Frederick Sanger, Ph.D. | Academy of Achievement

<!doctype html> <html lang="en-US"> <head><script type="text/javascript" src="/_static/js/bundle-playback.js?v=HxkREWBo" charset="utf-8"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="/_static/js/wombat.js?v=txqj7nKC" charset="utf-8"></script> <script>window.RufflePlayer=window.RufflePlayer||{};window.RufflePlayer.config={"autoplay":"on","unmuteOverlay":"hidden"};</script> <script type="text/javascript" src="/_static/js/ruffle/ruffle.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript"> __wm.init("https://web.archive.org/web"); __wm.wombat("https://achievement.org/achiever/frederick-sanger-ph-d/","20200917235412","https://web.archive.org/","web","/_static/", "1600386852"); </script> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/_static/css/banner-styles.css?v=S1zqJCYt" /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/_static/css/iconochive.css?v=3PDvdIFv" />  <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta http-equiv="x-ua-compatible" content="ie=edge"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="57x57" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/apple-touch-icon-57x57.png"/> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="114x114" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/apple-touch-icon-114x114.png"/> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="72x72" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/apple-touch-icon-72x72.png"/> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="144x144" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/apple-touch-icon-144x144.png"/> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="60x60" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/apple-touch-icon-60x60.png"/> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="120x120" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/apple-touch-icon-120x120.png"/> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="76x76" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/apple-touch-icon-76x76.png"/> <link rel="apple-touch-icon-precomposed" sizes="152x152" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/apple-touch-icon-152x152.png"/> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/favicon-196x196.png" sizes="196x196"/> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/favicon-96x96.png" sizes="96x96"/> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/favicon-32x32.png" sizes="32x32"/> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/favicon-16x16.png" sizes="16x16"/> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/favicon-128.png" sizes="128x128"/> <meta name="application-name" content="Academy of Achievement"/> <meta name="msapplication-TileColor" content="#000000"/> <meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/mstile-144x144.png"/> <meta name="msapplication-square70x70logo" content="https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/mstile-70x70.png"/> <meta name="msapplication-square150x150logo" content="https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/mstile-150x150.png"/> <meta name="msapplication-wide310x150logo" content="https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/mstile-310x150.png"/> <meta name="msapplication-square310x310logo" content="https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/favicon/mstile-310x310.png"/> <link href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412cs_/https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Source+Sans+Pro:400,600,400italic,600italic,700,700italic&display=swap" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css">  <title>Frederick Sanger, Ph.D. | Academy of Achievement</title> <meta name="description" content="Most scientists would consider a Nobel Prize the crowning achievement of a life's work; Dr. Frederick Sanger has won this honor not once, but twice. He received his first Nobel in 1958 for successfully determining the exact sequence of the 51 amino acids that make up a molecule of insulin. The method he pioneered can be used for the analysis of all proteins, and made the synthesis of insulin possible for the first time, with far-reaching effects for the treatment of diabetes. Sanger then set out to do for DNA what he had done for proteins. Methods he devised have enabled scientists to determine the sequence of hundreds of base compounds in a single day, work that had previously taken years to accomplish. Dr. Sanger demonstrated his method by performing the first complete analysis of an entire organism, a microscopic bacteriophage. In 1980, Dr. Sanger received a second Nobel for this work, which lies at the heart of contemporary genetic research, such as the Human Genome Project. Only four people in history have won two Nobel Prizes. Two were past honorees of the Academy of Achievement, John Bardeen and Linus Pauling. The others were Marie Curie and Dr. Frederick Sanger, who was the last living member of this illustrious company."/> <meta name="robots" content="index, follow"/> <meta name="googlebot" content="index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1"/> <meta name="bingbot" content="index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1"/> <link rel="canonical" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/frederick-sanger-ph-d/"/> <meta property="og:locale" content="en_US"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Frederick Sanger, Ph.D. | Academy of Achievement"/> <meta property="og:description" content="Most scientists would consider a Nobel Prize the crowning achievement of a life's work; Dr. Frederick Sanger has won this honor not once, but twice. He received his first Nobel in 1958 for successfully determining the exact sequence of the 51 amino acids that make up a molecule of insulin. The method he pioneered can be used for the analysis of all proteins, and made the synthesis of insulin possible for the first time, with far-reaching effects for the treatment of diabetes. Sanger then set out to do for DNA what he had done for proteins. Methods he devised have enabled scientists to determine the sequence of hundreds of base compounds in a single day, work that had previously taken years to accomplish. Dr. Sanger demonstrated his method by performing the first complete analysis of an entire organism, a microscopic bacteriophage. In 1980, Dr. Sanger received a second Nobel for this work, which lies at the heart of contemporary genetic research, such as the Human Genome Project. Only four people in history have won two Nobel Prizes. Two were past honorees of the Academy of Achievement, John Bardeen and Linus Pauling. The others were Marie Curie and Dr. Frederick Sanger, who was the last living member of this illustrious company."/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/frederick-sanger-ph-d/"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Academy of Achievement"/> <meta property="article:modified_time" content="2017-04-06T13:45:08+00:00"/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/sanger-Feature-Image-2800x1120.jpg"/> <meta property="og:image:width" content="2800"/> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1120"/> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary"/> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="@achievers1961"/> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@achievers1961"/> <script type="application/ld+json" class="yoast-schema-graph">{"@context":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"Organization","@id":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/#organization","name":"Academy of Achievement","url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/","sameAs":["https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://www.linkedin.com/company/american-academy-of-achievement","https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://www.youtube.com/channel/UChe_87uh1H-NIMf3ndTjPFw","https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Achievement","https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://twitter.com/achievers1961"],"logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","@id":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/#logo","inLanguage":"en-US","url":"/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/12.png","width":1200,"height":630,"caption":"Academy of Achievement"},"image":{"@id":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/#logo"}},{"@type":"WebSite","@id":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/#website","url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/","name":"Academy of Achievement","description":"A museum of living history","publisher":{"@id":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/#organization"},"potentialAction":[{"@type":"SearchAction","target":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/search/{search_term_string}","query-input":"required name=search_term_string"}],"inLanguage":"en-US"},{"@type":"ImageObject","@id":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/frederick-sanger-ph-d/#primaryimage","inLanguage":"en-US","url":"/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/sanger-Feature-Image-2800x1120.jpg","width":2800,"height":1120},{"@type":"WebPage","@id":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/frederick-sanger-ph-d/#webpage","url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/frederick-sanger-ph-d/","name":"Frederick Sanger, Ph.D. | Academy of Achievement","isPartOf":{"@id":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/#website"},"primaryImageOfPage":{"@id":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/frederick-sanger-ph-d/#primaryimage"},"datePublished":"2017-04-04T21:02:01+00:00","dateModified":"2017-04-06T13:45:08+00:00","description":"Most scientists would consider a Nobel Prize the crowning achievement of a life's work; Dr. Frederick Sanger has won this honor not once, but twice. 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role="document"> <div class="content"> <main class="main"> <div class="feature-area__container"> <header class="feature-area feature-area--has-image ratio-container ratio-container--feature"> <figure class="feature-box"> <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image feature-area__image" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/sanger-Feature-Image-2800x1120.jpg [(max-width:544px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/03/sanger-Feature-Image-2800x1120-1400x560.jpg [(max-width:992px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/03/sanger-Feature-Image-2800x1120.jpg"></div> <div class="display--table"> <div class="display--table-cell"> <figcaption class="feature-area__text ratio-container__text container"> <div class="feature-area__text-inner text-white"> <h2 class="serif-8 feature-area__text-subhead back"><a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever">All achievers</a></h2> <h1 class="serif-1 entry-title feature-area__text-headline">Frederick Sanger, Ph.D.</h1> <h5 class="sans-6 feature-area__blurb">Two Nobel Prizes in Chemistry</h5> </div> </figcaption> </div> </div> </figure> </header> </div>  <nav class="in-page-nav row fixedsticky"> <ul class="nav text-xs-center clearfix" role="tablist"> <li class="nav-item col-xs-3"> <a class="nav-link active" data-toggle="tab" href="#biography" role="tab" data-gtm-category="tab" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever Biography">Biography</a> </li> <li class="nav-item col-xs-3"> <a class="nav-link" data-toggle="tab" href="#profile" role="tab" data-gtm-category="tab" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever Profile">Profile</a> </li> <li class="nav-item col-xs-3"> <a class="nav-link" data-toggle="tab" href="#interview" role="tab" data-gtm-category="tab" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever Interview">Interview</a> </li> <li class="nav-item col-xs-3"> <a class="nav-link" data-toggle="tab" href="#gallery" role="tab" data-gtm-category="tab" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever Gallery">Gallery</a> </li> </ul> </nav> <article class="post-37506 achiever type-achiever status-publish has-post-thumbnail hentry careers-biochemist"> <div class="entry-content container clearfix">  <div class="tab-content"> <div class="tab-pane active" id="biography" role="tabpanel"> <section class="achiever--biography"> <div class="row"> <header class="editorial-article__header col-md-8 col-md-offset-2 text-xs-center"> <i class="icon-icon_bio text-brand-primary"></i> <h3 class="serif-3 quote-marks">Science is not like the Olympic Games or something where there's a lot of people all trying to win gold medals, and if you don't get a gold medal, you're nothing. There are actually a lot of people working together and contributing to the science — and the science is the important thing.</h3> </header> </div> <div class="row"> <aside class="col-md-4 sidebar clearfix"> <h2 class="serif-3 p-b-1">Father of Genomics</h2> <div class="col-xs-12 sidebar--chunk p-b-2"> <dt class="serif-7">Date of Birth</dt> <dd class="sans-2"> August 13, 1918 </dd> </div> <div class="col-xs-12 sidebar--chunk p-b-2"> <dt class="serif-7">Date of Death</dt> <dd class="sans-2"> November 19, 2013 </dd> </div> </aside> <article class="editorial-article col-md-8"> <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/loose.dtd"> <html><body data-rsssl="1"> <figure id="attachment_38084" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-38084" style="width: 572px" class="wp-caption alignright"><noscript><img class="size-full wp-image-38084 " src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/16516_youngsanger-Fred-Sanger-at-age-11-with-his-older-brother-and-younger-sister.jpg"></noscript><img loading="lazy" class="size-full wp-image-38084 lazyload" alt="" width="572" height="373" data-sizes="(max-width: 572px) 100vw, 572px" data-srcset="/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/16516_youngsanger-Fred-Sanger-at-age-11-with-his-older-brother-and-younger-sister.jpg 572w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/16516_youngsanger-Fred-Sanger-at-age-11-with-his-older-brother-and-younger-sister-380x248.jpg 380w" data-src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/16516_youngsanger-Fred-Sanger-at-age-11-with-his-older-brother-and-younger-sister.jpg"><figcaption id="caption-attachment-38084" class="wp-caption-text">Frederick Sanger (middle), at age 11, with older brother, Theodore, and younger sister, Mary. Sanger was born on August 13, 1918, at Rendcombe in Gloucestershire, to Dr. Frederick Sanger, a medical practitioner, and wife Cicely.