogans such as "revoke the citizenship of those who opposed the Malay rulers", "13 May has begun", and "soak it [the <i><a href="/wiki/Kris" title="Kris">keris</a></i>, a Malay dagger] with Chinese blood".<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Future Prime Minister and then UMNO Youth Chief <a href="/wiki/Najib_Razak" title="Najib Razak">Najib Razak</a> (the son of Tun Razak) threatened to bathe a <i>keris</i> with Chinese blood.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The flames were fanned further when in an unrelated incident, a Malay soldier ran amok in a predominantly Chinese area, killing one and injuring another two.<sup id="cite_ref-hwang_151_157-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hwang_151-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The government then launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Lalang" title="Operation Lalang">Operation Lalang</a> (Weeding Operation), detaining 55 people under the ISA. More were arrested over the next few months. Although most were opposition politicians — including Parliamentary Opposition Leader <a href="/wiki/Lim_Kit_Siang" title="Lim Kit Siang">Lim Kit Siang</a> — a few from BN were included. All BN politicians were released from detention after two months, while those from the opposition remained in custody for much longer. The government later justified these detentions on grounds of security, stating that the detainees had played up the issue of Chinese education to incite racial sentiment.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of Mahathir's supporters saw this as a vindication of his rejection of the Tunku's "compromise" with the non-Malays, teaching the non-Malays not to criticise the government and its pro-Malay policies.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many critics did not take this explanation seriously. UMNO was in crisis at the time, with Mahathir's faction narrowly defeating <a href="/wiki/Razaleigh" class="mw-redirect" title="Razaleigh">Razaleigh</a>'s in the party elections. Razaleigh's supporters filed a <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">lawsuit</a> alleging irregularities in the election process which appeared likely to succeed, triggering new party elections. In this context, one MCA politician charged that the government had pursued a "hidden agenda," deflecting public attention from UMNO's crisis with a "deviation in the implementation of the Chinese education policy." The Tunku himself claimed that Mahathir used the issue to mobilise the Malays "as a united force to a common enemy — and the imaginary enemy in this case was the Chinese community."<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg/220px-KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg/330px-KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg/440px-KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>The Lord President of the Supreme Court, <a href="/wiki/Salleh_Abas" title="Salleh Abas">Salleh Abas</a>, was sacked by Mahathir soon after he agreed to hear the appeal of Mahathir's opponents within UMNO.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the end, Mahathir's camp "won" the court case when it was held that as the party was an illegal organisation under the Societies Act due to some of its branches not being formally registered, the <a href="/wiki/Plaintiff" title="Plaintiff">plaintiffs</a>' case was invalid; an illegal society could not hold new elections for its leaders. Mahathir immediately set up "UMNO (Baru)" (New UMNO), transferring all of old UMNO's assets to the new party. Most of his supporters also joined UMNO (Baru), and eventually the "(Baru)" was dropped, making it, for all intents and purposes, the same as the old UMNO. When the Supreme Court agreed to hear an appeal on the case, the government suspended and later sacked Lord President <a href="/wiki/Salleh_Abas" title="Salleh Abas">Salleh Abas</a> and five other Supreme Court judges, triggering the <a href="/wiki/1988_Malaysian_constitutional_crisis" title="1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis">1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis</a>. The new Supreme Court later dismissed the case.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Razaleigh then formed the <a href="/wiki/Semangat_46" class="mw-redirect" title="Semangat 46">Semangat 46</a> (Spirit of '46) party to challenge the government. In the <a href="/wiki/1990_Malaysian_general_election" title="1990 Malaysian general election">1990 general election</a>, <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> was used as an issue, with UMNO accusing <a href="/wiki/Semangat_46" class="mw-redirect" title="Semangat 46">Semangat 46</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Islamic_Party_(PAS)" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS)">PAS</a>, the DAP and other opposition parties of conspiring to end Malay supremacy. The government also repeatedly warned that the 13 May riots would be repeated if it did not maintain its two-thirds majority in Parliament. Full-page advertisements depicting bloodshed and carnage were published in major national newspapers. Tensions rose further when the Tunku called on voters to support Semangat 46 instead of the new UMNO, with several UMNO politicians demanding that his title of "Bapa Kemerdekaan" (Father of Independence) be withdrawn, and his statue removed from Parliament House. Despite this, the government retained its two-thirds Parliamentary majority, with Semangat 46 winning only eight seats.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reviewing_and_reworking_economic_policies">Reviewing and reworking economic policies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Reviewing and reworking economic policies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to the expiration of the NEP in 1990, there was much debate over whether the policy should be renewed, replaced, or scrapped altogether. The government organised an official review of the NEP in the years leading up to its expiration. The NEP had been faced with a number of criticisms throughout its lifetime, most of them related to <a href="/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">political corruption</a> and other inefficiencies. </p><p>One point of dispute was the calculation of Malay equity. Although officially, as of 1992, the Malays controlled 18% of the economy, some dismissed this figure as misleading. It was argued that as in reality, much of this amount comprised equity held by government agencies, therefore it belonged to Malaysians as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice of awarding public works contracts mainly to Bumiputras was argued to be stifling Malay competency by providing little incentive to improve. Many Bumiputra contractors in turn subcontracted their jobs to others, who were in some cases Chinese; "<a href="/wiki/Ali_Baba_(Malaysia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali Baba (Malaysia)">Ali Baba</a>" arrangements with "the Malay [Ali] using his privileges to acquire licences and permits denied the non-Malay, then accepting a fee to be the front-man while the non-Malay [Baba] ran the business," were prevalent. Some suggested that the NEP "might have worked, if the Malay had actually wanted to learn the ropes. But more often than not, he just wanted to be rich."<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some said the disbursement of shares favoured the politically connected, many of whom immediately sold the shares at market price, reaping the <a href="/wiki/Arbitrage" title="Arbitrage">arbitrage</a> instead of holding on and increasing the Malay share of equity, which the policy was intended to do. Although the NEP managed to create a class of Malay <a href="/wiki/Millionaire" title="Millionaire">millionaires</a>, it was charged that this was mainly due to <a href="/wiki/Cronyism" title="Cronyism">cronyism</a>, benefiting only the politically connected.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some agreed, but argued against taking action; one PAS politician stated: "The Malays do not want justice to affect their interests."<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other commentators have suggested that although most of the benefits under the NEP accrued to the politically connected, the government intended for them to "<a href="/wiki/Trickle-down_economics" title="Trickle-down economics">trickle down</a> to the Malay masses", and also for the Malay <a href="/wiki/Nouveau_riche" title="Nouveau riche">nouveau riche</a> to provide "entrepreneurial role models" for other Malays.<sup id="cite_ref-pedersen_53_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pedersen_53-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 1980s, concern continued to grow about discrimination in higher education. At this point, the Education Minister told Parliament of "dissatisfaction" and "disappointment" among non-Malays concerning "lessening opportunities" for higher education.<sup id="cite_ref-trindade_lee_50_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trindade_lee_50-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later in 1997, then Education Minister <a href="/wiki/Najib_Tun_Razak" class="mw-redirect" title="Najib Tun Razak">Najib Tun Razak</a> defended the quotas as necessary, claiming that only 5% of all local undergraduates would be Malays if quotas were abolished.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another criticism was that the NEP and other affirmative action had actually reduced the Malays' self-confidence, despite Mahathir's intention of building a Malay business class to serve as <a href="/wiki/Role_model" title="Role model">role models</a> for impoverished Malays. One Malay journalist opined: "[U]nder this New Economic Policy, no Bumiputra could ever be sure that such 'victories' as came his way were fully deserved."<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NEP was also criticised for seeking to improve the Malays' overall share of the economy, even if this share were to be held by a small number of Malays.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some quarters accused the NEP of being too heavy-handed in its approach towards affirmative action, maintaining it had "deprived qualified non-Malays of opportunities for higher education and job promotions" and forcing many non-Malays to emigrate instead.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This, combined with the impressions of the NEP as corrupt and associated with <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>, led to "deep resentment", particularly among the Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The NEP was criticised as "set[ting] those Malaysians so honoured with it above the rest, granting them the preferential treatment of the NEP," while "divid[ing] Malaysians into first- and second-class citizens".<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1990, the NEP was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/National_Development_Policy" title="National Development Policy">National Development Policy</a> (NDP), which continued most of the NEP-era policies. The Malay share of the economy, though substantially larger, was not near the 30% target according to government figures. In its review of the NEP, the government found that although income inequality had been reduced, some important targets related to overall Malay corporate ownership had not been met. Both Mahathir and the Tunku had expressed concern that the Malays remained too reliant on the Chinese economically.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Claims that the NEP had retarded economic growth were dismissed; it was posited that the NEP had managed to avert further racial rioting, which would have hurt economic growth more than the NEP. The NEP was also defended as having created a Malay <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> and improving <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standards of living</a> without compromising the non-Bumiputra share of the economy in absolute terms; statistics indicated that the Chinese and Indian middle classes also grew under the NEP, albeit not as much as the Malays'. The overall Malaysian poverty rate had shrunk from 50% at independence to 7%. It was also argued that <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_stereotype" title="Ethnic stereotype">ethnic stereotypes</a> had been largely stamped out due to the NEP's success in creating a Malay upper class. Although many of the NEP's goals were restated by the NDP, the new policy appeared to be geared more towards wealth retention and creation, as opposed to simple redistribution.<sup id="cite_ref-pedersen_53_125-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pedersen_53-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, many of the policies from the NEP era were retained under the NDP, which was set to expire in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bangsa_Malaysia_and_political_liberalisation"><i>Bangsa Malaysia</i> and political liberalisation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Bangsa Malaysia and political liberalisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 1990s, Mahathir and UMNO made a public about-face on the government's cultural policies, with the formation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Wawasan_2020" title="Wawasan 2020">Wawasan 2020</a></i> (Vision 2020) and <i><a href="/wiki/Bangsa_Malaysia" title="Bangsa Malaysia">Bangsa Malaysia</a></i> (Malaysian Race) plans. Mahathir named one obstacle to establishing Malaysia as a developed nation by the year 2020 as: "the challenge of establishing a matured, liberal and tolerant society in which Malaysians of all colours and creeds are free to practice and profess their customs, cultures and religious beliefs and yet feeling that they belong to one nation." Mahathir proposed the establishment of "one <i>Bangsa Malaysia</i> with political loyalty and dedication to the nation". After the government's <a href="/wiki/1995_Malaysian_general_election" title="1995 Malaysian general election">1995 general election</a> victory, Mahathir elaborated: "Bangsa Malaysia means people who are able to identify themselves with the country, speak <i><a href="/wiki/Bahasa_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahasa Malaysia">Bahasa Malaysia</a></i> (the Malaysian or Malay language) and accept the Constitution."<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mahathir later explained that "The idea before was that people should become 100 per cent Malay in order to be Malaysian. We now accept that this is a multi-racial country. We should build bridges instead of trying to remove completely the barriers separating us." Such a dramatic change was perceived by the non-Malay communities as a "complete retraction" of earlier policies emphasising assimilation of non-Malays. The government took measures to stress this change, decreasing emphasis on Malay as the one and only national language by permitting local universities to use English as the medium of instruction for certain subjects. <a href="/wiki/Diploma" title="Diploma">Diplomas</a> from the MCA-sponsored and Chinese-majority <a href="/wiki/Tunku_Abdul_Rahman_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunku Abdul Rahman College">Tunku Abdul Rahman College</a> (TARC) were officially recognised by the government for employment in the civil service.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first time, religions other than <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> were given airtime on state <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>, although they were not allowed to proselytise.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lion_dance" title="Lion dance">Lion dances</a> — a traditional Chinese performance which had been banned for decades — were not only permitted but even attended by Mahathir and other top government officials.<sup id="cite_ref-hwang_249_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hwang_249-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the early 1990s saw marked economic growth, commentators suggested that Mahathir's liberal policies had played the key role in his popularity and the Barisan Nasional's landslide 1995 election victory. One pundit wrote that "Most Malaysians could not remember a time of greater prosperity or lesser inter-ethnic recrimination. ... Economic indicators alone would not have captured the pride that Malaysians had discovered, perhaps for [the] first time, in being Malaysian."<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lim Kit Siang attributed the opposition's defeat to Mahathir's liberalism and the government's adoption of the DAP's stance on issues like "language, culture and education". Some, however, doubted Mahathir's sincerity. One UMNO Youth official suggested that "The Barisan government's flexible move ... only shows that we are enjoying the highest level of tolerance purely based on the level of confidence in terms of political and economic position of the Malays. We share the political power with the Chinese. When they need to increase their political support from their community it is very important for them to serve the main concerns of the Chinese. So, why shouldn't we allow that? We can ... achieve a win-win situation. This is a purely political move. ... Similarly we <a href="/wiki/UMNO" title="UMNO">UMNO Youth</a> have to be often seen as a very racialist political group fighting for the Malay interests. ... However, those finished agendas that we have done, such as Islam, <i>Bahasa Melayu</i> [the Malay language] and the special status of the Malays, should not be questioned in any circumstance because these are very sensitive issues."<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the latter part of the 1990s, government policies were loosened to combat the <a href="/wiki/Asian_economic_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Asian economic crisis">Asian economic crisis</a> by encouraging foreign investment. In 1999, a new opposition party supported by Mahathir's former deputy, <a href="/wiki/Anwar_Ibrahim" title="Anwar Ibrahim">Anwar Ibrahim</a> (who had been jailed for <a href="/wiki/Sodomy" title="Sodomy">sodomy</a> after his controversial sacking) led to a revival of the "13 May" warnings. However, the government maintained its Parliamentary majority.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2003, Mahathir officially resigned as Prime Minister, and was succeeded by his deputy, <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Ahmad_Badawi" title="Abdullah Ahmad Badawi">Abdullah Ahmad Badawi</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Abdullah's_administration,_Ketuanan_Melayu,_and_meritocracy"><span id="Abdullah.27s_administration.2C_Ketuanan_Melayu.2C_and_meritocracy"></span>Abdullah's administration, <i>Ketuanan Melayu</i>, and meritocracy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Abdullah's administration, Ketuanan Melayu, and meritocracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reviewing_Ketuanan_Melayu">Reviewing <i>Ketuanan Melayu</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Reviewing Ketuanan Melayu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Abdullah_badawi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Abdullah_badawi.jpg" decoding="async" width="171" height="251" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="171" data-file-height="251" /></a><figcaption>After <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Ahmad_Badawi" title="Abdullah Ahmad Badawi">Abdullah Ahmad Badawi</a> succeeded Mahathir as the Prime Minister of Malaysia, <i>Ketuanan Melayu</i> was introduced into the national <a href="/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">secondary school</a> <a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Prior to Abdullah's ascension in 2003, although <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> had been enunciated by several prominent Malay leaders, it had not been given a proper name. Around this time, the term "ketuanan Melayu" — "ketuanan" being roughly translated to "belongings" or "possessions" — came into common usage, even entering the government-approved secondary school <a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A government-approved <a href="/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">secondary school</a> <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> <a href="/wiki/Textbook" title="Textbook">textbook</a> published in 2004 by <a href="/wiki/Dewan_Bahasa_dan_Pustaka" title="Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka">Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka</a>, the government-owned publishing company, defined <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> as: </p> <dl><dd><i>Semangat cinta akan apa saja yang berkaitan dengan bangsa Melayu seperti hak <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">bahasa</a>, kebudayaan, warisan, adat istiadat dan <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">tanah air</a>. Semenanjung Tanah Melayu dianggap sebagai tanah pusaka orang Melayu.</i><sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Its <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> translation is as follows: </p> <dl><dd>A passion for all that is related to the Malay race, such as political rights, language, culture, heritage, tradition and the homeland. The <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay peninsula</a> is regarded as the Malays' land by birthright.</dd></dl> <p>In 2003, the <a href="/wiki/United_Malays_National_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="United Malays National Organisation">United Malays National Organisation</a> (UMNO) <a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">political party</a> Youth Information Chief <a href="/wiki/Azimi_Daim" title="Azimi Daim">Azimi Daim</a> stated: "In Malaysia, everybody knows that Malays are the owners of this land [Malay Peninsula] . We rule this country as provided for in the federal constitution. Any one who touches upon Malay affairs or criticizes Malays is [offending] our sensitivities."