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href="#Finance_Minister_of_France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Finance Minister of France</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Finance_Minister_of_France-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Finance Minister of France subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Finance_Minister_of_France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Compte_rendu_au_roi_(Report_to_the_King)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compte_rendu_au_roi_(Report_to_the_King)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Compte rendu au roi (Report to the King)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compte_rendu_au_roi_(Report_to_the_King)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_term_as_Controller-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_term_as_Controller-General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Second term as Controller-General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_term_as_Controller-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_of_the_American_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_of_the_American_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Impact of the American Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_of_the_American_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_one_non-noble_minister" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_one_non-noble_minister"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>The one non-noble minister</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_one_non-noble_minister-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The one non-noble minister subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_one_non-noble_minister-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Assignats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assignats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Assignats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assignats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Retirement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Retirement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Retirement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Retirement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Personal life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Places_named_after_Jacques_Necker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Places_named_after_Jacques_Necker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Places named after Jacques Necker</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Places_named_after_Jacques_Necker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Jacques Necker</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">44 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%83_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%B1" title="جاك نيكر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جاك نيكر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Жак Некер – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Жак Некер" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%96%CE%B1%CE%BA_%CE%9D%CE%B5%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%81" title="Ζακ Νεκέρ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ζακ Νεκέρ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%D8%A7%DA%A9_%D9%86%DA%A9%D8%B1" title="ژاک نکر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ژاک نکر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%ED%81%AC_%EB%84%A4%EC%BC%80%EB%A5%B4" title="자크 네케르 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="자크 네케르" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%27%D7%90%D7%A7_%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%A8" title="ז'אק נקר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ז'אק נקר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9F%E1%83%90%E1%83%99_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="ჟაკ ნეკერი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჟაკ ნეკერი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iacobus_Necker" title="Iacobus Necker – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iacobus Necker" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDaks_Nek%C4%93rs" title="Žaks Nekērs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Žaks Nekērs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BC" title="ജാക്വസ് നെക്കർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജാക്വസ് നെക്കർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%83_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%B1" title="جاك نيكر – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جاك نيكر" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A3%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%83%BB%E3%83%8D%E3%83%83%E3%82%B1%E3%83%AB" title="ジャック・ネッケル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジャック・ネッケル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80,_%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Неккер, Жак – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Неккер, Жак" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Жак Некер – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Жак Некер" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Jacques Necker" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Жак Неккер – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Жак Неккер" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8C%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81_%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ฌัก แนแกร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ฌัก แนแกร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%80" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">French statesman (1732–1804)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Jacques Necker</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Necker,_Jacques_-_Duplessis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Necker%2C_Jacques_-_Duplessis.jpg/220px-Necker%2C_Jacques_-_Duplessis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Necker%2C_Jacques_-_Duplessis.jpg/330px-Necker%2C_Jacques_-_Duplessis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Necker%2C_Jacques_-_Duplessis.jpg/440px-Necker%2C_Jacques_-_Duplessis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="573" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Duplessis" title="Joseph Duplessis">Joseph Duplessis</a>, c. 1781</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_France" title="Prime Minister of France">Chief Minister of the French Monarch</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />16 July 1789 – 3 September 1790</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVI of France">Louis XVI</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Auguste_Le_Tonnelier_de_Breteuil" title="Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil">Baron of Breteuil</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Armand_Marc,_comte_de_Montmorin" title="Armand Marc, comte de Montmorin">Count of Montmorin</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />25 August 1788 – 11 July 1789</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVI of France">Louis XVI</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Charles_de_Lom%C3%A9nie_de_Brienne" title="Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne">Archbishop de Brienne</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Auguste_Le_Tonnelier_de_Breteuil" title="Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil">Baron of Breteuil</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Controller-General_of_Finances" title="Controller-General of Finances">Controller-General of Finances</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />25 August 1788 – 11 July 1789</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVI of France">Louis XVI</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Alexandre_de_Calonne" title="Charles Alexandre de Calonne">Charles Alexandre de Calonne</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Foullon_de_Dou%C3%A9" title="Joseph Foullon de Doué">Joseph Foullon de Doué</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Director-General of the Royal Treasury</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />29 June 1777 – 19 May 1781</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVI of France">Louis XVI</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Louis Gabriel Taboureau des Réaux</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Joly_de_Fleury" title="Jean-François Joly de Fleury">Jean-François Joly de Fleury</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1732-09-30</span>)</span>30 September 1732<br /><a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Geneva" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Geneva">Republic of Geneva</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">9 April 1804<span style="display:none">(1804-04-09)</span> (aged 71)<br />Geneva, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9man_(department)" title="Léman (department)">Léman</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">France</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Curchod" title="Suzanne Curchod">Suzanne Curchod</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1764; died 1794)<wbr /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Germaine Necker</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Signatur_Jacques_Necker.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Jacques Necker's signature"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Signatur_Jacques_Necker.PNG/128px-Signatur_Jacques_Necker.PNG" decoding="async" width="128" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Signatur_Jacques_Necker.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="64" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Jacques Necker</b> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[ʒak<span class="wrap"> </span>nɛkɛʁ]</a></span>; 30 September 1732 – 9 April 1804) was a <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Geneva" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Geneva">Genevan</a> banker and statesman who served as <a href="/wiki/List_of_Finance_Ministers_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Finance Ministers of France">finance minister</a> for <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XVI of France">Louis XVI</a>. He was a reformer, but his innovations sometimes caused great discontent. Necker was a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchist" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional monarchist">constitutional monarchist</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Political_economist" class="mw-redirect" title="Political economist">political economist</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moralist</a>, who wrote a severe critique of the new principle of <a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">equality before the law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Craiutu1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craiutu1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Necker initially held the finance post between July 1777 and 1781.<sup id="cite_ref-Kropotkin1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kropotkin1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1781, he earned widespread recognition for his unprecedented decision to publish the <a href="/wiki/Compte_rendu" title="Compte rendu">Compte rendu</a> – thus making the country's budget public – "a novelty in an <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> where the state of finances had always been kept a secret."<sup id="cite_ref-Craiutu2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craiutu2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Necker was dismissed within a few months. By 1788, the inexorable compounding of interest on the national debt brought France to a fiscal crisis.<sup id="cite_ref-Sargent_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sargent-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Necker was recalled to royal service. His dismissal on 11 July 1789 was a factor in causing the <a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille" title="Storming of the Bastille">Storming of the Bastille</a>. Within two days, Necker was recalled by the king and the assembly. Necker entered France in triumph and tried to accelerate the <a href="/wiki/Tax_reform" title="Tax reform">tax reform</a> process. Faced with the opposition of the <a href="/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)" title="National Constituent Assembly (France)">Constituent Assembly</a>, he resigned in September 1790 to a reaction of general indifference. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_career">Early life and career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Necker was born on 30 September 1732 in Geneva to Karl Friedrich Necker and Jeanne-Marie Gautier.<sup id="cite_ref-HDS1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HDS1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His father was a lawyer from Küstrin in <a href="/wiki/Neumark" title="Neumark">Neumark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Kostrzyn_nad_Odr%C4%85" title="Kostrzyn nad Odrą">Kostrzyn nad Odrą</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>). After publishing some works, Karl Friedrich was appointed professor of <a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Geneva" title="University of Geneva">Academy of Geneva</a> in 1725, and later served in the city's <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Two_Hundred" title="Council of Two Hundred">Council of Two Hundred</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HDS2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HDS2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After studying at the Academy of Geneva, Necker moved to <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> in 1748 and became a clerk in the bank of Isaac Vernet and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Thellusson" title="Peter Thellusson">Peter Thellusson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HDS1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HDS1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon after, he managed to learn Dutch and English. On one day, he replaced the first clerk in charge of trading on the stock exchange, and through a sequence of trades, he made a quick profit of half a million <a href="/wiki/French_livre" title="French livre">French livres</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brewster_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brewster-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1762, Vernet retired and Necker became a partner in the bank with <a href="/wiki/Isaac_de_Thellusson" title="Isaac de Thellusson">Thellusson</a> who managed the bank in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, while Necker served as his managing partner in Paris. In 1763, before the end of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a>, he successfully speculated in British <a href="/wiki/Debenture" title="Debenture">debentures</a> or bonds, wheat, and possibly some shares, which he sold at a good profit in the next few years.<sup id="cite_ref-Zeitgenossen1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeitgenossen1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod,_Madame_Necker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod%2C_Madame_Necker.jpg/170px-Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod%2C_Madame_Necker.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod%2C_Madame_Necker.jpg/255px-Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod%2C_Madame_Necker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod%2C_Madame_Necker.jpg/340px-Duplessis_-_Suzanne_Curchod%2C_Madame_Necker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="1700" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Curchod" title="Suzanne Curchod">Suzanne Curchod</a>, Necker's wife</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carmontelle_-_Germaine_Necker.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Carmontelle_-_Germaine_Necker.JPG/170px-Carmontelle_-_Germaine_Necker.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Carmontelle_-_Germaine_Necker.JPG/255px-Carmontelle_-_Germaine_Necker.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Carmontelle_-_Germaine_Necker.JPG 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption>Germaine Necker by <a href="/wiki/Carmontelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Carmontelle">Carmontelle</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Necker had fallen in love with Madame de Verménou, the widow of a French officer. When she went to see <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Tronchin" title="Théodore Tronchin">Théodore Tronchin</a>, she became acquainted with <a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Curchod" title="Suzanne Curchod">Suzanne Curchod</a>. In 1764, Madame de Verménou brought Suzanne to Paris as a companion for Thelusson's children. Suzanne was engaged to British writer <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>, but he was forced to break the engagement. Necker transferred his love from the wealthy widow to the ambitious Swiss governess. They married before the end of the year. In 1766, they moved to Rue de Cléry and had a daughter, Anne Louise Germaine, later the famed author and <i>salonnière</i> <a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Madame de Staël</a>. </p><p>Madame Necker encouraged her husband to try to find himself a public position. He accordingly became a syndic (or director) of the <a href="/wiki/French_East_India_Company" title="French East India Company">French East India Company</a>, around which a fierce political debate revolved in the 1760s between the company's directors and shareholders and the royal ministry over its administration and the company's autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-Lüthy_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lüthy-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After showing his financial ability in its management, Necker defended the company's autonomy in an able memoir against the attacks of Morellet in 1769.<sup id="cite_ref-Morellet_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morellet-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the company never made any profit during its existence, the monopoly ended.<sup id="cite_ref-Gordon_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gordon-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The era of free trade had begun.<sup id="cite_ref-Keber_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Keber-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Necker bought up the company's ships and stock of unsold goods when it went bankrupt in 1769. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Corbel010_Vue_du_ch%C3%A2teau_de_Madrid,_dessin%C3%A9_sur_le_chemin_venant_de_Neuilly-sur-Seine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Corbel010_Vue_du_ch%C3%A2teau_de_Madrid%2C_dessin%C3%A9_sur_le_chemin_venant_de_Neuilly-sur-Seine.jpg/220px-Corbel010_Vue_du_ch%C3%A2teau_de_Madrid%2C_dessin%C3%A9_sur_le_chemin_venant_de_Neuilly-sur-Seine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Corbel010_Vue_du_ch%C3%A2teau_de_Madrid%2C_dessin%C3%A9_sur_le_chemin_venant_de_Neuilly-sur-Seine.jpg/330px-Corbel010_Vue_du_ch%C3%A2teau_de_Madrid%2C_dessin%C3%A9_sur_le_chemin_venant_de_Neuilly-sur-Seine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Corbel010_Vue_du_ch%C3%A2teau_de_Madrid%2C_dessin%C3%A9_sur_le_chemin_venant_de_Neuilly-sur-Seine.jpg/440px-Corbel010_Vue_du_ch%C3%A2teau_de_Madrid%2C_dessin%C3%A9_sur_le_chemin_venant_de_Neuilly-sur-Seine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6592" data-file-height="4566" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Madrid" title="Château de Madrid">Château de Madrid</a>, Necker's home in <a href="/wiki/Neuilly-sur-Seine" title="Neuilly-sur-Seine">Neuilly-sur-Seine</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>From 1768 to 1776, he made loans to the French government in the form of <a href="/wiki/Life_annuity" title="Life annuity">life annuities</a> and by lottery operations.<sup id="cite_ref-De_Lapouge_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De_Lapouge-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199023_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199023-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His wife made him give up his share in the bank, which he transferred to his brother <a href="/wiki/Louis_Necker" title="Louis Necker">Louis Necker</a> and Jean Girardot in 1772. In 1773, Necker won the prize of the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_Fran%C3%A7aise" title="Académie Française">Académie Française</a> for a defense of <a href="/wiki/State_corporatism" class="mw-redirect" title="State corporatism">state corporatism</a> framed as an <a href="/wiki/Eulogy" title="Eulogy">eulogy</a> in honor of Louis XIV's minister <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Colbert" title="Jean-Baptiste Colbert">Jean-Baptiste Colbert</a>. Necker's capital amounted to six or eight million livres, and he used <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Madrid" title="Château de Madrid">Château de Madrid</a> as a summer house. In 1775, in <i>Essai sur la législation et le commerce des grains</i>, he attacked the <a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">physiocrats</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_Galiani" title="Ferdinando Galiani">Ferdinando Galiani</a>, and questioned the <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> policies of <a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Controller-General_of_Finances" title="Controller-General of Finances">Controller-General of Finances</a>. Turgot had made too many enemies; in May 1776, he was dismissed. But his successor, Clugny de Nuis, died in October.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967865_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967865-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199022_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199022-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, on 22 October 1776, on the recommendation of <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Ph%C3%A9lypeaux,_Count_of_Maurepas" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, Count of Maurepas">Maurepas</a>, Necker was appointed "<i>Directeur du trésor royal</i>". (As a Protestant, Necker could not serve as Controller.)<sup id="cite_ref-Erenow_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erenow-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Finance_Minister_of_France">Finance Minister of France</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Finance Minister of France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Necker,_Jacques,_par_Boillet,_BNF_Gallica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Necker%2C_Jacques%2C_par_Boillet%2C_BNF_Gallica.jpg/220px-Necker%2C_Jacques%2C_par_Boillet%2C_BNF_Gallica.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Necker%2C_Jacques%2C_par_Boillet%2C_BNF_Gallica.jpg/330px-Necker%2C_Jacques%2C_par_Boillet%2C_BNF_Gallica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Necker%2C_Jacques%2C_par_Boillet%2C_BNF_Gallica.jpg/440px-Necker%2C_Jacques%2C_par_Boillet%2C_BNF_Gallica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2757" data-file-height="3992" /></a><figcaption> </figcaption></figure> <p>On 29 June 1777, according to his daughter in her "Vie privée de Mr Necker" he was made director-general of the royal treasury and not <a href="/wiki/Controller-General_of_Finance" class="mw-redirect" title="Controller-General of Finance">Controller-General of Finance</a> which was impossible because of his Protestant faith.<sup id="cite_ref-Privatleben_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Privatleben-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 32">: 32 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama198994_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama198994-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Necker refused a salary, but he was not admitted to the <a href="/wiki/Conseil_du_Roi" title="Conseil du Roi">Royal Council</a>. He gained popularity through regulating the government's finances by attempting to divide the <i><a href="/wiki/Taille" title="Taille">taille</a></i> and the <a href="/wiki/Tax_per_head" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax per head">capitation tax</a> more equally, abolishing a tax known as the <i>vingtième d'industrie</i>, (a <a href="/wiki/Value-added_tax" title="Value-added tax">value-added tax</a>) and establishing <i><a href="/wiki/Mount_of_piety" title="Mount of piety">monts de piété</a></i> (pawnshop-like establishments for loaning money on security). Necker tried through careful reforms (abolition of pensions, <a href="/wiki/Mortmain" title="Mortmain">mortmain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Droit_de_suite" title="Droit de suite">droit de suite</a> and more <a href="/wiki/Equity_(economics)" title="Equity (economics)">fair taxation</a>) to rehabilitate the disorganized state budget. He abolished over five hundred <a href="/wiki/Sinecures" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinecures">sinecures</a> and superfluous posts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967866–867_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967866–867-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together with his wife, he visited and improved life in hospitals and prisons. In April 1778 he remitted 2.4 million livres from his own fortune to the royal treasury.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004154–155_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004154–155-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sur_l’administration_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sur_l’administration-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike Turgot – in his <i>Mémoire sur les municipalités</i> – Necker tried to install <a href="/wiki/States_Provincial_(France)" class="mw-redirect" title="States Provincial (France)">provincial assemblies</a> and hoped they could serve as an effective means of reforming the <a href="/wiki/Ancien_r%C3%A9gime" title="Ancien régime">Ancien régime</a>. Necker succeeded only in <a href="/wiki/Berry,_France" title="Berry, France">Berry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guyenne" title="Guyenne">Haute-Guyenne</a>, where he installed assemblies with an equal number of members from the <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_Realm#Third_Estate" class="mw-redirect" title="Estates of the Realm">Third Estate</a>. </p><p>His greatest financial measures were his use of loans to help fund the French debt and his use of high <a href="/wiki/Interest_rate" title="Interest rate">interest rates</a> rather than raising taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwansonTrout1990424_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwansonTrout1990424-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The collection of <a href="/wiki/Indirect_taxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect taxes">indirect taxes</a> was restored to the <a href="/wiki/Ferme_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale" title="Ferme générale">farmers-general</a> (1780), but Necker reduced their number by a third and subjected them to sharper scrutiny and control.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967866–867_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967866–867-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 1780, Necker asked for his dismissal, but the King refused to let him go.<sup id="cite_ref-Bredin_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bredin-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compte_rendu_au_roi_(Report_to_the_King)"><span id="Compte_rendu_au_roi_.28Report_to_the_King.29"></span>Compte rendu au roi (Report to the King)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Compte rendu au roi (Report to the King)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lombards_Library_010.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Lombards_Library_010.jpg/220px-Lombards_Library_010.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Lombards_Library_010.jpg/330px-Lombards_Library_010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Lombards_Library_010.jpg/440px-Lombards_Library_010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1877" data-file-height="2504" /></a><figcaption> </figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Michel_Moreau,_Le_festin_royal,_1782,_NGA_2791.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Jean-Michel_Moreau%2C_Le_festin_royal%2C_1782%2C_NGA_2791.jpg/220px-Jean-Michel_Moreau%2C_Le_festin_royal%2C_1782%2C_NGA_2791.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Jean-Michel_Moreau%2C_Le_festin_royal%2C_1782%2C_NGA_2791.jpg/330px-Jean-Michel_Moreau%2C_Le_festin_royal%2C_1782%2C_NGA_2791.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Jean-Michel_Moreau%2C_Le_festin_royal%2C_1782%2C_NGA_2791.jpg/440px-Jean-Michel_Moreau%2C_Le_festin_royal%2C_1782%2C_NGA_2791.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3059" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean-Michel_Moreau" title="Jean-Michel Moreau">Jean-Michel Moreau</a>, Le festin royal, 1782, NGA 2791</figcaption></figure> <p>By 1781, France was suffering financially, and, as director-general of the royal treasury, he was blamed for the rather high debt accrued from the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A series of pamphlets appeared, criticizing Necker.<sup id="cite_ref-Duprat_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duprat-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jacques-Mathieu Augeard attacked him on his foreign origin, his faith, and economic choices.<sup id="cite_ref-Duprat_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duprat-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main reason behind this was the action of Necker "cooking the books" or falsifying the records.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199024–25_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199024–25-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He brightened the picture by excluding military outlays and other 'extraordinary' charges (<a href="/wiki/Menus-Plaisirs_du_Roi" title="Menus-Plaisirs du Roi">Menus-Plaisirs du Roi</a>) and ignoring the national debt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967870_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967870-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama199092–93_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama199092–93-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Necker and Calonne were deceived with the number of pensions and gratifications.