</figcaption></figure> <p>Frederick Sanger was born in Rendcomb, Gloucestershire in the southwest of England. His father was a physician. When he was five, he moved, with his father, mother and an older brother to Tanworth-in-Arden, another small village, southeast of the city of Birmingham, not far from Shakespeare’s home town of Stratford-on-Avon. As a boy, Frederick Sanger enjoyed exploring the nearby woods and countryside with his older brother, Theo. Together they studied the local wildlife, encouraging Frederick’s interest in science and the natural world. At age seven he was sent to Bryanston School, a private boarding school, and later to Brownsmith School in Dorset, where a sympathetic teacher encouraged his interest in chemistry. It was expected that Frederick would follow his father’s example and become a physician, but by the time he entered St. John’s College, Cambridge, he had decided to pursue a career in scientific research. Once there, his attention soon turned to the emerging science of biochemistry. After completing his undergraduate degree in 1939, he went to work at the newly established biochemistry laboratory in Cambridge. It would remain his professional home for the rest of his career.</p> <figure id="attachment_38088" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-38088" style="width: 2280px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><noscript><img class="size-full wp-image-38088 " src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-537168771_master.jpg"></noscript><img loading="lazy" class="size-full wp-image-38088 lazyload" alt="" width="2280" height="2951" data-sizes="(max-width: 2280px) 100vw, 2280px" data-srcset="/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-537168771_master.jpg 2280w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-537168771_master-294x380.jpg 294w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-537168771_master-587x760.jpg 587w" data-src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-537168771_master.jpg"><figcaption id="caption-attachment-38088" class="wp-caption-text">1958: Dr. Frederick Sanger, standing next to an atomic model structure of insulin, at his Cambridge laboratory in England. “Beginning in the 1940s, Frederick Sanger studied the composition of the insulin molecule. He used acids to break the molecule into smaller parts, which were separated from one another with the help of electrophoresis and chromatography. Further analyses determined the amino acid sequences in the molecule’s two chains, and in 1955, Frederick Sanger identified how the chains are linked together.” (Photo by John Franks/Keystone/Getty)</figcaption></figure> <p>Sanger’s parents were both strongly religious. His father had served as a missionary in China and later joined the Society of Friends (Quakers). Although Frederick Sanger did not ultimately embrace his father’s faith, he was strongly influenced by the Society’s pacifist views and registered as a conscientious objector during the Second World War.</p> <figure id="attachment_38091" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-38091" style="width: 3880px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><noscript><img class="size-full wp-image-38091 " src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/BBBAAZ_-1958-Nobel-Prize-recipients-in-Chemistry-Physics-and-Physiology-or-Medicine.jpg"></noscript><img loading="lazy" class="size-full wp-image-38091 lazyload" alt="" width="3880" height="2736" data-sizes="(max-width: 3880px) 100vw, 3880px" data-srcset="/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/BBBAAZ_-1958-Nobel-Prize-recipients-in-Chemistry-Physics-and-Physiology-or-Medicine.jpg 3880w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/BBBAAZ_-1958-Nobel-Prize-recipients-in-Chemistry-Physics-and-Physiology-or-Medicine-380x268.jpg 380w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/BBBAAZ_-1958-Nobel-Prize-recipients-in-Chemistry-Physics-and-Physiology-or-Medicine-760x536.jpg 760w" data-src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/BBBAAZ_-1958-Nobel-Prize-recipients-in-Chemistry-Physics-and-Physiology-or-Medicine.jpg"><figcaption id="caption-attachment-38091" class="wp-caption-text">1958 Nobel Prize recipients in Chemistry, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine: From left to right: George Beadle, Edward Lawrie Tatum, Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm (Physics), Frederick Sanger (Chemistry), Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov (Physics), Ilja Mikhailovich Frank (Physics), and Joshua Lederberg. (Courtesy of The Nobel Foundation)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1940, Sanger married Margaret Joan Howe, a union that would last until the end of his life. The couple raised two sons and one daughter. Fredrick Sanger would later credited the peaceful environment of his home and family for his success in research.</p> <p>Throughout his career, Sanger’s research was concerned primarily with the structure of proteins. His research on the metabolism of the amino acid lysine — carried out under the supervision of Dr. Albert Neuberger — earned him his doctorate in 1943.</p> <figure id="attachment_38087" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-38087" style="width: 2280px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><noscript><img class="wp-image-38087 size-full " src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-515174458_master.jpg"></noscript><img loading="lazy" class="wp-image-38087 size-full lazyload" alt="" width="2280" height="1502" data-sizes="(max-width: 2280px) 100vw, 2280px" data-srcset="/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-515174458_master.jpg 2280w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-515174458_master-380x250.jpg 380w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-515174458_master-760x501.jpg 760w" data-src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-515174458_master.jpg"><figcaption id="caption-attachment-38087" class="wp-caption-text">Frederick Sanger looking at a model of a DNA molecule. In 1980, Sanger was awarded his second Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He is the only person in the history of the awards to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry twice. Dr. Sanger shared his award with Dr. Paul Berg and Dr. Walter Gilbert. Half awarded to Paul Berg “for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids, with particular regard to recombinant-DNA,” the other half jointly to Walter Gilbert and Fred Sanger “for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids.”</figcaption></figure> <p>For the following seven years, Dr. Sanger was supported by a fellowship for medical research. During those years, he devised a method for determining the sequence of amino acids that make up a specific protein. He demonstrated the validity of his method by successfully identifying the sequence of 51 amino acids that make up the insulin molecule. It was the first protein ever to be so analyzed. One direct result of his research was the production of synthetic insulin, of enormous benefit for the treatment of diabetes. Sanger’s method of protein analysis has since enabled scientists to determine the structure of many other proteins.</p> <p>Sanger received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1958 for this research, but he had already moved on to new challenges. Through the end of the 1950s, he continued his work with proteins and made significant discoveries concerning the active centers of enzymes. In 1960, his attention turned to the nucleic acids, RNA and DNA, the building blocks of all life.</p> <figure id="attachment_38086" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-38086" style="width: 2280px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><noscript><img class="size-full wp-image-38086 " src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-56928837_master.jpg"></noscript><img loading="lazy" class="size-full wp-image-38086 lazyload" alt="" width="2280" height="3258" data-sizes="(max-width: 2280px) 100vw, 2280px" data-srcset="/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-56928837_master.jpg 2280w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-56928837_master-266x380.jpg 266w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-56928837_master-532x760.jpg 532w" data-src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-56928837_master.jpg"><figcaption id="caption-attachment-38086" class="wp-caption-text">August 4, 1993: Dr. Frederick Sanger at home, “Far Leys,” in Swaffham Bulbeck, Cambridgeshire. In 1983, at the age of 65, Sanger retired. <span id="QLyBOCpL" class="zLhExmheCI">In 1992, the Wellcome Trust and the British Medical Research Council established a genome research center, honoring Sanger by naming it the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute.</span> (Photo: David Levenson/Getty)</figcaption></figure> <p>Sanger set out to create a method for analyzing the chemical sequence of these molecules, first uncovering short sequences of amino acids in RNA. He was the first to determine the base sequence of nucleic acids — adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil — that constitute DNA. In 1975, he published a new sequencing procedure, which he demonstrated by sequencing the genome of a microscopic bacteriophage, the first living organism to have its entire genome decoded. Two years later he completed development of the dideoxy technique — also known as “the Sanger Method” — for sequencing DNA molecules. Dr. Sanger employed the new method to analyze a more complex bacteriophage, and finally human mitochondrial DNA. The Sanger Method would be adopted by all DNA researchers, with far-reaching results. This work earned Frederick Sanger his second Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1980.</p> <figure id="attachment_38117" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-38117" style="width: 2280px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><noscript><img class="wp-image-38117 size-full " src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-SangeratPodium.jpg"></noscript><img loading="lazy" class="wp-image-38117 size-full lazyload" alt="" width="2280" height="1824" data-sizes="(max-width: 2280px) 100vw, 2280px" data-srcset="/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-SangeratPodium.jpg 2280w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-SangeratPodium-380x304.jpg 380w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-SangeratPodium-760x608.jpg 760w" data-src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-SangeratPodium.jpg"><figcaption id="caption-attachment-38117" class="wp-caption-text">Dr. Sanger addressing Academy student delegates during the 2000 International Achievement Summit in London.</figcaption></figure> <p>For many years, Dr. Sanger served as head of the Division of Protein Chemistry in the Laboratory for Molecular Biology at Cambridge. His former Ph.D. students at Cambridge include two fellow recipients of the Nobel Prize, Rodney Porter and Elizabeth Blackburn.</p> <figure id="attachment_38090" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-38090" style="width: 3014px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><noscript><img class="size-full wp-image-38090 " src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp2-SangerSummit.jpg"></noscript><img loading="lazy" class="size-full wp-image-38090 lazyload" alt="" width="3014" height="2153" data-sizes="(max-width: 3014px) 100vw, 3014px" data-srcset="/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp2-SangerSummit.jpg 3014w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp2-SangerSummit-380x271.jpg 380w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp2-SangerSummit-760x543.jpg 760w" data-src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp2-SangerSummit.jpg"><figcaption id="caption-attachment-38090" class="wp-caption-text">Awards Council member Prof. Solomon H. Snyder, a neuroscientist at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, with Dr. Frederick Sanger at a reception at Winfield House in Regent’s Park, the residence of the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom, during the Academy of Achievement’s 2000 International Achievement Summit in London.</figcaption></figure> <p>He retired in 1983, and spent the last decades of his life in relative tranquility, cultivating his garden at his home in Swaffham Bulbeck, near Cambridge. A Fellow of the Royal Society, he was showered with honors by his profession and by his sovereign, but he declined a knighthood because, he said, he “did not want to be different.”</p> <figure id="attachment_38171" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-38171" style="width: 2250px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><noscript><img class="wp-image-38171 size-full " src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-with-Golden-Plate-Award-at-2002-Summit-photo-2-1.jpg"></noscript><img loading="lazy" class="wp-image-38171 size-full lazyload" alt="" width="2250" height="2250" data-sizes="(max-width: 2250px) 100vw, 2250px" data-srcset="/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-with-Golden-Plate-Award-at-2002-Summit-photo-2-1.jpg 2250w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-with-Golden-Plate-Award-at-2002-Summit-photo-2-1-190x190.jpg 190w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-with-Golden-Plate-Award-at-2002-Summit-photo-2-1-380x380.jpg 380w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-with-Golden-Plate-Award-at-2002-Summit-photo-2-1-760x760.jpg 760w" data-src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-with-Golden-Plate-Award-at-2002-Summit-photo-2-1.jpg"><figcaption id="caption-attachment-38171" class="wp-caption-text">Awards Council member and Nobel Prize laureate Dr. Charles H. Townes presenting the American Academy of Achievement’s Golden Plate Award to Dr. Sanger during the 2000 International Achievement Summit in London.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1992, the Wellcome Trust and the Medical Research Council created the Sanger Centre for genetic research. The Centre, now known as the Sanger Institute, played a major role in the International Human Genome Project. In his last years, Dr. Sanger had the satisfaction of seeing the Sanger Method applied to decode the entire human genome. He died peacefully in 2013 at the age of 95.