<sup id="cite_ref-hornets_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hornets-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although its proponents claimed that <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> was directly derived from Article 153 of the Constitution, the <a href="/wiki/Reid_Commission" title="Reid Commission">Reid Commission</a> which drafted the framework for the Constitution had stated that the provisions for Malay privileges were to be temporary in nature, and eventually abolished, citing the only reason for their existence as tradition and economic necessity as a form of <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a> for the Malays. Despite this, those who challenge <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> or "Malay rights" were still often berated, especially by politicians from UMNO.<sup id="cite_ref-ooi_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ooi-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many UMNO politicians continued referring to non-Malays as "orang pendatang" or "<a href="/wiki/Pendatang_asing" title="Pendatang asing">pendatang asing</a>" (foreign immigrants). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Meritocracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before leaving office, Mahathir had condemned Malays who relied on their privileges. Abdullah continued this, warning Malays to learn to live without crutches or end up in wheelchairs.<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His administration began the practice of <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocracy</a>, which Mahathir had tentatively proposed, and university admissions quotas were eliminated. However, some charged that this did not eliminate discrimination in education. The pre-university stream was divided into two; one course prepared students for the <a href="/wiki/Sijil_Tinggi_Persekolahan_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia">Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia</a> (STPM) standardised examination, lasting two years, while the other comprised various <a href="/wiki/Matriculation" title="Matriculation">matriculation</a> courses graded by individual lecturers, typically lasting a year. </p><p>Critics dismissed meritocracy as a sham, arguing that it was unfair to consider the two streams equivalent for admissions purposes. Though ostensibly open to non-Bumiputra, critics alleged that most who took matriculation were Malays.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Previously, the constitutionality of Malay- or Bumiputra-only matriculation courses had been questioned, as the amended Article 153 prohibited refusal of admission to students on grounds of race alone.<sup id="cite_ref-trindade_lee_50_169-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-trindade_lee_50-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, matriculation courses were opened to non-Bumiputra. However, some in UMNO considered meritocracy too harsh on rural Malay students, disadvantaging them compared to their urban counterparts, and called for the restoration of quotas to avoid an "uneven playing field".<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the 2004 UMNO General Assembly, Deputy Permanent Chairman <a href="/wiki/Badruddin_Amiruldin" title="Badruddin Amiruldin">Badruddin Amiruldin</a> waved a book on 13 May Incident, warning: "Fifty-eight years ago we had an agreement with the other races, in which we permitted them to <i>menumpang</i> [reside temporarily] on this land. ... Let no one from the other races ever question the rights of Malays on this land. Don't question the religion, because this is my right on this land." Then Higher Education Minister <a href="/wiki/Shafie_Salleh" title="Shafie Salleh">Shafie Salleh</a> also declared at the assembly that non-Bumiputras would never be permitted to enter the <a href="/wiki/Universiti_Teknologi_MARA" title="Universiti Teknologi MARA">Universiti Teknologi MARA</a> (UiTM), which is Bumiputra-only: "I will not compromise on this matter."<sup id="cite_ref-hornets_190-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hornets-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Then at the following year's General Assembly, Education Minister and UMNO Youth head <a href="/wiki/Hishammuddin_Hussein" title="Hishammuddin Hussein">Hishammuddin Hussein</a> brandished the <i><a href="/wiki/Kris" title="Kris">keris</a></i> while calling for the restoration of the NEP as part of the National Development Policy (NDP) that Mahathir had initiated.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Hishammuddin, the <i>keris</i> symbolised the role of UMNO Youth in championing the Malay race. Meanwhile, his deputy, <a href="/wiki/Khairy_Jamaluddin" title="Khairy Jamaluddin">Khairy Jamaluddin</a> — Abdullah Badawi's <a href="/wiki/Son-in-law" class="mw-redirect" title="Son-in-law">son-in-law</a> — discussed the revival of the NEP in the form of a separate entity titled as the <a href="/wiki/New_National_Agenda" class="mw-redirect" title="New National Agenda">New National Agenda</a> (NNA).<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hishammuddin would later describe the <i>keris</i> as a "unifying symbol", stating that "The young people today no longer see it as a symbol to uphold <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Racial_politics""><span id=".22Racial_politics.22"></span>"Racial politics"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: "Racial politics""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chinese politicians within the government raised issues with the Constitution in late 2005. <a href="/wiki/Lim_Keng_Yaik" title="Lim Keng Yaik">Lim Keng Yaik</a> of Gerakan asked for a re-examination of the <a href="/wiki/Social_contract_(Malaysia)" title="Social contract (Malaysia)">social contract</a> to ascertain whether <i><a href="/wiki/Bangsa_Malaysia" title="Bangsa Malaysia">Bangsa Malaysia</a></i> could be achieved.<sup id="cite_ref-new_controversy_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-new_controversy-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lim was severely criticised by many prominent Malay politicians, including <a href="/wiki/Khairy_Jamaluddin" title="Khairy Jamaluddin">Khairy Jamaluddin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shabery_Cheek" title="Ahmad Shabery Cheek">Ahmad Shabery Cheek</a>. The Malay press, mostly owned by UMNO, also ran articles condemning the questioning of the social contract.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lim responded: "How do you expect non-Malays to pour their hearts and souls into the country, and to one day die for it if you keep harping on this? Flag-waving and singing the '<a href="/wiki/Negaraku" title="Negaraku">Negaraku</a>' (national anthem) are rituals, while true love for the nation lies in the heart."<sup id="cite_ref-new_controversy_199-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-new_controversy-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A year earlier, Abdullah had mentioned the most "significant aspect" of the social contract as "the agreement by the indigenous peoples to grant citizenship to the immigrant Chinese and Indians". Although Abdullah went on to state that the character of the nation changed to "one that Chinese and Indian citizens could also call their own,"<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the speech went largely unremarked. Finally, Lim stated that the Malay press had blown his comments out of proportion and misquoted him. The issue ended with UMNO Youth chief Hishammuddin Hussein warning people not to "bring up the issue again as it has been agreed upon, appreciated, understood and endorsed by the Constitution."<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In January 2006, the government announced a <a href="/wiki/Rukunegara" class="mw-redirect" title="Rukunegara">Rukunegara</a> awareness campaign. The government press agency, <i><a href="/wiki/BERNAMA" class="mw-redirect" title="BERNAMA">BERNAMA</a></i>, quoted the Tunku as saying in 1986 that "The Malays are not only the natives but also the lords of this country and nobody can dispute this fact". The articles of the Constitution touching on the official religion of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, the monarchy, the status of Malay as the national language, and Malay special rights were described as "clearly spell[ing] out the acknowledgment and recognition that the Malays are the indigenous 'pribumi' [natives] of this land." It was then stated that the new emphasis on the Rukunegara was to prevent further questioning of the social contract, which "decides on the political polarity and socio-economic standing of Malaysians".<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later, a survey of Malaysians found that 55% of respondents agreed politicians should be "blamed for segregating the people by playing racial politics". <a href="/wiki/Mukhriz_Mahathir" title="Mukhriz Mahathir">Mukhriz Mahathir</a> — Mahathir's son and an UMNO Youth leader — defended UMNO's actions because of economic disparities, insisting that "As long as that remains, there will always be people to champion each race to equalise things." <a href="/wiki/Shahrir_Abdul_Samad" title="Shahrir Abdul Samad">Shahrir Abdul Samad</a>, the chairman of the BN Backbenchers' Club, argued that politicians were simply responding to "a country ... divided into different races," asking, "if you talk about Malay issues to the Malay community, is that playing racial politics?" <a href="/wiki/M._Kayveas" title="M. Kayveas">M. Kayveas</a>, the President of the PPP, disagreed: "Every 12 months, the parties go back to one race championing their own causes and, at the end of the day, when the general election comes, we talk about 'Bangsa Malaysia'."<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reflecting the mutual climate of distrust and racialist policies in both Singapore and Malaysia (in Singapore, the policies allegedly being pro-Chinese),<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew" title="Lee Kuan Yew">Lee Kuan Yew</a> sparked another debate in September on the role of Malay primacy in Malaysian politics, stating that the Chinese had been "systematically marginalised" in both Malaysia and <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. The resulting diplomatic incident, with ensuing denials of marginalisation from Malaysian government politicians, led to Lee issuing an apology for his remarks which also attempted to justify them. Abdullah indicated he was not satisfied with what he referred to as a "qualified apology", but the Malaysian government accepted it nevertheless.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following month, a controversy arose after the Asian Strategic and Leadership Institute (ASLI) issued a report calculating Bumiputra-held equity at 45% — a stark difference from the official figure of 18.9%, used by politicians to justify the retention or revival of the NEP. One local analyst suggested that "If Bumiputra equity is 45 per cent, then surely the next question is, why the need for Bumiputera rights? It has implications for government policy and it (removing indigenous rights) is one thing UMNO will never accept at present." The report's methodology was criticised for using <a href="/wiki/Market_value" title="Market value">market value</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Par_value" title="Par value">par value</a> for its calculations of equity, and limiting its scope to a thousand publicly listed companies. It also included government-linked companies (GLCs) as Bumiputra-owned companies.<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some, however, criticised the government, alleging that par value did not accurately reflect the value of the enterprises studied, and claimed that a portion of GLC equity should be considered Bumiputra-held.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The report was later withdrawn, but the controversy continued after an independent media outlet cited a study following the government methodology that indicated Bumiputra equity had passed the 30% mark in 1997.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the Johor UMNO convention that same month, Johor Menteri Besar (Chief Minister), <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Ghani_Othman" title="Abdul Ghani Othman">Abdul Ghani Othman</a>, criticised the <i>Bangsa Malaysia</i> and "meritocracy" policies. Ghani described <i>Bangsa Malaysia</i> as a threat to the Malays and their Constitutional position, suggesting it could "threaten national stability" as well. Ghani insisted that the policy "be applied in the context ... with the Malays as the pivotal race", and described meritocracy as a "form of discrimination and oppression" because rural Malay students could not compete with their urban counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the resulting controversy about his remarks, several federal ministers criticised Ghani, with one saying that <i>Bangsa Malaysia</i> "has nothing to do with one race given a pivotal role over others", and another arguing that "It does not impinge on the rights of Bumiputeras or other communities."<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ghani stood by his comments, declaring that the proponents of <i>Bangsa Malaysia</i> were also advocating a "<a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Malaysia" title="Malaysian Malaysia">Malaysian Malaysia</a>", as Lee Kuan Yew had, even though "the government has rejected it from the start." Najib, the Deputy Prime Minister, suggested that any effort to define <i>Bangsa Malaysia</i> politically would be fruitless, and as such the debate was unnecessary; he also insisted that "It does not question the special rights of the Malays, our quota or anything of that sort."<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The UMNO Annual General Assembly that year was the first to be televised in full; it became a subject of controversy when delegates such as <a href="/wiki/Hashim_Suboh" title="Hashim Suboh">Hashim Suboh</a> made speeches utilising heavy racial rhetoric; Hishammuddin, who had brandished the <i>kris</i> again, was asked by Hashim when he would "use it". After the assembly, Hishammuddin insisted that the <i>kris</i> was not a symbol of Malay supremacy.<sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 2007, Lee provoked more debate after suggesting that "If they (Malaysia) would just educate the Chinese and Indians, use them and treat them as their citizens, they can equal us (Singapore) and even do better than us and we would be happy to rejoin them." UMNO Information Chief <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Muhammad_Taib" title="Muhammad Muhammad Taib">Muhammad Muhammad Taib</a> responded, telling the press that Malaysia implemented policies to assist economically disadvantaged Malays, instead of neglecting them as Singapore did, stating also that at one point the Malays would have to compete on a level playing field with other Malaysians.<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_of_BN_supermajority">Loss of BN supermajority</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Loss of BN supermajority"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/2008_Malaysian_general_election" title="2008 Malaysian general election">2008 general election</a>, BN was returned to power for the first time without its customary 2/3 <a href="/wiki/Supermajority" title="Supermajority">supermajority</a> in the <i><a href="/wiki/Dewan_Rakyat" title="Dewan Rakyat">Dewan Rakyat</a></i>, meaning it could no longer pass constitutional amendments without the support of opposition parties. The election results were widely seen as reflecting discontent about the state of the country's economy and increasing ethnic tensions within the country; the three main opposition parties had campaigned on a platform condemning the NEP and the government's response to widening economic disparities. The month after, the Crown Prince of Kelantan Tengku Faris Petra said during an assembly organised by the newly formed Malay Unity Action Front that since the Malays had given in to granting the non-Malays citizenship, the latter should not seek equality or special treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his speech, the prince also called for Malay unity to ensure that Malay sovereignty and supremacy was preserved.<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anwar_Ibrahim" title="Anwar Ibrahim">Anwar Ibrahim</a>, former UMNO deputy President and former Deputy Prime Minister, whose <a href="/wiki/Parti_Keadilan_Rakyat" class="mw-redirect" title="Parti Keadilan Rakyat">Parti Keadilan Rakyat</a> became the second-largest party in Parliament after the elections, and the <i>de facto</i> leader of the opposition <a href="/wiki/Pakatan_Rakyat" title="Pakatan Rakyat">Pakatan Rakyat</a> coalition, chose to instead reject <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> in favour of "<i>ketuanan rakyat</i>" (people's supremacy). Celebrating the end of his five-year ban from political activity on 15 April 2008, he told reporters: "We are here to counter the massive propaganda campaign by Umno leaders, who are talking on Malay supremacy. And giving clear definitive answer in reply of this, to say that what we want, what we desire for is a new Malaysia, is supremacy for all Malaysians."<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A week later, his wife <a href="/wiki/Wan_Azizah_Wan_Ismail" title="Wan Azizah Wan Ismail">Wan Azizah Wan Ismail</a>, president of PKR, told the press that "we should not keep talking about Malay supremacy or marginalising a certain race, which is not what the people want to see," urging instead the adoption of <i>ketuanan rakyat</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Not long thereafter, Hishammuddin himself apologised for his brandishing of the <i>keris</i> at the three previous UMNO annual general assemblies, saying he was sorry "if it had affected the non-Malays". He refused to comment on whether he would repeat the act in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His conditional apology was met with heavy criticism from within UMNO; one media outlet described the reaction as such: "The sentiment among many in the party is that the Chinese and Indians betrayed the BN when they voted for Pakatan Rakyat. There is hurt. There is anger. So why should Hishammuddin be too concerned about what non-Malays think of the keris act?" Many felt that the apology itself threatened Malay supremacy.<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abdullah welcomed the apology, saying it was brave and "made it clear to the non-Malays the important role the keris had in the Malay community".<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to questions about the diminishing of Malay supremacy post-elections, he said that it was more about parity for the Bumiputra communities, rejecting the notion of political dominance: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>So when we talk about (Malay supremacy), we mean we must be successful in many fields. It is never about ruling over others, or forcing our power upon them... We are not going to be a race that dominates others. We want to be a party that represents the Malays and that is ready to co-operate for the future of Malays and the people, as Malays will also succeed when all Malaysians are successful. ... That is Malay supremacy and I hope people will understand it.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Shortly thereafter, Information Minister <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shabery_Cheek" title="Ahmad Shabery Cheek">Ahmad Shabery Cheek</a> insisted that <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> did not imply a master-slave relationship in any sense between the Malays and non-Malays. Instead, he suggested, it referred to the institution of the Malay monarchs, who had once been the "masters", but gave up their primacy when the Federal Constitution was adopted at independence. Shabery cited Article 182 of the Constitution, which grants the royalty certain legal immunities, as an example of Malay supremacy.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some prominent members of the royalty such as the <a href="/wiki/Raja_of_Perlis" class="mw-redirect" title="Raja of Perlis">Raja of Perlis</a> and former <a href="/wiki/Yang_di-Pertuan_Agong" class="mw-redirect" title="Yang di-Pertuan Agong">Yang di-Pertuan Agong</a> <a href="/wiki/Tuanku_Syed_Sirajuddin_Putra_Syed_Jamalullail" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin Putra Syed Jamalullail">Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin Putra Syed Jamalullail</a> have themselves been critical of <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>; in early 2009, the Raja stated that "In Malaysia, every race is <i>tuan</i> [master]... I believe that if everyone understands that every individual of any race, should not be deprived of their rights, then the efforts of certain parties who think that the supremacy or rights should only be given to a particular race can be stopped."<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In late 2009, the Cabinet decided to change the curriculum of <a href="/wiki/Biro_Tata_Negara" class="mw-redirect" title="Biro Tata Negara">Biro Tata Negara</a> (National Civics Bureau, or BTN) programmes, which are mandatory for public servants and students studying on public funds. Many, especially politicians from Pakatan Rakyat, had previously criticised BTN programmes as propaganda for <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>; citing this, the <a href="/wiki/Selangor" title="Selangor">Selangor</a> state government banned its civil servants and students from attending BTN courses.