<sup id="cite_ref-Page_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Page-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The king spent much more on his brothers than on public health. After Necker had shown Louis XVI his annual report, the king tried to keep its contents secret. Necker met the challenge aggressively by asking the King to bring him into the royal council. In revenge, Necker made the <i><a href="/wiki/Compte_rendu" title="Compte rendu">Compte rendu au roi</a></i> public; in no time between 200,000 copies were sold.<sup id="cite_ref-Brewster_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brewster-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was rapidly translated into Dutch, German, Danish, Italian and English. </p><p>In his most influential work, which brought him instant fame, Necker summarized governmental income and expenditures to provide the first record of royal finances ever made public. The Account was meant to be an educational piece for the people, and in it, he expressed his desire to create a well-informed, interested populace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama198995_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama198995-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before, the people had never considered governmental income and expenditure to be their concern, but the <i>Compte rendu</i> made them more proactive. </p><p>Maurepas became jealous, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Gravier,_comte_de_Vergennes" title="Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes">Vergennes</a> called him a revolutionist. Necker declared that he would resign unless given the full title and authority of a minister, with a seat on the <a href="/wiki/Conseil_du_Roi" title="Conseil du Roi">Conseil du Roi</a>. Both Maurepas and Vergennes replied that they would resign if this was done.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama198993_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama198993-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Necker was dismissed on 19 May 1781, people of all stations flocked to his home at St. Ouen. In August 1781 Madame Necker went as far as <a href="/wiki/Utrecht" title="Utrecht">Utrecht</a> to buy the <a href="/wiki/Libels" class="mw-redirect" title="Libels">libels</a> that appeared in the name of Turgot against her husband. She even tried to have the booksellers arrested.<sup id="cite_ref-Utrecht_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Utrecht-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Duprat_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duprat-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Venturi_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Venturi-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After his dismissal, Necker bought an estate in <a href="/wiki/Coppet" title="Coppet">Coppet</a>. His brother Louis purchased an estate in <a href="/wiki/Cologny" title="Cologny">Cologny</a>. Both estates were located near <a href="/wiki/Lake_Geneva" title="Lake Geneva">Lake Geneva</a>. In retirement, Necker, believing in "credible policy", occupied himself with law and economics, producing his famous <i>Traité de l'administration des finances de la France</i> (1784). Calonne tried to prevent the distribution of the book in Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-Zeitgenossen2_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeitgenossen2-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Never had a work on such a serious subject obtained such general success; 80,000 copies were sold.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_term_as_Controller-General">Second term as Controller-General</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Second term as Controller-General"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Necker family returned to the Paris region, supposing they were present at the wedding of their only daughter <a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Germaine</a> in January 1786. The impending <a href="/wiki/National_bankruptcy" class="mw-redirect" title="National bankruptcy">national bankruptcy</a> of France caused <a href="/wiki/Charles_Alexandre_de_Calonne" title="Charles Alexandre de Calonne">Calonne</a> to convene an <a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_notables" class="mw-redirect" title="Assembly of notables">Assembly of notables</a> under the elimination of <a href="/wiki/Parlement" title="Parlement">parlements</a> in order to enforce tax reforms. It had not met since 1626. One could not issue new loans without the Parlements' approval.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199025_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199025-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his speech, Calonne expressed doubts about Necker's statistics in the <i>Compte rendu</i>. According to him, they were false and misleading,<sup id="cite_ref-Felix_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Felix-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Soll_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soll-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the state revenues had been revised upwards. For Calonne, the French deficit was caused by Necker, who had not raised the taxes. However, Calonne got involved in several financial scandals regarding the "Calonne Company" and was dismissed by the king on 8 April 1787.<sup id="cite_ref-FEIC_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FEIC-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 11 April, Necker replied on the charges made by Calonne. Two days later Louis XVI banished Necker by a <i><a href="/wiki/Lettre_de_cachet" class="mw-redirect" title="Lettre de cachet">lettre de cachet</a></i> for his very public exchange of pamphlets.<sup id="cite_ref-Hardman1_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hardman1-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fairweather_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fairweather-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After two months, Necker was allowed to return to Paris. Necker published his <i>Nouveaux éclaircissement sur le compte rendu</i>. Also <a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_II,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans">Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans</a> and his secretary Charles-Louis Ducrest came up with proposals.<sup id="cite_ref-Ducrest_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ducrest-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The next minister of finance <a href="/wiki/Lom%C3%A9nie_de_Brienne" class="mw-redirect" title="Loménie de Brienne">Loménie de Brienne</a> resigned within fifteen months. On 24 August 1788; the king allowed him an enormous pension. </p><p>On 25 or 26 August, Necker was called back to office accompanied by fireworks. According to John Hardman, Marie-Antoinette helped to organise Necker's return to power. This time he insisted on the title of <a href="/wiki/Controller-General_of_Finances" title="Controller-General of Finances">Controller-General of Finances</a> and access to the <a href="/wiki/Conseil_du_Roi" title="Conseil du Roi">royal council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967948_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967948-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fairweather_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fairweather-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Necker was appointed as <a href="/wiki/Chief_minister_of_France" title="Chief minister of France">Chief minister of France</a>. He revoked the order of 16 August requiring bondholders to accept paper instead of money; government bonds rose 30% on the market.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967949_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967949-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 7 September 1788, Paris was looking at famine, and Necker suspended the exportation of corn, purchased seventy million livres of wheat, and publicly reposted the decree of the King's Council of 23 April 1789 allowing police to inspect granaries and private inventories of grain, but none of these efforts could solve the problem.<sup id="cite_ref-Kropotkin2_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kropotkin2-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1788, insurrections broke out in Brittany, and Necker was sacked again. In a letter to <a href="/wiki/Florimond_Claude,_Comte_de_Mercy-Argenteau" title="Florimond Claude, Comte de Mercy-Argenteau">Florimond Claude, Comte de Mercy-Argenteau</a>, Marie-Antoinette took personal credit for forcing the king's hand on this matter. She believed that Necker would lessen the King's authority and wrote "the moment is pressing. It is very essential that Necker should accept."<sup id="cite_ref-Kropotkin3_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kropotkin3-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_of_the_American_Revolution">Impact of the American Revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Impact of the American Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the most significant fiscal issues Necker faced was the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> and the resulting debt. The war was popular with almost every Frenchman, except Necker.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967870_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967870-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first time, the king waged a war without raising the taxes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199023_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199023-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As France had financed its participation almost exclusively by <a href="/wiki/Municipal_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Municipal bonds">municipal bonds</a>, Necker warned of the consequences for the French national budget as the war continued. (The war had cost the state already ca. 1.5 billion livres.) The <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Marie_L%C3%A9onor_de_Saint-Mauris_de_Montbarrey" title="Alexandre Marie Léonor de Saint-Mauris de Montbarrey">ministers of War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antoine_de_Sartine" title="Antoine de Sartine">Navy</a> were especially hostile towards him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199024_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199024-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1781, Congress appointed <a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a> as <a href="/wiki/Superintendent_of_Finance_of_the_United_States" title="Superintendent of Finance of the United States"> Superintendent of Finance</a> after the US went bankrupt. In 1783, Morris cut off interest payments to France, its largest foreign creditor. This led Necker to seek funds from elsewhere. <a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_van_Staphorst" title="Nicolaas van Staphorst">Nicolaas van Staphorst</a> told Necker that the entire French debt might be redeemed without any loss through the Amsterdam capital markets. The Van Staphorsts made an offer for the American bonds. Necker warmed to the proposal but asked for <a href="/wiki/Collateral_(finance)" title="Collateral (finance)">collateral</a> and the sanction of a large investment bank. Necker decided that without collateral or the sanction of a major investment bank, the proposal was not acceptable.<sup id="cite_ref-Veru_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veru-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, who had succeeded Franklin as American minister to France and <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> as head of American finance in Europe in 1785, learned about the meeting between the <a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_van_Staphorst" title="Nicolaas van Staphorst">Van Staphorsts’</a> representatives and the French Minister of Finance only in November 1786, when he received a redacted document describing the Dutch offer from <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clavi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Clavière">Étienne Clavière</a>, a Genevan banker and pro-America.<sup id="cite_ref-Veru_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Veru-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Dutch bankers advanced the treasury sufficient funds to forestall a crisis over the next year. The winter of 1788–89 was one of the bitterest in history. By the summer of 1789, the population suffered from famine. Necker intervened personally and successfully at the Amsterdam bank <a href="/wiki/Hope_%26_Co." title="Hope & Co.">Hope & Co.</a> to supply the 'King of France' with grain.<sup id="cite_ref-Buist_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buist-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004156_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004156-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He used the 2.4 million livres in the royal treasury as a collateral.<sup id="cite_ref-Privatleben_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Privatleben-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 83">: 83 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_one_non-noble_minister">The one non-noble minister</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The one non-noble minister"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:France-Britain-Freedom-Slavery-Gillray.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/France-Britain-Freedom-Slavery-Gillray.jpeg/300px-France-Britain-Freedom-Slavery-Gillray.jpeg" decoding="async" width="300" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/France-Britain-Freedom-Slavery-Gillray.jpeg/450px-France-Britain-Freedom-Slavery-Gillray.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/France-Britain-Freedom-Slavery-Gillray.jpeg/600px-France-Britain-Freedom-Slavery-Gillray.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1530" data-file-height="930" /></a><figcaption>In this 1789 <a href="/wiki/Engraving" title="Engraving">engraving</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Gillray" title="James Gillray">James Gillray</a> caricatures the triumph of Necker (seated, on left) in 1789, comparing its effects on freedom unfavorably to those of <a href="/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger" title="William Pitt the Younger">William Pitt the Younger</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a>. France has the caption "<a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Freedom</a>," while Britain has the caption "<a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a>."</figcaption></figure> <p>By the time of his second term in office, Necker desired a more limited monarchy and favored increased power for the <a href="/wiki/Estates_General_(France)" title="Estates General (France)">Estates General</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hardman2_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hardman2-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a>, Necker "helped to shake down the system which was already tottering to its fall, but he was powerless to prevent the fall from becoming a revolution: probably he did not even perceive that it was impending."<sup id="cite_ref-Kropotkin4_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kropotkin4-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Necker succeeded in doubling the representation of the <a href="/wiki/Estates_General_(France)" title="Estates General (France)">Third Estate</a> to satisfy the nation's people. The Third Estate had as many deputies as the other two orders together. His address at the Estates-General on 5 May 1789 about the fundamental problems as financial health, constitutional monarchy, and institutional and political reforms lasted three hours. Necker suffered from a cold and, after fifteen minutes, he asked the secretary of the Agricultural Society to read the remainder.<sup id="cite_ref-Lenotre_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lenotre-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He invited the representatives to leave aside their factional interests and take into consideration the general, long-term interests of the nation. Personal rivalries and radical claims had to give way to a pragmatic spirit of moderation and conciliation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012119–121_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012119–121-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He concluded: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Finally, gentlemen, you will not be envious of what only time can achieve, and you will leave something for it to do. For if you attempt to reform everything that seems imperfect, your work will lead to poor results."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1986433–434_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1986433–434-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> According to <a href="/wiki/Simon_Schama" title="Simon Schama">Simon Schama</a>, he "appeared to consider the Estates-General to be a facility designed to help the administration rather than to reform government".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989345–346_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989345–346-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two weeks later, Necker seems to have sought to persuade the king to adopt a constitution similar to that of Great Britain and advised him in the strongest possible terms to make the necessary concessions before it was too late.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012123_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012123-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mignet" title="François Mignet">François Mignet</a>, "he hoped to reduce the number of orders, and bring about the adoption of the English form of government, by uniting the clergy and nobility in one chamber, and the third estate in another."<sup id="cite_ref-Mignet_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mignet-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Necker warned the king that unless the privileged orders yielded, the States-General would collapse, taxes would not be paid, and the government would be bankrupt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967958_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967958-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 17 June 1789, the first act of the new <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(French_Revolution)" title="National Assembly (French Revolution)">National Assembly</a> declared all existing taxes illegal. Necker had legitimate reasons to be concerned about the implications of this unprecedented decision.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012124_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012124-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 23 June, the king proposed to the royal council the dissolution of the Assembly. On 11 July, the king advised Necker to leave the country immediately. According to <a href="/wiki/Jean_Luzac" title="Jean Luzac">Jean Luzac</a>, Necker and his wife went for a walk in a park. They then got into their carriage to drive to their estate in Saint-Ouen at seven in the evening.<sup id="cite_ref-Gazette1_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gazette1-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the news became known the next day, it enraged <a href="/wiki/Camille_Desmoulins" title="Camille Desmoulins">Camille Desmoulins</a>. Wax heads of Necker and the Duc d'Orléans were taken through the streets to the Tuileries. The Royal Guard allegedly chose to open fire rather than salute the likenesses.<sup id="cite_ref-Spies-Gans_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spies-Gans-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The threat of a counter-revolution caused citizens to take up arms and <a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille" title="Storming of the Bastille">storm the Bastille</a> on 14 July.<sup id="cite_ref-Godechot_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godechot-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The king and the Assembly recalled the immensely popular Necker to a third ministry in a letter dated 16 July.<sup id="cite_ref-Necker1_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Necker1-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Necker replied from Basle on the 23rd.<sup id="cite_ref-Brief_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brief-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote to his brother that he was going back to the abyss. His successor, the 74-year-old <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Foullon_de_Dou%C3%A9" title="Joseph Foullon de Doué">Joseph Foullon de Doué</a>, was hanged from a lamppost on the 22nd. His entry into Versailles on the 29th was a festival day.<sup id="cite_ref-Gazette2_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gazette2-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Necker demanded a pardon for <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Victor,_baron_de_Besenval_de_Br%C3%BCnstatt" title="Pierre Victor, baron de Besenval de Brünstatt">Baron de Besenval</a>, who was imprisoned after given command of the troops concentrated in and around Paris early July.<sup id="cite_ref-Blanc_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blanc-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 4 August 1789, the day when <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_feudalism_in_France" title="Abolition of feudalism in France">feudalism was abolished</a> by the National Assembly, Necker is quoted as saying, "The collectors of the taille are at their last shift."<sup id="cite_ref-Kropotkin5_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kropotkin5-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assignats">Assignats</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Assignats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FRA-A39-Domaines_Nationaux-100_livres_(1790).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/FRA-A39-Domaines_Nationaux-100_livres_%281790%29.jpg/300px-FRA-A39-Domaines_Nationaux-100_livres_%281790%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/FRA-A39-Domaines_Nationaux-100_livres_%281790%29.jpg/450px-FRA-A39-Domaines_Nationaux-100_livres_%281790%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/FRA-A39-Domaines_Nationaux-100_livres_%281790%29.jpg/600px-FRA-A39-Domaines_Nationaux-100_livres_%281790%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6678" data-file-height="3945" /></a><figcaption>Early French banknote issue by Domaines Nationaux – Assignat for 100 livres, 1790 Issue</figcaption></figure> <p>Necker proved to be powerless as tax revenue dropped quickly.<sup id="cite_ref-Mignet_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mignet-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Credit was wrecked, according to Talleyrand; for Mirabeau "the deficit was the treasure of the nation" as it had made many changes possible. By September, the treasury was empty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrouzet199397–98_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouzet199397–98-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Marat, the whole famine was the work of one man, accusing Necker of buying up all the corn on every side, in order that Paris had none.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864248_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864248-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Talleyrand, the bishop of Autun</a> proposed "national goods" should be given back to the nation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993101_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993101-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 1789, ecclesiastical possessions were confiscated. Necker proposed to borrow from the <a href="/wiki/Caisse_d%27Escompte#Central_banking_before_the_Bank_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Caisse d'Escompte">Caisse d'Escompte</a>, but his intention to change the private bank into a <a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">national bank</a> similar to the Bank of England failed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993104–105_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993104–105-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199064_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199064-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A general bankruptcy seemed certain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199059_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199059-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spang_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spang-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Mirabeau proposed to Lafayette to overthrow Necker.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864288_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864288-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 21 December 1789, a first decree was voted through, ordering the issue (in April 1790) of 400 million <i><a href="/wiki/Assignats" class="mw-redirect" title="Assignats">assignats</a></i>, certificates of indebtedness of 1,000 livres each, with an interest rate of 5%, secured and repayable based on the auctioning of the "<a href="/wiki/Biens_nationaux" title="Biens nationaux">Biens nationaux</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Numiscorner_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Numiscorner-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once the assignats were paid, they had to be destroyed or burnt. </p><p>In January 1790, Necker obtained an order of arrest against <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marat" title="Jean-Paul Marat">Jean-Paul Marat</a>, for having "had openly espoused the cause of the people, the poorest classes," according to Peter Kropotkin. Marat was forced to flee to London.<sup id="cite_ref-Kropotkin6_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kropotkin6-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Walter_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walter-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 10 March 1790, on the proposition of <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_P%C3%A9tion_de_Villeneuve" title="Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve">Pétion</a>, the administration of the church property was transferred to the municipalities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993110_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993110-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clavi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Clavière">Étienne Clavière</a> lobbied for large issues of assignats representing national wealth and operating as legal tender.<sup id="cite_ref-Whatmore_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whatmore-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For daily, life smaller denominations were needed and extended to the whole of France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199095_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199095-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 17 April 1790, the new notes of 200 and 300 livres were declared <a href="/wiki/Legal_tender" title="Legal tender">legal tender</a> but their interest was reduced to 3%.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion1990xii_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion1990xii-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The assignats would compensate for the scarcity of coin and would revive industry and trade.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199080,_95_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199080,_95-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 1790, the feudal and ecclesiastical properties were sold against assignats. Constitutional monarchists such as <a href="/wiki/Jean-Sifrein_Maury" title="Jean-Sifrein Maury">Maury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Antoine_Marie_de_Cazal%C3%A8s" title="Jacques Antoine Marie de Cazalès">Cazalès</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Bergasse" title="Nicolas Bergasse">Bergasse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Duval_d%27Epr%C3%A9mesnil" title="Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil">d'Eprémesnil</a> opposed it. The deputies in the Convention prepared a <a href="/wiki/Surety" title="Surety">surety</a> for future issues of paper money (on 19 June and 29 July).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199076_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199076-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Half of the taxes over the preceding year were still not received. People who earned more than 400 livres were invited to go to their municipality and fulfill their duty. As it was not the final cure, Necker asked his friends, the Geneva "banquiers", to pay the <a href="/wiki/Arrears" title="Arrears">arrears</a> the Assembly turned it down.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrouzet199399_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouzet199399-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The political scene came to be dominated by "clamorous spectators, passionate judges, and ungovernable agitators".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012130_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012130-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Necker was continuously attacked by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marat" title="Jean-Paul Marat">Jean-Paul Marat</a> in his pamphlets and by <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Ren%C3%A9_H%C3%A9bert" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacques-René Hébert">Jacques-René Hébert</a> in his newspaper. <a href="/wiki/Count_Mirabeau" class="mw-redirect" title="Count Mirabeau">Count Mirabeau</a>, who played a decisive role in the Assembly, accused him of complete financial dictatorship.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989499,_536_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989499,_536-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For Mirabeau, to express doubts in the assignats was to express doubts in the revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Levasseur_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levasseur-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the end of August, the government was again in distress; four months after the first issue the money was spent. <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier-Marc-Antoine_de_Montesquiou-F%C3%A9zensac" title="François-Xavier-Marc-Antoine de Montesquiou-Fézensac">Montesquiou-Fézensac</a>, the teacher of Mirabeau, presented a report in the Assembly. Assignats should be used not only for payment of church property.