</p> </body></html> <div class="clearfix"> </div> </article> </div> </section> </div> <div class="tab-pane" id="profile" role="tabpanel"> <section class="clearfix"> <header class="editorial-article__header"> <figure class="text-xs-center"> <img class="inductee-badge" src="/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/themes/aoa/assets/images/inducted-badge@2x.png" alt="Inducted Badge" width="120" height="120"/> <figcaption class="serif-3 text-brand-primary"> Inducted in 2000 </figcaption> </figure> </header> <div class="row"> <aside class="col-md-4 sidebar"> <dl class="clearfix m-b-0"> <div class="col-xs-12 sidebar--chunk p-b-2"> <dt class="serif-7">Career</dt> <dd class="sans-2"> <div><a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/#filter=.biochemist">Biochemist</a></div> </dd> </div> <div class="col-xs-12 sidebar--chunk p-b-2"> <dt class="serif-7">Date of Birth</dt> <dd class="sans-2"> August 13, 1918 </dd> </div> <div class="col-xs-12 sidebar--chunk p-b-2"> <dt class="serif-7">Date of Death</dt> <dd class="sans-2"> November 19, 2013 </dd> </div> </dl> </aside> <article class="col-md-8 editorial-article clearfix"> <p>Most scientists would consider a Nobel Prize the crowning achievement of a life’s work; Dr. Frederick Sanger has won this honor not once, but twice. He received his first Nobel in 1958 for successfully determining the exact sequence of the 51 amino acids that make up a molecule of insulin. The method he pioneered can be used for the analysis of all proteins, and made the synthesis of insulin possible for the first time, with far-reaching effects for the treatment of diabetes.</p> <p>Sanger then set out to do for DNA what he had done for proteins. Methods he devised have enabled scientists to determine the sequence of hundreds of base compounds in a single day, work that had previously taken years to accomplish. Dr. Sanger demonstrated his method by performing the first complete analysis of an entire organism, a microscopic bacteriophage. In 1980, Dr. Sanger received a second Nobel for this work, which lies at the heart of contemporary genetic research, such as the Human Genome Project.</p> <p>Only four people in history have won two Nobel Prizes. Two were past honorees of the Academy of Achievement, John Bardeen and Linus Pauling. The others were Marie Curie and Dr. Frederick Sanger, who was the last living member of this illustrious company.</p> </article> </div> </section> </div> <div class="tab-pane" id="interview" role="tabpanel"> <section class="clearfix"> <div class="col-md-12 interview-feature-video"> <figure> <div class="embed-responsive embed-responsive-16by9"> <iframe class="embed-responsive-item embed-responsive--has-thumbnail" width="200" height="150" src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412if_/https://www.youtube.com/embed/wwHNsQS2Uq4?feature=oembed&hd=1&modestbranding=1&rel=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe> <div class="embed-responsive__thumbnail ratio-container__image lazyload" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_06_35_20.Still008-380x214.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_06_35_20.Still008-760x428.jpg"></div> <div class="video-tag sans-4"> <i class="embed-responsive__play icon-icon_play-full text-brand-primary"></i> <div class="video-tag__text">Watch full interview</div> </div> </div> </figure> </div> <header class="col-md-12 text-xs-center m-b-2"> <i class="icon-icon_bio text-brand-primary"></i> </header> <aside class="col-md-4 sidebar"> <h2 class="serif-3 achiever--biography-subtitle">Father of Genomics</h2> <div class="sans-2">London, England</div> <div class="sans-2">October 28, 2000</div> </aside> <article class="editorial-article col-md-8">   <div class="achiever__interview-copy"> <p><strong>You were at Cambridge when you first became involved in biochemistry. It was quite a new field at the time. What was that like?</strong></p> </div>     <div class="achiever__video-block"> <figure class="achiever__interview-video"> <div class="embed-responsive embed-responsive-16by9"> <iframe class="embed-responsive-item embed-responsive--has-thumbnail" width="200" height="150" src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412if_/https://www.youtube.com/embed/HKQzeG4jv-w?feature=oembed&hd=1&modestbranding=1&rel=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe> <div class="embed-responsive__thumbnail ratio-container__image lazyload" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_36_03_19.Still004-380x214.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_36_03_19.Still004-760x428.jpg"></div> <i class="embed-responsive__play icon-icon_play-full text-brand-primary"></i> </div> <figcaption class="achiever__interview-video-terms"> <span>Keys to success —</span> <a class="comma-item" href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/keys-to-success/preparation/">Preparation</a> </figcaption> </figure>  <div class="achiever__interview-video__copy"> <p>Frederick Sanger: I managed to get into the biochemistry lab, and the person I worked with was Albert Nyberg. He was my Ph.D. advisor, and of course, when you first start doing research, you’re pretty helpless. I mean you don’t think of the project yourself. So, I did the projects which he showed me and which were fairly mundane sort of subjects, metabolism, and I think he taught me a lot, because he really taught me how to do research. I don’t think we made very important discoveries at that stage, but he did show me how to do research. I mean it’s quite different from working at school, when you, you know, have got to work out your own subjects and you’re working on one thing, and you don’t know what’s going to be the result. I mean, in school, you just put your things together and you know what’s going to happen. If it doesn’t happen, you’ve made a mistake. But if you’re doing research, then if it doesn’t happen, that’s sometimes just as important as if it had worked, and I think the sort of philosophy of research is important, and I think he did teach me that very well, really, by his example.</p> </div> </div>      <div class="achiever__interview-copy"> <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/loose.dtd"> <html><body data-rsssl="1"><figure id="attachment_38115" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-38115" style="width: 590px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><noscript><img class="wp-image-38115 size-full " src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/100700.jpg"></noscript><img loading="lazy" class="wp-image-38115 size-full lazyload" alt="" width="590" height="700" data-sizes="(max-width: 590px) 100vw, 590px" data-srcset="/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/100700.jpg 590w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/100700-320x380.jpg 320w" data-src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/100700.jpg"><figcaption id="caption-attachment-38115" class="wp-caption-text">Frederick Sanger was educated at Bryanston School and at St. John’s College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in natural sciences in 1939. Since 1940 he has carried out research in the Department of Biochemistry at Cambridge. From 1940 to 1943 he worked with Dr. A. Neuberger on the metabolism of the amino acid lysine and obtained a Ph.D. degree in 1943. From 1944 to 1951 he held a Beit Memorial Fellowship for Medical Research and since 1951 he has been a member of the External Staff of the Medical Research Council. (Nobel Prize Foundation)</figcaption></figure> <p><strong>How did you get started on the path that led to your first Nobel Prize?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: Well, you know, one can make a good story out of it.  At the time, about 1943, there wasn’t a lot known in biochemistry. One of the most important substances at that stage were the proteins. That’s what we’re built up of. That’s really what makes us. And there was quite a lot of interest in proteins, but nobody knew the exact structure of them and the sequence of the amino acids, you know, the long chains of these amino acids, and there are 20 different amino acids and different chemical side chains, and what makes the protein is just the arrangement of these side chains on it. In the biochemistry lab, the big interest was in enzymes. Those are proteins which catalyze other reactions. You have these proteins that have this very essential activity of catalyzing other reactions, and there was a lot of interest in them, and what actually happened was, of course, I had finished my Ph.D. and I was at loose ends, and I wanted to go on doing research.</p> </body></html> </div>     <div class="achiever__video-block"> <figure class="achiever__interview-video"> <div class="embed-responsive embed-responsive-16by9"> <iframe class="embed-responsive-item embed-responsive--has-thumbnail" width="200" height="150" src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412if_/https://www.youtube.com/embed/nDyG86w3aOM?feature=oembed&hd=1&modestbranding=1&rel=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe> <div class="embed-responsive__thumbnail ratio-container__image lazyload" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_12_38_20.Still003-380x214.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_12_38_20.Still003-760x428.jpg"></div> <i class="embed-responsive__play icon-icon_play-full text-brand-primary"></i> </div> <figcaption class="achiever__interview-video-terms"> <span>Keys to success —</span> <a class="comma-item" href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/keys-to-success/preparation/">Preparation</a> </figcaption> </figure>  <div class="achiever__interview-video__copy"> <p>There was a new professor that came to the lab, Professor Chibnall, who worked on proteins, and he brought a group with him, and he offered me a job, and the first job he offered me was to study insulin, which is the — you know, the substance that they give to diabetics, which was a fairly small protein, but they didn’t know anything about the actual chemical structure of it, except that it was built up of amino acids. And he and his group were mainly involved in the analysis of it, how many of the different amino acids were there. So, he gave me this job, and that’s really what put me on the ladder, really, because my expertise has all been in sequencing, sequencing of amino acids and proteins and, later on, nucleic acids, DNA.</p> </div> </div>      <div class="achiever__video-block"> <figure class="achiever__interview-video"> <div class="embed-responsive embed-responsive-16by9"> <iframe class="embed-responsive-item embed-responsive--has-thumbnail" width="200" height="150" src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412if_/https://www.youtube.com/embed/ptAC5R4fHQ0?feature=oembed&hd=1&modestbranding=1&rel=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe> <div class="embed-responsive__thumbnail ratio-container__image lazyload" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_09_53_08.Still006-380x214.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_09_53_08.Still006-760x428.jpg"></div> <i class="embed-responsive__play icon-icon_play-full text-brand-primary"></i> </div> </figure>  <div class="achiever__interview-video__copy"> <p>Insulin was particularly suitable, because it had a lot of small chains, really, and the project he gave me was to try and identify the ends of the chains by chemically labeling them. We could label them with a colored substance, in fact, and so I introduced this method, really, with what’s called the DNP method, which was a quick and easy way of identifying the ends of the chains. And the things that made that possible at that time were chiefly a new method of separating things, fractionating chromatographic — it’s called partition chromatography, and you could make these yellow compounds and fractionate them and identify them, and that was the first thing I did. I mean I didn’t have any sort of grand ideas like sitting down and saying, “I’m going to sequence a whole protein,” or anything like that. I mean that makes a good story, because that’s what I did in the end, but the first step was just to identify these one or two, actually, two groups at the ends of the chains, and that was the first thing I did, and there was a problem, really. These were yellow substances which you could separate nicely, and we got two, which were glycine and phenylalanine, so we had identified the end groups, but we had one problem, that the glycine one, if you hydrolyze it too long, it would break down. So, we had to hydrolyze it for a very short time, and when we did this, we found there was another yellow substance turned up, and this yellow substance turned out to be the dye peptide that is two amino acids joined together, and so, I identified this, and it was — showed me that the end group was phenylalanine and baline, and that was the first peptide, first sequence that was ever determined in a protein.</p> </div> </div>      <div class="achiever__interview-copy"> <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/loose.dtd"> <html><body data-rsssl="1"><figure id="attachment_38112" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-38112" style="width: 940px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><noscript><img class="size-full wp-image-38112 " src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-1958-sanger.jpg"></noscript><img loading="lazy" class="size-full wp-image-38112 lazyload" alt="Frederick Sanger in 1958." width="940" height="1253" data-sizes="(max-width: 940px) 100vw, 940px" data-srcset="/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-1958-sanger.jpg 940w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-1958-sanger-285x380.jpg 285w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-1958-sanger-570x760.jpg 570w" data-src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-1958-sanger.jpg"><figcaption id="caption-attachment-38112" class="wp-caption-text">In 1943, Dr. Frederick Sanger joined Antony C. Chibnall’s group at Cambridge and began research on proteins, in particular, insulin. He saw sequence as the key to understanding living matter and set out to determine the exact sequence of amino acids in insulin. Dr. Sanger used acids to break the molecule into smaller parts, which were separated from one another with the help of electrophoresis and chromatography. He then determined the amino acid sequences in the molecule’s two chains. In 1955, after twelve years of research, Dr. Sanger had deduced the complete sequence of insulin. In 1958, at the age of forty, Sanger was awarded his first Nobel Prize in Chemistry.