<sup id="cite_ref-nazri_dr_m_228-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nazri_dr_m-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Ministers and former Prime Minister Mahathir defended BTN as necessary to imbue participants with the values of discipline and honesty, denying they had anything to do with <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Minister in the Prime Minister's Department <a href="/wiki/Nazri_Aziz" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazri Aziz">Nazri Aziz</a> insisted the Cabinet was right to demand a change in BTN, calling Mahathir a racist and saying: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>They all know what the syllabus is all about so who are we to say that it did not happen? You want to lie? You make people laugh. I mean there are people who attended the courses who came out very angry. There were many instances of the use of words like <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>. It is ridiculous...<sup id="cite_ref-nazri_dr_m_228-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nazri_dr_m-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Debates_about_direction_of_UMNO">Debates about direction of UMNO</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Debates about direction of UMNO"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Najib_Razak" title="Najib Razak">Najib Razak</a> soon succeeded Abdullah as prime minister, and his administration began a deliberate shift towards a more inclusive policy. The <a href="/wiki/1Malaysia" title="1Malaysia">1Malaysia</a> programme was begun, and Najib increased direct engagement with the Chinese and Indian communities. In addition to reaching out to non-Malay voters, the initiatives relating to the economy were intended to help Malaysia escape the <a href="/wiki/Middle_income_trap" title="Middle income trap">middle income trap</a>. Specific proposals were brought up, such as reducing the percentage of shares in listed companies that needed to be held by Bumiputra from 30% to 12.5%, and creating new scholarships which did not take race into account. However, backlash against these ideas led to the retention of Bumiputra privileges in the <a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Model" title="New Economic Model">New Economic Model</a> economic plan, and further direct government economic intervention to support Malays. A new government agency, the Unit Peneraju Agenda Bumiputera (TERAJU or Bumiputera Agenda Steering Unit), gave contracts to Malays. Some within UMNO suggested pursuing the opposite political strategy, shifting right to appeal to supporters of the <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Islamic_Party" title="Malaysian Islamic Party">Malaysian Islamic Party</a> (PAS). Outside of UMNO new pressure groups emerged to support the retention of the policies favouring Malays.<sup id="cite_ref-Chin2018Ketuanan_230-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chin2018Ketuanan-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 199–201">: 199–201 </span></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/2013_Malaysian_general_election" title="2013 Malaysian general election">2013 Malaysian general election</a> saw Chinese votes shift further towards the opposition, an event referred to by Najib as the "Chinese tsunami". Following this, the Najib administration shifted back towards a more openly pro-Malay stance. Racial tensions continued to worsen, with minority groups perceiving a decrease in tolerance among the Malay majority. Authorities were seen to tolerate Malay favouritism. In October 2013, an appeals court overturned a previous ruling allowing non-Muslims to use the word "Allah". Churches faced incidents of protest and arson. A public incident involving Indian students eating at school during an Islamic period of fasting led to the students having to change schools.<sup id="cite_ref-Chin2018Ketuanan_230-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chin2018Ketuanan-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 201–203, 205">: 201–203, 205 </span></sup> </p><p>In the period leading up to the next election, infighting in UMNO increased, leading to defections including the creation of the breakaway <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_United_Indigenous_Party" title="Malaysian United Indigenous Party">Bersatu</a> party. Bersatu was led by former UMNO Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahathir Mohamad</a>, who later became the overall leader of a new coalition, <a href="/wiki/Pakatan_Harapan" title="Pakatan Harapan">Pakatan Harapan</a> (Coalition of Hope). Other breakaway parties meant that in the end five parties with a Malay identity contested the election on various sides. This division saw UMNO lean further upon <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> to draw Malay votes, painting the opposition as a Chinese-led alliance that threatened Malay dominance, Islam, and the Malay Sultans.<sup id="cite_ref-Nawab2020_231-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nawab2020-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government_under_Pakatan_Harapan">Government under Pakatan Harapan</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Government under Pakatan Harapan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/2018_Malaysian_general_election" title="2018 Malaysian general election">2018 Malaysian general election</a> saw, for the first time, the ruling Barisan National coalition led by UMNO defeated by the Pakatan Harapan alliance. Despite running campaigns distancing themselves from Najib, UMNO-aligned Chinese parties were almost wiped out, with Pakatan Harapan (most prominently the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Action_Party" title="Democratic Action Party">Democratic Action Party</a>) winning every Chinese-majority seat.<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 297–302">: 297–302 </span></sup> Pakatan Harapan was multi-ethnic and ran on a platform of racial equality.<sup id="cite_ref-Saleem2021_233-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saleem2021-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> Despite this, the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Islamic_Development_Malaysia" title="Department of Islamic Development Malaysia">Department of Islamic Development Malaysia</a>, previously seen as an electoral ally of UMNO, saw its funding increased by the new government due to its political power.<sup id="cite_ref-Chin2021_234-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chin2021-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 85">: 85 </span></sup> </p><p>In addition to a shift in non-Malay votes, the 2018 election also saw urban Malay votes shift away from UMNO. Malay voters and politicians who supported Pakatan Harapan were dubbed as "liberal" (pejoratively implying non-religious or impious) by their political opponents, who increased support for <i>ketuanan Melayu</i> to differentiate themselves from Pakatan Harapan.<sup id="cite_ref-Saleem2021_233-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saleem2021-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3–5">: 3–5 </span></sup> The intent of the new government to sign the <a href="/wiki/International_Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Racial_Discrimination" title="International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination">International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute_of_the_International_Criminal_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court">Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court</a> were portrayed as anti-Malay actions, as were the promotion of ethnic Chinese into senior political positions.<sup id="cite_ref-Nawab2020_231-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nawab2020-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The impact of Ketuanan Melayu was always stronger in West Malaysia than in East Malaysia, where the proportion of Muslims is lower and the population has been more integrated. However, as Ketuanan Melayu has become more prominent, and has taken on religious connotations in addition to its ethnic ones, tensions in East Malaysia have grown. For example, under leadership originating from West Malaysia, the Sarawak branch of PAS protested Christmas and New Year's Eve celebrations in 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-Chin2021_234-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chin2021-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 84">: 84 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Restoration_of_pro-Ketuanan_Melayu_government">Restoration of pro-<i>Ketuanan Melayu</i> government</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Restoration of pro-Ketuanan Melayu government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A series of by-elections saw Malay votes shift back towards UMNO and PAS. These parties then formed the <a href="/wiki/Muafakat_Nasional" class="mw-redirect" title="Muafakat Nasional">Muafakat Nasional</a> coalition, on the explicit basis of promoting Malay-Muslim hegemony. Splits among Bersatu also emerged, dividing Pakatan Harapan along their views of <i>ketuanan Melayu</i>. Tensions erupted into a <a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_Malaysian_political_crisis" title="2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis">political crisis</a>, which saw the downfall of Mahathir in favour of his Bersatu deputy <a href="/wiki/Muhyiddin_Yassin" title="Muhyiddin Yassin">Muhyiddin Yassin</a>, who became Prime Minister with the support of a number of parties including UMNO and PAS on a pro-<i>ketuanan Melayu</i> platform.<sup id="cite_ref-Nawab2020_231-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nawab2020-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Malaysia" title="Freedom of religion in Malaysia">Freedom of religion in Malaysia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFOoi_Keat_Gin2008" class="citation book cs1">Ooi Keat Gin (2008). <i>Historical Dictionary of Malaysia</i>. The Scarecrow Press, Inc. p. 154. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5955-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5955-5"><bdi>978-0-8108-5955-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Malaysia&rft.pages=154&rft.pub=The+Scarecrow+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-5955-5&rft.au=Ooi+Keat+Gin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK.Das1987" class="citation book cs1">K.Das (1987). <i>Malay Dominance? The Abdullah Rubric</i>. K Das Ink. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9679999-0-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9679999-0-6"><bdi>978-0-9679999-0-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malay+Dominance%3F+The+Abdullah+Rubric&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=K+Das+Ink&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-9679999-0-6&rft.au=K.Das&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmy_L._Freedman2000" class="citation book cs1">Amy L. Freedman (2000). <i>Political Participation and Ethnic Minorities: Chinese Overseas in Malaysia, Indonesia, and the United States</i>. Routledge. p. 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-92446-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-92446-7"><bdi>978-0-415-92446-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Participation+and+Ethnic+Minorities%3A+Chinese+Overseas+in+Malaysia%2C+Indonesia%2C+and+the+United+States&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-415-92446-7&rft.au=Amy+L.+Freedman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang_Gungwu2005" class="citation book cs1">Wang Gungwu (2005). <i>Nation Building: Five Southeast Asian Histories</i>. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-230-320-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-230-320-2"><bdi>978-981-230-320-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nation+Building%3A+Five+Southeast+Asian+Histories&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Institute+of+Southeast+Asian+Studies&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-981-230-320-2&rft.au=Wang+Gungwu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeil_Joseph_Ryan1976" class="citation book cs1">Neil Joseph Ryan (1976). <i>A History of Malaysia and Singapore</i>. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 4 & 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-580302-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-580302-7"><bdi>0-19-580302-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Malaysia+and+Singapore&rft.place=London&rft.pages=4+%26+5&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-19-580302-7&rft.au=Neil+Joseph+Ryan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8406506.stm">"Genetic 'map' of Asia's diversity"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 11 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Genetic+%27map%27+of+Asia%27s+diversity&rft.date=2009-12-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2F8406506.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sabrizain.org/malaya/early.htm">"Early Malay kingdoms"</a>. Sabrizain.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Early+Malay+kingdoms&rft.pub=Sabrizain.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sabrizain.org%2Fmalaya%2Fearly.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunoz2006" class="citation book cs1">Munoz, Paul Michel (2006). <i>Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula</i>. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-4155-67-5" title="Special:BookSources/981-4155-67-5"><bdi>981-4155-67-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Kingdoms+of+the+Indonesian+Archipelago+and+the+Malay+Peninsula&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=Editions+Didier+Millet&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=981-4155-67-5&rft.aulast=Munoz&rft.aufirst=Paul+Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuljana2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Slamet_Muljana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slamet Muljana (page does not exist)">Muljana, Slamet</a> (2006). F.W. Stapel (ed.). <i>Sriwijaya</i>. PT. LKiS Pelangi Aksara. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-979-8451-62-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-979-8451-62-1"><bdi>978-979-8451-62-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sriwijaya&rft.pub=PT.+LKiS+Pelangi+Aksara&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-979-8451-62-1&rft.aulast=Muljana&rft.aufirst=Slamet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-T._N_Harper_page_15-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-T._N_Harper_page_15_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT._N._Harper2001" class="citation book cs1">T. N. Harper (2001). <i>The End of Empire and the Making of Malaya</i>. UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59040-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59040-2"><bdi>978-0-521-59040-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+Empire+and+the+Making+of+Malaya&rft.place=UK&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-59040-2&rft.au=T.+N.+Harper&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbu_Talib_Ahmad,_Liok_Ee_Tan2003" class="citation book cs1">Abu Talib Ahmad, Liok Ee Tan (2003). <i>New terrains in Southeast Asian history</i>. Singapore: Ohio University press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9971-69-269-4" title="Special:BookSources/9971-69-269-4"><bdi>9971-69-269-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+terrains+in+Southeast+Asian+history&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Ohio+University+press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9971-69-269-4&rft.au=Abu+Talib+Ahmad%2C+Liok+Ee+Tan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barbara_Watson_Andaya,_Leonard_Y._Andaya_page_55-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Barbara_Watson_Andaya,_Leonard_Y._Andaya_page_55_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarbara_Watson_Andaya,_Leonard_Y._Andaya1984" class="citation book cs1">Barbara Watson Andaya, Leonard Y. Andaya (1984). <i>A History of Malaysia</i>. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-27672-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-27672-8"><bdi>0-333-27672-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Malaysia&rft.place=London&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-333-27672-8&rft.au=Barbara+Watson+Andaya%2C+Leonard+Y.+Andaya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimothy_P._Barnar2004" class="citation book cs1">Timothy P. Barnar (2004). <i>Contesting Malayness: Malay identity across boundaries</i>. Singapore: Singapore University press. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9971-69-279-1" title="Special:BookSources/9971-69-279-1"><bdi>9971-69-279-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contesting+Malayness%3A+Malay+identity+across+boundaries&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Singapore+University+press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9971-69-279-1&rft.au=Timothy+P.+Barnar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohd_Fauzi_Yaacob2009" class="citation book cs1">Mohd Fauzi Yaacob (2009). <i>Malaysia: Transformasi dan perubahan sosial</i>. Malaysia: Arah Pendidikan Sdn Bhd. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-967-3-23132-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-967-3-23132-4"><bdi>978-967-3-23132-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malaysia%3A+Transformasi+dan+perubahan+sosial&rft.place=Malaysia&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Arah+Pendidikan+Sdn+Bhd&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-967-3-23132-4&rft.au=Mohd+Fauzi+Yaacob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_O_Sutter1961" class="citation book cs1">John O Sutter (1961). <i>Scientific facilities and information services of the Federation of Malaya and State of Singapore</i>. National Science Foundation by the Pacific Scientific Information Center, B. P. Bishop Museum. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0006D0GHI">B0006D0GHI</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scientific+facilities+and+information+services+of+the+Federation+of+Malaya+and+State+of+Singapore&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=National+Science+Foundation+by+the+Pacific+Scientific+Information+Center%2C+B.+P.+Bishop+Museum&rft.date=1961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB0006D0GHI%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.au=John+O+Sutter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gulrose-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gulrose_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGulrose_Karim1990" class="citation book cs1">Gulrose Karim (1990). <i>Information Malaysia 1990–91 Yearbook</i>. Kuala Lumpur: Berita Publishing Sdn. Bhd. p. 74.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Information+Malaysia+1990%E2%80%9391+Yearbook&rft.place=Kuala+Lumpur&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=Berita+Publishing+Sdn.+Bhd&rft.date=1990&rft.au=Gulrose+Karim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joseph&_Najmabadi-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Joseph&_Najmabadi_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuad_Joseph,_Afsaneh_Najmabadi2006" class="citation book cs1">Suad Joseph, Afsaneh Najmabadi (2006). <i>Economics, Education, Mobility And Space (Encyclopedia of women & Islamic cultures)</i>. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 436. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12820-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12820-0"><bdi>978-90-04-12820-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics%2C+Education%2C+Mobility+And+Space+%28Encyclopedia+of+women+%26+Islamic+cultures%29&rft.pages=436&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12820-0&rft.au=Suad+Joseph%2C+Afsaneh+Najmabadi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A non-Malay Malaysian who converts to Islam can claim to be a Malay, provided they meet the other conditions. Two good examples are: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Abdullah" title="Jeanne Abdullah">Jeanne Abdullah</a>, the wife of Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Ahmad_Badawi" title="Abdullah Ahmad Badawi">Abdullah Ahmad Badawi</a>, who is ethnically Portuguese-Eurasian.</li> <li>In Sarawak, <a href="/wiki/Melanau" class="mw-redirect" title="Melanau">Melanaus</a>, who speak a distinct language different from Malays, are divided into two broad groups: Christian Melanau and Muslim Melanau. Muslim Melanau often regard themselves as Malay and enjoy the same benefit and privilege as the latter.</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Lin-Sheng_2003_pp._26-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lin-Sheng_2003_pp._26_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ye, Lin-Sheng (2003). <i>The Chinese Dilemma</i>, pp. 26–27. East West Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9751646-1-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-9751646-1-9">0-9751646-1-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, In-Won (2003). <i>Personalized Politics: The Malaysian State under Mahathir</i>, p. 24. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-230-185-2" title="Special:BookSources/981-230-185-2">981-230-185-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kratoska, Paul H., ed. Honorable Intentions: Talk on the British Empire in Southeast Asia Delivered at the Royal Colonial Institute, 1874-1928. Singapore: Oxford University Press,1983 (introduction)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, Patrick (2005). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zmdwAAAAMAAJ&q=%22this+is+a+Malay+country%22">Ousted!</a></i>, p. 140. Media Masters. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-05-3865-0" title="Special:BookSources/981-05-3865-0">981-05-3865-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roff, W.R. (1974). <i>The Origins of Malay Nationalism</i>, pp. 114, 118. Penerbit Universiti Malaya. No ISBN available.