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199077_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199077-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier-Marc-Antoine_de_Montesquiou-F%C3%A9zensac" title="François-Xavier-Marc-Antoine de Montesquiou-Fézensac">Montesquiou</a> had massively exaggerated the amount of the redeemable debt, probably to convince the Assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199078_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199078-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 27 August 1790, the Assembly decided another issue of 1.9 billion assignats which would become <a href="/wiki/Legal_tender" title="Legal tender">legal tender</a> before the end of the year. Necker endeavored to dissuade the Assembly from the proposed issue; suggesting that other means could be found for accomplishing the result, and he predicted terrible evils. Necker was not backed by Comte de Mirabeau, his strongest opponent who called for "national money" and won that day.<sup id="cite_ref-White_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few crowds were sent to shout and threaten him.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864487_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864487-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When all resources were exhausted, the Assembly created paper money, according to Necker.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199084–85_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199084–85-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He handed in his resignation on 3 September.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818256–258_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818256–258-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The massive and dangerous issue of 1.9 billion he succeeded to get down to 800 million, but the attacks influenced his resignation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993115_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993115-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Necker3_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Necker3-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Necker did not step down on the decision to make the assignat legal tender. Instead,the choice to issue the paper money along with political opposition proved to be his main motivators.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Assembly decreed that it would itself direct the public Treasury.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864487_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864487-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Necker foretold that the paper money, with which the dividends were about to be paid, would soon be of no value. <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Samuel_du_Pont_de_Nemours" title="Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours">Du Pont de Nemours</a> feared the emission of assignats would double the price of bread.<sup id="cite_ref-Dillaye_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dillaye-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199084–81_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199084–81-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since no one had truly the right to make assignats, everyone would soon begin to do so.<sup id="cite_ref-Spang_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spang-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier-Marc-Antoine_de_Montesquiou-F%C3%A9zensac" title="François-Xavier-Marc-Antoine de Montesquiou-Fézensac">Montesquiou-Fézensac</a>, charged with the issue of assignats, feared <a href="/wiki/Stockjobbing" class="mw-redirect" title="Stockjobbing">stockjobbing</a> and greed.<sup id="cite_ref-Montesquiou_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Montesquiou-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A declaration (14 Oct) suspending all interest payments turned the assignats into <a href="/wiki/Fiat_money" title="Fiat money">fiat money</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HET_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HET-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Necker's efforts to keep the financial situation afloat were ineffective. His popularity vanished and he resigned with a damaged reputation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuretOzouf1989288_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuretOzouf1989288-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Doyle_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Doyle-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Necker left leaving two million livres in the public treasury; he took 1/5 of the amount with him.<sup id="cite_ref-Necker4_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Necker4-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Retirement">Retirement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Retirement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CH-NB_-_Coppet,_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Coppet,_vue_partielle_-_Collection_Max_van_Berchem_-_EAD-8736.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/CH-NB_-_Coppet%2C_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Coppet%2C_vue_partielle_-_Collection_Max_van_Berchem_-_EAD-8736.tif/lossy-page1-220px-CH-NB_-_Coppet%2C_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Coppet%2C_vue_partielle_-_Collection_Max_van_Berchem_-_EAD-8736.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/CH-NB_-_Coppet%2C_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Coppet%2C_vue_partielle_-_Collection_Max_van_Berchem_-_EAD-8736.tif/lossy-page1-330px-CH-NB_-_Coppet%2C_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Coppet%2C_vue_partielle_-_Collection_Max_van_Berchem_-_EAD-8736.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/CH-NB_-_Coppet%2C_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Coppet%2C_vue_partielle_-_Collection_Max_van_Berchem_-_EAD-8736.tif/lossy-page1-440px-CH-NB_-_Coppet%2C_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Coppet%2C_vue_partielle_-_Collection_Max_van_Berchem_-_EAD-8736.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4967" data-file-height="3575" /></a><figcaption>Château de Coppet</figcaption></figure> <p>Necker, suspected of reactionary tendencies, traveled east to <a href="/wiki/Arcis-sur-Aube" title="Arcis-sur-Aube">Arcis-sur-Aube</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vesoul" title="Vesoul">Vesoul</a>, where he was arrested, but on 11 September he was allowed to leave the country.<sup id="cite_ref-Necker5_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Necker5-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At <a href="/wiki/Coppet_Castle" title="Coppet Castle">Coppet Castle</a>, he occupied himself with <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a>, and law. At the end of 1792, he published a brochure on the trial against Louis XVI. The Neckers were far from welcome in Geneva. Many of the French émigrés considered them <a href="/wiki/Jacobins" title="Jacobins">Jacobins</a>, and many of the Swiss Jacobins thought them conservative.<sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopedists_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedists-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Initially living in <a href="/wiki/Rolle" title="Rolle">Rolle</a>, the Neckers moved to an apartment in <a href="/wiki/Beaulieu_Castle" title="Beaulieu Castle">Beaulieu Castle</a> following the installation of a revolutionary government in Geneva.<sup id="cite_ref-Gibbon_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibbon-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After being put on the list of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89migr%C3%A9s" class="mw-redirect" title="Émigrés">Émigrés</a>, Necker was not paid any interest on the money he had left in the treasury.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004156–158_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004156–158-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His house in Rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin, his estate in <a href="/wiki/Saint-Ouen,_Seine-Saint-Denis" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Ouen, Seine-Saint-Denis">Saint-Ouen sûr Seine</a>, and the two million livres were confiscated by the French government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004162–163_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004162–163-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mme Necker, who had always seen herself as ill, sank into mental illness. Since the birth of Germaine, she was correcting the most morbid clauses of her will and insisted to be embalmed by <a href="/wiki/Samuel-Auguste_Tissot" title="Samuel-Auguste Tissot">Samuel-Auguste Tissot</a>, preserved and exhibited in a bedroom for four months.<sup id="cite_ref-Baecque_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baecque-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He continued to live under the care of his daughter. By 1794, France would be flooded by false assignats. But his time was past, and his books had except abroad no political influence.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 1795 Germaine moved to Paris with <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Benjamin Constant</a>, but she came back, sometimes involuntary, and founded the <a href="/wiki/Coppet_group" title="Coppet group">Cercle de Coppet</a>. </p><p>In March 1798, <a href="/wiki/Bern" title="Bern">Bern</a> was attacked during the <a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Switzerland" title="French invasion of Switzerland">French invasion of Switzerland</a>. Necker was treated with respect when the army passed his mansion. In July 1798, he was removed from the list of Émigrés.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004169_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004169-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818418–420_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818418–420-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His house in the <a href="/wiki/9th_arrondissement_of_Paris" title="9th arrondissement of Paris">9th arrondissement of Paris</a> was sold to (or occupied by?) the husband of <a href="/wiki/Juliette_R%C3%A9camier" title="Juliette Récamier">Juliette Récamier</a>. In early June 1800, Necker met with Napoleon on his way to <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marengo" title="Battle of Marengo">Marengo</a>. In confidence, Napoleon told him about his plans to reestablish a monarchy in France. The publication of Necker's "Last Views on Politics and Finance" in 1802 upset the <a href="/wiki/First_consul" class="mw-redirect" title="First consul">first consul</a>. He threatened to exile Madame de Staël from Paris because of this book.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004169_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004169-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Staël181835–36,_42,_459_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Staël181835–36,_42,_459-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Necker had never been a republican before, toward the end of his life, he engaged seriously with the project of creating and consolidating a republic "one and indivisible" in France.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012145_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012145-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Necker then foretold the suppression of the <a href="/wiki/Tribunat" title="Tribunat">Tribunat</a> as it took place under the <a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">French Consulate</a>. His claim of two million on the state treasury was not recognized by the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9nat_conservateur" title="Sénat conservateur">Sénat conservateur</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004177_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004177-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Necker passed away in 1804. He was buried next to his wife in the garden of Coppet Castle. The mausoleum was sealed in 1817 following Germaine's death. The <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_1814" title="Charter of 1814">Charter of 1814</a> signed by <a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII" title="Louis XVIII">Louis XVIII</a> at <a href="/wiki/Saint-Ouen,_Seine-Saint-Denis" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Ouen, Seine-Saint-Denis">Saint-Ouen sûr Seine</a> contained almost all the articles in support of liberty proposed by Necker before the Revolution of 14 July 1789.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004169_114-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004169-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818148_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818148-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, George Armstrong Kelly called him the "grandfather of Restoration Liberalism."<sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Posterity has not been fair to Necker," according to Aurelian Craiutu.<sup id="cite_ref-Craiutu1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Craiutu1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 11 August 1792, the day after the <a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Tuileries" class="mw-redirect" title="Storming of the Tuileries">Storming of the Tuileries</a>, all the busts were removed from the town hall, including the one of Necker by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Houdon" title="Jean-Antoine Houdon">Jean-Antoine Houdon</a> and smashed.<sup id="cite_ref-Poulet_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Poulet-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like Mirabeau, the <a href="/wiki/Marquis_De_Lafayette" class="mw-redirect" title="Marquis De Lafayette">Marquis De Lafayette</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Barnave" title="Antoine Barnave">Barnave</a> and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_P%C3%A9tion_de_Villeneuve" title="Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve">Pétion</a>, Necker was only temporarily supported by the people.<sup id="cite_ref-Israel_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Israel-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-Positive_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Positive-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Personal life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1786 Necker's daughter <a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Germaine</a> married <a href="/wiki/Erik_Magnus_Sta%C3%ABl_von_Holstein" title="Erik Magnus Staël von Holstein">Erik Magnus Staël von Holstein</a>; she was to become a prominent figure in her own right and a leading opponent of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte">Napoleon Bonaparte</a>. On 22 March 1814, she was promised 21 years of interest on her father's investment in the public treasury.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004195,_205_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004195,_205-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After his death his daughter published "Vie privée de Mr. Necker". His grandson Auguste de Staël (1790–1827) edited the Complete Oeuvres by Jacques Necker. </p><p>His nephew Jacques Necker (1757–1825), a botanist, married <a href="/wiki/Albertine_Necker_de_Saussure" title="Albertine Necker de Saussure">Albertine Necker de Saussure</a>. They took care of their uncle after his wife had died in 1794. Their son was the geologist and <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">crystallographer</a> <a href="/wiki/Louis_Albert_Necker" title="Louis Albert Necker">Louis Albert Necker</a> de Saussure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Places_named_after_Jacques_Necker">Places named after Jacques Necker</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Places named after Jacques Necker"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Necker-Enfants_Malades_Hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="Necker-Enfants Malades Hospital">Necker Hospital for Children (Paris, France)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necker_Island_(Northwestern_Hawaiian_Islands)" class="mw-redirect" title="Necker Island (Northwestern Hawaiian Islands)">Necker Island (Northwestern Hawaiian Islands)</a></li> <li>Necker middle school (Coppet, Switzerland)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eQFDAAAAcAAJ"><i>Réponse au mémoire de M. l'abbé Morellet sur la Compagnie des Indes</i></a>, 1769</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gri_33125010717532/page/n7/mode/2up"><i>Éloge de Jean-Baptiste Colbert</i></a>, 1773</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2pxaAAAAcAAJ"><i>Sur la Législation et le commerce des grains</i></a>, 1775</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TPheFvXvZpIC"><i>Mémoire au roi sur l'établissement des administrations provinciales</i></a>, 1776</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ldpd_6450091_000/page/2/mode/2up"><i>Lettre au roi</i></a>, 1777</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Compte_rendu_au_roi" class="mw-redirect" title="Compte rendu au roi">Compte rendu au roi</a></i>, 1781</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dmVeAAAAcAAJ"><i>De l'administration des finances de la France</i>. Tome I</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=imVeAAAAcAAJ">Tome II</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qmNeAAAAcAAJ">Tome III</a>, 1784, 3 vol. in-8°</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.nl/books?id=AqM9YpAxzQgC&pg=PA10&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false"><i>Correspondance de M. Necker avec M. de Calonne. (29 janvier-28 février 1787)</i></a>, 1787</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YaRaAAAAcAAJ"><i>Sur le compte rendu au Roi en 1781. Nouveaux éclaircissements</i></a>. A Paris, Hotel de Thou, 1788</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/delamorale00unse"><i>De la Morale naturelle, suivie du Bonheur des sots</i></a>, 1788</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sVlaAAAAcAAJ"><i>De l'importance des opinions religieuses</i></a>, 1788</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bim_eighteenth-century_supplement-ncessaire-_1788/mode/2up"><i>Supplément nécessaire à l'importance des opinions religieuses</i></a>, 1788</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v40M4pGWfBoC&dq=Nouveaux+eclaircissement+sur+le+compte+rendu&pg=PA210"><i>Sur le compte rendu au roi en 1781 : nouveaux éclaircissements</i>, 1788</a></li> <li><i>Rapport fait au roi dans son conseil par le ministre des finances</i>, 1789</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/derniersconseils00unse"><i>Derniers conseils au roi</i></a>, 1789</li> <li><i>Hommage de M. Necker à la nation française</i>, 1789</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wy9aAAAAcAAJ"><i>Observations sur l'avant-propos du « Livre rouge »</i></a>, v. 1790</li> <li><i>Opinion relativement au décret de l'Assemblée nationale, concernant les titres, les noms et les armoiries</i>, v. 1790</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/surladministrat00neckgoog"><i>Sur l'administration de M. Necker</i>, 1791</a></li> <li><i>Réflexions présentées à la nation française sur le procès intenté à Louis XVI</i>, 1792</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QlpeAAAAcAAJ"><i>Du pouvoir exécutif dans les grands états</i>. Tome premier</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VFpeAAAAcAAJ">Tome second</a>, 1792.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3odbAAAAcAAJ"><i>De la Révolution Françoise</i>. Tome premier</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6odbAAAAcAAJ">Tome second</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-YdbAAAAcAAJ">Tome troisieme</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C4hbAAAAcAAJ">Tome quatrieme</a>, 1796</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/coursdemoralerel01neckuoft/page/n5/mode/2up"><i>Cours de morale religieuse</i>. Tome premier</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/coursdemoralerel02neckuoft/page/n5/mode/2up">Tome deuxième</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/coursdemoralerel03neckuoft/page/n5/mode/2up">Tome troisième</a>, 1800</li> <li><i>Dernières vues de politique et de finance, offertes à la Nation française</i>, 1802</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tchPAAAAcAAJ&dq=Manuscrits+de+M.+Necker%2C+publi%C3%A9s+par+sa+fille&pg=PP9"><i>Manuscrits de M. Necker, publiés par sa fille</i> (1804)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uvrescompltesde14neckgoog/page/n13/mode/2up"><i>Œuvres complètes de M. Necker</i>. Tome premier</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_OukvZqSWl0C">Tome second</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uvrescompltesde12neckgoog/page/n8/mode/2up">Tome troisième</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uvrescompltesde07neckgoog/page/n11/mode/2up">Tome quatrième</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uvrescompltesde06neckgoog/page/n9/mode/2up">Tome cinquième</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uvrescompltesde04neckgoog/page/n9/mode/2up">Tome sixième</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uvrescompltesde10neckgoog/page/n9/mode/2up">Tome septième</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uvrescompltesde01neckgoog/page/n9/mode/2up">Tome huitième</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uvrescompltesde02neckgoog/page/n11/mode/2up">Tome neuvième</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uvrescompltesde15neckgoog/page/n9/mode/2up">Tome dixième</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uvrescompltesde05neckgoog/page/n9/mode/2up">Tome onzième</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uvrescompltesde03neckgoog/page/n7/mode/2up">Tome douzième</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uvrescompltesde11neckgoog/page/n9/mode/2up">Tome treizième</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/uvrescompltesde09neckgoog/page/n7/mode/2up">Tome quizième</a>. Publiées par m. le Baron de Staël. 1820-1821</li> <li><i>Histoire de la Révolution française, depuis l'Assemblée des notables jusques et y compris la journée du 13 vendémiaire an IV (18 octobre 1795)</i>, 1821</li></ul> <p>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-BNF_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BNF-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Craiutu1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Craiutu1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Craiutu1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCraiutu2018" class="citation conference cs1">Craiutu, Aurelian (19 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ostromworkshop.indiana.edu/pdf/seriespapers/2018spr-colloq/craiutu-paper.pdf"><i>A Voice of Moderation in the Age of Revolutions: Jacques Necker's Reflections on Executive Power in Modern Society</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Ostrum Workshop Spring 2018 Colloquium. p. 6.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=A+Voice+of+Moderation+in+the+Age+of+Revolutions%3A+Jacques+Necker%27s+Reflections+on+Executive+Power+in+Modern+Society&rft.pages=6&rft.date=2018-03-19&rft.aulast=Craiutu&rft.aufirst=Aurelian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fostromworkshop.indiana.edu%2Fpdf%2Fseriespapers%2F2018spr-colloq%2Fcraiutu-paper.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kropotkin1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kropotkin1_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Kropotkin1909" class="citation book cs1">Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 5". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=217"><i>The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793</i></a>. Translated by N.F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5&rft.btitle=The+Great+French+Revolution%2C+1789%E2%80%931793&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Vanguard+Printings&rft.date=1909&rft.au=Peter+Kropotkin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revoltlib.com%2F%3Fid%3D217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Craiutu2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Craiutu2_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Staël2008" class="citation book cs1">de Staël, Germaine (2008). "Introduction". In Craiutu, Aurelian (ed.). <i>Considerations on the Principal Events of the French Revolutions</i>. Liberty Fund. pp. viii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780865977327" title="Special:BookSources/9780865977327"><bdi>9780865977327</bdi></a> – via ProQuest Ebook Central.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Considerations+on+the+Principal+Events+of+the+French+Revolutions&rft.pages=viii&rft.pub=Liberty+Fund&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780865977327&rft.aulast=de+Sta%C3%ABl&rft.aufirst=Germaine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sargent-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sargent_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSargentVelde1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Sargent" title="Thomas J. Sargent">Sargent, Thomas J.</a>; Velde, Francois R. (June 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/SargentVeldeJPE1995.pdf">"Macroeconomic Features of the French Revolution"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Journal of Political Economy</i>. <b>103</b> (3): 481. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F261992">10.1086/261992</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=Macroeconomic+Features+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=481&rft.date=1995-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F261992&rft.aulast=Sargent&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J.&rft.au=Velde%2C+Francois+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpiketty.pse.ens.fr%2Ffiles%2FSargentVeldeJPE1995.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HDS1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HDS1_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HDS1_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Jacques Necker</i> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/d/D15905.php"><span title="Jacques Necker in German">German</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/f/F15905.php"><span title="Jacques Necker in French">French</span></a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/i/I15905.php"><span title="Jacques Necker in Italian">Italian</span></a> in the online <i><a href="/wiki/Historical_Dictionary_of_Switzerland" title="Historical Dictionary of Switzerland">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HDS2-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HDS2_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Jean de Senarclens: <i>Necker</i> in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/d/D25543.php"><span title="Necker in German">German</span></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/f/F25543.php"><span title="Necker in French">French</span></a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/i/I25543.php"><span title="Necker in Italian">Italian</span></a> in the online <i><a href="/wiki/Historical_Dictionary_of_Switzerland" title="Historical Dictionary of Switzerland">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brewster-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brewster_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brewster_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrewster1830" class="citation book cs1">Brewster, David (1830). "Necker, Jacques Baron de". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SKVmdlsm-ecC"><i>The Edinburgh Encyclopedia</i></a>. Vol. 15. William Blackwood. pp. 316–320.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Necker%2C+Jacques+Baron+de&rft.btitle=The+Edinburgh+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=316-320&rft.pub=William+Blackwood&rft.date=1830&rft.aulast=Brewster&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSKVmdlsm-ecC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zeitgenossen1-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zeitgenossen1_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Zeitgenossen. Biographieen und Charakteristiken</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SxItAvsJ0b8C&pg=PA70">p. 72</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lüthy-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lüthy_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLüthy1960" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lüthy, Herbert (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1960_num_15_5_420657">"Necker et la Compagnie des Indes"</a>. <i>Annales</i> (in French). <b>15</b> (5): 852–881. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fahess.1960.420657">10.3406/ahess.1960.420657</a> – via Persée.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales&rft.atitle=Necker+et+la+Compagnie+des+Indes&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=852-881&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fahess.1960.420657&rft.aulast=L%C3%BCthy&rft.aufirst=Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Fahess_0395-2649_1960_num_15_5_420657&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morellet-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Morellet_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Réponse au Mémoire de M. l'Abbé Morellet, sur la Compagnie des Indes</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gordon-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gordon_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2017" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Daniel (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XZ0rDgAAQBAJ"><i>Citizens without Sovereignty: Equality and Sociability in French Thought, 1670–1789</i></a>. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. p. 197. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400887378" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400887378"><bdi>978-1400887378</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Citizens+without+Sovereignty%3A+Equality+and+Sociability+in+French+Thought%2C+1670%E2%80%931789&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=197&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1400887378&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXZ0rDgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keber-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Keber_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeber2002" class="citation book cs1">Keber, Martha L. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-mRz5alH0GYC"><i>Seas of Gold, Seas of Cotton: Christophe Poulain DuBignon of Jekyll Island</i></a>. Athens: University of Georgia Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0820323608" title="Special:BookSources/0820323608"><bdi>0820323608</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seas+of+Gold%2C+Seas+of+Cotton%3A+Christophe+Poulain+DuBignon+of+Jekyll+Island&rft.place=Athens&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0820323608&rft.aulast=Keber&rft.aufirst=Martha+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-mRz5alH0GYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-De_Lapouge-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-De_Lapouge_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Lapouge2016" class="citation book cs1">de Lapouge, Claude Vacher (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sL0rDwAAQBAJ"><i>Necker économiste</i></a>. BnF-P. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782346082223" title="Special:BookSources/9782346082223"><bdi>9782346082223</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Necker+%C3%A9conomiste&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=BnF-P&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9782346082223&rft.aulast=de+Lapouge&rft.aufirst=Claude+Vacher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsL0rDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199023-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199023_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199023_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967865-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967865_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 865.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199022-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199022_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Erenow-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Erenow_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://erenow.com/modern/rousseau-revolution-a-history-of-civilization-in-france-england-and-germany-from-1756-and-in-the-remainder-of-europe-from-1715-1789/218.html">Necker's First Ministry: 1776–81</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2024">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Privatleben-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Privatleben_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Privatleben_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNecker1806" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Necker, Jacques (1806). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hig6AAAAcAAJ"><i>Neckers Charakter und Privatleben</i></a> (in German). Leipzig: Stiller.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neckers+Charakter+und+Privatleben&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Stiller&rft.date=1806&rft.aulast=Necker&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhig6AAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama198994-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama198994_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchama1989">Schama 1989</a>, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967866–867-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967866–867_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967866–867_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, pp. 866–867.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004154–155-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004154–155_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFd'Haussonville2004">d'Haussonville 2004</a>, pp. 154–155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sur_l’administration-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sur_l’administration_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Sur l’administration de M. Necker</i>, p. 365</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwansonTrout1990424-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwansonTrout1990424_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSwansonTrout1990">Swanson & Trout 1990</a>, p. 424.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bredin-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bredin_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBredin" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bredin, Jean-Denis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9766891m/f1n300.pdf?download=1">"Necker, La France et la Gloire"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Cahiers Staëlians</i> (in French). <b>55</b>: 15 – via BNF.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+Sta%C3%ABlians&rft.atitle=Necker%2C+La+France+et+la+Gloire&rft.volume=55&rft.pages=15&rft.aulast=Bredin&rft.aufirst=Jean-Denis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k9766891m%2Ff1n300.pdf%3Fdownload%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taylor-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taylor_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor, George. Review of <i>Jacques Necker: Reform Statesman of the Ancien Regime,</i> by Robert D. Harris. <i>Journal of Economic History</i> 40, no. 4 (1980): 877–879. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0022050700100518">10.1017/s0022050700100518</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Duprat-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Duprat_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Duprat_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Duprat_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuprat2010" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Duprat, Annie (July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/ahrf/11742">"Léonard Burnand, Les pamphlets contre Necker. Médias et imaginaire politique au xviiie siècle"</a>. <i>Annales historiques de la Révolution française</i> (in French). <b>361</b> (361): 206–208. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fahrf.11742">10.4000/ahrf.11742</a> – via OpenEdition.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+historiques+de+la+R%C3%A9volution+fran%C3%A7aise&rft.atitle=L%C3%A9onard+Burnand%2C+Les+pamphlets+contre+Necker.+M%C3%A9dias+et+imaginaire+politique+au+xviiie+si%C3%A8cle&rft.volume=361&rft.issue=361&rft.pages=206-208&rft.date=2010-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fahrf.11742&rft.aulast=Duprat&rft.aufirst=Annie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fahrf%2F11742&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199024–25-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199024–25_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, pp. 24–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967870-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967870_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967870_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 870.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama199092–93-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama199092–93_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchama1990">Schama 1990</a>, pp. 92–93.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFSchama1990 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Page-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Page_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPage1797" class="citation book cs1">Page, Francis (1797). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TshDAAAAYAAJ"><i>Secret History of the French Revolution, From the Convocation of the Notables in 1787 to the First of November, 1796</i></a>. Vol. 1. London: T.N. Longman. pp. 271–273.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Secret+History+of+the+French+Revolution%2C+From+the+Convocation+of+the+Notables+in+1787+to+the+First+of+November%2C+1796&rft.place=London&rft.pages=271-273&rft.pub=T.N.+Longman&rft.date=1797&rft.aulast=Page&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTshDAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama198995-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama198995_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchama1989">Schama 1989</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama198993-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama198993_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchama1989">Schama 1989</a>, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Utrecht-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Utrecht_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Utrecht1781" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">van Utrecht, Jan (1781). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t1NaAAAAcAAJ"><i>Tweede briev van Jan van Utrecht, over het voorgevallene met twee boekverkopers, tot beter verstand van het so genaamd Echt relaas</i></a> (in Dutch). H. Keyzer, F.H. Demter, D. Schuurman. p. 54.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tweede+briev+van+Jan+van+Utrecht%2C+over+het+voorgevallene+met+twee+boekverkopers%2C+tot+beter+verstand+van+het+so+genaamd+Echt+relaas&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=H.+Keyzer%2C+F.H.+Demter%2C+D.+Schuurman&rft.date=1781&rft.aulast=van+Utrecht&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt1NaAAAAcAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Venturi-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Venturi_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVenturi2014" class="citation book cs1">Venturi, Franco (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vScABAAAQBAJ"><i>The End of the Old Regime in Europe, 1776–1789</i></a>. Vol. 1. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. p. 348. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-6190-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-6190-3"><bdi>978-1-4008-6190-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+the+Old+Regime+in+Europe%2C+1776%E2%80%931789&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=348&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-6190-3&rft.aulast=Venturi&rft.aufirst=Franco&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvScABAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zeitgenossen2-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zeitgenossen2_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F1wDAAAAYAAJ&dq=Jacques+Necker+Saint+Ouen+sur+Seine&pg=RA4-PA3">Zeitgenossen: Biograhien und Charakteristiken, Ausgaben 1–4, p. 6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Staël1818">de Staël 1818</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199025-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199025_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Felix-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Felix_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFélix2013" class="citation book cs1">Félix, Joël (2013). "The Problem with Necker's Compte Rendu au roi (1781)". In Swann, Julian; Félix, Joël (eds.). <i>The Crisis of the Absolute Monarchy: France from Old Regime to Revolution</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 107–126. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5871%2Fbacad%2F9780197265383.003.0006">10.5871/bacad/9780197265383.003.0006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-726538-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-726538-3"><bdi>978-0-19-726538-3</bdi></a> – via Oxford Academic.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Problem+with+Necker%E2%80%99s+Compte+Rendu+au+roi+%281781%29&rft.btitle=The+Crisis+of+the+Absolute+Monarchy%3A+France+from+Old+Regime+to+Revolution&rft.pages=107-126&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5871%2Fbacad%2F9780197265383.003.0006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-726538-3&rft.aulast=F%C3%A9lix&rft.aufirst=Jo%C3%ABl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Soll-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Soll_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoll2016" class="citation journal cs1">Soll, Jacob (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/25163810">"From Virtue to Surplus: Jacques Necker's Compte Rendu (1781) and the Origins of Modern Political Discourse"</a>. <i>Representations</i>. <b>134</b>: 29–63. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Frep.2016.134.1.29">10.1525/rep.2016.134.1.29</a> – via Academia.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Representations&rft.atitle=From+Virtue+to+Surplus%3A+Jacques+Necker%27s+Compte+Rendu+%281781%29+and+the+Origins+of+Modern+Political+Discourse&rft.volume=134&rft.pages=29-63&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Frep.2016.134.1.29&rft.aulast=Soll&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F25163810&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span>]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FEIC-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FEIC_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docviewer.yandex.com/view/586742941/?*=1RTs2RhBWOX%2F7%2FNv0Sc64lyATH97InVybCI6InlhLWJyb3dzZXI6Ly80RFQxdVhFUFJySlJYbFVGb2V3cnVCQlFMX1JYbDVtNV81Y1NlWFBMbnFGZ1dkazkyallNQkRWZkZIRUtPRjlvX0lfVGRRTzRsdHU2LU5ocWFBYXF2c2xiaXZ2RUMxbTB5RGdaWGVZOWpERFcwekFuTTF3SnlQMmZDVzBBdnNsUy1oNHdnazJkMGRMZkthT09ONVA0QVE9PT9zaWduPS0yU0hMSm5IRFBWdmRENWlfMks4X2NCUkdzbTRfQTMzUGQxVFh0U1hkdnc9IiwidGl0bGUiOiJjb21wYWduaWVfZGVzX2luZGVzLmRvYyIsInVpZCI6IjU4Njc0Mjk0MSIsInl1IjoiODc2MjI0NDA2MTUzNjkyMjc5NyIsIm5vaWZyYW1lIjpmYWxzZSwidHMiOjE1NDQyOTg1MTE3MTN9&page=4">The French East India Company</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2024">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hardman1-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hardman1_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardman2016" class="citation book cs1">Hardman, John (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r7EODAAAQBAJ"><i>The Life of Louis XVI</i></a>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300221657" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300221657"><bdi>978-0300221657</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+Louis+XVI&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0300221657&rft.aulast=Hardman&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr7EODAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fairweather-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fairweather_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fairweather_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairweather2013" class="citation book cs1">Fairweather, Maria (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7TCeBAAAQBAJ"><i>Madame de Staël</i></a>. Little, Brown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1472113306" title="Special:BookSources/978-1472113306"><bdi>978-1472113306</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madame+de+Sta%C3%ABl&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1472113306&rft.aulast=Fairweather&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7TCeBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ducrest-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ducrest_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/fr/12531285/charles-louis_ducrest/">"Charles-Louis Ducrest (1747–1824)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Charles-Louis+Ducrest+%281747%E2%80%931824%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdata.bnf.fr%2Ffr%2F12531285%2Fcharles-louis_ducrest%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967948-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967948_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 948.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodwin2024" class="citation web cs1">Goodwin, Albert (5 April 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jacques-Necker">"Jacques Necker"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Jacques+Necker&rft.date=2024-04-05&rft.aulast=Goodwin&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FJacques-Necker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967949-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967949_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 949.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kropotkin2-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kropotkin2_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Kropotkin1909" class="citation book cs1">Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 10". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=222"><i>The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793</i></a>. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings. <q>The distress in the city, however, increased from day to day. It is true that Necker had taken measures to avert the dangers of a famine. On September 7, 1788, he had suspended the exportation of corn, and he was protecting the importation by bounties; seventy million livres were expended in the purchase of foreign wheat. At the same time he gave widespread publicity to the decree of the King's Council of April 23, 1789, which empowered judges and officers of the police to visit private granaries to make an inventory of the grain, and in case of necessity to send the grain to market. But the carrying out of these orders was confided to the old authorities and-no more need be said!</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+10&rft.btitle=The+Great+French+Revolution%2C+1789%E2%80%931793&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Vanguard+Printings&rft.date=1909&rft.au=Peter+Kropotkin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revoltlib.com%2F%3Fid%3D222&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kropotkin3-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kropotkin3_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Kropotkin1909" class="citation book cs1">Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 5". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=217"><i>The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793</i></a>. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings. <q>At Paris, after the dismissal of the Archbishop of Sens, there were numerous demonstrations. The Pont Neuf was guarded by troops, and several conflicts occurred between them and the people, of whom the leaders were, as Bertrand de Moleville remarks, 'those who later on took part in all the popular movements of the Revolution.' Marie-Antoinette's letter to the Count de Mercy should also be read in this connection. It is dated August 24, 1788, and in it she tells him of her fears, and announces the retirement of the Archbishop of Sens and the steps she had taken to recall Necker; the effect produced on the Court by those riotous crowds can therefore be understood. The Queen foresaw that this recall of Necker would lessen the King's authority; she feared "that they may be compelled to nominate a prime minister," but "the moment is pressing. It is very essential that Necker should accept." Source: J. Feuillet de Conches, Lettres de Louis XVI, Marie-Antoinette et Madame Elisabeth (Paris, 1864), vol. i. pp. 214–216.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5&rft.btitle=The+Great+French+Revolution%2C+1789%E2%80%931793&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Vanguard+Printings&rft.date=1909&rft.au=Peter+Kropotkin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revoltlib.com%2F%3Fid%3D217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199024-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199024_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Veru-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Veru_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Veru_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVeru2021" class="citation journal cs1">Veru, Peter Theodore (15 July 2021). "The French bonds: the little-known bidding war for France's holdings in American debt, 1786–1790". <i>Financial History Review</i>. <b>28</b> (2): 259–280. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS096856502100010X">10.1017/S096856502100010X</a> – via Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Financial+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+French+bonds%3A+the+little-known+bidding+war+for+France%27s+holdings+in+American+debt%2C+1786%E2%80%931790&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=259-280&rft.date=2021-07-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS096856502100010X&rft.aulast=Veru&rft.aufirst=Peter+Theodore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buist-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buist_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuist2012" class="citation book cs1">Buist, Marten Gerbertus (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zbIjCQAAQBAJ"><i>At Spes non Fracta: Hope & Co. 1770–1815</i></a>. Springer. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789401188586" title="Special:BookSources/9789401188586"><bdi>9789401188586</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=At+Spes+non+Fracta%3A+Hope+%26+Co.+1770%E2%80%931815&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9789401188586&rft.aulast=Buist&rft.aufirst=Marten+Gerbertus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzbIjCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004156-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004156_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFd'Haussonville2004">d'Haussonville 2004</a>, p. 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hardman2-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hardman2_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardman2010" class="citation book cs1">Hardman, John (2010). "Chapter 7: The Easter Crisis". <i>Overture to Revolution: The 1787 Assembly of Notables and the Crisis of France's Old Regime</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 227. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199585779.003.0008">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199585779.003.0008</a> – via Oxford Academic.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7%3A+The+Easter+Crisis&rft.btitle=Overture+to+Revolution%3A+The+1787+Assembly+of+Notables+and+the+Crisis+of+France%27s+Old+Regime&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=227&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199585779.003.0008&rft.aulast=Hardman&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kropotkin4-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kropotkin4_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Kropotkin1909" class="citation book cs1">Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 6". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=218"><i>The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793</i></a>. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+6&rft.btitle=The+Great+French+Revolution%2C+1789%E2%80%931793&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Vanguard+Printings&rft.date=1909&rft.au=Peter+Kropotkin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revoltlib.com%2F%3Fid%3D218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lenotre-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lenotre_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLenotre1926" class="citation book cs1">Lenotre, G. (1926). <a class="external text" href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Robespierre_et_la_«_Mère_de_Dieu_»/1#cite_note-81"><i>Robespierre et la « Mère de Dieu »</i></a>. Perrin et Cie. p. 36<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robespierre+et+la+%C2%AB+M%C3%A8re+de+Dieu+%C2%BB&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Perrin+et+Cie&rft.date=1926&rft.aulast=Lenotre&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffr.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FRobespierre_et_la_%C2%AB_M%C3%A8re_de_Dieu_%C2%BB%2F1%23cite_note-81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012119–121-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012119–121_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCraiutu2012">Craiutu 2012</a>, pp. 119–121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1986433–434-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1986433–434_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1986">Harris 1986</a>, pp. 433–434.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989345–346-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989345–346_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchama1989">Schama 1989</a>, pp. 345–346.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012123-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012123_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCraiutu2012">Craiutu 2012</a>, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mignet-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mignet_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mignet_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/9602/pg9602-images.html">History of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1814 by M. Mignet</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967958-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurantDurant1967958_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurantDurant1967">Durant & Durant 1967</a>, p. 958.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012124-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012124_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCraiutu2012">Craiutu 2012</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gazette1-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gazette1_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gazette de Leyde – Livraison n° 58 du 21 juillet 1789</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spies-Gans-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Spies-Gans_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpies-Gans2017" class="citation journal cs1">Spies-Gans, Paris Amanda (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journal18.org/issue3/the-fullest-imitation-of-life-reconsidering-marie-tussaud-artist-historian-of-the-french-revolution/">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'The Fullest Imitation of Life': Reconsidering Marie Tussaud, Artist-Historian of the French Revolution"</a>. <i>Journal18</i> (3). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30610%2F3.2017.8">10.30610/3.2017.8</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal18&rft.atitle=%27The+Fullest+Imitation+of+Life%27%3A+Reconsidering+Marie+Tussaud%2C+Artist-Historian+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.30610%2F3.2017.8&rft.aulast=Spies-Gans&rft.aufirst=Paris+Amanda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journal18.org%2Fissue3%2Fthe-fullest-imitation-of-life-reconsidering-marie-tussaud-artist-historian-of-the-french-revolution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Godechot-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Godechot_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGodechot1970" class="citation book cs1">Godechot, Jacques (1970). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/takingofbastille0000gode"><i>The Taking of the Bastille: July 14th, 1789</i></a></span>. Translated by Stewart, Jean. Charles Scribner's Sons – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Taking+of+the+Bastille%3A+July+14th%2C+1789&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Godechot&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftakingofbastille0000gode&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Necker1-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Necker1_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNecker1797" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Necker, Jacques (1797). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CVwPAAAAQAAJ"><i>De la Révolution française</i></a> (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Maret. p. 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+la+R%C3%A9volution+fran%C3%A7aise&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Maret&rft.date=1797&rft.aulast=Necker&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCVwPAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brief-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brief_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Conches1864" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">de Conches, Félix Feuillet (1864). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j1e4_5YV6VUC"><i>Briefe und Urkunden von Ludwig XVI., Marie Antoinette und Madame Elisabeth: nach den Original-Handschriften</i></a> (in German). Vol. 1. Brünn: Rud. M. Rohrer. p. 410.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Briefe+und+Urkunden+von+Ludwig+XVI.%2C+Marie+Antoinette+und+Madame+Elisabeth%3A+nach+den+Original-Handschriften&rft.place=Br%C3%BCnn&rft.pages=410&rft.pub=Rud.+M.+Rohrer&rft.date=1864&rft.aulast=de+Conches&rft.aufirst=F%C3%A9lix+Feuillet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj1e4_5YV6VUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gazette2-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gazette2_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gazette de Leyde – Livraison n° 63 du 7 août 1789</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blanc-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blanc_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlanc1848" class="citation book cs1">Blanc, Louis (1848). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bKo7AAAAMAAJ"><i>History of the French Revolution of 1789</i></a>. Vol. 1. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard. p. 568.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+French+Revolution+of+1789&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=568&rft.pub=Lea+%26+Blanchard&rft.date=1848&rft.aulast=Blanc&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbKo7AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kropotkin5-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kropotkin5_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Kropotkin1909" class="citation book cs1">Peter Kropotkin (1909). "Chapter 15". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=227"><i>The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793</i></a>. Translated by N. F. Dryhurst. New York: Vanguard Printings.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+15&rft.btitle=The+Great+French+Revolution%2C+1789%E2%80%931793&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Vanguard+Printings&rft.date=1909&rft.au=Peter+Kropotkin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revoltlib.com%2F%3Fid%3D227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouzet199397–98-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrouzet199397–98_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrouzet1993">Crouzet 1993</a>, pp. 97–98.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFCrouzet1993 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864248-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864248_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichelet1864">Michelet 1864</a>, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993101-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993101_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrouzet1993">Crouzet 1993</a>, p. 101.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFCrouzet1993 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993104–105-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993104–105_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrouzet1993">Crouzet 1993</a>, pp. 104–105.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFCrouzet1993 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199064-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199064_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199059-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199059_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Spang-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Spang_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Spang_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpang2015" class="citation book cs1">Spang, Rebecca L. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fY_uBQAAQBAJ"><i>Stuff and Money in the Time of the French Revolution</i></a>. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674745421" title="Special:BookSources/9780674745421"><bdi>9780674745421</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stuff+and+Money+in+the+Time+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780674745421&rft.aulast=Spang&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfY_uBQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864288-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864288_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichelet1864">Michelet 1864</a>, p. 288.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Numiscorner-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Numiscorner_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.numiscorner.com/blogs/news/the-french-revolution-the-assignats-and-the-counterfeiters">The French Revolution, the Assignats, and the Counterfeiters</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kropotkin6-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kropotkin6_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKropotkin1909" class="citation book cs1">Kropotkin, Peter (1909). "Chapter 28". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=240"><i>The Great French Revolution, 1789–1793</i></a>. Translated by Dryhurst, N. F. New York: Vanguard Printings.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+28&rft.btitle=The+Great+French+Revolution%2C+1789%E2%80%931793&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Vanguard+Printings&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=Kropotkin&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.revoltlib.com%2F%3Fid%3D240&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walter-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Walter_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter2012" class="citation book cs1">Walter, Gérard (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxmH8MCZNnMC&pg=PT56"><i>Marat</i></a>. Albin Michel. pp. 56–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-226-26096-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-226-26096-3"><bdi>978-2-226-26096-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marat&rft.pages=56-59&rft.pub=Albin+Michel&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-2-226-26096-3&rft.aulast=Walter&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9rard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxmH8MCZNnMC%26pg%3DPT56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993110-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993110_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrouzet1993">Crouzet 1993</a>, p. 110.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFCrouzet1993 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whatmore-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Whatmore_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhatmore1996" class="citation journal cs1">Whatmore, Richard (1996). "Commerce, Constitutions, and the Manners of a Nation: Etienne Clavière's Revolutionary Political Economy, 1788–1793". <i>History of European Ideas</i>. <b>22</b> (5–6): 351–368. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0191-6599%2896%2900013-7">10.1016/S0191-6599(96)00013-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+European+Ideas&rft.atitle=Commerce%2C+Constitutions%2C+and+the+Manners+of+a+Nation%3A+Etienne+Clavi%C3%A8re%27s+Revolutionary+Political+Economy%2C+1788%E2%80%931793&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=5%E2%80%936&rft.pages=351-368&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0191-6599%2896%2900013-7&rft.aulast=Whatmore&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199095-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199095_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion1990xii-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion1990xii_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, p. xii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199080,_95-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199080,_95_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, pp. 80, 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199076-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199076_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouzet199399-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrouzet199399_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrouzet1993">Crouzet 1993</a>, p. 99.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFCrouzet1993 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012130-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012130_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCraiutu2012">Craiutu 2012</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchama1989499,_536-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchama1989499,_536_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchama1989">Schama 1989</a>, pp. 499, 536.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levasseur-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Levasseur_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevasseur1894" class="citation journal cs1">Levasseur, J. (1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1819467">"The Assignats: A Study in the Finances of the French Revolution"</a>. <i>Journal of Political Economy</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 183. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1819467">1819467</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=The+Assignats%3A+A+Study+in+the+Finances+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=183&rft.date=1894&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1819467%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Levasseur&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1819467&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199077-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199077_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199078-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199078_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-White-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-White_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1878" class="citation news cs1">White, A.D. (2 August 1878). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aadl.org/node/307527">"The Assignat"</a>. <i>Michigan Argus</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Michigan+Argus&rft.atitle=The+Assignat&rft.date=1878-08-02&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=A.D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faadl.org%2Fnode%2F307527&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864487-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864487_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichelet1864487_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMichelet1864">Michelet 1864</a>, p. 487.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199084–85-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199084–85_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, pp. 84–85.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818256–258-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818256–258_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Staël1818">de Staël 1818</a>, pp. 256–258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993115-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrouzet1993115_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCrouzet1993">Crouzet 1993</a>, p. 115.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFCrouzet1993 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Necker3-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Necker3_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-41YAAAAcAAJ&q=assignats+&pg=PA17">Histoire de la révolution française: depuis l'Assemblée des notables ... by Jacques Necker, p. 35</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Martin-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Martin_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Martin, Henri. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6536631q/f1n714.pdf?download=1"><i>Histoire de Révolution française de 1789 a 1799</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in French). Paris: Jouvet et Cie. p. 214 – via BNF.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+R%C3%A9volution+fran%C3%A7aise+de+1789+a+1799&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=Jouvet+et+Cie&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k6536631q%2Ff1n714.pdf%3Fdownload%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dillaye-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dillaye_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDillaye1877" class="citation book cs1">Dillaye, Stephen Devalson (1877). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2FFDAAAAYAAJ"><i>The Money and the Finances of the French Revolution of 1789: Assignats and Mandats : a True History : Including an Examination of Dr. Andrew D. White's "Paper Money Inflation in France"</i></a>. Philadelphia: Henry Carey Baird & Co. p. 18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Money+and+the+Finances+of+the+French+Revolution+of+1789%3A+Assignats+and+Mandats+%3A+a+True+History+%3A+Including+an+Examination+of+Dr.+Andrew+D.+White%27s+%22Paper+Money+Inflation+in+France%22&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Henry+Carey+Baird+%26+Co.&rft.date=1877&rft.aulast=Dillaye&rft.aufirst=Stephen+Devalson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2FFDAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAftalion199084–81-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAftalion199084–81_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAftalion1990">Aftalion 1990</a>, pp. 84–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Montesquiou-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Montesquiou_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Montesquiou-Fézensac1790" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier-Marc-Antoine_de_Montesquiou-F%C3%A9zensac" title="François-Xavier-Marc-Antoine de Montesquiou-Fézensac">de Montesquiou-Fézensac, François-Xavier-Marc-Antoine</a> (1790). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fe-zSeIAwA4C"><i>Opinion de M. de Montesquiou sur les assignats-monnoie</i></a> (in French). l'Assemblée Nationale. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opinion+de+M.+de+Montesquiou+sur+les+assignats-monnoie&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=l%27Assembl%C3%A9e+Nationale&rft.date=1790&rft.aulast=de+Montesquiou-F%C3%A9zensac&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier-Marc-Antoine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfe-zSeIAwA4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HET-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HET_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFonseca" class="citation web cs1">Fonseca, Gonçalo L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hetwebsite.net/het/profiles/necker.htm">"Jacques Necker, 1732–1804"</a>. <i>The History of Economic Thought</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+History+of+Economic+Thought&rft.atitle=Jacques+Necker%2C+1732%E2%80%931804&rft.aulast=Fonseca&rft.aufirst=Gon%C3%A7alo+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hetwebsite.net%2Fhet%2Fprofiles%2Fnecker.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuretOzouf1989288-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFuretOzouf1989288_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFuretOzouf1989">Furet & Ozouf 1989</a>, p. 288.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Doyle-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Doyle_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoyle2001" class="citation book cs1">Doyle, William (2001). <i>The French Revolution: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192853967" title="Special:BookSources/9780192853967"><bdi>9780192853967</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780192853967&rft.aulast=Doyle&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Necker4-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Necker4_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-41YAAAAcAAJ&q=assignats+&pg=PA17">Histoire de la révolution française: depuis l'Assemblée des notables ... by Jacques Necker, p. 31</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Necker5-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Necker5_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4MYxAQAAMAAJ&dq=Jacques+Necker+Arcis-sur-Aube&pg=PA373">Historical Review of the Administration of Mr. Necker by Jacques Necker, p. 373</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopedists-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedists_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221006213453/https://artflsrv03.uchicago.edu/philologic4/kafker/navigate/1/98/">"The Encyclopedists as individuals: a biographical dictionary of the authors of the Encyclopédie"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedists+as+individuals%3A+a+biographical+dictionary+of+the+authors+of+the+Encyclop%C3%A9die&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fartflsrv03.uchicago.edu%2Fphilologic4%2Fkafker%2Fnavigate%2F1%2F98%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibbon-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gibbon_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbon1814" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Gibbon, Edward</a> (1814). Sheffield, John (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UJMUAAAAQAAJ"><i>The Miscellanous Works of Edward Gibbon, Esq. With Memoirs of His Life and Writings</i></a>. Vol. 2. London: John Murray. pp. 460, 483.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Miscellanous+Works+of+Edward+Gibbon%2C+Esq.+With+Memoirs+of+His+Life+and+Writings&rft.place=London&rft.pages=460%2C+483&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1814&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUJMUAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004156–158-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004156–158_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFd'Haussonville2004">d'Haussonville 2004</a>, pp. 156–158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004162–163-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004162–163_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFd'Haussonville2004">d'Haussonville 2004</a>, pp. 162–163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baecque-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baecque_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaecque2014" class="citation book cs1">Baecque, Antoine (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=myMn0SrSkioC"><i>Glory and Terror: Seven Deaths Under the French Revolution</i></a>. London: Routledge. p. 194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136692086" title="Special:BookSources/9781136692086"><bdi>9781136692086</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Glory+and+Terror%3A+Seven+Deaths+Under+the+French+Revolution&rft.place=London&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781136692086&rft.aulast=Baecque&rft.aufirst=Antoine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmyMn0SrSkioC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004169-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004169_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004169_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004169_114-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFd'Haussonville2004">d'Haussonville 2004</a>, p. 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818418–420-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818418–420_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Staël1818">de Staël 1818</a>, pp. 418–420.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Staël181835–36,_42,_459-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Staël181835–36,_42,_459_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Staël1818">de Staël 1818</a>, pp. 35–36, 42, 459.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012145-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraiutu2012145_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCraiutu2012">Craiutu 2012</a>, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004177-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004177_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFd'Haussonville2004">d'Haussonville 2004</a>, p. 177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818148-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEde_Staël1818148_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Staël1818">de Staël 1818</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kelly-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kelly_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly1965" class="citation journal cs1">Kelly, George A. (1965). "Liberalism and Aristocracy in the French Restoration". <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>26</b> (4): 510. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2708497">10.2307/2708497</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2708497">2708497</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=Liberalism+and+Aristocracy+in+the+French+Restoration&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=510&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2708497&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2708497%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=George+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Poulet-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Poulet_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoulet2003" class="citation book cs1">Poulet, Anne L. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EV0BgrzV-fkC"><i>Jean-Antoine Houdon: Sculptor of the Enlightenment</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 351. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226676470" title="Special:BookSources/9780226676470"><bdi>9780226676470</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jean-Antoine+Houdon%3A+Sculptor+of+the+Enlightenment&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=351&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780226676470&rft.aulast=Poulet&rft.aufirst=Anne+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEV0BgrzV-fkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Israel-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Israel_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIsrael2014" class="citation book cs1">Israel, Jonathan (2014). <i>Revolutionary Ideas: An Intellectual History of the French Revolution from the Rights of Man to Robespierre</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691151724" title="Special:BookSources/9780691151724"><bdi>9780691151724</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolutionary+Ideas%3A+An+Intellectual+History+of+the+French+Revolution+from+the+Rights+of+Man+to+Robespierre&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780691151724&rft.aulast=Israel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Positive-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Positive_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNecker1815" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Necker, Jacques (1815). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dmr.bsu.edu/digital/collection/FrnchRev/id/147"><i>Principes positifs de M. Neker, extraits de tous ses ouvrages</i></a> [<i>Positive principles of Mr. Neker, extracted from all his works</i>] (in French) – via Ball State University Digital Media Repository.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principes+positifs+de+M.+Neker%2C+extraits+de+tous+ses+ouvrages&rft.date=1815&rft.aulast=Necker&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdmr.bsu.edu%2Fdigital%2Fcollection%2FFrnchRev%2Fid%2F147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004195,_205-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEd'Haussonville2004195,_205_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFd'Haussonville2004">d'Haussonville 2004</a>, pp. 195, 205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BNF-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BNF_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/fr/documents-by-rdt/12058082/te/page1">"Jacques Necker (1732–1804) – Œuvres textuelles de cet auteur"</a>. <i>Bibliothèque nationale de France</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biblioth%C3%A8que+nationale+de+France&rft.atitle=Jacques+Necker+%281732%E2%80%931804%29+%E2%80%93+%C5%92uvres+textuelles+de+cet+auteur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdata.bnf.fr%2Ffr%2Fdocuments-by-rdt%2F12058082%2Fte%2Fpage1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Staël1818" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël, Germaine</a> (1818). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pvANAAAAQAAJ"><i>Considerations on the Principal Events of the French Revolution</i></a>. London: Braddock, Cradock, and Joy.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Considerations+on+the+Principal+Events+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Braddock%2C+Cradock%2C+and+Joy&rft.date=1818&rft.aulast=de+Sta%C3%ABl&rft.aufirst=Germaine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpvANAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Secondary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAftalion1990" class="citation book cs1">Aftalion, Florin (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dQWXXIcNI2oC"><i>The French Revolution: An Economic Interpretation</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521368100" title="Special:BookSources/9780521368100"><bdi>9780521368100</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution%3A+An+Economic+Interpretation&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780521368100&rft.aulast=Aftalion&rft.aufirst=Florin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdQWXXIcNI2oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlyle1903" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle, Thomas</a> (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/worksofthomascar030carl/page/86/mode/2up">"Necker"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Critical_and_Miscellaneous_Essays" title="Critical and Miscellaneous Essays">Critical and Miscellaneous Essays: Volume V</a></i>. The Works of Thomas Carlyle in Thirty Volumes. Vol. XXX. New York: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons" title="Charles Scribner's Sons">Charles Scribner's Sons</a> (published 1904). pp. 87–99.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Necker&rft.btitle=Critical+and+Miscellaneous+Essays%3A+Volume+V&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=The+Works+of+Thomas+Carlyle+in+Thirty+Volumes&rft.pages=87-99&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Carlyle&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fworksofthomascar030carl%2Fpage%2F86%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraiutu2012" class="citation book cs1">Craiutu, Aurelian (2012). <i>A Virtue for Courageous Minds: Moderation in French Political Thought, 1748–1830</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691146768" title="Special:BookSources/9780691146768"><bdi>9780691146768</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Virtue+for+Courageous+Minds%3A+Moderation+in+French+Political+Thought%2C+1748%E2%80%931830&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780691146768&rft.aulast=Craiutu&rft.aufirst=Aurelian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurantDurant1967" class="citation book cs1">Durant, Will; Durant, Ariel (1967). <i>Rousseau and Revolution</i>. The Story of Civilization. Vol. 10. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/778922010">778922010</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rousseau+and+Revolution&rft.series=The+Story+of+Civilization&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F778922010&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft.au=Durant%2C+Ariel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuretOzouf1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Furet" title="François Furet">Furet, François</a>; Ozouf, Mona (1989). <i>A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution</i>. Translated by Goldhammer, Arthur. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press. pp. 287–297. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674177284" title="Special:BookSources/9780674177284"><bdi>9780674177284</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+Dictionary+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.pages=287-297&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780674177284&rft.aulast=Furet&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.au=Ozouf%2C+Mona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1986" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Robert D (1986). <i>Necker and the Revolution of 1789</i>. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780819156020" title="Special:BookSources/9780819156020"><bdi>9780819156020</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Necker+and+the+Revolution+of+1789&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Md.&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9780819156020&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Robert+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLefebvre2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Lefebvre" title="Georges Lefebvre">Lefebvre, Georges</a> (2001) [1962]. <i>The French Revolution: From its Origins to 1793</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415255479" title="Special:BookSources/9780415255479"><bdi>9780415255479</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+Revolution%3A+From+its+Origins+to+1793&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780415255479&rft.aulast=Lefebvre&rft.aufirst=Georges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichelet1864" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jules_Michelet" title="Jules Michelet">Michelet, Jules</a> (1864). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j__G29EYEDkC"><i>Historical View of the French Revolution: From Its Earliest Indications to the Flight of the King in 1791</i></a>. London: H.G. Bohn.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+View+of+the+French+Revolution%3A+From+Its+Earliest+Indications+to+the+Flight+of+the+King+in+1791&rft.place=London&rft.pub=H.G.+Bohn&rft.date=1864&rft.aulast=Michelet&rft.aufirst=Jules&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj__G29EYEDkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchama1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Schama" title="Simon Schama">Schama, Simon</a> (1989). <a href="/wiki/Citizens:_A_Chronicle_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution"><i>Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution</i></a>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780394559483" title="Special:BookSources/9780394559483"><bdi>9780394559483</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Citizens%3A+A+Chronicle+of+the+French+Revolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=9780394559483&rft.aulast=Schama&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwansonTrout1990" class="citation journal cs1">Swanson, Donald F; Trout, Andrew P (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2938096">"Alexander Hamilton, the Celebrated Mr. Neckar,' and Public Credit"</a>. <i>The William and Mary Quarterly</i>. <b>47</b> (3): 422–430. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2938096">10.2307/2938096</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2938096">2938096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+William+and+Mary+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Alexander+Hamilton%2C+the+Celebrated+Mr.+Neckar%2C%27+and+Public+Credit&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=422-430&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2938096&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2938096%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Swanson&rft.aufirst=Donald+F&rft.au=Trout%2C+Andrew+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2938096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>In French</dt></dl> <ul><li><span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> Bredin, Jean-Denis. <i>Une singulière famille: Jacques Necker, Suzanne Necker et Germaine de Staël.</i> Paris: Fayard, 1999 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-213-60280-8" title="Special:BookSources/2-213-60280-8">2-213-60280-8</a>).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrouzetde_Larosière1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Crouzet, François; de Larosière, Jacques (1993). <i>La grande inflation : la monnaie en France de Louis XVI à Napoléon</i> (in French). Paris: Fayard. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9782213029948" title="Special:BookSources/9782213029948"><bdi>9782213029948</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+grande+inflation+%3A+la+monnaie+en+France+de+Louis+XVI+%C3%A0+Napol%C3%A9on&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Fayard&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9782213029948&rft.aulast=Crouzet&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois&rft.au=de+Larosi%C3%A8re%2C+Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFd'Haussonville2004" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">d'Haussonville, Othénin (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9766891m/f1n300.pdf?download=1">"La liquidation du 'dépôt' de Necker: 1778–1815"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Cahiers Staëlians</i> (in French). <b>55</b>: 154–106 – via BNF.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+Sta%C3%ABlians&rft.atitle=La+liquidation+du+%27d%C3%A9p%C3%B4t%27+de+Necker%3A+1778%E2%80%931815&rft.volume=55&rft.pages=154-106&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=d%27Haussonville&rft.aufirst=Oth%C3%A9nin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k9766891m%2Ff1n300.pdf%3Fdownload%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Necker&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jacques_Necker" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Jacques Necker">Jacques Necker</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Necker, Jacques"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Necker,_Jacques">"Necker, Jacques" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). 1911.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Necker%2C+Jacques&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJacques+Necker" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20020417002235/http://www.cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/necker.htm">Jacques Necker</a>. Bibliography of Necker's publications.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dmr.bsu.