</figcaption></figure> <p><strong>Was there a moment when you realized that you were onto something important enough to lead to a Nobel Prize?</strong></p> </body></html> </div>     <div class="achiever__video-block"> <figure class="achiever__interview-video"> <div class="embed-responsive embed-responsive-16by9"> <iframe class="embed-responsive-item embed-responsive--has-thumbnail" width="200" height="150" src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412if_/https://www.youtube.com/embed/Cg13XGgJ5nM?feature=oembed&hd=1&modestbranding=1&rel=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe> <div class="embed-responsive__thumbnail ratio-container__image lazyload" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_08_55_20.Still002-380x214.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_08_55_20.Still002-760x428.jpg"></div> <i class="embed-responsive__play icon-icon_play-full text-brand-primary"></i> </div> </figure>  <div class="achiever__interview-video__copy"> <p>Frederick Sanger: One doesn’t think about Nobel Prizes all that much when you’re working at the bench. You’re interested in what you can do. I mean I was excited that I could get the peptide, and I extended that a bit, and I got some more sequences at the ends of the chains, and I think the main consequence of it was that then I realized that, you know, it was possible to do more sequencing and to do — and with other colleagues, we actually completed the complete sequence of the insulin, which — I mean it took quite a lot of time, but it did put me on the road and really decided my future work, and you know, all my work, all the work that’s really paid off, has been on sequencing, initially the proteins.</p> <p>It’s really mostly involved in finding methods, really, finding out how to do it, and it does depend very much on other work in other labs. I mean in the case of these end groups, it depended very much on the work of Archie Martin, who was a rather brilliant physical chemist, and he invented a method of fractionation — I think I’ve already mentioned it, this partitioned chromatography, and then, later on, he developed another method, a two-dimensional paper chromatography, where you can just put your stuff on a sheet of filter paper and run solvent through the paper and you separate all the small fragments, the peptide, little bits on the paper, and we did a lot of this and cutting out the spots, seeing what amino acids they contained. So, you got little fragments, and then you had to work out how they could be fitted together, a jigsaw puzzle sort of a thing, sort of a jigsaw puzzle approach, fitting little bits together, and that was essentially the method that was used for protein sequence analysis.</p> </div> </div>      <div class="achiever__interview-copy"> <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/loose.dtd"> <html><body data-rsssl="1"><p><strong>What kind of personal characteristics does it take to do that kind of scientific inquiry?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: I don’t know. I think you <em>want</em> to do it, really. That’s what I did. Once I’d started on it, then there’s another experiment to be done, and it’s really exciting. Some people get a bit bored by that.</p> <p><strong>What is it that is exciting to you?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: I think I like just doing it, and doing something with my hands, but there is the sort of pleasure of knowing that you’ve found something and you’re the only person in the world who knows it, and it’s rather exciting. It’s really your own, and nobody else knows this.</p> <figure id="attachment_38110" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-38110" style="width: 824px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><noscript><img class="size-full wp-image-38110 " src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-Sanger_laboratory.jpg"></noscript><img loading="lazy" class="size-full wp-image-38110 lazyload" alt="" width="824" height="1200" data-sizes="(max-width: 824px) 100vw, 824px" data-srcset="/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-Sanger_laboratory.jpg 824w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-Sanger_laboratory-261x380.jpg 261w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-Sanger_laboratory-522x760.jpg 522w" data-src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-Sanger_laboratory.jpg"><figcaption id="caption-attachment-38110" class="wp-caption-text">Dr. Frederick Sanger looking at an autoradiogram of DNA sequence in his laboratory. “In 1962, the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB) opened, and Sanger became head of the Protein and Nucleic Acid Chemistry Division. At the LMB, he turned his attention to the sequencing of nucleic acids. Initially, Sanger developed methods for sequencing small RNA molecules such as 5S RNA. Later he developed techniques to determine the exact sequence of the building blocks in DNA, culminating in the ‘dideoxy’ technique for DNA sequencing, which allowed stretches of 500-800 bases to be read at a time. This work led to the first complete sequence of a virus genome, showing it had overlapping genes. Subsequent sequencing of the mitochondrial genome showed it had deviations from the universal genetic code.” (MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology)</figcaption></figure> <p><strong>What did it mean to you to win the first Nobel Prize?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: Well, that was really exciting. I wasn’t altogether too surprised, because it was the first protein that had ever been done, and I think I got much more pleasure out of doing the work, but it was very exciting. I mean, science is not like the Olympic games or something where there’s a lot of people all trying to win gold medals and if you don’t get a gold medal, you’re nothing. There are actually a lot of people working together and contributing to the science, and the science is the important thing, the knowledge, the increasing knowledge, and I think that is much more important than a gold medal. If you read the newspapers, you get the idea that it’s just a game and you get a medal and that’s it, but there’s more to it.</p> <p><strong>For many people, winning one Nobel Prize might have been enough, but you kept going. At that point in your career, what motivated you?</strong></p> </body></html> </div>     <div class="achiever__video-block"> <figure class="achiever__interview-video"> <div class="embed-responsive embed-responsive-16by9"> <iframe class="embed-responsive-item embed-responsive--has-thumbnail" width="200" height="150" src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412if_/https://www.youtube.com/embed/wwHNsQS2Uq4?feature=oembed&hd=1&modestbranding=1&rel=0&start=660&end=845&version=3" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe> <div class="embed-responsive__thumbnail ratio-container__image lazyload" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_06_35_20.Still008-380x214.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_06_35_20.Still008-760x428.jpg"></div> <i class="embed-responsive__play icon-icon_play-full text-brand-primary"></i> </div> <figcaption class="achiever__interview-video-terms"> <span>Keys to success —</span> <a class="comma-item" href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/keys-to-success/perseverance/">Perseverance</a> </figcaption> </figure>  <div class="achiever__interview-video__copy"> <p>Frederick Sanger: I was only 40 when I won the Nobel Prize, and a lot of people, when they win a Nobel Prize, they get a big job as the head of a lab and usually give up doing research, but I didn’t want to do that, and I wouldn’t have been any good at it. So, I carried on doing research, and that was the sort of life I wanted to live, and I wasn’t going to retire at 40, and about that time — that was 1958 — about that time or shortly after — I’d been working on other proteins and doing things which didn’t amount to very much, but people got interested in nucleic acids, and these are really important components of living matter, and like proteins, they are built up of long chains, long chains off into sort of smaller fragments, smaller residues.</p> <p>But in the case of DNA, what I finally ended up with, this has the four components which they call A, G, C, and T. These are chemical entities, and the sequence of these is what defines the language of the DNA. DNA is enormous in the case of any substance, compared with the protein side. So, it was a much more difficult problem. You had the four components, and you had to try and determine the order of them in DNA chains. I’d done a good deal of preliminary work on the other nucleic acid, which was RNA, which was smaller, and you could sort of use methods similar to the ones I’d used for the proteins, but it was fairly slow, and it wasn’t too easy. You see, if you’ve got only four components, four letters, as it were, in the language, then to get a meaningful sequence on something that is fairly big, you’ve got to get a fairly long piece out, and long pieces are difficult to fractionate, and we had very limited success using the type of method which we had used for proteins. So, eventually, we did get on to an entirely different method.</p> </div> </div>      <div class="achiever__interview-copy"> <p><strong>Working in your lab, confronting the unknown, do you ever get discouraged or have self-doubts about what you’re doing?</strong></p> </div>     <div class="achiever__video-block"> <figure class="achiever__interview-video"> <div class="embed-responsive embed-responsive-16by9"> <iframe class="embed-responsive-item embed-responsive--has-thumbnail" width="200" height="150" src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412if_/https://www.youtube.com/embed/wwHNsQS2Uq4?feature=oembed&hd=1&modestbranding=1&rel=0&start=849&end=947&version=3" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe> <div class="embed-responsive__thumbnail ratio-container__image lazyload" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_05_53_12.Still001-380x214.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_05_53_12.Still001-760x428.jpg"></div> <i class="embed-responsive__play icon-icon_play-full text-brand-primary"></i> </div> <figcaption class="achiever__interview-video-terms"> <span>Keys to success —</span> <a class="comma-item" href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/keys-to-success/perseverance/">Perseverance</a> </figcaption> </figure>  <div class="achiever__interview-video__copy"> <p>Frederick Sanger: I think I had a rather sort of — what I’d call lean years between doing the proteins and the nucleic acids. I didn’t get anything very exciting, but it was good enough to keep me going. Fortunately, I didn’t have to sort of, you know, make reports and justify my existence. I think, nowadays, everybody has to put in a report and a proposal of what research you’re going to do, and it does rather limit you, and it sort of points out how little you’ve done. But I did have a period when I didn’t have any papers or anything published. So, I did get a bit discouraged, but once I got onto the nucleic acids and I began to get new and exciting methods, it was getting very exciting again. Ultimately, you see, I managed to develop a method for doing DNA, which is entirely different from the jigsaw puzzle approach that we used with proteins, and is very rapid and simple to do, and this is the method that is being used now for the human genome on a rather large scale, very large, because the human genome is not a smaller thing like insulin. It’s three billion of these residues long, and that’s quite a project.</p> </div> </div>      <div class="achiever__interview-copy"> <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/loose.dtd"> <html><body data-rsssl="1"><figure id="attachment_38168" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-38168" style="width: 2250px" class="wp-caption aligncenter"><noscript><img class="size-full wp-image-38168 " src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412im_/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-at-podium-2002-Summit.jpg"></noscript><img loading="lazy" class="size-full wp-image-38168 lazyload" alt="" width="2250" height="3409" data-sizes="(max-width: 2250px) 100vw, 2250px" data-srcset="/web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-at-podium-2002-Summit.jpg 2250w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-at-podium-2002-Summit-251x380.jpg 251w, /web/20200917235412im_/https://achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-at-podium-2002-Summit-502x760.jpg 502w" data-src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412/https://www.achievement.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-at-podium-2002-Summit.jpg"><figcaption id="caption-attachment-38168" class="wp-caption-text">Dr. Sanger addressing Academy student delegates during the 2000 International Achievement Summit in London.</figcaption></figure> <p><strong>Did you foresee the day when we would be this close to decoding the human genome?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: Well, not originally, no. I think one saw it was going to be possible, but not ’til a few years ago, about 20 years ago, actually. I’ve been retired for 15 years anyhow, but when we got these new methods  it looked hopeful. We started working on a very small substance. It was a virus which lives on bacteria, and it was like 5,000 residues long, and this was quite a breakthrough. We managed to get a complete sequence of that, and that was the first thing, and then we tried some things a little bit longer, some more viruses before I retired. Since I’ve retired, of course there’s been a lot of money put into it. Doing the human genome, I think, was first suggested about 20 years ago by a chap in California, and he applied for a million dollars, but they wouldn’t give it to him. Now of course, they’re throwing millions into it.</p> <p><strong>Money does matter.</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: It does, certainly, on that scale. Of course, there have been great improvements on the method which I developed, especially in robotics and in data processing.</p> <p><strong>Looking ahead into the 21st century, what is the greatest challenge in your field?