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hirschman, Charles "The Making of Race in Colonial Malaya: Political Economy and Racial Ideology." Sociological Forum, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Spring, 1986), 330-361.Lee, Edwin. The British as Rulers: Governing Multiracial Singapore, 1867-1914. Singapore: Singapore University Press, National University of Singapore, 1991.Nonini, Donald M. British Colonial Rule and the Resistance of the Malay Peasantry, 1900-1957, New Haven: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1992.Rahim, Lily. The Singapore Dilemma: The Political and Educational Marginality of the Malay Community. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Hussein Alatas, Syed. The Myth of the Lazy Native: A Study of the Image of the Malays, Filipinos and Javanese From the 16th to 20th century and Its Function in the Ideology of Colonial Capitalism. London : Frank Cass, 1977, Ch 12. 116-17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roff, pp. 109–110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-roff_110,111-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-roff_110,111_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-roff_110,111_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Roff, pp. 110–111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Metcalf, "Empire Recentered: India in the Indian Ocean Arena," in Colonialism and the Modern World: Selected Studies, eds. Gregory Blue, Martin Bunton, and Ralph Crozier (Armonk NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2002), 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abdullah, Asma & Pedersen, Paul B. (2003). <i>Understanding Multicultural Malaysia</i>, p. 44. Pearson Malaysia. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/983-2639-21-2" title="Special:BookSources/983-2639-21-2">983-2639-21-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rashid, Rehman (1993). <i>A Malaysian Journey</i>, p. 28. Self-published. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/983-99819-1-9" title="Special:BookSources/983-99819-1-9">983-99819-1-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Swettenham, Frank. British Malaya: An Account of the Origin and Progress of British Influence in Malaya. By Sir Frank Swettenham, K.C. M. G. Late Governor of the Straits Colony. London: John Lane Co., 1900. (pg 232-4).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roff, pp. 207–210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abdullah & Pedersen, p. 20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hickling,_R.H.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hickling, R.H. (page does not exist)">Hickling, R.H.</a> (1991). <i>Essays in Malaysian Law</i>, pp. 51–52. Pelanduk Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/967-978-385-5" title="Special:BookSources/967-978-385-5">967-978-385-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roff, pp. 235–236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ongkili, James P. (1985). <i>Nation-building in Malaysia 1946–1974</i>, p. 42. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-582681-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-582681-7">0-19-582681-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ongkili_59-66-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ongkili_59-66_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ongkili_59-66_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ongkili, pp. 59–66, 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ongkili, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ongkili, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hickling, p. 87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jawan, Jayum A. (2003). <i>Malaysian Politics & Government</i>, p. 37. Karisma Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/983-195-037-2" title="Special:BookSources/983-195-037-2">983-195-037-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ongkili, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ye, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ongkili, pp. 82–84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ongkili, p. 84.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Putra, Tunku Abdul Rahman (1986). <i>Political Awakening</i>, pp. 30, 31. Pelanduk Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/967-978-136-4" title="Special:BookSources/967-978-136-4">967-978-136-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-josey_83-84-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-josey_83-84_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-josey_83-84_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Josey, Alex (1980). <i>Lee Kuan Yew: The Crucial Years</i>, pp. 83–84. Times Books International. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-204-448-5" title="Special:BookSources/981-204-448-5">981-204-448-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sopiee, Mohamed Noordin (1976). <i>From Malayan Union to Singapore Separation: Political Unification in the Malaysia Region 1945 – 65</i>, pp. 77 – 78. Penerbit Universiti Malaya. No ISBN available.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sopiee, pp. 61–62, 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ongkili, pp. 88–90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ongkili, pp. 90–91, 107–111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, pp. 25–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hwang,_pp._30–31-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hwang,_pp._30–31_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hwang,_pp._30–31_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, pp. 30–31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, pp. 34–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, pp. 31–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-iseas-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iseas_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iseas_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iseas_59-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> Lee, Hock Guan (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iseas.edu.sg/sc22001.pdf">"Political Parties and the Politics of Citizenship and Ethnicity in Peninsular Malay(si)a, 1957-1968"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060118155740/http://www.iseas.edu.sg/sc22001.pdf">Archived</a> 18 January 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> . Retrieved 17 March 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ongkili, pp. 94–97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, pp. 142–143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ooi-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ooi_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ooi_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOoi,_Jeff2005" class="citation web cs1">Ooi, Jeff (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051030165436/http://www.jeffooi.com/archives/2005/08/the_nst_should.php">"Social Contract: 'Utusan got the context wrong'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jeffooi.com/archives/2005/08/the_nst_should.php">the original</a> on 30 October 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Social+Contract%3A+%27Utusan+got+the+context+wrong%27&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Ooi%2C+Jeff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jeffooi.com%2Farchives%2F2005%2F08%2Fthe_nst_should.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ongkili, p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Milne, R.S. & Mauzy, Diane K. (1999). <i>Malaysian Politics under Mahathir</i>, p. 34. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-17143-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-17143-1">0-415-17143-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hickling, pp. 69, 166, 229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hickling, p. 179.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hickling, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sopiee, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sopiee, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sopiee, p. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sopiee, p. 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goh, Cheng Teik (1994). <i>Malaysia: Beyond Communal Politics</i>, pp. 36–37. Pelanduk Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/967-978-475-4" title="Special:BookSources/967-978-475-4">967-978-475-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-spark-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-spark_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-spark_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoh,_Jenny1997" class="citation web cs1">Goh, Jenny (23 July 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060325194847/http://sam11.moe.gov.sg/racialharmony/teachers_03.html">"Small spark can create big mess"</a>. <i>Straits Times</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sam11.moe.gov.sg/racialharmony/teachers_03.html">the original</a> on 25 March 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Straits+Times&rft.atitle=Small+spark+can+create+big+mess&rft.date=1997-07-23&rft.au=Goh%2C+Jenny&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsam11.moe.gov.sg%2Fracialharmony%2Fteachers_03.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ye, p. 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, pp. 115–116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sopiee, p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sopiee, p. 194.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ourstory.asia1.com.sg/merger/headline/mimposib.html">"'Impossible to co-operate with Singapore while Lee is Premier'"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050310003615/http://ourstory.asia1.com.sg/merger/headline/mimposib.html">Archived</a> 10 March 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> . (2 June 1965). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Straits_Times" title="The Straits Times">The Straits Times</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Khaw, Ambrose (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ourstory.asia1.com.sg/merger/lifeline/akimpos.html">"This man is making too much noise"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060522214050/http://ourstory.asia1.com.sg/merger/lifeline/akimpos.html">Archived</a> 22 May 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> . Retrieved 11 November 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, pp. 66–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Veloo, Ravi (25 January 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ourstory.asia1.com.sg/independence/ref/race.html">"Othman Wok on race relations"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150502022606/http://ourstory.asia1.com.sg/independence/ref/race.html">Archived</a> 2 May 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> . <i>Straits Times</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee, Kuan Yew (1998). <i>The Singapore Story</i>, p. 598. Marshall Cavendish Editions. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-204-983-5" title="Special:BookSources/981-204-983-5">981-204-983-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, pp. 72–73, 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, pp. 179–181.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee, p. 620.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ongkili, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Josey, pp. 269–270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee, pp. 616–617.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Keith, pp. 128–129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee, pp. 612–613.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOoi,_Jeff2005" class="citation web cs1">Ooi, Jeff (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051125194719/http://www.jeffooi.com/archives/2005/11/i_went_into_act.php">"Perils of the sitting duck"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jeffooi.com/archives/2005/11/i_went_into_act.php">the original</a> on 25 November 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Perils+of+the+sitting+duck&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Ooi%2C+Jeff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jeffooi.com%2Farchives%2F2005%2F11%2Fi_went_into_act.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hickling, p. 160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, pp. 66–67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, p. 74, 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, pp. 77–78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Khoo, Boo Teik (1995). <i>Paradoxes of Mahathirism</i>, p. 22. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/967-65-3094-8" title="Special:BookSources/967-65-3094-8">967-65-3094-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maidin, Zainuddin (1994). <i>The Other Side of Mahathir</i>, pp. 19–21. Utusan Publications & Distributors. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/967-61-0486-8" title="Special:BookSources/967-61-0486-8">967-61-0486-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamarudin,_Raja_Petra2000" class="citation web cs1">Kamarudin, Raja Petra (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060615215054/http://www.freeanwar.net/news/facnews160900b.html">"A Reporter's Account of an Interview With Tunku Abdul Rahman On 13 May Incident"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Reporter%27s+Account+of+an+Interview+With+Tunku+Abdul+Rahman+On+13+May+Incident&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Kamarudin%2C+Raja+Petra&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.freeanwar.net%2Fnews%2Ffacnews160900b.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Means, pp. 6–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Von Vorys, Karl (1975). <i>Democracy without Consensus: Communalism and Political Stability in Malaysia</i>, p. 317. Princeton University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-07571-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-07571-9">0-691-07571-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Means, pp. 8–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Means, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mohamad, Mahathir bin (1970). <i>The Malay Dilemma</i>, p. 133. Times Books International. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-204-355-1" title="Special:BookSources/981-204-355-1">981-204-355-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mohamad, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mohamad, p. 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mohamad, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Khoo, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Musa, M. Bakri (1999). <i>The Malay Dilemma Revisited</i>, p. 113. Merantau Publishers. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58348-367-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-58348-367-5">1-58348-367-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Khoo, p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Musa, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, p. 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hilley, John (2001). <i>Malaysia: Mahathirism, Hegemony and the New Opposition</i>, p. 33. Zed Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85649-918-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-85649-918-9">1-85649-918-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ongkili, p. 221–222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hwang_113-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hwang_113_124-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hwang_113_124-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pedersen_53-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pedersen_53_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pedersen_53_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pedersen_53_125-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Abdullah & Pedersen, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Musa, pp. 97–100.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamarudin,_Raja_Petra2005" class="citation web cs1">Kamarudin, Raja Petra (1 August 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060218114729/http://www.malaysia-today.net/MMblues/2005_08_01_MT_MMblues_archive.htm">"Umno's relevance lies in <i>Ketuanan Melayu</i>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Today" title="Malaysia Today">Malaysia Today</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.malaysia-today.net/MMblues/2005_08_01_MT_MMblues_archive.htm">the original</a> on 18 February 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Malaysia+Today&rft.atitle=Umno%27s+relevance+lies+in+Ketuanan+Melayu&rft.date=2005-08-01&rft.au=Kamarudin%2C+Raja+Petra&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.malaysia-today.net%2FMMblues%2F2005_08_01_MT_MMblues_archive.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamarudin,_Raja_Petra2005" class="citation web cs1">Kamarudin, Raja Petra (26 September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060218114809/http://www.malaysia-today.net/MMblues/2005_09_26_MT_MMblues_archive.htm">"Article 153 of Malaysia's Federal Constitution"</a>. <i>Malaysia Today</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.malaysia-today.net/MMblues/2005_09_26_MT_MMblues_archive.htm">the original</a> on 18 February 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Malaysia+Today&rft.atitle=Article+153+of+Malaysia%27s+Federal+Constitution&rft.date=2005-09-26&rft.au=Kamarudin%2C+Raja+Petra&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.malaysia-today.net%2FMMblues%2F2005_09_26_MT_MMblues_archive.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mohamad, Maznah (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aliran.com/oldsite/high9902.html">"Can UMNO Survive?"</a>. Retrieved 2 February 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Khoo, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-khoo_104-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-khoo_104_132-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-khoo_104_132-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Khoo, p. 104– 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trinidade, F.A. & Lee, H.P. (eds., 1986). <i>The Constitution of Malaysia: Further Perspectives and Developments</i>, pp. 48–49. 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Maaruf, p. 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, pp. 134–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tan, Koon Swan (1982). Introduction. In Federal Territory MCA Liaison Committee (Ed.), <i>Malaysian Chinese</i>, pp. vii–xi. Eastern Universities Press. No ISBN available.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yeoh, Michael Oon Kheng (1982). The Politics of Under-Representation. In Federal Territory MCA Liaison Committee (Ed.), <i>Malaysian Chinese</i>, pp. 61–71. Eastern Universities Press. No ISBN available.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Means, pp. 187–189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-flay-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-flay_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRazak2009" class="citation news cs1">Razak, Aidila (12 December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100210162113/http://www.malaysiakini.com/news/119722">"Forum speakers flay 'Ketuanan Melayu'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Malaysiakini</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://malaysiakini.com/news/119722">the original</a> on 10 February 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 February</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Malaysiakini&rft.atitle=Forum+speakers+flay+%27Ketuanan+Melayu%27&rft.date=2009-12-12&rft.aulast=Razak&rft.aufirst=Aidila&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmalaysiakini.com%2Fnews%2F119722&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, pp. 149–150, 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hwang_151-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hwang_151_157-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hwang_151_157-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, p. 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Lim, Kit Siang (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.limkitsiang.com/archive/2000/dec00/lks0596.htm">"GPMS' extremist demands - a prelude to escalation of ethnic tensions to justify another Operation Lalang mass crackdown to shore up Mahathir and UMNO's tottering position?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070223141706/http://www.limkitsiang.com/archive/2000/dec00/lks0596.htm">Archived</a> 23 February 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> . Retrieved 21 December 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raja Petra Kamarudin <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.malaysia-today.net/MMblues/2005_08_01_MT_MMblues_archive.htm">"Umno's relevance lies in Ketuanan Melayu"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060218114729/http://www.malaysia-today.net/MMblues/2005_08_01_MT_MMblues_archive.htm">Archived</a> 18 February 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 6 February 2012</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, pp. 151–152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maidin, pp. 179–180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, pp. 153–154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, pp. 161–162, 164–165, 168–169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, pp. 186, 192–194, 205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Musa, pp. 217–218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rashid, pp. 134–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Musa, pp. 178, 180, 181–182, 187, 259, 261.