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/FrnchRev&CISOPTR=147&REC=6">Full text of <i>Principes positifs de M. Neker</i> … <i>Positive principles of Mr. Neker, extracted from all his works</i></a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" 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aria-labelledby="Finance_ministers_of_France" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Finance_Ministers_of_France" title="Template:Finance Ministers of France"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Finance_Ministers_of_France" title="Template talk:Finance Ministers of France"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Finance_Ministers_of_France" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Finance Ministers of France"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Finance_ministers_of_France" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_finance_ministers_of_France" title="List of finance ministers of France">Finance ministers</a> of <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superintendent_of_Finances" title="Superintendent of Finances">Superintendent of Finances</a> (1561–1661)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controller-General_of_Finances" title="Controller-General of Finances">Controller-General of Finances</a> (1661–1791)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">House of Valois</a><br />(1518–1589)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_de_Beaune&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jacques de Beaune (page does not exist)">de Beaune</a> (1518–1524)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philibert_Babou" title="Philibert Babou">Babou</a> (1524–1544)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_du_Thiers" title="Jean du Thiers">du Thiers</a> (1544–1546)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_d%27Annebault" title="Claude d'Annebault">d'Annebault</a> (1546–1552)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Andr%C3%A9_Guillart&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="André Guillart (page does not exist)">Guillart</a> (1552–1556)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_d%27Avan%C3%A7on&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean d'Avançon (page does not exist)">d'Avançon</a> (1556–1559)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles,_Cardinal_of_Lorraine" title="Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine">de Lorraine</a> (1559–1560)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artus_de_Coss%C3%A9-Brissac" class="mw-redirect" title="Artus de Cossé-Brissac">de Cossé-Brissac</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Louis_d%27Ongnyes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Louis d'Ongnyes (page does not exist)">d'Ongnyes</a> (1561–1567)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_de_Birague" title="René de Birague">de Birague</a> (1568–1570)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponne_de_Belli%C3%A8vre" title="Pomponne de Bellièvre">de Bellièvre</a> (1574–1588)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_d%27O" title="François d'O">d'O</a> (1588–1589)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Bourbon" title="House of Bourbon">House of Bourbon</a><br />(1589–1792)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_d%27O" title="François d'O">d'O</a> (1589–1594)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_de_B%C3%A9thune,_Duke_of_Sully" title="Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully">de Béthune</a> (1598–1611)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Jeannin" title="Pierre Jeannin">Jeannin</a> (1614–1619)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Schomberg" title="Henri de Schomberg">de Schomberg</a> (1619–1622)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_La_Vieuville" title="Charles de La Vieuville">de La Vieuville</a> (1623–1624)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bochart_de_Champigny" title="Jean Bochart de Champigny">de Champigny</a>/<a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Marillac" title="Michel de Marillac">de Marillac</a> (1624–1626)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Co%C3%ABffier_de_Ruz%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Antoine Coëffier de Ruzé">de Ruzé</a> (1626–1632)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_de_Bullion" title="Claude de Bullion">de Bullion</a>/<a href="/wiki/Claude_Bouthillier" title="Claude Bouthillier">Bouthillier</a> (1632–1640)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Bouthillier" title="Claude Bouthillier">Bouthillier</a> (1640–1643)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_de_Bailleul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicolas de Bailleul (page does not exist)">de Bailleul</a>/<a href="/wiki/Claude_de_Mesmes,_comte_d%27Avaux" title="Claude de Mesmes, comte d'Avaux">de Mesmes</a> (1643–1647)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Particelli_d%27Emery" title="Michel Particelli d'Emery">d'Emery</a> (1647–1648)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_La_Porte" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles de La Porte">de La Porte</a> (1648–1649)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Particelli_d%27Emery" title="Michel Particelli d'Emery">d'Emery</a>/<a href="/wiki/Claude_de_Mesmes" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude de Mesmes">de Mesmes</a> (1649–1650)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_de_Longueil" title="René de Longueil">de Longueil</a> (1650–1651)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_La_Vieuville" title="Charles de La Vieuville">de La Vieuville</a> (1651–1653)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abel_Servien" title="Abel Servien">Servien</a>/<a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Fouquet" title="Nicolas Fouquet">Fouquet</a> (1653–1659)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Fouquet" title="Nicolas Fouquet">Fouquet</a> (1659–1661)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Colbert" title="Jean-Baptiste Colbert">Colbert</a> (1661–1683)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_Le_Pelletier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Claude Le Pelletier (page does not exist)">Le Pelletier</a> (1683–1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Ph%C3%A9lypeaux,_comte_de_Pontchartrain" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Phélypeaux, comte de Pontchartrain">Phélypeaux</a> (1689–1699)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Chamillart" title="Michel Chamillart">Chamillart</a> (1699–1708)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Desmarets" title="Nicolas Desmarets">Desmarets</a> (1708–1715)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrien_Maurice_de_Noailles" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrien Maurice de Noailles">de Noailles</a> (1715–1718)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri-Jacques_Nompar_de_Caumont,_duc_de_La_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri-Jacques Nompar de Caumont, duc de La Force">de Caumont</a> (1718–January 1720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc-Ren%C3%A9_de_Voyer_de_Paulmy_d%27Argenson_(1652%E2%80%931721)" title="Marc-René de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson (1652–1721)">de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson</a> (1718–January 1720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Law_(economist)" title="John Law (economist)">Law</a> (January–May 1720)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Robert_Le_Peletier_des_Forts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michel Robert Le Peletier des Forts (page does not exist)">des Forts</a> (May–December 1720)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Le_Pelletier_de_La_Houssaye" title="Félix Le Pelletier de La Houssaye">de La Houssaye</a> (December 1720–1722)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Gaspard_Dodun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Gaspard Dodun (page does not exist)">Dodun</a> (1722–1726)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Robert_Le_Peletier_des_Forts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michel Robert Le Peletier des Forts (page does not exist)">des Forts</a> (1726–1730)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philibert_Orry" title="Philibert Orry">Orry</a> (1730–1745)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_de_Machault_d%27Arnouville" title="Jean-Baptiste de Machault d'Arnouville">d'Arnouville</a> (1745–1754)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Moreau_de_S%C3%A9chelles" title="Jean Moreau de Séchelles">de Séchelles</a> (1754–1756)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Marie_Peyrenc_de_Moras" title="François Marie Peyrenc de Moras">de Moras</a> (1756–1757)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Boullonges" title="Jean de Boullonges">de Boullonges</a> (1757–1759)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_Silhouette" title="Étienne de Silhouette">de Silhouette</a> (1759)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_L%C3%A9onard_Jean_Baptiste_Bertin" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri Léonard Jean Baptiste Bertin">Bertin</a> (1759–1763)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Laverdy" title="Clément Charles François de Laverdy">de Laverdy</a> (1763–1768)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Maynon_d%27Invault" title="Étienne Maynon d'Invault">d'Invault</a> (1768–1769)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Terray" title="Joseph Marie Terray">Terray</a> (1769–1774)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Robert_Jacques_Turgot" title="Anne Robert Jacques Turgot">Turgot</a> (1774–1776)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_%C3%89tienne_Bernard_Ogier_de_Clugny&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Étienne Bernard Ogier de Clugny (page does not exist)">de Clugny</a> (1776)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louis-Gabriel_Taboureau_des_R%C3%A9aux&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Louis-Gabriel Taboureau des Réaux (page does not exist)">des Réaux</a> (1776–1777)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Necker</a> (1777–1781)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Joly_de_Fleury" title="Jean-François Joly de Fleury">de Fleury</a> (1781–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Paule_Lef%C3%A8vre_d%27Ormesson" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri François de Paule Lefèvre d'Ormesson">d'Ormesson</a> (1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Alexandre_de_Calonne" title="Charles Alexandre de Calonne">de Calonne</a> (1783–1787)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Bouvard_de_Fourqueux&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michel Bouvard de Fourqueux (page does not exist)">de Fourqueux</a> (1787)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Charles_de_Lom%C3%A9nie_de_Brienne" title="Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne">de Brienne</a> (1787–1788)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Necker</a> (1788–1789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Auguste_Le_Tonnelier_de_Breteuil" title="Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil">de Breteuil</a> (1789)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Necker</a> (1789–1790)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Claude_Guillaume_Lambert&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Claude Guillaume Lambert (page does not exist)">Lambert</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Antoine_de_Valdec_de_Lessart" title="Claude Antoine de Valdec de Lessart">de Lessart</a> (1790–1791)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louis_Hardouin_Tarb%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Louis Hardouin Tarbé (page does not exist)">Tarbé</a> (1791–March 1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clavi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Clavière">Clavière</a> (March–13 June 1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Duranthon" class="mw-redirect" title="Antoine Duranthon">Duranthon</a> (13 June–18 June 1792)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jules_%C3%89mile_Fran%C3%A7ois_Herv%C3%A9_de_Beaulieu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jules Émile François Hervé de Beaulieu (page does not exist)">de Beaulieu</a> (18 June–29 July 1792)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Delaville-Leroulx&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Delaville-Leroulx (page does not exist)">Delaville-Leroulx</a> (29 July–10 August 1792)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clavi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Clavière">Clavière</a> (10 August–21 September 1792)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First Republic</a><br />(1792–1804)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clavi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Clavière">Clavière</a> (21 September 1792–1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Gr%C3%A9goire_Deschamps_Destournelles" title="Louis Grégoire Deschamps Destournelles">Destournelles</a> (1793–1794)</li> <li><i>Vacant</i> (1794–1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Charles_Faipoult" title="Guillaume-Charles Faipoult">Faipoult</a> (1795–1796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominique-Vincent_Ramel-Nogaret" title="Dominique-Vincent Ramel-Nogaret">Ramel-Nogaret</a> (1796–July 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Robert_Lindet" title="Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet">Lindet</a> (July–November 1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin-Michel-Charles_Gaudin" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin-Michel-Charles Gaudin">Gaudin</a> (1799–1804)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">House of Bonaparte</a><br />(1804–1814)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin-Michel-Charles_Gaudin" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin-Michel-Charles Gaudin">Gaudin</a> (1804–1814)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">House of Bourbon</a><br />(1814–1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dominique,_baron_Louis" title="Joseph Dominique, baron Louis">Dominique</a> (1814–1815)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">House of Bonaparte</a><br />(1815)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin-Michel-Charles_Gaudin" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin-Michel-Charles Gaudin">Gaudin</a> (March–July 1815)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Restoration_in_France" title="Bourbon Restoration in France">House of Bourbon</a><br />(1815–1830)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dominique,_baron_Louis" title="Joseph Dominique, baron Louis">Dominique</a> (July–September 1815)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Emmanuel_Corvetto" title="Louis-Emmanuel Corvetto">Corvetto</a> (September 1815–December 1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Roy" title="Antoine Roy">Roy</a> (7 December–29 December 1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dominique,_baron_Louis" title="Joseph Dominique, baron Louis">Dominique</a> (December 29, 1818–November 1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Roy" title="Antoine Roy">Roy</a> (1819–1821)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_de_Vill%C3%A8le" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Baptiste de Villèle">de Villèle</a> (1821–1828)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Roy" title="Antoine Roy">Roy</a> (1828–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christophe_de_Chabrol_de_Crouzol" title="Christophe de Chabrol de Crouzol">de Crouzol</a> (1829–May 1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Isidore_Baron_de_Montbel" title="Guillaume-Isidore Baron de Montbel">de Montbel</a> (May–July 1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dominique,_baron_Louis" title="Joseph Dominique, baron Louis">Dominique</a> (July–August 1830)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/July_Monarchy" title="July Monarchy">House of Orléans</a><br />(1830–1848)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dominique,_baron_Louis" title="Joseph Dominique, baron Louis">Dominique</a> (August–November 1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Laffitte" title="Jacques Laffitte">Laffitte</a> (1830–1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dominique,_baron_Louis" title="Joseph Dominique, baron Louis">Dominique</a> (1831–1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Humann" title="Georges Humann">Humann</a> (1832–10 November 1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Passy" title="Hippolyte Passy">Passy</a> (10 November–18 November 1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Humann" title="Georges Humann">Humann</a> (18 November 1834–1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Maurice_Apollinaire_d%27Argout" title="Antoine Maurice Apollinaire d'Argout">d'Argout</a> (January–September 1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanneguy_Duch%C3%A2tel" title="Tanneguy Duchâtel">Duchâtel</a> (1836–1837)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lacave-Laplagne" title="Jean Lacave-Laplagne">Lacave-Laplagne</a> (1837–March 1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-%C3%89lie_Gautier" title="Jean-Élie Gautier">Gautier</a> (March–May 1839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Passy" title="Hippolyte Passy">Passy</a> (May 1839–March 1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pelet_de_la_Loz%C3%A8re" title="Joseph Pelet de la Lozère">de la Lozère</a> (March 1840–October 1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Humann" title="Georges Humann">Humann</a> (October 1840–1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lacave-Laplagne" title="Jean Lacave-Laplagne">Lacave-Laplagne</a> (1842–1847)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Sylvain_Dumon" title="Pierre Sylvain Dumon">Dumon</a> (1847–February 1848)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Second_Republic" title="French Second Republic">Second Republic</a><br />(1848–1852)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Goudchaux" title="Michel Goudchaux">Goudchaux</a> (February–March 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Antoine_Garnier-Pag%C3%A8s" title="Louis-Antoine Garnier-Pagès">Garnier-Pagès</a> (March–May 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Duclerc" title="Charles Duclerc">Duclerc</a> (May–June 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Goudchaux" title="Michel Goudchaux">Goudchaux</a> (June–October 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariste_Jacques_Trouv%C3%A9-Chauvel" title="Ariste Jacques Trouvé-Chauvel">Trouvé-Chauvel</a> (October–December 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Passy" title="Hippolyte Passy">Passy</a> (December 1848–October 1849)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achille_Fould" title="Achille Fould">Fould</a> (October 1849–January 1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Le_B%C3%A8gue_de_Germiny" title="Charles Le Bègue de Germiny">de Germiny</a> (January–April 1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achille_Fould" title="Achille Fould">Fould</a> (April–October 1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Blondel" title="Antoine Blondel">Blondel</a> (October–November 1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier_Joseph_de_Casabianca" title="François-Xavier Joseph de Casabianca">de Casabianca</a> (November–December 1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achille_Fould" title="Achille Fould">Fould</a> (December 1851–January 1852)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">House of Bonaparte</a><br />(1852–1870)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Martial_Bineau" title="Jean-Martial Bineau">Bineau</a> (January 1852–1855)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Magne" title="Pierre Magne">Magne</a> (1855–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolphe_de_Forcade_La_Roquette" title="Adolphe de Forcade La Roquette">La Roquette</a> (1860–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achille_Fould" title="Achille Fould">Fould</a> (1861–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Rouher" title="Eugène Rouher">Rouher</a> (January–November 1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Magne" title="Pierre Magne">Magne</a> (1867–January 1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Buffet" title="Louis Buffet">Buffet</a> (January–April 1870)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%89mile_Alexis_Segris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Émile Alexis Segris (page does not exist)">Segris</a> (April–August 1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Magne" title="Pierre Magne">Magne</a> (August–September 1870)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">Third Republic</a><br />(1870–1940)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Picard" title="Ernest Picard">Picard</a> (September 1870–19 February 1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Buffet" title="Louis Buffet">Buffet</a> (19 February–25 February 1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustin_Pouyer-Quertier" title="Augustin Pouyer-Quertier">Pouyer-Quertier</a> (1871–1872)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eug%C3%A8ne_de_Goulard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eugène de Goulard (page does not exist)">de Goulard</a> (April–December 1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Say" title="Léon Say">Say</a> (December 1872–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Magne" title="Pierre Magne">Magne</a> (1873–1874)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Mathieu-Bodet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre Mathieu-Bodet (page does not exist)">Mathieu-Bodet</a> (1874–1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Say" title="Léon Say">Say</a> (1875–May 1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Caillaux" title="Eugène Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (May 1877–November 1877)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fran%C3%A7ois_Dutilleul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="François Dutilleul (page does not exist)">Dutilleul</a> (November–December 1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Say" title="Léon Say">Say</a> (1877–1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Magnin" title="Pierre Magnin">Magnin</a> (1879–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Allain-Targ%C3%A9" title="François Allain-Targé">Allain-Targé</a> (1881–1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Say" title="Léon Say">Say</a> (January–August 1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Tirard" title="Pierre Tirard">Tirard</a> (August 1882–6 April 1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Clamageran" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Clamageran">Clamageran</a> (6 April–16 April 1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Fran%C3%A7ois_Sadi_Carnot" class="mw-redirect" title="Marie François Sadi Carnot">Carnot</a> (16 April 1885–December 1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Dauphin" title="Albert Dauphin">Dauphin</a> (December 1886–May 1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Rouvier" title="Maurice Rouvier">Rouvier</a> (May–December 1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Tirard" title="Pierre Tirard">Tirard</a> (December 1887–April 1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Peytral" title="Paul Peytral">Peytral</a> (April 1888–1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Rouvier" title="Maurice Rouvier">Rouvier</a> (1889–1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Tirard" title="Pierre Tirard">Tirard</a> (1892–April 1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Peytral" title="Paul Peytral">Peytral</a> (April–December 1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Burdeau" title="Auguste Burdeau">Burdeau</a> (December 1893–May 1894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Raymond Poincaré">Poincaré</a> (May 1894–January 1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Ribot" title="Alexandre Ribot">Ribot</a> (January–November 1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Doumer" title="Paul Doumer">Doumer</a> (November 1895–1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cochery" title="Georges Cochery">Cochery</a> (1896–1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Peytral" title="Paul Peytral">Peytral</a> (1898–1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (1899–1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Rouvier" title="Maurice Rouvier">Rouvier</a> (1902–1905)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre_Merlou&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre Merlou (page does not exist)">Merlou</a> (1905–March 1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Raymond Poincaré">Poincaré</a> (March–October 1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (October 1906–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cochery" title="Georges Cochery">Cochery</a> (1909–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Lucien_Klotz" title="Louis-Lucien Klotz">Klotz</a> (1910–March 1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (March–June 1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Lucien_Klotz" title="Louis-Lucien Klotz">Klotz</a> (June 1911–March 1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Dumont_(politician)" title="Charles Dumont (politician)">Dumont</a> (March–December 1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (December 1913–March 1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Renoult" title="René Renoult">Renoult</a> (March–June 1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Cl%C3%A9mentel" title="Étienne Clémentel">Clémentel</a> (9 June–13 June 1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Noullens" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Noullens">Noullens</a> (June–August 1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Ribot" title="Alexandre Ribot">Ribot</a> (August 1914–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Thierry" title="Joseph Thierry">Thierry</a> (March–September 1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Lucien_Klotz" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Lucien Klotz">Klotz</a> (1917–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marsal" title="Frédéric François-Marsal">François-Marsal</a> (1920–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Doumer" title="Paul Doumer">Doumer</a> (1921–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Lasteyrie" title="Charles de Lasteyrie">de Lasteyrie</a> (1922–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Fran%C3%A7ois-Marsal" title="Frédéric François-Marsal">François-Marsal</a> (March–June 1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clementel" class="mw-redirect" title="Étienne Clementel">Clementel</a> (June 1924–3 April 1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatole_de_Monzie" title="Anatole de Monzie">de Monzie</a> (3 April–17 April 1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (April–October 1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Painlev%C3%A9" title="Paul Painlevé">Painlevé</a> (October–November 1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Loucheur" title="Louis Loucheur">Loucheur</a> (November–December 1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Doumer" title="Paul Doumer">Doumer</a> (December 1925–March 1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoul_P%C3%A9ret" title="Raoul Péret">Péret</a> (March–June 1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (June–July 1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatole_de_Monzie" title="Anatole de Monzie">de Monzie</a> (19 July–23 July 1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Raymond Poincaré">Poincaré</a> (July 1926–1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ch%C3%A9ron" title="Henry Chéron">Chéron</a> (1928–February 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Dumont_(politician)" title="Charles Dumont (politician)">Dumont</a> (February–March 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Reynaud" title="Paul Reynaud">Reynaud</a> (March–December 1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Germain-Martin" title="Louis Germain-Martin">Germain-Martin</a> (December 1930–January 1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-%C3%89tienne_Flandin" title="Pierre-Étienne Flandin">Flandin</a> (January 1931–1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Germain-Martin" title="Louis Germain-Martin">Germain-Martin</a> (June–December 1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ch%C3%A9ron" title="Henry Chéron">Chéron</a> (December 1932–January 1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Bonnet" title="Georges Bonnet">Bonnet</a> (January 1933–January 1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Pi%C3%A9tri" title="François Piétri">Piétri</a> (January–February 1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Marchandeau" title="Paul Marchandeau">Marchandeau</a> (4 February–9 February 1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Germain-Martin" title="Louis Germain-Martin">Germain-Martin</a> (February 1934–June 1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Caillaux" title="Joseph Caillaux">Caillaux</a> (1 June–7 June 1935)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marcel_R%C3%A9gnier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marcel Régnier (page does not exist)">Régnier</a> (June 1935–1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Auriol" title="Vincent Auriol">Auriol</a> (1936–1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Bonnet" title="Georges Bonnet">Bonnet</a> (1937–January 1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Marchandeau" title="Paul Marchandeau">Marchandeau</a> (January–March 1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Blum" title="Léon Blum">Blum</a> (March–April 1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Marchandeau" title="Paul Marchandeau">Marchandeau</a> (April–November 1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Reynaud" title="Paul Reynaud">Reynaud</a> (November 1938–March 1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Lamoureux_(France)" title="Lucien Lamoureux (France)">Lamoureux</a> (March–June 1940)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a><br />(1940–1944)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yves_Bouthillier" title="Yves Bouthillier">Bouthillier</a> (1940–1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Cathala" title="Pierre Cathala">Cathala</a> (1942–1944)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Free_France" title="Free France">Free France</a><br />(1941–1944)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Pleven" title="René Pleven">Pleven</a> (1941–1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Diethelm" title="André Diethelm">Diethelm</a> (1942–June 1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Couve_de_Murville" title="Maurice Couve de Murville">Couve de Murville</a> (June–November 1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Mend%C3%A8s_France" title="Pierre Mendès France">France</a> (November 1943–September 1944)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_French_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the