</strong></p> </body></html> </div>     <div class="achiever__video-block"> <figure class="achiever__interview-video"> <div class="embed-responsive embed-responsive-16by9"> <iframe class="embed-responsive-item embed-responsive--has-thumbnail" width="200" height="150" src="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917235412if_/https://www.youtube.com/embed/wwHNsQS2Uq4?feature=oembed&hd=1&modestbranding=1&rel=0&start=1047&end=1136&version=3" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe> <div class="embed-responsive__thumbnail ratio-container__image lazyload" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_02_20_06.Still007-380x214.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Sanger-Frederick-2000-MasterEdit.00_02_20_06.Still007-760x428.jpg"></div> <i class="embed-responsive__play icon-icon_play-full text-brand-primary"></i> </div> </figure>  <div class="achiever__interview-video__copy"> <p>Frederick Sanger: Well, I think the human genome is the thing that’s going on very rapidly at the moment, of course. This sequencing method which I developed is being very much automated and improved, and people are using it in many countries, and they’re really getting on with working out these sequences. And what it tells you, you see, is what is the instruction book, really, for the human body. I mean DNA is what we are, really. I mean we are DNA, and DNA can make us, makes the whole body, puts everything in the right place and puts all the proteins in their right places and controls everything that goes on. So, to understand medical science, I think, to understand the DNA is important, and particularly in genetic diseases, where there is a change, probably, in the sequence of the DNA, which is causing trouble, and already, of course, they have found some of these things and they know what genes are involved, and the big challenge now is to see if you can use this knowledge to prevent diseases and to make life happier.</p> </div> </div>      <div class="achiever__interview-copy"> <p>I think, in the press, there is a lot of overstatement. They say, you know, human genome will find a cure for cancer and people will live to 130 and that sort of thing, but that is just pure science fiction at the present. It might happen, but I think there’s a chance that there will be — well, there are already factors found out which are involved in forming cancers. But there’s a lot to be done, still. I mean if you’ve got just the sequence of the letters in a book, if you didn’t know the language, you wouldn’t get anywhere, would you? And that’s what you’ve got to do first, and then read it and find out what proteins are being made and how everything is working, and that’s a big job, and there are a lot of people doing that. It’s going to be very exciting work, I think, particularly if they can find useful cures for diseases. All sorts of things that you can think might be possible, but of course, when you haven’t done the experiments and the tests and all that, then you don’t quite know. That’s a field I should think I would go into if I wasn’t getting so old. I retired completely 15 years ago. So I haven’t done any of the work on the human genome, but I just follow what’s going on, and it’s very exciting to see that — I think more exciting than getting a Nobel Prize.</p> </div>    <aside class="collapse" id="full-interview">    <div class="achiever__interview-copy"> <p><strong>You grew up in a village in Gloucestershire.</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: That’s right. That’s where I was born, yes.</p> <p><strong>Tell me what it was like growing up there at that time.</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: Well, I left it when I was five years old, so I don’t remember very much there. My father was a doctor, a medical practitioner, and I vaguely remember him. He was interested in science. In fact, he had, earlier on, done an M.D. in Cambridge on science, actually on immunology, very early immunology, and he’d been involved in identifying blood spots, whether they were human or whether they were animal, which is very early immunology, before immunology was really started, and he had done — got an M.D. for it. He was a medical doctor. But he didn’t continue with it. He actually went to China as a missionary. He was a very religious man, really. I think he had the call, as they say. And he stayed in China for a while, and I think he developed TB or something, but he had to come back for his health reason, and he set up as a local doctor in Rendcomb, with his mother, I think, and then he met my mother and they got married there and I was born, and really, my main companion was my older brother, Theo. He was just a year older than me, so we spent a lot of time together, and I think he was a great influence on me. He was very interested in nature and animals and birds’ nests and that sort of thing, and he was sort an extrovert. I’m an introvert, you know, I’m a quiet sort of fellow, and I used to play around with him, and I think that’s where I first developed my interest, really, in science. So, both my father and my brother were fairly important influences.</p> <p><strong>In what ways did they influence you?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: My brother, we used to play together a lot, and he would show me where the birds’ nests were, and he used to catch lizards, and he was rather good at catching snakes, actually. I remember one occasion when we were just playing in a haystack, and there was a snake there, and you know, I was scared stiff, and he grabbed hold of the thing and, you know, showed me how you had to handle it, and he kept several as pets.</p> <p>But we didn’t stay in Rendcomb very long. We moved to another small village near Birmingham which was — I don’t know quite why we moved, because where we lived was very beautiful sort of country, and we were up near Birmingham, the big city, where my father and mother moved, and I grew up largely — the place I remember best is this place in Shakespeare country, really. I grew up there.</p> <p>My father was — both my parents were fairly religious. My father joined the Quakers, and that was a great influence in his life, and he only joined it, really — well, I suppose about when we were at Rendcomb. He wasn’t a Quaker when he was in China. So, I was brought up as more or less a Quaker. I never actually joined the Quakers, and you know, when I got to college and so forth, I became a bit doubtful.</p> <p>So, I didn’t actually become a Quaker, but I think I was influenced by their teaching, and particularly, they taught a great deal to truth, and I think this is something that has helped me a lot in my work, because in science, that’s what you’re looking for. You’re looking for truth, and you’ve got to be absolutely sure that you remember this, and I think that there are some people, you know, who get a theory and put more importance on their theory and trying to prove it than on actually deciding whether it is really true. The other thing, of course, being a Quaker was that they were pacifists. They wouldn’t fight. They wouldn’t take life. And I was, of course, ready for national service at the time of the war.</p> <p><strong>World War II?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: Yes, World War II. I became a conscientious objector and I was exempted from it, so that I was able to carry on my career and to get into the scientific and research environment, and that, of course, was a great help to me. I would have been exempted from fighting, being a scientific student, but it didn’t mean that I was free to start doing scientific work.</p> <p>Originally, when I was still at school, I was expected to become a doctor. I think I was fairly bright, and I think I would have been all right at that, but you know, when it came to the crunch and I had to decide whether to — what to study, really, I came to university, and I decided that I didn’t really want to be a doctor. I’d seen my father’s life. It all seemed rather an empirical business that you went to one patient and gave them some pills and then you have to get done with that one and go to another one, but I felt I would like to do something which was more — something I could get involved in and was more — in more depth, really, than in medicine. So, I decided to study science rather than study medicine.</p> <p><strong>When did you make that decision?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: I think during my last term at school, really. My last term at school, I didn’t have a lot to do, really. I got my entrance to Cambridge, to the university, and I didn’t have any special courses that I had to do, so I was rather free to choose, and I had a chemistry master in school — this was Brownsmith School in Dorset — and he let me come to the labs and do some chemistry, sort of semi-research. He let me play about in the lab and help him, and I found this absolutely fascinating. You could play about in a lab with these things and get these beautiful crystals, and this really got me rather hooked on chemistry, and you know, I spent much more time than I should have on this instead of, you know, getting on with my physics and chemistry which I would have to study. When I came to Cambridge, I took various subjects, and I was very excited to find that there was a new subject called biochemistry. There really hadn’t been such a subject before, and it seemed to me that it would be very exciting if you could really understand living matter in terms of chemistry and exact science, and then you really might be able to improve medical practice, a more scientific approach, and I think that has probably been a real influence on me.</p> <p>Anyhow, I did fairly well at biochemistry in Cambridge, I think partly because it was a new subject and people hadn’t done it at all at school, whereas physics and chemistry, I didn’t do so well at, and I was a bit lucky in this way, because I did three years in Cambridge, and that is the normal amount, you see, but I wanted to do the advanced biochemistry, and I did that in the fourth year, and I was lucky in the sense that my parents were fairly rich, had enough money, actually, to support me in doing university and during this extra year. So, in that way, I was lucky. I think if it hadn’t been for that, I wouldn’t ever have been able to become a biochemistry. But anyhow, I did, and I got a first-class degree in biochemistry.</p> <p>So, then I had the opportunity to do research, and this was really during the war. This was in 1940, so that things were a bit involved in the war effort, but I managed to get a job in the biochemistry lab in Cambridge, and again, I didn’t get any money for it. I was able, at this stage, to support myself and do a Ph.D. and get a doctor’s degree.</p> <p><strong>Growing up, as a young man, were you a good student?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: Yes, I think was, rather. I worked hard. But I don’t think I was brilliant. I went to this school, Brownstone, which was rather a modern school and had a different teaching system, a system where you could work hard or you couldn’t work hard. You did what they called assignments, which I think were like work to do, and you go there and do it, and I was very conscientious about this, and I did work hard. Most people, I think, didn’t work too hard. They just did what they had to do.</p> <p><strong>We’ve read that you described yourself as an above-average scholar but not an outstanding scholar.</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: I think so, yes. I wasn’t one of these people who actually come top of the class every time, and I was just okay, I believe. But certainly in the last years of school, I worked very hard.</p> <p><strong>How did you first get attracted to chemistry?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: Well, I was telling you about this work I did at the last term at school with my chemistry master, and I think that’s what got me into chemistry, as such, and I found that, you know, it was a subject I could relate to and get interested. Physics became far too mathematical for me, and I couldn’t really cope with that at all. I couldn’t relate the physical properties to the mathematical formulas. But with chemistry, it was relatively easy, and of course, once you start working on it and studying it for a time, then you really do get to know about it.</p> <p>I always preferred the practical work, the work at the bench. When I was young, I used to do a lot of carpentry, using my hands. I actually had a forge at one stage and did a bit of iron work. My parents were really generous to me and let me do this sort of thing, and that’s the sort of thing I like doing. During my working life, I’ve always enjoyed doing experiments myself and seeing the results of my own work, which I think has been important to me. There are some scientists who, you know, never use their hands, just think and write. Obviously, some sciences should be done like that, but biochemistry, I think, in my hands, anyhow, and in most people’s hands at the early stage, was essentially an experimental science. There wasn’t much theory about it. It was just finding out how to do things.</p> <p><strong>As you were growing up, were there books that were important to you?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: Not really, no, I don’t think so. I had the standard textbooks, but I never enjoyed reading that much, unless it was right on something I was doing. I’d much rather work in the lab, and I obviously had to write up my results, but I’ve never written a book, and I enjoy novels and things, but I don’t read much. I read very much less than these people. It takes me about a year to read a novel.</p> <p><strong>Who most inspired or influenced you as a young man when you were growing up?</strong> <strong>Were there any teachers who were important to you?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: Well, there was Mr. Ordish, who was this chemistry master who I talked to you about, and he was also my house master, and we had quite a close relationship. I remember once — he was sort of the detective of the school. He was a rather eccentric person. He wasn’t like a school master at all, really. He was a quiet sort of brainy chap, slightly eccentric, but being a chemist, he was the detective, and he and I did a little detective work together, and it’s a bit unfortunate, really, there was somebody who was picking pockets in the changing room, and this chap was going around taking coins out of people’s pockets, and Mr. Ordish gave me some coins that were — had some dye on them, sticky dye on them, and I put them in one of my pair of trousers hanging in there, and I had to look at them and see if they’d gone, and one day they had gone. So, there was a great hoo-ha, and everybody had to come along and show their hands, and while we were waiting to sort of show our hands, I noticed that a good friend of mine had a lot of green stuff on his fingers, and unfortunately, I never saw him again, but he was quite an honest chap, too. So, this chap did really, I think, do quite a lot for me, but he left the school very soon after, and I haven’t heard from him again.