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">b. Maaruf, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-trindade_lee_50-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-trindade_lee_50_169-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-trindade_lee_50_169-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Trinidade & Lee, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Musa, p. 182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rashid, p. 99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bennet, Abang (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aliran.com/archives/monthly/2005b/7d.html">"UMNO: A threat to national prosperity"</a>. Retrieved 11 November 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abdullah & Pedersen, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Branegan, Jay (20 August 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031017003326/http://www.time.com/time/asia/2003/mahathir/mahathir900820.html">A Working Racial Bias</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rashid, pp. 98, 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maidin, pp. 252–253.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Putra, pp. 97–99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ye pp. 85, 92, 94, 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Milne & Mauzy, pp. 72–74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Musa, p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, pp. 245–246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, pp. 246–247, 248–249, 250.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Milne & Mauzy, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hwang_249-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hwang_249_184-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, p. 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hilley, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hwang, pp. 209, 258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Kamarudin, Raja Petra. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.freeanwar.net/news/tenth_general_elections.html">"An Analysis of Malaysia's 1999 Tenth General Elections"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060907073630/http://www.freeanwar.net/news/tenth_general_elections.html">Archived</a> 7 September 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> . Retrieved 11 August 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLim,_Guan_Eng2005" class="citation web cs1">Lim, Guan Eng (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070821144200/http://dapmalaysia.org/english/2005/may05/lge/lge109.htm">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Merdeka' Constitution Driving Force Towards National Unity"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dapmalaysia.org/english/2005/may05/lge/lge109.htm">the original</a> on 21 August 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Merdeka%27+Constitution+Driving+Force+Towards+National+Unity&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Lim%2C+Guan+Eng&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdapmalaysia.org%2Fenglish%2F2005%2Fmay05%2Flge%2Flge109.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam, Ramlah binti, Samuri, Abdul Hakim bin & Fadzil, Muslimin bin (2004). <i>Sejarah Tingkatan 3</i>, p. 45. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/983-62-8285-8" title="Special:BookSources/983-62-8285-8">983-62-8285-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hornets-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hornets_190-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hornets_190-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> Gatsiounis, Ioannis (2 October 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/FJ02Ae05.html">"Abdullah stirs a hornets' nest"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110804214511/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/FJ02Ae05.html">Archived</a> 4 August 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Asia Times</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadawi,_Abdullah_Ahmad2004" class="citation web cs1">Badawi, Abdullah Ahmad (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070912054147/http://www.pmo.gov.my/WebNotesApp/PMMain.nsf/0/c3a7ebf8a2bd8cfd48256f180033b236?OpenDocument">"Moving Forward — Towards Excellence"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pmo.gov.my/WebNotesApp/PMMain.nsf/0/c3a7ebf8a2bd8cfd48256f180033b236?OpenDocument">the original</a> on 12 September 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Moving+Forward+%E2%80%94+Towards+Excellence&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Badawi%2C+Abdullah+Ahmad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pmo.gov.my%2FWebNotesApp%2FPMMain.nsf%2F0%2Fc3a7ebf8a2bd8cfd48256f180033b236%3FOpenDocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Yeoh, Oon (4 June 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sun2surf.com/articlePrint.cfm?id=3441">"Meritocracy: The truth must be well told"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050316064532/http://www.sun2surf.com/articlePrint.cfm?id=3441">Archived</a> 16 March 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> . <i>The Sun</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLim,_Guan_Eng2004" class="citation web cs1">Lim, Guan Eng (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050907042641/http://dapmalaysia.org/english/lge/lge011.htm">"Will qualified non-bumi students be sacrificed by Shafie for his defeat in UMNO?"</a>. 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(9 July 2005). <i>BERNAMA</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Noor, Farish A. (2005). <i>From Majapahit to Putrajaya: Searching for Another Malaysia</i>, p. 241. Silver Fish Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/983-3221-05-X" title="Special:BookSources/983-3221-05-X">983-3221-05-X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/w/index.php?title=File:UMNO_Flag_Sang_Saka_Bangsa.png&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="File:UMNO Flag Sang Saka Bangsa.png (page does not exist)">flag of UMNO</a> also contains the keris symbol.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Kumar, R. Surenthira & Yusop, Husna (29 July 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sun2surf.com/article.cfm?id=10420">Rebranding the NEP</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081208022546/http://sun2surf.com/article.cfm?id=10420">Archived</a> 8 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> . <i>The Sun</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060902012907/http://www.malaysia-today.net/Blog-n/2006/08/hishammuddin-keris-is-unifying-symbol.htm">"Hishammuddin: Keris is a unifying symbol"</a>. <i>New Straits Times</i>. 27 August 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.malaysia-today.net/Blog-n/2006/08/hishammuddin-keris-is-unifying-symbol.htm">the original</a> on 2 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Straits+Times&rft.atitle=Hishammuddin%3A+Keris+is+a+unifying+symbol&rft.date=2006-08-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.malaysia-today.net%2FBlog-n%2F2006%2F08%2Fhishammuddin-keris-is-unifying-symbol.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-new_controversy-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-new_controversy_199-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-new_controversy_199-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOoi,_Jeff2005" class="citation web cs1">Ooi, Jeff (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051030165458/http://www.jeffooi.com/archives/2005/08/we_are_16_days.php">"New controversy: Social Contract and Bangsa Malaysia"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jeffooi.com/archives/2005/08/we_are_16_days.php">the original</a> on 30 October 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+controversy%3A+Social+Contract+and+Bangsa+Malaysia&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Ooi%2C+Jeff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jeffooi.com%2Farchives%2F2005%2F08%2Fwe_are_16_days.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yusoff, Marzuki & Samah, Nazeri Nong (14 August 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.utusan.com.my/utusan/content.asp?y=2005&dt=0815&pub=Utusan_Malaysia&sec=Muka_Hadapan&pg=mh_03.htm">"Kontrak sosial: Kenyataan Keng Yaik bercanggah Perlembagaan Persekutuan"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051118162323/http://www.utusan.com.my/utusan/content.asp?y=2005&dt=0815&pub=Utusan_Malaysia&sec=Muka_Hadapan&pg=mh_03.htm">Archived</a> 18 November 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Utusan Malaysia</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadawi,_Abdullah_Ahmad2004" class="citation web cs1">Badawi, Abdullah Ahmad (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060225004256/http://domino.kln.gov.my/kln/statemen.nsf/0/eee39330c19514e648256e7c0009f6ee?OpenDocument">"The Challenges of Multireligious, Multiethnic and Multicultural Societies"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2005</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Challenges+of+Multireligious%2C+Multiethnic+and+Multicultural+Societies&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Badawi%2C+Abdullah+Ahmad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdomino.kln.gov.my%2Fkln%2Fstatemen.nsf%2F0%2Feee39330c19514e648256e7c0009f6ee%3FOpenDocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bernama.com/bernama/v3/news.php?id=150404">"Don't Raise Social Contract Issue, Umno Youth Chief Warns"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 April</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Malaysian+Insider&rft.atitle=Keris+apology+fans+unrest+in+divided+Umno+Let%27s+put+keris+issue+to+rest%2C+says+PM&rft.date=2008-04-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.themalaysianinsider.com%2Flitee%2Fmalaysia%2Farticle%2FLets-put-keris-issue-to-rest-says-PM%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRitikosManjit_Kaur2008" class="citation news cs1">Ritikos, Jane; Manjit Kaur (29 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080501051023/http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2008%2F4%2F29%2Fnation%2F21094851&sec=nation">"Pak Lah explains meaning of 'ketuanan Melayu'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The Star</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2008/4/29/nation/21094851&sec=nation">the original</a> on 1 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Star&rft.atitle=Pak+Lah+explains+meaning+of+%27ketuanan+Melayu%27&rft.date=2008-04-29&rft.aulast=Ritikos&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft.au=Manjit+Kaur&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthestar.com.my%2Fnews%2Fstory.asp%3Ffile%3D%2F2008%2F4%2F29%2Fnation%2F21094851%26sec%3Dnation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130603050822/http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/litee/malaysia/article/Dont-bring-politics-into-Malay-supremacy-issue-says-Ahmad-Shabery/">"Don't bring politics into Malay supremacy issue, says Ahmad Shabery"</a>. <i>The Malaysian Insider</i>. 9 May 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/litee/malaysia/article/Dont-bring-politics-into-Malay-supremacy-issue-says-Ahmad-Shabery/">the original</a> on 3 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 May</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Malaysian+Insider&rft.atitle=Don%27t+bring+politics+into+Malay+supremacy+issue%2C+says+Ahmad+Shabery&rft.date=2008-05-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.themalaysianinsider.com%2Flitee%2Fmalaysia%2Farticle%2FDont-bring-politics-into-Malay-supremacy-issue-says-Ahmad-Shabery%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304051647/http://www.malaysia-today.net/equal-rights-for-all-malaysians-says-perlis-ruler/">"Equal rights for all Malaysians, says Perlis ruler"</a>. <i>New Straits Times</i>. 6 March 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.malaysia-today.net/equal-rights-for-all-malaysians-says-perlis-ruler/">the original</a> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Straits+Times&rft.atitle=Equal+rights+for+all+Malaysians%2C+says+Perlis+ruler&rft.date=2009-03-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.malaysia-today.net%2Fequal-rights-for-all-malaysians-says-perlis-ruler%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nazri_dr_m-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nazri_dr_m_228-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nazri_dr_m_228-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdullah_Sani2009" class="citation news cs1">Abdullah Sani, Asrul Hadi (7 December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091212223732/http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/index.php/malaysia/45724-nazri-calls-dr-m-a-racist-for-defending-btn">"Nazri calls Dr M a racist for defending BTN"</a>. <i>The Malaysian Insider</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/index.php/malaysia/45724-nazri-calls-dr-m-a-racist-for-defending-btn">the original</a> on 12 December 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Malaysian+Insider&rft.atitle=Nazri+calls+Dr+M+a+racist+for+defending+BTN&rft.date=2009-12-07&rft.aulast=Abdullah+Sani&rft.aufirst=Asrul+Hadi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.themalaysianinsider.com%2Findex.php%2Fmalaysia%2F45724-nazri-calls-dr-m-a-racist-for-defending-btn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMustafa_Kamal2009" class="citation news cs1">Mustafa Kamal, Shazwan (7 December 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091212223735/http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/index.php/malaysia/45729-dr-m-says-criticisms-against-btn-an-exaggeration-">"Dr M says criticisms against BTN an 'exaggeration'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The Malaysian Insider</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/index.php/malaysia/45729-dr-m-says-criticisms-against-btn-an-exaggeration-">the original</a> on 12 December 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 December</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Malaysian+Insider&rft.atitle=Dr+M+says+criticisms+against+BTN+an+%27exaggeration%27&rft.date=2009-12-07&rft.aulast=Mustafa+Kamal&rft.aufirst=Shazwan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.themalaysianinsider.com%2Findex.php%2Fmalaysia%2F45729-dr-m-says-criticisms-against-btn-an-exaggeration-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chin2018Ketuanan-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chin2018Ketuanan_230-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chin2018Ketuanan_230-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChin2018" class="citation book cs1">Chin, James (2018). "From Ketuanan Melayu to Ketuanan Islam: UMNO and the Malaysian Chinese". In Welsh, Bridget (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332974659"><i>The End of UMNO? Essays on Malaysia's Former Dominant Party</i></a> (New and Expanded Post-GE14 ed.). Strategic Information and Research Development Centre. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9670960463" title="Special:BookSources/978-9670960463"><bdi>978-9670960463</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Ketuanan+Melayu+to+Ketuanan+Islam%3A+UMNO+and+the+Malaysian+Chinese&rft.btitle=The+End+of+UMNO%3F+Essays+on+Malaysia%27s+Former+Dominant+Party&rft.edition=New+and+Expanded+Post-GE14&rft.pub=Strategic+Information+and+Research+Development+Centre&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-9670960463&rft.aulast=Chin&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F332974659&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nawab2020-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nawab2020_231-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nawab2020_231-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nawab2020_231-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohamed_Nawab_Mohamed_OsmanEdmund_Terence_Gomez2020" class="citation journal cs1">Mohamed Nawab Mohamed Osman; Edmund Terence Gomez (4 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00358533.2020.1741879">"Breaking Malay–Muslim hegemony – patronage, factionalism and feuds in the 14th Malaysian general election"</a>. <i>The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs</i>. <b>109</b> (2): 116–125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00358533.2020.1741879">10.1080/00358533.2020.1741879</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218926668">218926668</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Commonwealth+Journal+of+International+Affairs&rft.atitle=Breaking+Malay%E2%80%93Muslim+hegemony+%E2%80%93+patronage%2C+factionalism+and+feuds+in+the+14th+Malaysian+general+election&rft.volume=109&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=116-125&rft.date=2020-05-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00358533.2020.1741879&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218926668%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Mohamed+Nawab+Mohamed+Osman&rft.au=Edmund+Terence+Gomez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F00358533.2020.1741879&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChin2018" class="citation book cs1">Chin, James (2018). "The Final Breakup: UMNO and the Chinese in GE14". In Welsh, Bridget (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332974659"><i>The End of UMNO? Essays on Malaysia's Former Dominant Party</i></a> (New and Expanded Post-GE14 ed.). Strategic Information and Research Development Centre. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9670960463" title="Special:BookSources/978-9670960463"><bdi>978-9670960463</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Final+Breakup%3A+UMNO+and+the+Chinese+in+GE14&rft.btitle=The+End+of+UMNO%3F+Essays+on+Malaysia%27s+Former+Dominant+Party&rft.edition=New+and+Expanded+Post-GE14&rft.pub=Strategic+Information+and+Research+Development+Centre&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-9670960463&rft.aulast=Chin&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F332974659&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saleem2021-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Saleem2021_233-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Saleem2021_233-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaleena_Saleem2021" class="citation journal cs1">Saleena Saleem (9 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09637494.2021.1877992">"Constructing the 'liberal' Muslim other: ethnic politics, competition, and polarisation in Malaysia"</a>. <i>Religion, State and Society</i>. <b>49</b> (2): 109–125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09637494.2021.1877992">10.1080/09637494.2021.1877992</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233619978">233619978</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religion%2C+State+and+Society&rft.atitle=Constructing+the+%27liberal%27+Muslim+other%3A+ethnic+politics%2C+competition%2C+and+polarisation+in+Malaysia&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=109-125&rft.date=2021-03-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09637494.2021.1877992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A233619978%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Saleena+Saleem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1080%2F09637494.2021.1877992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chin2021-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chin2021_234-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chin2021_234-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChin2021" class="citation book cs1">Chin, James (18 June 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=310zEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75">"Malaysia: Identity Politics, the Rise of Political Islam and Ketuanan Melayu Islam"</a>. In Mathew, Mathews; Tay, Melvin (eds.). <i>Religion & Identity Politics: Global Trends And Local Realities</i>. World Scientific. pp. 75–95. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2F9789811235504_0004">10.1142/9789811235504_0004</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789811235511" title="Special:BookSources/9789811235511"><bdi>9789811235511</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242254845">242254845</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Malaysia%3A+Identity+Politics%2C+the+Rise+of+Political+Islam+and+Ketuanan+Melayu+Islam&rft.btitle=Religion+%26+Identity+Politics%3A+Global+Trends+And+Local+Realities&rft.pages=75-95&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2021-06-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A242254845%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2F9789811235504_0004&rft.isbn=9789811235511&rft.aulast=Chin&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D310zEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKetuanan+Melayu" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Ketuanan_Melayu" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Ketuanan Melayu">Ketuanan Melayu</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>James Chin. (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303991284_The_Malaysian_Chinese_Dilemma_The_Never_Ending_Policy_NEP">The Malaysian Chinese Dilemma:</a> The Never Ending Policy (NEP), Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies, Vol 3, 2009</li> <li>James Chin (2022) <a href="//doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.13145" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1111/1467-923X.13145">Racism towards the Chinese Minority</a> in Malaysia: Political Islam and Institutional Barriers, The Political Quarterly</li> <li>James Chin (2020) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342277257_Malaysia_the_2020_putsch_for_Malay_Islam_supremacy">Malaysia: the 2020 putsch for Malay Islam supremacy</a>, The Round Table Journal</li> <li>James Chin (2021) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/news/articles/affirmative-action-malaysia-nep-james-chin">Affirmative Action at 50 in Malaysia</a>: A brief history and evaluation of the NEP, the never-ending policy, The Tablet</li> <li>Abdullah, Asma & Pedersen, Paul B. (2003). <i>Understanding Multicultural Malaysia</i>. Pearson Malaysia. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/983-2639-21-2" title="Special:BookSources/983-2639-21-2">983-2639-21-2</a>.</li> <li>Adam, Ramlah binti, Samuri, Abdul Hakim bin & Fadzil, Muslimin bin (2004). <i>Sejarah Tingkatan 3</i>. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/983-62-8285-8" title="Special:BookSources/983-62-8285-8">983-62-8285-8</a>.</li> <li>Goh, Cheng Teik (1994). <i>Malaysia: Beyond Communal Politics</i>. Pelanduk Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/967-978-475-4" title="Special:BookSources/967-978-475-4">967-978-475-4</a>.</li> <li>Hickling, R.H. (1991). <i>Essays in Malaysian Law</i>. Pelanduk Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/967-978-385-5" title="Special:BookSources/967-978-385-5">967-978-385-5</a>.</li> <li>Hilley, John (2001). <i>Malaysia: Mahathirism, Hegemony and the New Opposition</i>. Zed Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85649-918-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-85649-918-9">1-85649-918-9</a>.</li> <li>Hwang, In-Won (2003). <i>Personalized Politics: The Malaysian State under Mahathir</i>. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-230-185-2" title="Special:BookSources/981-230-185-2">981-230-185-2</a>.</li> <li>Jawan, Jayum A. (2003). <i>Malaysian Politics & Government</i>. Karisma Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/983-195-037-2" title="Special:BookSources/983-195-037-2">983-195-037-2</a>.</li> <li>Josey, Alex (1980). <i>Lee Kuan Yew: The Crucial Years</i>. Times Books International. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-204-448-5" title="Special:BookSources/981-204-448-5">981-204-448-5</a>.</li> <li>Keith, Patrick (2005). <i>Ousted!</i> Media Masters. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-05-3865-0" title="Special:BookSources/981-05-3865-0">981-05-3865-0</a>.</li> <li>Khoo, Boo Teik (1995). <i>Paradoxes of Mahathirism</i>. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/967-65-3094-8" title="Special:BookSources/967-65-3094-8">967-65-3094-8</a>.</li> <li>Lee, Kuan Yew (1998). <i>The Singapore Story</i>. Marshall Cavendish Editions. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-204-983-5" title="Special:BookSources/981-204-983-5">981-204-983-5</a>.</li> <li>Lim, Kit Siang (1978). <i>Time Bombs in Malaysia</i> (2nd ed.). Democratic Action Party. No ISBN available.</li> <li>b. Maaruf, Shaharuddin (1984). <i>Concept of a Hero in Malay Society</i>. Eastern Universities Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9971-71-204-0" title="Special:BookSources/9971-71-204-0">9971-71-204-0</a>.</li> <li>Maidin, Zainuddin (1994). <i>The Other Side of Mahathir</i>. Utusan Publications & Distributors. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/967-61-0486-8" title="Special:BookSources/967-61-0486-8">967-61-0486-8</a>.</li> <li>Means, Gordon P. (1991). <i>Malaysian Politics: The Second Generation</i>. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-588988-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-588988-6">0-19-588988-6</a>.</li> <li>Milne, R.S. & Mauzy, Diane K. (1999). <i>Malaysian Politics under Mahathir</i>. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-17143-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-17143-1">0-415-17143-1</a>.</li> <li>Mohamad, Mahathir bin (1970). <i>The Malay Dilemma</i>. Times Books International. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-204-355-1" title="Special:BookSources/981-204-355-1">981-204-355-1</a>.</li> <li>Musa, M. Bakri (1999). <i>The Malay Dilemma Revisited</i>. Merantau Publishers. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58348-367-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-58348-367-5">1-58348-367-5</a>.</li> <li>Noor, Farish A. (2005). <i>From Majapahit to Putrajaya: Searching for Another Malaysia</i>. Silver Fish Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/983-3221-05-X" title="Special:BookSources/983-3221-05-X">983-3221-05-X</a>.</li> <li>Ongkili, James P. (1985). <i>Nation-building in Malaysia 1946–1974</i>. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-582681-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-582681-7">0-19-582681-7</a>.</li> <li>Putra, Tunku Abdul Rahman (1986). <i>Political Awakening</i>. Pelanduk Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/967-978-136-4" title="Special:BookSources/967-978-136-4">967-978-136-4</a>.</li> <li>Rashid, Rehman (1993). <i>A Malaysian Journey</i>. Self-published. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/983-99819-1-9" title="Special:BookSources/983-99819-1-9">983-99819-1-9</a>.</li> <li>Roff, W.R. (1974). <i>The Origins of Malay Nationalism</i>. Penerbit Universiti Malaya. No ISBN available.</li> <li>Sopiee, Mohamed Noordin (1976). <i>From Malayan Union to Singapore Separation: Political Unification in the Malaysia Region 1945 – 65</i>. Penerbit Universiti Malaya. No ISBN available.</li> <li>Federal Territory MCA Liaison Committee (Ed.), <i>Malaysian Chinese</i>. Eastern Universities Press. No ISBN available.</li> <li>Trinidade, F.A. & Lee, H.P. (eds., 1986). <i>The Constitution of Malaysia: Further Perspectives and Developments</i>. Penerbit Fajar Bakti. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/967-65-0030-5" title="Special:BookSources/967-65-0030-5">967-65-0030-5</a>.</li> <li>Von Vorys, Karl (1975). <i>Democracy without Consensus: Communalism and Political Stability in Malaysia</i>. Princeton University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-07571-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-07571-9">0-691-07571-9</a>.</li> <li>Ye, Lin-Sheng (2003). <i>The Chinese Dilemma</i>. East West Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9751646-1-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-9751646-1-9">0-9751646-1-9</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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(1968–1989)">Second Malayan Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13_May_incident" title="13 May incident">13 May incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Malaysian_constitutional_crisis" title="1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis">1988 constitutional crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Asian_financial_crisis#Malaysia" title="1997 Asian financial crisis">1997 Asian financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1Malaysia_Development_Berhad_scandal" title="1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal">1MDB scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%932022_Malaysian_political_crisis" title="2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis">2020–2022 Malaysian political crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Malaysia" title="Geography of Malaysia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Malaysia" title="Template:Borders of Malaysia">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Populated_places_in_Malaysia" title="Category:Populated places in Malaysia">Cities, towns and villages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_districts_in_Malaysia" title="List of districts in Malaysia">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divisions_of_Malaysia" title="Divisions of Malaysia">Divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Malaysia" title="East Malaysia">East Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_Malaysia" title="Environment of Malaysia">Environment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Malaysia" title="Climate change in Malaysia">climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Malaysia" title="Conservation in Malaysia">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Malaysia" title="Environmental issues in Malaysia">environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Malaysia" title="Deforestation in Malaysia">deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Malaysia" title="Wildlife of Malaysia">wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_of_Malaysia" title="List of plants of Malaysia">plants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Malaysia" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Malaysia">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hill_stations_in_Malaysia" title="List of hill stations in Malaysia">Hill stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Malaysia" title="List of islands of Malaysia">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Malaysia" title="List of lakes of Malaysia">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Malaysia" title="List of mountains in Malaysia">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_in_Malaysia" title="List of national parks in Malaysia">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Malaysia" title="Peninsular Malaysia">Peninsular Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Malaysia" title="List of rivers of Malaysia">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/States_and_federal_territories_of_Malaysia" title="States and federal territories of Malaysia">States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Malaysia" title="List of earthquakes in Malaysia">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Malaysia" title="List of volcanoes in Malaysia">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Malaysia" title="Politics of Malaysia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Malaysia" title="Cabinet of Malaysia">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_Cabinet_of_Malaysia" title="Shadow Cabinet of Malaysia">Shadow Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Malaysia" title="Constitution of Malaysia">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Malaysia" title="Elections in Malaysia">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Malaysia" title="Foreign relations of Malaysia">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Malaysia" title="Government of Malaysia">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Malaysia" title="King of Malaysia">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Malaysia" title="Human rights in Malaysia">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Malaysia" title="Censorship in Malaysia">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Malaysia" title="Judiciary of Malaysia">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Malaysia" title="Law of Malaysia">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Malaysia" title="Law enforcement in Malaysia">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Armed_Forces" title="Malaysian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchies_of_Malaysia" title="Monarchies of Malaysia">Monarchies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Malaysia" title="Parliament of Malaysia">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Malaysia" title="List of political parties in Malaysia">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Malaysia" title="Prime Minister of Malaysia">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_legislative_assemblies_of_Malaysia" title="State legislative assemblies of Malaysia">State legislative assemblies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Malaysia" title="Economy of Malaysia">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Malaysia" title="Agriculture in Malaysia">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Malaysia" title="List of banks in Malaysia">Banks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Malaysia" title="Central Bank of Malaysia">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Malaysia" title="Energy policy of Malaysia">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_federal_budget" title="Malaysian federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_ringgit" title="Malaysian ringgit">Ringgit <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Malaysian_states_by_GDP" title="List of Malaysian states by GDP">States by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Malaysian_states_and_municipalities_by_exports" title="List of Malaysian states and municipalities by exports">States and municipalities by exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Malaysia" title="Science and technology in Malaysia">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bursa_Malaysia" title="Bursa Malaysia">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Malaysia" title="Telecommunications in Malaysia">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Malaysia" title="Tourism in Malaysia">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Malaysia" title="Transport in Malaysia">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Malaysia" title="Trade unions in Malaysia">Unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia_and_the_World_Bank" title="Malaysia and the World Bank">World Bank Relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Malaysia" title="Category:Society of Malaysia">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Malaysia" title="Abortion in Malaysia">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Malaysia" title="Crime in Malaysia">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Malaysia" title="Corruption in Malaysia">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Malaysia" title="Demographics of Malaysia">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Malaysia" title="Education in Malaysia">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethnic_groups_in_Malaysia" title="Template:Ethnic groups in Malaysia">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Malaysia" title="Health in Malaysia">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Malaysia" title="Healthcare in Malaysia">Healthcare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Malaysia" title="Human trafficking in Malaysia">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_Malaysia" title="Income inequality in Malaysia">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Malaysia" title="Languages of Malaysia">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Malaysia">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_diaspora" title="Malaysian diaspora">Malaysian diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Malaysia" title="Poverty in Malaysia">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Malaysia" title="Prostitution in Malaysia">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malaysia" title="Religion in Malaysia">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Malaysia" title="Sex trafficking in Malaysia">Sex trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Malaysia" title="Squatting in Malaysia">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Malaysia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Malaysia">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Malaysia" title="Women in Malaysia">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Malaysia" title="Culture of Malaysia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_art" title="Malaysian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Architecture_in_Malaysia" title="Category:Architecture in Malaysia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Malaysia" title="Cinema of Malaysia">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_cuisine" title="Malaysian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Malaysia" title="Folklore of Malaysia">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_literature" title="Malaysian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Malay ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Malaysia">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Malaysia" title="Music of Malaysia">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_names" title="Malaysian names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Malaysia" title="Public holidays in Malaysia">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Malaysia" title="Sport in Malaysia">Sport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Symbols</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malayan_tiger" title="Malayan tiger">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negaraku" title="Negaraku">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Malaysia" title="Coat of arms of Malaysia">Emblem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Malaysia" title="Flag of Malaysia">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hibiscus_rosa-sinensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hibiscus rosa-sinensis">Flower</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rukun_Negara" title="Rukun Negara">Rukun Negara</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Malaysia" title="Outline of Malaysia">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Malaysia" title="Outline of Malaysia">Index</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Malaysia" title="Bibliography of Malaysia">Bibliography</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Malaysia" title="Category:Malaysia">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Malaysia" title="Portal:Malaysia">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anti-Chinese_sentiment_(Sinophobia)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Template:Anti-Chinese sentiment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Template talk:Anti-Chinese sentiment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-Chinese sentiment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anti-Chinese_sentiment_(Sinophobia)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Anti-Chinese sentiment</a> (Sinophobia)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Peril" title="Yellow Peril">Yellow Peril</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Chinese emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Unparalleled_Invasion" title="The Unparalleled Invasion">The Unparalleled Invasion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_nationalism" title="Japanese nationalism">Japanese nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism_in_Japan" title="Ethnic nationalism in Japan">Minzoku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Sinicization" title="De-Sinicization">De-Sinicization</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By persecutor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adriaan_Valckenier" title="Adriaan Valckenier">Adriaan Valckenier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson_Bryant" title="Andrew Jackson Bryant">Andrew Jackson Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Kearney" title="Denis Kearney">Denis Kearney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hideki_Tojo" title="Hideki Tojo">Hideki Tojo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pol_Pot" title="Pol Pot">Pol Pot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaek_Phibunsongkhram" title="Plaek Phibunsongkhram">Plaek Phibunsongkhram</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong%E2%80%93Mainland_China_conflict" title="Hong Kong–Mainland China conflict">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Chinese_Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Chinese Indians">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_Chinese_Indonesians" title="Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Japan" title="Racism in Japan">Racism in Japan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Korea" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Laos_and_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Malaysia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Malaysia" title="Racism in Malaysia">Racism in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ketuanan Melayu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Chinese_people_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Persecution of Chinese people in Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment#Taiwan" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Laos_and_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Initiative" title="China Initiative">China Initiative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia#Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By institution</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_Union" title="Anti-Chinese Union">Anti-Chinese Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Exclusion_League" title="Asiatic Exclusion League">Asiatic Exclusion League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Brotherhood_of_Railway_Employees" title="Canadian Brotherhood of Railway Employees">Canadian Brotherhood of Railway Employees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsagaan_Khas" title="Tsagaan Khas">Tsagaan Khas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyoku_dantai" title="Uyoku dantai">Uyoku dantai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By incident</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sangley_Rebellion" title="Sangley Rebellion">Sangley Rebellion</a> (1603)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_Sangley_Rebellion_(1639)" class="mw-redirect" title="2nd Sangley Rebellion (1639)">2nd Sangley Rebellion (1639)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangley_Massacre_(1662)" title="Sangley Massacre (1662)">Sangley Massacre (1662)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1740_Batavia_massacre" title="1740 Batavia massacre">1740 Batavia massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1782_Saigon_massacre" title="1782 Saigon massacre">1782 Saigon massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buckland_Riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckland Riot">Buckland Riot</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambing_Flat_riots" title="Lambing Flat riots">Lambing Flat riots</a> (1860–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Coolie_Act" title="Anti-Coolie