French Republic">Provisional Government</a><br />(1944–1946)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_Lepercq" title="Aimé Lepercq">Lepercq</a> (September–November 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Pleven" title="René Pleven">Pleven</a> (November 1944–January 1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Philip" title="André Philip">Philip</a> (January–June 1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schuman" title="Robert Schuman">Schuman</a> (June–October 1946)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Fourth_Republic" title="French Fourth Republic">Fourth Republic</a><br />(1946–1958)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schuman" title="Robert Schuman">Schuman</a> (October–December 1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Philip" title="André Philip">Philip</a> (December 1946–January 1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Schuman" title="Robert Schuman">Schuman</a> (January–November 1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Mayer" title="René Mayer">Mayer</a> (November 1947–July 1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Reynaud" title="Paul Reynaud">Reynaud</a> (July–September 1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Pineau" title="Christian Pineau">Pineau</a> (5 September–11 September 1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Queuille" title="Henri Queuille">Queuille</a> (September 1948–January 1949)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Petsche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maurice Petsche (page does not exist)">Petsche</a> (1949–1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Mayer" title="René Mayer">Mayer</a> (1951–January 1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Faure" title="Edgar Faure">Faure</a> (January–March 1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Pinay" title="Antoine Pinay">Pinay</a> (March 1952–January 1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Bourg%C3%A8s-Maunoury" title="Maurice Bourgès-Maunoury">Bourgès-Maunoury</a> (January–June 1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Faure" title="Edgar Faure">Faure</a> (1953–1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Buron" title="Robert Buron">Buron</a> (January–February 1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pflimlin" title="Pierre Pflimlin">Pflimlin</a> (February 1955–February 1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lacoste" title="Robert Lacoste">Lacoste</a> (1 February–14 February 1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ramadier" title="Paul Ramadier">Ramadier</a> (February 1956–June 1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Gaillard" title="Félix Gaillard">Gaillard</a> (June–November 1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Pflimlin" title="Pierre Pflimlin">Pflimlin</a> (November 1957–May 1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Faure" title="Edgar Faure">Faure</a> (May–June 1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Pinay" title="Antoine Pinay">Pinay</a> (June–October 1958)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/French_Fifth_Republic" title="French Fifth Republic">Fifth Republic</a><br />(1958–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Pinay" title="Antoine Pinay">Pinay</a> (October 1958–1960)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilfrid_Baumgartner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilfrid Baumgartner (page does not exist)">Baumgartner</a> (1960–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val%C3%A9ry_Giscard_d%27Estaing" title="Valéry Giscard d'Estaing">Giscard d'Estaing</a> (1962–1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Debr%C3%A9" title="Michel Debré">Debré</a> (1966–May 1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Couve_de_Murville" title="Maurice Couve de Murville">Couve de Murville</a> (May–July 1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier_Ortoli" title="François-Xavier Ortoli">Ortoli</a> (July 1968–June 1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val%C3%A9ry_Giscard_d%27Estaing" title="Valéry Giscard d'Estaing">Giscard d'Estaing</a> (1969–1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Fourcade" title="Jean-Pierre Fourcade">Fourcade</a> (1974–1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Barre" title="Raymond Barre">Barre</a> (1976–1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Monory" title="René Monory">Monory</a> (1978–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Delors" title="Jacques Delors">Delors</a> (1981–1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_B%C3%A9r%C3%A9govoy" title="Pierre Bérégovoy">Bérégovoy</a> (1984–1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Balladur" title="Édouard Balladur">Balladur</a> (1986–1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_B%C3%A9r%C3%A9govoy" title="Pierre Bérégovoy">Bérégovoy</a> (1988–1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Sapin" title="Michel Sapin">Sapin</a> (1992–1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_Alphand%C3%A9ry" title="Edmond Alphandéry">Alphandéry</a> (1993–May 1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Madelin" title="Alain Madelin">Madelin</a> (May–August 1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Arthuis" title="Jean Arthuis">Arthuis</a> (August 1995–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominique_Strauss-Kahn" title="Dominique Strauss-Kahn">Strauss-Kahn</a> (1997–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Sautter" title="Christian Sautter">Sautter</a> (1999–2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurent_Fabius" title="Laurent Fabius">Fabius</a> (2000–2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Mer" title="Francis Mer">Mer</a> (2002–2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Sarkozy" title="Nicolas Sarkozy">Sarkozy</a> (March–November 2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herv%C3%A9_Gaymard" title="Hervé Gaymard">Gaymard</a> (November 2004–2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thierry_Breton" title="Thierry Breton">Breton</a> (2005–May 2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Louis_Borloo" title="Jean-Louis Borloo">Borloo</a> (May–June 2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Lagarde" title="Christine Lagarde">Lagarde</a> (June 2007–2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Baroin" title="François Baroin">Baroin</a> (2011–2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Moscovici" title="Pierre Moscovici">Moscovici</a> (2012–2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Sapin" title="Michel Sapin">Sapin</a> (2014–2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Le_Maire" title="Bruno Le Maire">Le Maire</a> (2017–2024)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Armand" title="Antoine Armand">Armand</a> (2024–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="French_Revolution" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_Revolution" title="Template:French Revolution"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_Revolution" title="Template talk:French Revolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_Revolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French Revolution"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="French_Revolution" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Causes of the French Revolution">Causes</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Timeline of the French Revolution">Timeline</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ancien_R%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancien Régime">Ancien Régime</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">Revolution</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France_(1791%E2%80%9392)" title="Kingdom of France (1791–92)">Constitutional monarchy</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">Republic</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directory</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Glossary of the French Revolution">Glossary</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_journals_appearing_under_the_French_Revolution" title="List of journals appearing under the French Revolution">Journals</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_de_la_R%C3%A9volution_fran%C3%A7aise" title="Musée de la Révolution française">Museum</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Significant_civil_and_political_events_by_year" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Significant civil and political events by year</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1788</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_the_Tiles" title="Day of the Tiles">Day of the Tiles</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(7 Jun 1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_Vizille" title="Assembly of Vizille">Assembly of Vizille</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(21 Jul 1788)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1789</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/What_Is_the_Third_Estate%3F" title="What Is the Third Estate?">What Is the Third Estate?</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Jan 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9veillon_riots" title="Réveillon riots">Réveillon riots</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(28 Apr 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estates_General_of_1789" title="Estates General of 1789">Convocation of the Estates General</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 May 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Joseph,_Dauphin_of_France#Illness" title="Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France">Death of the Dauphin</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4 June 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(French_Revolution)" title="National Assembly (French Revolution)">National Assembly</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Jun – 9 Jul 1790)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennis_Court_Oath" title="Tennis Court Oath">Tennis Court Oath</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Jun 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)" title="National Constituent Assembly (France)">National Constituent Assembly</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Jul – 30 Sep 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storming_of_the_Bastille" title="Storming of the Bastille">Storming of the Bastille</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(14 Jul 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Fear" title="Great Fear">Great Fear</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Jul – 5 Aug 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_feudalism_in_France" title="Abolition of feudalism in France">Abolition of Feudalism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4–11 Aug 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26 Aug 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_March_on_Versailles" title="Women's March on Versailles">Women's March on Versailles</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Oct 1789)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biens_nationaux" title="Biens nationaux">Nationalization of the Church properties</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2 Nov 1789)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1790</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parlement#Abolition" title="Parlement">Abolition of the Parlements</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Feb–Jul 1790)</span></li> <li>Abolition of the <a href="/wiki/French_nobility#The_abolition_of_privileges_during_the_French_Revolution" title="French nobility">Nobility</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 Jun 1790)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Constitution_of_the_Clergy" title="Civil Constitution of the Clergy">Civil Constitution of the Clergy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(12 Jul 1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/F%C3%AAte_de_la_F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration" title="Fête de la Fédération">Fête de la Fédération</a></i> <small>(14 Jul 1790)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1791</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flight_to_Varennes" title="Flight to Varennes">Flight to Varennes</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20–21 Jun 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champ_de_Mars_massacre" title="Champ de Mars massacre">Champ de Mars massacre</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Jul 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Pillnitz" title="Declaration of Pillnitz">Declaration of Pillnitz</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27 Aug 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Constitution_of_1791" title="French Constitution of 1791">The Constitution of 1791</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3 Sep 1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_(France)" title="Legislative Assembly (France)">National Legislative Assembly</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1 Oct 1791 – Sep 1792)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1792</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">France declares war</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Apr 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunswick_Manifesto" title="Brunswick Manifesto">Brunswick Manifesto</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Jul 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune_(1789%E2%80%931795)" title="Paris Commune (1789–1795)">Paris Commune becomes insurrectionary</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Jun 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_10_August_1792" title="Insurrection of 10 August 1792">10th of August</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(10 Aug 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_Massacres" title="September Massacres">September Massacres</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Sep 1792)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Sep 1792 – 26 Oct 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">First republic declared</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Sep 1792)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1793</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Louis_XVI" title="Execution of Louis XVI">Execution of Louis XVI</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(21 Jan 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Tribunal" title="Revolutionary Tribunal">Revolutionary Tribunal</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Mar 1793 – 31 May 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27 Jun 1793 – 27 Jul 1794)</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Public_Safety" title="Committee of Public Safety">Committee of Public Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_General_Security" title="Committee of General Security">Committee of General Security</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_31_May_%E2%80%93_2_June_1793" title="Insurrection of 31 May – 2 June 1793">Fall of the Girondists</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2 Jun 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marat#Death" title="Jean-Paul Marat">Assassination of Marat</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(13 Jul 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev%C3%A9e_en_masse" title="Levée en masse">Levée en masse</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 Aug 1793)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_Marat" title="The Death of Marat">The Death of Marat</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(painting)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Suspects" title="Law of Suspects">Law of Suspects</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Sep 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette#Trial_and_execution_(14–16_October_1793)" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette is guillotined</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(16 Oct 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution#The_Revolution_and_the_Church" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">Anti-clerical laws</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(throughout the year)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1794</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Danton#Life" title="Georges Danton">Danton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Camille_Desmoulins#Trial_and_execution" title="Camille Desmoulins">Desmoulins guillotined</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Apr 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_22_Prairial" title="Law of 22 Prairial">Law of 22 Prairial</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(10 Jun 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermidorian_Reaction" title="Thermidorian Reaction">Thermidorian Reaction</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27 Jul 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a> guillotined <span style="font-size:85%;">(28 Jul 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_White_Terror" title="First White Terror">White Terror</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Fall 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobins#Fall_from_power" title="Jacobins">Closing of the Jacobin Club</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(11 Nov 1794)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1795–6</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insurrection_of_12_Germinal_Year_III" title="Insurrection of 12 Germinal Year III">Insurrection of 12 Germinal Year III</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1 Apr 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_III" title="Constitution of the Year III">Constitution of the Year III</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Aug 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Directory" title="French Directory">Directoire</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1795–99)</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Five_Hundred" title="Council of Five Hundred">Council of Five Hundred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ancients" title="Council of Ancients">Council of Ancients</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/13_Vend%C3%A9miaire" title="13 Vendémiaire">13 Vendémiaire</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">5 Oct 1795</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_of_the_Equals" title="Conspiracy of the Equals">Conspiracy of the Equals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(May 1796)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1797</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Fructidor" title="Coup of 18 Fructidor">Coup of 18 Fructidor</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4 Sep 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Congress_of_Rastatt" title="Second Congress of Rastatt">Second Congress of Rastatt</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Dec 1797)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1798</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_22_Flor%C3%A9al_Year_VI" title="Law of 22 Floréal Year VI">Law of 22 Floréal Year VI</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(11 May 1798)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1799</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_30_Prairial_VII" title="Coup of 30 Prairial VII">Coup of 30 Prairial VII</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Jun 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">Coup of 18 Brumaire</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Nov 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Year_VIII" title="Constitution of the Year VIII">Constitution of the Year VIII</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(24 Dec 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Revolutionary_campaigns" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Revolutionary campaigns</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1792_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1792 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1792</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun_(1792)" title="Battle of Verdun (1792)">Verdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Thionville_(1792)" title="Siege of Thionville (1792)">Thionville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valmy" title="Battle of Valmy">Valmy</a></li> <li>Royalist Revolts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chouannerie" title="Chouannerie">Chouannerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" title="War in the Vendée">Vendée</a></li> <li>Dauphiné</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_of_the_Goddess" title="Column of the Goddess">Lille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mainz_(1792)" title="Siege of Mainz (1792)">Siege of Mainz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jemappes" title="Battle of Jemappes">Jemappes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Namur_(1792)" title="Siege of Namur (1792)">Namur</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%A8ge_de_Namur_(1792)" class="extiw" title="fr:Siège de Namur (1792)">fr</a>]</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1793_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1793 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1793</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">First Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Vend%C3%A9e" title="War in the Vendée">War in the Vendée</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neerwinden_(1793)" title="Battle of Neerwinden (1793)">Battle of Neerwinden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Famars" title="Battle of Famars">Battle of Famars</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 May 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_expedition_to_Sardinia" title="French expedition to Sardinia">Expedition to Sardinia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(21 Dec 1792 - 25 May 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kaiserslautern" title="Battle of Kaiserslautern">Battle of Kaiserslautern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mainz_(1793)" title="Siege of Mainz (1793)">Siege of Mainz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wattignies" title="Battle of Wattignies">Battle of Wattignies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hondschoote" title="Battle of Hondschoote">Battle of Hondschoote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Bellegarde_(1793)" title="Siege of Bellegarde (1793)">Siege of Bellegarde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peyrestortes" title="Battle of Peyrestortes">Battle of Peyrestortes (Pyrenees)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Toulon" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Toulon">Siege of Toulon</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Sep – 18 Dec 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Wissembourg_(1793)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Battle of Wissembourg (1793)">First Battle of Wissembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(13 Oct 1793)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Truillas" title="Battle of Truillas">Battle of Truillas (Pyrenees)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Wissembourg_(1793)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Battle of Wissembourg (1793)">Second Battle of Wissembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26–27 Dec 1793)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1794_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1794</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Villers-en-Cauchies" title="Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies">Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(24 Apr 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Boulou" title="Second Battle of Boulou">Second Battle of Boulou</a> (Pyrenees) <span style="font-size:85%;">(30 Apr – 1 May 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tourcoing" title="Battle of Tourcoing">Battle of Tourcoing</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 May 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tournay_(1794)" title="Battle of Tournay (1794)">Battle of Tournay</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 May 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glorious_First_of_June" title="Glorious First of June">Glorious First of June</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1 Jun 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fleurus_(1794)" title="Battle of Fleurus (1794)">Battle of Fleurus</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26 Jun 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chouannerie" title="Chouannerie">Chouannerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aldenhoven_(1794)" title="Battle of Aldenhoven (1794)">Battle of Aldenhoven</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2 Oct 1794)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1794-95)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1794-95)">Siege of Luxembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Nov 1794 - 7 Jun 1795)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1795_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1795 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1795</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Luxembourg_(1794-95)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Luxembourg (1794-95)">Siege of Luxembourg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(22 Nov 1794 - 7 Jun 1795)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Basel" title="Peace of Basel">Peace of Basel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1796_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1796 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1796</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_of_1796%E2%80%931797" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign of 1796–1797">Italian campaign</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lonato" title="Battle of Lonato">Battle of Lonato</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3–4 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Castiglione" title="Battle of Castiglione">Battle of Castiglione</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Theiningen" title="Battle of Theiningen">Battle of Theiningen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neresheim" title="Battle of Neresheim">Battle of Neresheim</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(11 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amberg" title="Battle of Amberg">Battle of Amberg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(24 Aug 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_W%C3%BCrzburg" title="Battle of Würzburg">Battle of Würzburg</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3 Sep 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rovereto" title="Battle of Rovereto">Battle of Rovereto</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4 Sep 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bassano" title="Battle of Bassano">First Battle of Bassano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(8 Sep 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Emmendingen" title="Battle of Emmendingen">Battle of Emmendingen</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(19 Oct 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Schliengen" title="Battle of Schliengen">Battle of Schliengen</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(26 Oct 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bassano" title="Second Battle of Bassano">Second Battle of Bassano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(6 Nov 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Calliano" title="Battle of Calliano">Battle of Calliano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(6–7 Nov 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arcole" title="Battle of Arcole">Battle of Arcole</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(15–17 Nov 1796)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_expedition_to_Ireland_(1796)" title="French expedition to Ireland (1796)">Ireland expedition</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Dec 1796)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1797_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1797 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1797</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Campaign_of_1796-1797" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign of 1796-1797">Italian campaign</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_13_January_1797" title="Action of 13 January 1797">Naval Engagement off Brittany</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(13 Jan 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rivoli" title="Battle of Rivoli">Battle of Rivoli</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(14–15 Jan 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_25_January_1797" title="Action of 25 January 1797">Battle of the Bay of Cádiz</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Jan 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Leoben" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Leoben">Treaty of Leoben</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Apr 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Neuwied_(1797)" title="Battle of Neuwied (1797)">Battle of Neuwied</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Apr 1797)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Campo_Formio" title="Treaty of Campo Formio">Treaty of Campo Formio</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17 Oct 1797)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1798_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1798 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1798</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_invasion_of_Switzerland" title="French invasion of Switzerland">French invasion of Switzerland</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(28 January – 17 May 1798)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French Invasion of Egypt</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1798–1801)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798#French_landing" title="Irish Rebellion of 1798">Irish Rebellion of 1798</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(23 May – 23 Sep 1798)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1798–1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_War_(1798)" title="Peasants' War (1798)">Peasants' War</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(12 Oct – 5 Dec 1798)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1799_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="Campaigns of 1799 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1799</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">Second