</p> <p><strong>What is important about research? What philosophy do you need to be a successful researcher?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: In my case, I think one of the important things was not to get too discouraged, really. You know, you’re doing new things which haven’t been done before, and very often, more often than not, I think, they don’t come to anything. They’re not failures, you try something and it doesn’t work, and some people, you know, get fed up with this, and I’ve known some of my friends and colleagues who have just decided to give up science because they can’t stand it, but I’ve always decided, you know, if it doesn’t work, forget it and start planning the next experiment, and that’s always exciting. And you know, you can have fun with that, and I think a certain amount of persistence is necessary there, that you’ve really got to keep trying and keep enjoying it, and I think, if you don’t enjoy it, I think it doesn’t often succeed much, but to actually enjoy the work is, I think, an important factor, and it’s always been great fun for me to do, even in the bad times. And the other thing, I think, is you’ve got to be sure that truth is the number one thing that you’re looking for and don’t get into some theory which you can’t prove.</p> <p><strong>What was it like to be awarded a second Nobel Prize? There are only four of you who have ever won two Nobel Prizes. There you were with Madam Curie and Linus Pauling.</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: I’m very proud of it, and like anybody, I think I’m a bit conceited, but I think it’s very rewarding. But you know, I’ve been lucky, I admit that, and I owe a lot to other people who have worked with me, other people who just talked to me, and I think, in both the labs I’ve worked in, it has been a very open sort of society, and we’ve all talked to one another and shared our experiences, and I think this has been extremely important, and I can’t claim that, you know, I am the only person who has ever made any discoveries. You know, all the things I’ve developed have usually depended on the work that’s gone before. So, it’s very exciting to win a Nobel Prize, but it isn’t the only thing.</p> <p><strong>In that sense, science is not simply being alone in your lab. It’s also very collaborative.</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: Sometimes people don’t talk to their colleagues in the lab and are rather competitive, and of course, in, you know, the more applied research, when they have a way of making money out of it, they have to be a bit secretive. But I think in fundamental research, when you’re studying basic problems which may or may not prove of value to humanity, then you’ve got to be open about it and share, and of course, it goes much faster if you can — you know somebody else knows something you don’t know and can pass it on to you and you forget that he’s passed it on to you and you think you know it. A lot of my ideas have come from other people.</p> <p><strong>What advice would you have for a young person who came to you and said he or she wanted to do the kind of work that you do? What would you tell them?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: Get on with it. But make sure you do want to do it. I think that’s the important thing, to be something that you would enjoy. If you only just go into science to get rich or to win gold medals, then I wouldn’t bother, but if you really want to enjoy yourself in the lab, then do it. But you never know, really. Things are sometimes difficult. Some people, very bright people, come up with an idea without any work at all, but you’ve got to judge what you can do before starting out on your work, and I think it’s very important for young people when they’re just thinking about what they’re going to do to think very hard whether they should go into science or whether they would be better employed just getting money, which is what a lot of people aim at.</p> <p><strong>Beyond science, beyond your field, what do you see as the greatest challenge that we all face as a society in the years ahead?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: When I was a little boy and people asked me what I would do when I was prime minister, I told them I would make a law saying there shouldn’t be any more wars, and that’s about how I still feel. I don’t think I’ve progressed much beyond that, but I still feel that we shan’t really be safe and happy until we get a — give up this idea of a lot of separate countries working their own thing and there’s only one country that matters and the rest can go, and I think we’ve got to have some law which can be enforced internationally.</p> <p><strong>Looking back on your life, on your career, is there anything you wish you could go back and do differently or do over again?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: No, I don’t think so. I’ve been very happy, in fact. I’ve had a very good life. I owe a lot, I think, to my wife, who has kept me happy, and I haven’t ever had any sort of problems. I think a lot of people, if they have problems, family problems or something, they get very depressed and they can’t really concentrate on their work, and I think it has been very important to me to be able to go home and your brain goes on thinking about the experiments.</p> <p><strong>To be a successful researcher and scientist, do you have to be that single-minded? Is that what you have to be thinking about all the time? Is there not room for anything else in your life?</strong></p> <p>Frederick Sanger: I think it depends how clever you are, probably. I think there is room for other things. I have always taken holidays and had recreation. I seem to have more recreation than I do now, really. When I retired, I thought of all sorts of things I ought to do or to be able to do which I hadn’t been able to do, but in fact, I haven’t done as much as I did when I was younger, but we used to do a lot of boating and water-skiing, and I had a sailing boat at one stage. I’ve lived a reasonable life. When you are working, then you are working.</p> <p><strong>You’ve lived more than a reasonable life. Thank you very much. We appreciate your sitting down and talking to us.</strong></p> </div>  </aside>  <div class="read-more__toggle collapsed" data-toggle="collapse" data-target="#full-interview"><a href="#" class="sans-4 btn">Read full interview</a></div> </article> </section> </div> <div class="tab-pane" id="gallery" role="tabpanel"> <section class="isotope-wrapper">  <header class="toolbar toolbar--gallery bg-white clearfix"> <div class="col-md-6"> <div class="serif-4">Frederick Sanger, Ph.D. Gallery</div> </div> <div class="col-md-6 text-md-right isotope-toolbar"> <ul class="list-unstyled list-inline m-b-0 text-brand-primary sans-4"> <li class="list-inline-item" data-filter=".photo"><i class="icon-icon_camera"></i>15 photos</li> </ul> </div> </header> <div class="isotope-gallery isotope-box single-achiever__gallery clearfix"> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="0.8" title="" data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - ">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-SangeratPodium.jpg" data-image-caption="Dr. Sanger addressing Academy student delegates during the 2000 International Achievement Summit in London. (© Academy of Achievement)" data-image-copyright="wp-SangeratPodium" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-SangeratPodium-380x304.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-SangeratPodium-760x608.jpg"></div>  </figure> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="1.1864406779661" title="" data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - ">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/100700.jpg" data-image-caption="Dr. Frederick Sanger, two-time Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner." data-image-copyright="100700" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/100700-320x380.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/100700.jpg"></div>  </figure> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="1.3333333333333" title="Frederick Sanger in 1958." data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - Frederick Sanger in 1958.">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-1958-sanger.jpg" data-image-caption="In 1943, Dr. Frederick Sanger joined Antony C. Chibnall's group at Cambridge and began research on proteins, in particular, insulin. He saw sequence as the key to understanding living matter and set out to determine the exact sequence of amino acids in insulin. Dr. Sanger used acids to break the molecule into smaller parts, which were separated from one another with the help of electrophoresis and chromatography. He then determined the amino acid sequences in the molecule's two chains. In 1955, after 12 years of research, Dr. Sanger had deduced the complete sequence of insulin. In 1958, at the age of 40, Sanger was awarded his first Nobel Prize in Chemistry." data-image-copyright="wp-1958-sanger" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-1958-sanger-285x380.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-1958-sanger-570x760.jpg"></div>  </figure> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="1.455938697318" title="" data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - ">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-Sanger_laboratory.jpg" data-image-caption="Dr. Frederick Sanger looking at an autoradiogram of DNA sequence in his laboratory. "In 1962, the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB) opened, and Sanger became head of the Protein and Nucleic Acid Chemistry Division. At the LMB, he turned his attention to the sequencing of nucleic acids. Initially, Sanger developed methods for sequencing small RNA molecules such as 5S RNA. Later he developed techniques to determine the exact sequence of the building blocks in DNA, culminating in the 'dideoxy' technique for DNA sequencing, which allowed stretches of 500-800 bases to be read at a time. This work led to the first complete sequence of a virus genome, showing it had overlapping genes. Subsequent sequencing of the mitochondrial genome showed it had deviations from the universal genetic code." (MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology)" data-image-copyright="wp-Sanger_laboratory" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-Sanger_laboratory-261x380.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp-Sanger_laboratory-522x760.jpg"></div>  </figure> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="1.384335154827" title="" data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - ">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/sanger-fredhs_1.jpg" data-image-caption="Frederick Sanger, 1918-2013." data-image-copyright="Frederick Sanger" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/sanger-fredhs_1-275x380.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/sanger-fredhs_1-549x760.jpg"></div>  </figure> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="0.64024390243902" title="" data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - ">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/16517_sangerandwife-Fred-Sanger-and-his-wife-1940.jpg" data-image-caption="In 1936, Frederick Sanger went to St. John's College, Cambridge to study natural sciences. As an undergraduate, Sanger's beliefs were strongly influenced by his Quaker upbringing. He was a pacifist and a member of the Peace Pledge Union. It was through his involvement with the Cambridge Scientists' Anti-War Group that he met his future wife, Joan Howe, who was studying economics at Newnham College. They married after he had graduated in December 1940. (Courtesy of Dr. F. Sanger, MRC, Cambridge)" data-image-copyright="16517_sangerandwife-Fred Sanger and his wife, 1940" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/16517_sangerandwife-Fred-Sanger-and-his-wife-1940-380x243.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/16517_sangerandwife-Fred-Sanger-and-his-wife-1940.jpg"></div>  </figure> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="0.70526315789474" title="" data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - ">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/BBBAAZ_-1958-Nobel-Prize-recipients-in-Chemistry-Physics-and-Physiology-or-Medicine.jpg" data-image-caption="1958 Nobel Prize recipients in Chemistry, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine: From the left: George Beadle, E. L. Tatum, Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm (Physics) , Frederick Sanger (Chemistry), Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov (Physics), Ilja Mikhailovich Frank (Physics), Joshua Lederberg. (Nobel Foundation)" data-image-copyright="BBBAAZ_-1958 Nobel Prize recipients in Chemistry, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/BBBAAZ_-1958-Nobel-Prize-recipients-in-Chemistry-Physics-and-Physiology-or-Medicine-380x268.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/BBBAAZ_-1958-Nobel-Prize-recipients-in-Chemistry-Physics-and-Physiology-or-Medicine-760x536.jpg"></div>  </figure> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="0.71447368421053" title="" data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - ">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp2-SangerSummit.jpg" data-image-caption="Awards Council member Dr. Solomon H. Snyder, neuroscientist at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, with Dr. Frederick Sanger at a reception at Winfield House, residence of the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom, during the 2000 International Achievement Summit in London. (© Academy of Achievement)" data-image-copyright="wp2-SangerSummit" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp2-SangerSummit-380x271.