Act">Anti-Coolie Act</a> (1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_massacre_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese massacre of 1871">Chinese massacre of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigtail_Ordinance" title="Pigtail Ordinance">Pigtail Ordinance</a> (1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Page_Act_of_1875" title="Page Act of 1875">Page Act of 1875</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trout_Creek_Outrage" title="Trout Creek Outrage">Trout Creek Outrage</a> (1876)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_riot_of_1877" title="San Francisco riot of 1877">San Francisco riot of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_head_tax" title="New Zealand head tax">New Zealand head tax</a> (1881–1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a> (1882–1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_Chinese_Immigration_(1885)" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration (1885)">Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration (1885)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act_of_1885" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Immigration Act of 1885">Chinese Immigration Act of 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Squak_Valley_Chinese_laborers,_1885" title="Attack on Squak Valley Chinese laborers, 1885">Attack on Squak Valley Chinese laborers, 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issaquah_riot_of_1885" class="mw-redirect" title="Issaquah riot of 1885">Issaquah riot of 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacoma_riot_of_1885" title="Tacoma riot of 1885">Tacoma riot of 1885</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Springs_massacre" title="Rock Springs massacre">Rock Springs massacre</a> (1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1885_Chinese_expulsion_from_Eureka" title="1885 Chinese expulsion from Eureka">1885 Chinese expulsion from Eureka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_head_tax_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese head tax in Canada">Chinese head tax in Canada</a> (1885–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seattle_riot_of_1886" title="Seattle riot of 1886">Seattle riot of 1886</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vancouver_anti-Chinese_riots,_1886" class="mw-redirect" title="Vancouver anti-Chinese riots, 1886">Vancouver anti-Chinese riots, 1886</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hells_Canyon_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Hells Canyon Massacre">Hells Canyon Massacre</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Act_(1888)" title="Scott Act (1888)">Scott Act (1888)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geary_Act" title="Geary Act">Geary Act</a> (1892–1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Colliery_Co_of_British_Columbia_v_Bryden" title="Union Colliery Co of British Columbia v Bryden">Union Colliery Co of British Columbia v Bryden</a> (1899)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Australia_policy" title="White Australia policy">White Australia policy</a> (1901–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vancouver_anti-Asian_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Vancouver anti-Asian riots">Vancouver anti-Asian riots</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beipu_uprising" title="Beipu uprising">Beipu uprising</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torre%C3%B3n_massacre" title="Torreón massacre">Torreón massacre</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1918_Kudus_riot" title="1918 Kudus riot">1918 Kudus riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_deportations_of_Chinese_people" title="Soviet deportations of Chinese people">Soviet deportations of Chinese people</a> (1920s–1930s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act,_1923" title="Chinese Immigration Act, 1923">Chinese Immigration Act, 1923</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanpaoshan_Incident" title="Wanpaoshan Incident">Wanpaoshan Incident</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (1937-1945) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanking_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanking Massacre">Nanking Massacre</a> (1937–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanshitou_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanshitou Massacre">Nanshitou Massacre</a> (1942-1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japanese war crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Alls_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Alls Policy">Three Alls Policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sook_Ching_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Sook Ching massacre">Sook Ching massacre</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changkiao_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Changkiao massacre">Changkiao massacre</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Office_213/926" title="Home Office 213/926">Home Office 213/926</a> (1945–1946)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bersiap" title="Bersiap">Bersiap</a></i> (1945–1947) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mergosono_massacre" title="Mergosono massacre">Mergosono massacre</a> (1947)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation_on_Chinese_Indonesians" title="Legislation on Chinese Indonesians">Legislation on Chinese Indonesians</a> (1950s-)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Confession_Program" title="Chinese Confession Program">Chinese Confession Program</a> (1956–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Chinese-Indians" title="Internment of Chinese-Indians">Internment of Chinese-Indians</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_race_riots_in_Singapore" title="1964 race riots in Singapore">1964 race riots in Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1967_anti-Chinese_riots_in_Burma" title="1967 anti-Chinese riots in Burma">1967 anti-Chinese riots in Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monosodium_glutamate#Controversy" title="Monosodium glutamate">Monosodium glutamate controversy (Chinese restaurant syndrome)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13_May_incident_(Malaysia)" class="mw-redirect" title="13 May incident (Malaysia)">13 May incident (Malaysia)</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_race_riots_of_Singapore" title="1969 race riots of Singapore">1969 race riots of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malari_incident" title="Malari incident">Malari incident</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a> (1975–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1997_Banjarmasin_riot" title="1997 Banjarmasin riot">1997 Banjarmasin riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_1998_riots_of_Indonesia" title="May 1998 riots of Indonesia">May 1998 riots of Indonesia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2006_Nuku%CA%BBalofa_riots" title="2006 Nukuʻalofa riots">2006 Nukuʻalofa riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abacus_Federal_Savings_Bank#Prosecution_and_exoneration" title="Abacus Federal Savings Bank">Abacus Bank prosecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Kunming_bus_bombings" title="2008 Kunming bus bombings">2008 Kunming bus bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/July_2009_%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi_riots" title="July 2009 Ürümqi riots">July 2009 Ürümqi riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Kashgar_attacks" title="2011 Kashgar attacks">2011 Kashgar attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Amendment" title="Wolf Amendment">Wolf Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Tiananmen_Square_attack" title="2013 Tiananmen Square attack">2013 Tiananmen Square attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Vietnam_anti-China_protests" title="2014 Vietnam anti-China protests">2014 Vietnam anti-China protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_Kunming_attack" title="2014 Kunming attack">2014 Kunming attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_2014_%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi_attack" title="April 2014 Ürümqi attack">April 2014 Ürümqi attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/May_2014_%C3%9Cr%C3%BCmqi_attack" title="May 2014 Ürümqi attack">May 2014 Ürümqi attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Plaza_Low_Yat_riot" title="2015 Plaza Low Yat riot">2015 Plaza Low Yat riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Aksu_colliery_attack" title="2015 Aksu colliery attack">2015 Aksu colliery attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93United_States_trade_war" title="China–United States trade war">China–United States trade war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trump_tariffs" title="Trump tariffs">Trump tariffs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_Intelligence_Cold_War" title="Artificial Intelligence Cold War">Artificial Intelligence Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Initiative" title="China Initiative">China Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Atlanta_spa_shootings" title="2021 Atlanta spa shootings">2021 Atlanta spa shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Solomon_Islands_unrest" title="2021 Solomon Islands unrest">2021 Solomon Islands unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Papua_New_Guinean_unrest" title="2024 Papua New Guinean unrest">2024 Papua New Guinean unrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boycotts_of_Chinese_products" title="Boycotts of Chinese products">Boycotts of Chinese products</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By victim</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chae_Chan_Ping_v._United_States" title="Chae Chan Ping v. United States">Chae Chan Ping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fong_Yue_Ting_v._United_States" title="Fong Yue Ting v. United States">Fong Yue Ting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tape_v._Hurley" title="Tape v. Hurley">Mary Tape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wong_Kim_Ark" title="United States v. Wong Kim Ark">Wong Kim Ark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yick_Wo_v._Hopkins" title="Yick Wo v. Hopkins">Yick Wo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Vincent_Chin" title="Killing of Vincent Chin">Vincent Chin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ita_Martadinata_Haryono" title="Ita Martadinata Haryono">Ita Martadinata Haryono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velma_Demerson" title="Velma Demerson">Velma Demerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wen_Ho_Lee" title="Wen Ho Lee">Wen Ho Lee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Anming_Hu" title="Trial of Anming Hu">Anming Hu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_of_Danny_Chen" title="Suicide of Danny Chen">Danny Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Ee_Lee" title="Murder of Ee Lee">Ee Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eileen_Gu" title="Eileen Gu">Eileen Gu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Feng_Tao" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Feng Tao">Franklin Feng Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_Chen_(engineer)" title="Gang Chen (engineer)">Gang Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Haoyang_Yu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Haoyang Yu (page does not exist)">Haoyang Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jiansheng_Chen" title="Murder of Jiansheng Chen">Jiansheng Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiayang_Fan" title="Jiayang Fan">Jiayang Fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immolation_of_Leung_Chi-cheung" class="mw-redirect" title="Immolation of Leung Chi-cheung">Leung Chi-cheung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Mi_Gao_Huang_Chen" title="Murder of Mi Gao Huang Chen">Mi Gao Huang Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherry_Chen_(hydrologist)" title="Sherry Chen (hydrologist)">Sherry Chen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teoh_Beng_Hock" title="Teoh Beng Hock">Teoh Beng Hock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiaoxing_Xi#False_accusation_of_spying" title="Xiaoxing Xi">Xiaoxing Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Killing_of_Yao_Pan_Ma" title="Killing of Yao Pan Ma">Yao Pan Ma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Michelle_Go" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Michelle Go">Michelle Go</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slurs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinaman" title="Chinaman">Chinaman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinaman%27s_chance" title="Chinaman's chance">Chinaman's chance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese,_Japanese,_dirty_knees" title="Chinese, Japanese, dirty knees">Chinese, Japanese, dirty knees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ching_chong" title="Ching chong">Ching chong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chink" title="Chink">Chink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locust_(ethnic_slur)" title="Locust (ethnic slur)">Locust/Wongchung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shina_(word)" title="Shina (word)">Shina/Zhina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_man_of_Asia" title="Sick man of Asia">Sick man of Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Chinese imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_nationalism" title="Hong Kong nationalism">Hong Kong nationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethnic_nationalism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethnic_nationalism" title="Template:Ethnic nationalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethnic_nationalism" title="Template talk:Ethnic nationalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnic_nationalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnic nationalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethnic_nationalism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nationalisms<br />in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berberism" title="Berberism">Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_nationalism" title="Coptic nationalism">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationalism" title="Egyptian nationalism">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharaonism" title="Pharaonism">Pharaonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabyle_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabyle nationalism">Kabyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_nationalism" title="Sahrawi nationalism">Sahrawi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acholi_nationalism" title="Acholi nationalism">Acholi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amhara_nationalism" title="Amhara nationalism">Amhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_nationalism" title="Somali nationalism">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrayan_nationalism" title="Tigrayan nationalism">Tigrayan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nigeria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_nationalism" title="Igbo nationalism">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogoni_nationalism" title="Ogoni nationalism">Ogoni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_nationalism" title="Afrikaner nationalism">Afrikaner</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chicano_nationalism" title="Chicano nationalism">Chicano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_independence" title="Greenlandic independence">Greenlandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_self-government_in_Canada" title="Indigenous self-government in Canada">Indigenous Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lakotah_proposal" title="Republic of Lakotah proposal">Lakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_nationalism" title="Quebec nationalism">Québécois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Sequoyah" title="State of Sequoyah">Sequoyahan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Caribbean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noirism" title="Noirism">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_movement_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Independence movement in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rican</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_nationalism" title="Argentine nationalism">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_nationalism" title="Creole nationalism">Criollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_conflict" title="Mapuche conflict">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocacerism" title="Ethnocacerism">Peruvian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_nationalism" title="Assyrian nationalism">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_nationalism" title="Iranian nationalism">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationalism" title="Iraqi nationalism">Iraqi</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golus_nationalism" title="Golus nationalism">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_nationalism" title="Jordanian nationalism">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_nationalism" title="Kurdish nationalism">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_nationalism" title="Lebanese nationalism">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_nationalism" title="Palestinian nationalism">Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_nationalism" title="Turkish nationalism">Turkish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Cypriot_nationalism" title="Turkish Cypriot nationalism">in Cyprus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaza_nationalism" title="Zaza nationalism">Zaza</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_nationalism" title="Cantonese nationalism">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism" title="Chinese nationalism">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_nationalism" title="Han nationalism">Han</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_chauvinism" title="Han chauvinism">chauvinist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_nationalism" title="Hong Kong nationalism">Hongkonger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism_in_Japan" title="Ethnic nationalism in Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_ethnic_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean ethnic nationalism">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_nationalism" title="Manchurian nationalism">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Okinawan nationalism">Okinawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_independence_movement" title="Ryukyu independence movement">Ryukyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_nationalism" title="Taiwanese nationalism">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_independence_movement" title="Tibetan independence movement">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assam_separatist_movements" title="Assam separatist movements">Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_nationalism" title="Bengali nationalism">Bengali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_nationalism" title="Bangladeshi nationalism">in Bangladesh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodo_nationalism" title="Bodo nationalism">Bodo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_nationalism" title="Dravidian nationalism">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazara_nationalism" title="Hazara nationalism">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_nationalism" title="Meitei nationalism">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naga_nationalism" title="Naga nationalism">Naga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_nationalism" title="Punjabi nationalism">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_nationalism" title="Sindhi nationalism">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_nationalism" title="Tamil nationalism">Tamil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Tamil_nationalism" title="Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism">in Sri Lanka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripuri_nationalism" title="Tripuri nationalism">Tripuri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South-eastern Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_nationalism" title="Filipino nationalism">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_nationalism" title="Khmer nationalism">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Malay_nationalism" title="Early Malay nationalism">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mon nationalism">Mon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shan nationalism">Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_nationalism" title="Thai nationalism">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_nationalism" title="Vietnamese nationalism">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern & Middle Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baloch_nationalism" title="Baloch nationalism">Baloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Mongolism" title="Pan-Mongolism">Mongolian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolian_independence_movement" title="Inner Mongolian independence movement">South Mongolia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Turkism" title="Pan-Turkism">Pan-Turkism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashtun_nationalism" title="Pashtun nationalism">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_regionalism" title="Siberian regionalism">Siberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_nationalism" title="Uyghur nationalism">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_nationalism" title="Yakut nationalism">Yakut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Caucasus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_nationalism" title="Armenian nationalism">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_nationalism" title="Azerbaijani nationalism">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_nationalism" title="Georgian nationalism">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laz_nationalism" title="Laz nationalism">Laz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southeastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_nationalism" title="Albanian nationalism">Albanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_nationalism_in_Albania" title="Albanian nationalism in Albania">in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_nationalism_in_Kosovo" title="Albanian nationalism in Kosovo">in Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_nationalism_in_North_Macedonia" title="Albanian nationalism in North Macedonia">in North Macedonia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_nationalism" title="Aromanian nationalism">Aromanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosniak_nationalism" title="Bosniak nationalism">Bosniak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_nationalism" title="Croatian nationalism">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_nationalism" title="Greek nationalism">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Cypriot_nationalism" title="Greek Cypriot nationalism">in Cyprus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_nationalism" title="Macedonian nationalism">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldovenism" title="Moldovenism">Moldovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_nationalism" title="Montenegrin nationalism">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Romani nationalism">Romani (Gypsy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_nationalism" title="Romanian nationalism">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_nationalism" title="Serbian nationalism">Serbian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_nationalism" title="Austrian nationalism">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_nationalism" title="Bavarian nationalism">Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_nationalism" title="Czech nationalism">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_nationalism" title="Frisian nationalism">Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_nationalism_in_Austria" title="German nationalism in Austria">in Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_nationalism" title="Völkisch nationalism">Völkisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_nationalism" title="Hungarian nationalism">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_nationalism" title="Polish nationalism">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_independence" title="Silesian independence">Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_nationalism" title="Slovak nationalism">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovenian_nationalism" title="Slovenian nationalism">Slovenian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_nationalism" title="Belarusian nationalism">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_nationalism" title="Ukrainian nationalism">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddishist_movement" title="Yiddishist movement">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Caucasus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkar_and_Karachay_nationalism" title="Balkar and Karachay nationalism">Balkar and Karachay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_nationalism" title="Circassian nationalism">Circassian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingush_nationalism" title="Ingush nationalism">Ingush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lezgin_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lezgin nationalism">Lezgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_nationalism" title="Ossetian nationalism">Ossetian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Volga Region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chuvash_nationalism" title="Chuvash nationalism">Chuvash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_nationalism" title="Tatar nationalism">Tatar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_nationalism" title="Breton nationalism">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch nationalism">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_Movement" title="Flemish Movement">Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_nationalism" title="French nationalism">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_nationalism" title="Irish nationalism">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occitan_nationalism" title="Occitan nationalism">Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walloon_Movement" title="Walloon Movement">Walloon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_nationalism" title="British nationalism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_nationalism" title="Cornish nationalism">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_nationalism" title="English nationalism">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_nationalism" title="Scottish nationalism">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulster_nationalism" title="Ulster nationalism">Ulster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_nationalism" title="Welsh nationalism">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arpitania" title="Arpitania">Arpitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_nationalism" title="Basque nationalism">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corsican_nationalism" title="Corsican nationalism">Corsican</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nationalism" title="Italian nationalism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_nationalism" title="Lombard nationalism">Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padanian_nationalism" title="Padanian nationalism">Padanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_nationalism" title="Sardinian nationalism">Sardinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_nationalism" title="Sicilian nationalism">Sicilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_nationalism" title="Venetian nationalism">Venetian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_nationalism" title="Spanish nationalism">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andalusian_nationalism" title="Andalusian nationalism">Andalusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aragonese_nationalism" title="Aragonese nationalism">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asturian_nationalism" title="Asturian nationalism">Asturian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_nationalism" title="Basque nationalism">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canarian_nationalism" title="Canarian nationalism">Canarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_nationalism" title="Castilian nationalism">Castilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_nationalism" title="Catalan nationalism">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_nationalism" title="Galician nationalism">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navarrese_nationalism" title="Navarrese nationalism">Navarrese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valencian_nationalism" title="Valencian nationalism">Valencian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_nationalism" title="Estonian nationalism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_independence_movement" title="Faroese independence movement">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_nationalism" title="Finnish nationalism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_nationalism" title="Icelandic nationalism">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_National_Revival" title="Lithuanian National Revival">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_nationalism" title="Norwegian nationalism">Norwegian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_nationalism" title="Australian nationalism">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_sovereignty_movement" title="Hawaiian sovereignty movement">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Indigenous_sovereignty" title="Australian Indigenous sovereignty">Indigenous Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_protest_movement" title="Māori protest movement">Māori</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pan-nationalism" title="Pan-nationalism">Pan-nationalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Asianism" title="Pan-Asianism">Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_nationalism" title="Bangladeshi nationalism">Bangladeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Celticism" title="Pan-Celticism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism" title="Chinese nationalism">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolese_nationalism_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="Congolese nationalism (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Congolese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-European_nationalism" title="Pan-European nationalism">European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Finnicism" title="Pan-Finnicism">Finnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Germanism" title="Pan-Germanism">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panhispanism" title="Panhispanism">Hispanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberism" title="Iberism">Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationalism" title="Indian nationalism">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Iranism" title="Pan-Iranism">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationalism" title="Iraqi nationalism">Iraqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_reunification" title="Korean reunification">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Latinism" title="Pan-Latinism">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_nationalism" title="Libyan nationalism">Libyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Mongolism" title="Pan-Mongolism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Indianism" title="Pan-Indianism">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_nationalism" title="Nigerian nationalism">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordism">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Oceanian" title="Pan-Oceanian">Oceanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_nationalism" title="Pakistani nationalism">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavism" title="Scandinavism">Scandinavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslavism" title="Yugoslavism">South Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_nationalism" title="Tunisian nationalism">Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turanism" title="Turanism">Turanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Turkism" title="Pan-Turkism">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ugandan nationalism">Ugandan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsace_independence_movement" title="Alsace independence movement">Alsace independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assam_separatist_movements" title="Assam separatist movements">Assam separatist movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_independence_movement" title="Assyrian independence movement">Assyrian independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_independence_movement" title="Catalan independence movement">Catalan independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa_independence_movement" title="Champa independence movement">Champa independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Turkestan_independence_movement" title="East Turkestan independence movement">East Turkestan independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_independence_movement" title="Faroese independence movement">Faroese independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_Movement" title="Flemish Movement">Flemish Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Aceh_Movement" title="Free Aceh Movement">Free Aceh Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Papua_Movement" title="Free Papua Movement">Free Papua Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_%C3%85land" title="Future of Åland">Future of Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_independence_movement" title="Galician independence movement">Galician independence movement (Spain)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_independence" title="Greenlandic independence">Greenlandic independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_nationalism" title="Cantonese nationalism">Guangdong Independence Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_sovereignty_movement" title="Hawaiian sovereignty movement">Hawaiian sovereignty movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolian_independence_movement" title="Inner Mongolian independence movement">Inner Mongolian independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashubian_Association" title="Kashubian Association">Kashubian Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_protest_movement" title="Māori protest movement">Māori protest movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallmapu" title="Wallmapu">Mapuche separatist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Independence_Movement" title="Muslim Independence Movement">Muslim Independence Movement (Philippines)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_of_Corsica" title="National Liberation Front of Corsica">National Liberation Front of Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patani_United_Liberation_Organisation" title="Patani United Liberation Organisation">Patani United Liberation Organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_independence_movement" title="Ryukyu independence movement">Ryukyu independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_independence" title="Scottish independence">Scottish independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_regionalism" title="Siberian regionalism">Siberian regionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Autonomy_Movement" title="Silesian Autonomy Movement">Silesian Autonomy Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sz%C3%A9kely_autonomy_movement" title="Székely autonomy movement">Székely autonomy movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_independence_movement" title="Taiwan independence movement">Taiwan independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_independence_movement" title="Tibetan independence movement">Tibetan independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vojvodina_Autonomist_Movement" title="Vojvodina Autonomist Movement">Vojvodina Autonomist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallmapuwen" title="Wallmapuwen">Wallmapuwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walloon_Movement" title="Walloon Movement">Walloon Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_independence" title="Welsh independence">Welsh independence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arakan" title="Arakan">Arakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azawad" title="Azawad">Azawad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balawaristan" title="Balawaristan">Balawaristan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balochistan" title="Balochistan">Balochistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangsamoro" title="Bangsamoro">Bangsamoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_Country_(greater_region)" title="Basque Country (greater region)">Basque Country (greater region)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_Countries" title="Catalan Countries">Catalan Countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chameria" title="Chameria">Chameria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria" title="Chechen Republic of Ichkeria">Chechen Republic of Ichkeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassia" title="Circassia">Circassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatay_State" title="Hatay State">Hatay State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazarajat" title="Hazarajat">Hazarajat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig">Danzig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donetsk_People%27s_Republic" title="Donetsk People's Republic">Donetsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Turkestan" title="East Turkestan">East Turkestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Republic_of_Herzeg-Bosnia" title="Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia">Herzeg-Bosnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilirida" title="Ilirida">Ilirida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karakalpakstan" title="Karakalpakstan">Karakalpakstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karelia" title="Karelia">Karelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katarism" title="Katarism">Katarism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ketuanan Melayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan" title="Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lezgistan" title="Lezgistan">Lezgistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luhansk_People%27s_Republic" title="Luhansk People's Republic">Luhansk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_Abhimaangeet" title="Marathi Abhimaangeet">Marathi Abhimaangeet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Epirus" title="Northern Epirus">Northern Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occitania" title="Occitania">Occitania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossetia" title="Ossetia">Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashtunistan" title="Pashtunistan">Pashtunistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republika_Srpska" title="Republika Srpska">Republika Srpska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Department_(Bolivia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia)">Santa Cruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1pmi" title="Sápmi">Sápmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraikistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Saraikistan">Saraikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhudesh_movement" title="Sindhudesh movement">Sindhudesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sz%C3%A9kely_Land" title="Székely Land">Székely Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Eelam" title="Tamil Eelam">Tamil Eelam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_ethnic_nationalism" title="Local ethnic nationalism">Local (China)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_nationalism" title="Racial nationalism">Racial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenismo" title="Indigenismo">American Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_nationalism" title="Völkisch nationalism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenism" title="Indigenism">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="wrap"><i><b>Note</b>: Forms of nationalism based primarily on <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic groups</a> are listed above. This does not imply that all nationalists with a given ethnicity subscribe to that form of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">ethnic nationalism</a></i>.</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&oldid=1257201530">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ketuanan_Melayu&oldid=1257201530</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_history_of_Malaysia" title="Category:Political history of Malaysia">Political history of Malaysia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Malaysian_nationalism" title="Category:Malaysian nationalism">Malaysian nationalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnocentrism" title="Category:Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_nationalism" title="Category:Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_and_race" title="Category:Politics and race">Politics and race</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Racial_and_religious_quotas_in_Malaysia" title="Category:Racial and religious quotas in Malaysia">Racial and religious quotas in Malaysia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination_in_Malaysia" title="Category:Discrimination in Malaysia">Discrimination in Malaysia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Malaysian_political_slogans" title="Category:Malaysian political slogans">Malaysian political slogans</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Far-right_politics_in_Malaysia" title="Category:Far-right politics in Malaysia">Far-right politics in Malaysia</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_June_2016" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from June 2016">Articles with dead external links from June 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:EngvarB_from_November_2023" title="Category:EngvarB from November 2023">EngvarB from November 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_October_2014" title="Category:Use dmy dates from October 2014">Use dmy dates from October 2014</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_excerpts" title="Category:Articles with excerpts">Articles with excerpts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 13 November 2024, at 19:34<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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