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/wp2-SangerSummit-760x543.jpg"></div>  </figure> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="1.2947189097104" title="" data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - ">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-537168771_master.jpg" data-image-caption="British biochemist and Nobel Prize winner Frederick Sanger, standing next to an atomic model structure of insulin, at his Cambridge laboratory, England, October 28, 1958. (Photo by John Franks/Keystone/Getty Images)" data-image-copyright="Frederick Sanger" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-537168771_master-294x380.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-537168771_master-587x760.jpg"></div>  </figure> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="0.65921052631579" title="" data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - ">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-515174458_master.jpg" data-image-caption="British biochemist Professor Frederick Sanger was awarded his second Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1980. He is only the third person to win two Nobel Prizes for science in the history of the awards, and joins the illustrious company of Madame Curie and John Burdee. He shared his award with Professor Paul Berg and Dr. Walter Gilbert for their independent work on pioneering precise techniques for examining and modifying the structure of genetic material. Here he is looking at a model of a DNA molecule." data-image-copyright="Frederick Sanger and DNA Model" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-515174458_master-380x250.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-515174458_master-760x501.jpg"></div>  </figure> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="1.4285714285714" title="" data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - ">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-56928837_master.jpg" data-image-caption="August 4, 1993: Sir Frederick Sanger poses for a portrait at home in Swaffham Bulbeck, Cambridgeshire. Sir Frederick won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1958, for his work on the structure of proteins, especially that of Insulin. He won it for a second time in 1980 for his work on DNA. (Photo by David Levenson/Getty Images)" data-image-copyright="David Levenson Archive Collection" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-56928837_master-266x380.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/GettyImages-56928837_master-532x760.jpg"></div>  </figure> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="0.6520979020979" title="" data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - ">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/16516_youngsanger-Fred-Sanger-at-age-11-with-his-older-brother-and-younger-sister.jpg" data-image-caption="Frederick Sanger (center), at age 11, with his older brother, Theodore, and younger sister, Mary. Sanger was born on August 13, 1918, at Rendcombe in Gloucestershire, the second son of Frederick Sanger, M.D., a medical practitioner and his wife, Cicely." data-image-copyright="16516_youngsanger-Fred-Sanger-at-age-11-with-his-older-brother-and-younger-sister" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/16516_youngsanger-Fred-Sanger-at-age-11-with-his-older-brother-and-younger-sister-380x248.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/16516_youngsanger-Fred-Sanger-at-age-11-with-his-older-brother-and-younger-sister.jpg"></div>  </figure> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="0.8" title="" data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - ">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-with-Golden-Plate-Award-at-2002-Summit-photo-1.jpg" data-image-caption="Awards Council member and Nobel Prize laureate Dr. Charles H. Townes presenting the American Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award to Frederick Sanger during the 2000 International Achievement Summit in London." data-image-copyright="WP-Sanger with Golden Plate Award at 2002 Summit photo 1" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-with-Golden-Plate-Award-at-2002-Summit-photo-1-380x304.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-with-Golden-Plate-Award-at-2002-Summit-photo-1-760x608.jpg"></div>  </figure> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="1.5139442231076" title="" data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - ">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-at-podium-2002-Summit.jpg" data-image-caption="Dr. Sanger addressing Academy student delegates during the 2000 International Achievement Summit in London. (© Academy of Achievement)" data-image-copyright="WP-Sanger at podium 2002 Summit" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-at-podium-2002-Summit-251x380.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-at-podium-2002-Summit-502x760.jpg"></div>  </figure> <figure class="isotope-item ratio-container--gallery photo" data-category="photo" data-ratio="1" title="" data-gtm-category="photo" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Achiever - ">   <div class="lazyload ratio-container__image" data-toggle="modal" data-target="#imageModal" data-image-src="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-with-Golden-Plate-Award-at-2002-Summit-photo-2-1.jpg" data-image-caption="Awards Council member and Nobel Prize laureate Dr. Charles H. Townes presenting the American Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award to Frederick Sanger during the 2000 International Achievement Summit in London." data-image-copyright="WP-Sanger with Golden Plate Award at 2002 Summit photo 2" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-with-Golden-Plate-Award-at-2002-Summit-photo-2-1-380x380.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2017/04/WP-Sanger-with-Golden-Plate-Award-at-2002-Summit-photo-2-1-760x760.jpg"></div>  </figure>    </div> </section> </div> </div> <div class="container"> <footer class="editorial-article__footer col-md-8 col-md-offset-4"> <div class="editorial-article__next-link sans-3"> <a href="#"><strong>What's next:</strong> <span class="editorial-article__next-link-title">profile</span></a> </div> <ul class="social list-unstyled list-inline ssk-group m-b-0"> <li class="list-inline-item"><a href="" class="ssk ssk-facebook" data-gtm-category="social" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Shared Achiever on Facebook"><i class="icon-icon_facebook-circle"></i></a></li> <li class="list-inline-item"><a href="" class="ssk ssk-twitter" data-gtm-category="social" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Shared Achiever on Twitter"><i class="icon-icon_twitter-circle"></i></a></li>  <li class="list-inline-item"><a href="" class="ssk ssk-email" data-gtm-category="social" data-gtm-action="click" data-gtm-label="Shared Achiever via Email"><i class="icon-icon_email-circle"></i></a></li> </ul> <time class="editorial-article__last-updated sans-6">This page last revised on April 6, 2017</time> <div class="sans-4"><a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/how-to-cite" target="_blank">How to cite this page</a></div> </footer> </div> <div class="container interview-related-achievers"> <hr class="m-t-3 m-b-3"/> <footer class="clearfix small-blocks text-xs-center"> <h3 class="m-b-3 serif-3">If you are inspired by this achiever’s story, you might also enjoy:</h3> <div class="centered-blocks"> <div class="isotope-achiever science-exploration ambitious curious " data-year-inducted="2000" data-achiever-name="Blackburn"> <div class="achiever-block view-grid"> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/elizabeth-blackburn/"> <figure class="ratio-container ratio-container--square bg-black"> <div class="lazyload box achiever-block__image" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/blackburn-760_ac-190x190.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2016/06/blackburn-760_ac-380x380.jpg"></div> <div class="achiever-block__overlay"></div> <figcaption class="text-xs-center achiever-block__text"> <div class="display--table"> <div class="display--table-cell"> <div class="achiever-block__text--center"> <div class="achiever-block__name text-brand-primary">Elizabeth Blackburn, Ph.D.</div> <div class="achiever-block__known-as text-white sans-6">Nobel Prize in Medicine</div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="text-white achiever-block__text--bottom"> <div class="achiever-block__year sans-4">Inducted in <span class="year-inducted">2000</span></div> </div> </figcaption> </figure> </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="centered-blocks"> <div class="isotope-achiever science-exploration ambitious curious " data-year-inducted="2005" data-achiever-name="Buck"> <div class="achiever-block view-grid"> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/linda-buck/"> <figure class="ratio-container ratio-container--square bg-black"> <div class="lazyload box achiever-block__image" data-sizes="auto" data-bgset="/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/buc0-001a-190x190.jpg [(max-width:576px)] | /wp-content/uploads/2016/03/buc0-001a-380x380.jpg"></div> <div class="achiever-block__overlay"></div> <figcaption class="text-xs-center achiever-block__text"> <div class="display--table"> <div class="display--table-cell"> <div class="achiever-block__text--center"> <div class="achiever-block__name text-brand-primary">Linda B. 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Bush</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/susan-butcher/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Susan Butcher</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/sir-michael-caine/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Sir Michael Caine</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/james-cameron/"><span class="achiever-list-name">James Cameron</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/benjamin-s-carson/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Benjamin S. Carson, M.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/jimmy-carter/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Jimmy Carter</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/johnny-cash/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Johnny Cash</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/william-j-clinton/"><span class="achiever-list-name">William J. Clinton</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/francis-s-collins/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Francis S. Collins, M.D., Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/denton-a-cooley/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Denton A. Cooley, M.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/francis-ford-coppola/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Francis Ford Coppola</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/ray-dalio/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Ray Dalio</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/olivia-de-havilland/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Dame Olivia de Havilland</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/michael-e-debakey-m-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Michael E. DeBakey, M.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/michael-dell/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Michael S. Dell</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/ron-dennis/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Ron Dennis</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/joan-didion/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Joan Didion</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/david-herbert-donald-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">David Herbert Donald, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/david-doubilet/"><span class="achiever-list-name">David Doubilet</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/jennifer-a-doudna-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Jennifer A. Doudna, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/rita-dove/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Rita Dove</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/sylvia-earle/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Sylvia Earle, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/elbaradei/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Mohamed ElBaradei</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/gertrude-elion/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Gertrude B. Elion, M.Sc.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/larry-j-ellison/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Larry J. Ellison</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/nora-ephron/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Nora Ephron</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/julius-erving/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Julius Erving</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/tony-fadell/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Tony Fadell</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/paul-farmer/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Paul Farmer, M.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/suzanne-farrell/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Suzanne Farrell</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/anthony-s-fauci-m-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Anthony S. Fauci, M.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/sally-field/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Sally Field</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/lord-norman-foster/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Lord Norman Foster</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/aretha-franklin/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Aretha Franklin</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/milton-friedman-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Milton Friedman, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/carlos-fuentes/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Carlos Fuentes</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/athol-fugard/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Athol Fugard</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/peter-gabriel/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Peter Gabriel</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/ernest-j-gaines/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Ernest J. Gaines</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/william-h-gates-iii/"><span class="achiever-list-name">William H. Gates III</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/leymah-gbowee/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Leymah Gbowee</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/frank-gehry/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Frank O. Gehry</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/murray-gell-mann-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Murray Gell-Mann, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/carlos-ghosn/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Carlos Ghosn</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/vince-gill/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Vince Gill</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/ruth-bader-ginsburg/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Ruth Bader Ginsburg</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/louise-gluck/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Louise Glück</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/whoopi-goldberg/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Whoopi Goldberg</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/jane-goodall/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Dame Jane Goodall</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/doris-kearns-goodwin/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Doris Kearns Goodwin, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/mikhail-s-gorbachev/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Mikhail S. Gorbachev</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/nadine-gordimer/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Nadine Gordimer</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/stephen-jay-gould/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Stephen Jay Gould, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/carol-greider-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Carol W. Greider, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/john-grisham/"><span class="achiever-list-name">John Grisham</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/sir-john-gurdon/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Sir John Gurdon</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/dorothy-hamill/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Dorothy Hamill</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/demis-hassabis-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Demis Hassabis, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/lauryn-hill/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Lauryn Hill</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/sir-edmund-hillary/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Sir Edmund Hillary</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/reid-hoffman/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Reid Hoffman</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/khaled-hosseini/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Khaled Hosseini, M.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/ron-howard/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Ron Howard</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/john-hume/"><span class="achiever-list-name">John Hume</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/louis-ignarro-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Louis Ignarro, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/daniel-inouye/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Daniel K. Inouye</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/jeremy-irons/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Jeremy Irons</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/john-irving/"><span class="achiever-list-name">John Irving</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/kazuo-ishiguro/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Sir Kazuo Ishiguro</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/sir-peter-jackson/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Sir Peter Jackson</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/donald-c-johanson/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Donald C. Johanson, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/frank-m-johnson/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Frank M. Johnson, Jr.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/philip-johnson/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Philip C. Johnson</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/chuck-jones/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Chuck Jones</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/james-earl-jones/"><span class="achiever-list-name">James Earl Jones</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/quincy-jones/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Quincy Jones</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/beverly-joubert/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Beverly Joubert</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/dereck-joubert/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Dereck Joubert</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/paul-kagame/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Paul Kagame</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/thomas-keller-2/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Thomas Keller</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/anthony-m-kennedy/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Anthony M. Kennedy</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/carole-king/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Carole King</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/b-b-king/"><span class="achiever-list-name">B.B. King</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/coretta-scott-king/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Coretta Scott King</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/henry-kissinger-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Henry A. Kissinger, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/willem-j-kolff/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Willem J. Kolff, M.D., Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/wendy-kopp/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Wendy Kopp</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/henry-r-kravis/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Henry R. Kravis</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/nicholas-d-kristof/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Nicholas D. Kristof</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/mike-krzyzewski/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Mike Krzyzewski</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/ray-kurzwell/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Ray Kurzweil</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/eric-lander-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Eric S. Lander, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/robert-s-langer-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Robert S. Langer, Sc.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/richard-leakey/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Richard E. Leakey</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/leon-lederman-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Leon Lederman, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/robert-lefkowitz-m-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Robert J. Lefkowitz, M.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/congressman-john-r-lewis/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Congressman John R. Lewis</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/maya-lin/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Maya Lin</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/george-lucas/"><span class="achiever-list-name">George Lucas</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/paul-b-maccready-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Paul B. MacCready, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/norman-mailer/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Norman Mailer</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/peyton-manning/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Peyton Manning</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/wynton-marsalis/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Wynton Marsalis</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/john-c-mather-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">John C. Mather, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/johnny-mathis/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Johnny Mathis</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/ernst-mayr-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Ernst Mayr, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/willie-mays/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Willie Mays</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/frank-mccourt/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Frank McCourt</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/david-mccullough/"><span class="achiever-list-name">David McCullough</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/audra-mcdonald/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Audra McDonald</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/admiral-william-h-mcraven/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Admiral William H. McRaven, USN</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/w-s-merwin/"><span class="achiever-list-name">W. S. Merwin</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/reinhold-messner/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Reinhold Messner</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/james-a-michener/"><span class="achiever-list-name">James A. Michener</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/marvin-minsky-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Marvin Minsky, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/mario-j-molina-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Mario J. Molina, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/n-scott-momaday-ph-d/"><span class="achiever-list-name">N. Scott Momaday, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/story-musgrave/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Story Musgrave, M.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/ralph-nader/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Ralph Nader</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/peggy-noonan/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Peggy Noonan</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/jessye-norman/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Jessye Norman</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/tommy-norris/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Lt. Thomas R. Norris, USN</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/joyce-carol-oates/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Joyce Carol Oates</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/pierre-omidyar/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Pierre Omidyar</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/jimmy-page/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Jimmy Page</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/larry-page/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Larry Page</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/arnold-palmer/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Arnold Palmer</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/leon-panetta/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Leon Panetta</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/rosa-parks/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Rosa Parks</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/suzan-lori-parks/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Suzan-Lori Parks</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/linus-pauling/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Linus C. Pauling, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/shimon-peres/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Shimon Peres</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/itzhak-perlman/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Itzhak Perlman</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/general-david-petraeus/"><span class="achiever-list-name">General David H. Petraeus, USA</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/sidney-poitier/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Sidney Poitier</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/general-colin-l-powell/"><span class="achiever-list-name">General Colin L. 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Ride, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/sonny-rollins/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Sonny Rollins</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/anthony-romero/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Anthony D. 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Seaborg, Ph.D.</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/neil-sheehan/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Neil Sheehan</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/admiral-alan-shepard-jr/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Admiral Alan B. Shepard, Jr., USN</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/ellen-johnson-sirleaf/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Ellen Johnson Sirleaf</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/carlos-slim/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Carlos Slim Helú</span></a> </li> <li> <a href="/web/20200917235412/https://achievement.org/achiever/frederick-w-smith/"><span class="achiever-list-name">Frederick W. 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