Coalition</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1798–1802)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Acre_(1799)" title="Siege of Acre (1799)">Siege of Acre</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20 Mar – 21 May 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ostrach" title="Battle of Ostrach">Battle of Ostrach</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(20–21 Mar 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stockach_(1799)" title="Battle of Stockach (1799)">Battle of Stockach</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Mar 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Magnano" title="Battle of Magnano">Battle of Magnano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(5 Apr 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cassano_(1799)" title="Battle of Cassano (1799)">Battle of Cassano</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(27–28 Apr 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Zurich" title="First Battle of Zurich">First Battle of Zurich</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(4–7 Jun 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trebbia_(1799)" title="Battle of Trebbia (1799)">Battle of Trebbia</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(17–20 Jun 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Novi_(1799)" title="Battle of Novi (1799)">Battle of Novi</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(15 Aug 1799)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Zurich" title="Second Battle of Zurich">Second Battle of Zurich</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25–26 Sep 1799)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1800_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaigns of 1800 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1800</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marengo" title="Battle of Marengo">Battle of Marengo</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(14 Jun 1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Alessandria" title="Convention of Alessandria">Convention of Alessandria</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(15 Jun 1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hohenlinden" title="Battle of Hohenlinden">Battle of Hohenlinden</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(3 Dec 1800)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_League_of_Armed_Neutrality" title="Second League of Armed Neutrality">League of Armed Neutrality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1800–02)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_1801_in_the_French_Revolutionary_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaigns of 1801 in the French Revolutionary Wars">1801</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lun%C3%A9ville" title="Treaty of Lunéville">Treaty of Lunéville</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(9 Feb 1801)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Florence" title="Treaty of Florence">Treaty of Florence</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(18 Mar 1801)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeciras_campaign" title="Algeciras campaign">Algeciras campaign</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(8 Jul 1801)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1802</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens" title="Treaty of Amiens">Treaty of Amiens</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Mar 1802)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1802)" title="Treaty of Paris (1802)">Treaty of Paris</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(25 Jun 1802)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Military_leaders" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military leaders</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic"><img alt="French First Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/23px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/35px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/45px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">France</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Army" title="French Revolutionary Army">French Army</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eustache_Charles_d%27Aoust" title="Eustache Charles d'Aoust">Eustache Charles d'Aoust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Augereau" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Augereau">Pierre Augereau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Beauharnais" title="Alexandre de Beauharnais">Alexandre de Beauharnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_XIV_John" title="Charles XIV John">Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Alexandre_Berthier" title="Louis-Alexandre Berthier">Louis-Alexandre Berthier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Bessi%C3%A8res" title="Jean-Baptiste Bessières">Jean-Baptiste Bessières</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoléon Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Brune" title="Guillaume Brune">Guillaume Brune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Fran%C3%A7ois_Carteaux" title="Jean François Carteaux">Jean François Carteaux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-%C3%89tienne_Championnet" title="Jean-Étienne Championnet">Jean-Étienne Championnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bertin_Gaston_Chapuis_de_Tourville" title="Charles Bertin Gaston Chapuis de Tourville">Chapuis de Tourville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Philippe,_Comte_de_Custine" title="Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine">Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Nicolas_Davout" title="Louis-Nicolas Davout">Louis-Nicolas Davout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Desaix" title="Louis Desaix">Louis Desaix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dugommier" title="Jacques François Dugommier">Jacques François Dugommier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas-Alexandre_Dumas" title="Thomas-Alexandre Dumas">Thomas-Alexandre Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dumouriez" title="Charles François Dumouriez">Charles François Dumouriez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Marie_Barth%C3%A9lemy_Ferino" title="Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino">Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Charles_de_Flers" title="Louis-Charles de Flers">Louis-Charles de Flers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grenier" title="Paul Grenier">Paul Grenier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_de_Grouchy,_marquis_de_Grouchy" title="Emmanuel de Grouchy, marquis de Grouchy">Emmanuel de Grouchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maurice_Hatry" title="Jacques Maurice Hatry">Jacques Maurice Hatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazare_Hoche" title="Lazare Hoche">Lazare Hoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Jourdan" title="Jean-Baptiste Jourdan">Jean-Baptiste Jourdan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Christophe_de_Kellermann" title="François Christophe de Kellermann">François Christophe de Kellermann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Kl%C3%A9ber" title="Jean-Baptiste Kléber">Jean-Baptiste Kléber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Choderlos_de_Laclos" title="Pierre Choderlos de Laclos">Pierre Choderlos de Laclos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lannes" title="Jean Lannes">Jean Lannes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Leclerc_(general,_born_1772)" title="Charles Leclerc (general, born 1772)">Charles Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Lecourbe" title="Claude Lecourbe">Claude Lecourbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Joseph_Lefebvre" title="François Joseph Lefebvre">François Joseph Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Macdonald" title="Étienne Macdonald">Étienne Macdonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Marbot" title="Jean-Antoine Marbot">Jean-Antoine Marbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellin_Marbot" title="Marcellin Marbot">Marcellin Marbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_S%C3%A9verin_Marceau" title="François Séverin Marceau">François Séverin Marceau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_de_Marmont" title="Auguste de Marmont">Auguste de Marmont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Mass%C3%A9na" title="André Masséna">André Masséna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bon-Adrien_Jeannot_de_Moncey" title="Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey">Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Victor_Marie_Moreau" title="Jean Victor Marie Moreau">Jean Victor Marie Moreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Mortier,_Duke_of_Tr%C3%A9vise" class="mw-redirect" title="Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise">Édouard Mortier, Duke of Trévise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Murat" title="Joachim Murat">Joachim Murat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Ney" title="Michel Ney">Michel Ney</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pierre-Jacques_Osten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pierre-Jacques Osten (page does not exist)">Pierre-Jacques Osten</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre-Jacques_Osten" class="extiw" title="fr:Pierre-Jacques Osten">fr</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Oudinot" title="Nicolas Oudinot">Nicolas Oudinot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine-Dominique_de_P%C3%A9rignon" title="Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon">Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Charles_Pichegru" title="Jean-Charles Pichegru">Jean-Charles Pichegru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Poniatowski" title="Józef Poniatowski">Józef Poniatowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurent_de_Gouvion_Saint-Cyr" title="Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr">Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barth%C3%A9lemy_Louis_Joseph_Sch%C3%A9rer" title="Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer">Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Mathieu-Philibert_S%C3%A9rurier" title="Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier">Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Souham" title="Joseph Souham">Joseph Souham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-de-Dieu_Soult" title="Jean-de-Dieu Soult">Jean-de-Dieu Soult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Gabriel_Suchet" title="Louis-Gabriel Suchet">Louis-Gabriel Suchet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude-Henri_Belgrand_de_Vaubois" title="Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois">Belgrand de Vaubois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude-Victor_Perrin" title="Claude-Victor Perrin">Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/French_Navy#18th_century" title="French Navy">French Navy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Alexandre_L%C3%A9on_Durand_Linois" title="Charles-Alexandre Léon Durand Linois">Charles-Alexandre Linois</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Coalition_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Coalition Wars">Opposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire"><img alt="Austrian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Habsburg_Monarchy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zsef_Alvinczi" title="József Alvinczi">József Alvinczi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archduke_Charles,_Duke_of_Teschen" title="Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen">Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_S%C3%A9bastien_Charles_Joseph_de_Croix,_Count_of_Clerfayt" title="François Sébastien Charles Joseph de Croix, Count of Clerfayt">Count of Clerfayt <span style="font-size:85%;">(Walloon)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Aloys_zu_F%C3%BCrstenberg" title="Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg">Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Freiherr_von_Hotze" title="Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze">Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze <span style="font-size:85%;">(Swiss)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Adolf,_Count_von_Kalckreuth" title="Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth">Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kray" title="Paul Kray">Pál Kray <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hungarian)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Eugene,_Prince_of_Lambesc" title="Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc">Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc <span style="font-size:85%;">(French)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilian_Anton_Karl,_Count_Baillet_de_Latour" title="Maximilian Anton Karl, Count Baillet de Latour">Maximilian Baillet de Latour <span style="font-size:85%;">(Walloon)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Mack_von_Leiberich" title="Karl Mack von Leiberich">Karl Mack von Leiberich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Ritter_von_Otto" title="Rudolf Ritter von Otto">Rudolf Ritter von Otto <span style="font-size:85%;">(Saxon)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Josias_of_Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld" title="Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld">Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Vitus_von_Quosdanovich" title="Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich">Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Heinrich_XV_of_Reuss-Plauen" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen">Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_M%C3%A9sz%C3%A1ros_von_Szoboszl%C3%B3" title="Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló">Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hungarian)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Philipp_Sebottendorf" title="Karl Philipp Sebottendorf">Karl Philipp Sebottendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagobert_Sigmund_von_Wurmser" title="Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser">Dagobert von Wurmser</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain"><img alt="Kingdom of Great Britain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Great_Britain_%281707%E2%80%931800%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sir" title="Sir">Sir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abercromby" title="Ralph Abercromby">Ralph Abercromby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Saumarez,_1st_Baron_de_Saumarez" title="James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez">James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Pellew,_1st_Viscount_Exmouth" title="Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth">Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Frederick,_Duke_of_York_and_Albany" title="Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany">Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic"><img alt="Dutch Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/23px-Statenvlag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/35px-Statenvlag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Statenvlag.svg/45px-Statenvlag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Netherlands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_V,_Prince_of_Orange" title="William V, Prince of Orange">William V, Prince of Orange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia"><img alt="Kingdom of Prussia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Prussia_%281803-1892%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_William_Ferdinand,_Duke_of_Brunswick" title="Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick">Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Louis,_Prince_of_Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen">Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire"><img alt="Russian Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Korsakov" title="Alexander Korsakov">Alexander Korsakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Suvorov" title="Alexander Suvorov">Alexander Suvorov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Rosenberg" title="Andrei Rosenberg">Andrei Rosenberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain"><img alt="Spain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Spain_(1700%E2%80%931810)#Charles_IV,_decline_and_fall_(1788–1808)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Spain (1700–1810)">Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Firm%C3%ADn_de_Carvajal,_Conde_de_la_Uni%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Firmín de Carvajal, Conde de la Unión">Luis Firmin de Carvajal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Ricardos" title="Antonio Ricardos">Antonio Ricardos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Other_significant_figures_and_factions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other significant figures and factions</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Patriotic_Society_of_1789" title="Patriotic Society of 1789">Patriotic Society of 1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sylvain_Bailly" title="Jean Sylvain Bailly">Jean Sylvain Bailly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette" title="Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette">Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Alexandre_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric,_duc_de_la_Rochefoucauld-Liancourt" class="mw-redirect" title="François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt">François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Ren%C3%A9_Guy_le_Chapelier" title="Isaac René Guy le Chapelier">Isaac René Guy le Chapelier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti,_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Nicolas de Condorcet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Feuillant_(political_group)" title="Feuillant (political group)">Feuillants</a><br />and <i><a href="/wiki/Club_de_Clichy" title="Club de Clichy">monarchiens</a></i></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grace_Elliott" title="Grace Elliott">Grace Elliott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnaud_II_de_La_Porte" title="Arnaud II de La Porte">Arnaud de La Porte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Sifrein_Maury" title="Jean-Sifrein Maury">Jean-Sifrein Maury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Marie,_marquis_de_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy">François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Mathieu_Dumas" title="Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas">Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Barnave" title="Antoine Barnave">Antoine Barnave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_du_Motier,_Marquis_de_Lafayette" title="Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette">Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre-Th%C3%A9odore-Victor,_comte_de_Lameth" title="Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth">Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Malo_Fran%C3%A7ois_Lameth" title="Charles Malo François Lameth">Charles Malo François Lameth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Ch%C3%A9nier" title="André Chénier">André Chénier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Rewbell" title="Jean-François Rewbell">Jean-François Rewbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Jordan_(politician)" title="Camille Jordan (politician)">Camille Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">Madame de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Antoine_de_Boissy_d%27Anglas" title="François Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas">Boissy d'Anglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Charles_Pichegru" title="Jean-Charles Pichegru">Jean-Charles Pichegru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Paul_Royer-Collard" title="Pierre Paul Royer-Collard">Pierre Paul Royer-Collard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Bar%C3%A8re" title="Bertrand Barère">Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Girondins" title="Girondins">Girondins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Pierre_Brissot" title="Jacques Pierre Brissot">Jacques Pierre Brissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Roland_de_la_Plati%C3%A8re" title="Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière">Jean-Marie Roland de la Platière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madame_Roland" title="Madame Roland">Madame Roland</a></li> <li>Father <a href="/wiki/Henri_Gr%C3%A9goire" title="Henri Grégoire">Henri Grégoire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Clavi%C3%A8re" title="Étienne Clavière">Étienne Clavière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Marquis de Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Corday" title="Charlotte Corday">Charlotte Corday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie-Jean_H%C3%A9rault_de_S%C3%A9chelles" title="Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles">Marie Jean Hérault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Treilhard" title="Jean Baptiste Treilhard">Jean Baptiste Treilhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Victurnien_Vergniaud" title="Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud">Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_P%C3%A9tion_de_Villeneuve" title="Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve">Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Debry" title="Jean Debry">Jean Debry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympe_de_Gouges" title="Olympe de Gouges">Olympe de Gouges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Robert_Lindet" title="Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet">Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Marie_de_La_R%C3%A9velli%C3%A8re-L%C3%A9peaux" title="Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux">Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Plain" title="The Plain">The Plain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Abbé Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Jacques_R%C3%A9gis_de_Cambac%C3%A9r%C3%A8s" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès">de Cambacérès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lebrun" title="Charles-François Lebrun">Charles-François Lebrun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Cambon" title="Pierre-Joseph Cambon">Pierre-Joseph Cambon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Bar%C3%A8re" title="Bertrand Barère">Bertrand Barère</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazare_Carnot" title="Lazare Carnot">Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_II,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans">Philippe Égalité</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Gabriel_Riqueti,_comte_de_Mirabeau" title="Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau">Mirabeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Christophe_Merlin" title="Antoine Christophe Merlin">Antoine Christophe Merlin de Thionville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Joseph_Mounier" title="Jean Joseph Mounier">Jean Joseph Mounier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Samuel_du_Pont_de_Nemours" title="Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours">Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Neufch%C3%A2teau" class="mw-redirect" title="François de Neufchâteau">François de Neufchâteau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/The_Mountain" title="The Mountain">Montagnards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Maximilien Robespierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Danton" title="Georges Danton">Georges Danton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Marat" title="Jean-Paul Marat">Jean-Paul Marat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Desmoulins" title="Camille Desmoulins">Camille Desmoulins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine_de_Saint-Just" title="Louis Antoine de Saint-Just">Louis Antoine de Saint-Just</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Barras" title="Paul Barras">Paul Barras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis-Michel_le_Peletier,_marquis_de_Saint-Fargeau" title="Louis-Michel le Peletier, marquis de Saint-Fargeau">Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Marquis de Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Couthon" title="Georges Couthon">Georges Couthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Ducos" title="Roger Ducos">Roger Ducos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Marie_Collot_d%27Herbois" title="Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois">Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Voulland" title="Jean-Henri Voulland">Jean-Henri Voulland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe-Antoine_Merlin_de_Douai" title="Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai">Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Quentin_Fouquier-Tinville" title="Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville">Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe-Fran%C3%A7ois-Joseph_Le_Bas" title="Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas">Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc-Guillaume_Alexis_Vadier" title="Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier">Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre-Andr%C3%A9_Amar" title="Jean-Pierre-André Amar">Jean-Pierre-André Amar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Antoine,_comte_Prieur-Duvernois" title="Claude Antoine, comte Prieur-Duvernois">Prieur de la Côte-d'Or</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Prieur" title="Pierre Louis Prieur">Prieur de la Marne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Romme" title="Gilbert Romme">Gilbert Romme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bon_Saint-Andr%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean Bon Saint-André">Jean Bon Saint-André</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Lambert_Tallien" title="Jean-Lambert Tallien">Jean-Lambert Tallien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Prieur" title="Pierre Louis Prieur">Pierre Louis Prieur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Christophe_Saliceti" title="Antoine Christophe Saliceti">Antoine Christophe Saliceti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9bertists" title="Hébertists">Hébertists</a><br />and <i><a href="/wiki/Enrag%C3%A9s" title="Enragés">Enragés</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Jacques Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Nicolas_Billaud-Varenne" title="Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne">Jacques-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gaspard_Chaumette" title="Pierre Gaspard Chaumette">Pierre Gaspard Chaumette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Philippe_Ronsin" title="Charles-Philippe Ronsin">Charles-Philippe Ronsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Momoro" title="Antoine-François Momoro">Antoine-François Momoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Nicolas_Vincent" title="François-Nicolas Vincent">François-Nicolas Vincent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Chabot" title="François Chabot">François Chabot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_No%C3%ABl_Bouchotte" title="Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte">Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Joseph_Gobel" title="Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel">Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Hanriot" title="François Hanriot">François Hanriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Roux" title="Jacques Roux">Jacques Roux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanislas-Marie_Maillard" title="Stanislas-Marie Maillard">Stanislas-Marie Maillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Philippe_Ronsin" title="Charles-Philippe Ronsin">Charles-Philippe Ronsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Varlet" title="Jean-François Varlet">Jean-François Varlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Th%C3%A9ophile_Victor_Leclerc" title="Jean Théophile Victor Leclerc">Theophile Leclerc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claire_Lacombe" title="Claire Lacombe">Claire Lacombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_L%C3%A9on" title="Pauline Léon">Pauline Léon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-No%C3%ABl_Babeuf" title="François-Noël Babeuf">Gracchus Babeuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvain_Mar%C3%A9chal" title="Sylvain Maréchal">Sylvain Maréchal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_X_of_France" title="Charles X of France">Charles X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI" title="Louis XVI">Louis XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVII" title="Louis XVII">Louis XVII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVIII" title="Louis XVIII">Louis XVIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Antoine,_Duke_of_Enghien" title="Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien">Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Henri,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis Henri, Prince of Condé">Louis Henri, Prince of Condé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Joseph,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9" title="Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé">Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoléon Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucien_Bonaparte" title="Lucien Bonaparte">Lucien Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Fesch" title="Joseph Fesch">Joseph Fesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9phine_de_Beauharnais" title="Joséphine de Beauharnais">Joséphine de Beauharnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Murat" title="Joachim Murat">Joachim Murat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Sylvain_Bailly" title="Jean Sylvain Bailly">Jean Sylvain Bailly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-Donatien_Le_Ray_de_Chaumont" title="Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont">Jacques-Donatien Le Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume-Chr%C3%A9tien_de_Lamoignon_de_Malesherbes" title="Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes">Guillaume-Chrétien de Malesherbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurice_de_Talleyrand-P%C3%A9rigord" title="Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord">Talleyrand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9r%C3%A9sa_Tallien" title="Thérésa Tallien">Thérésa Tallien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gui-Jean-Baptiste_Target" title="Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target">Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Th%C3%A9ot" title="Catherine Théot">Catherine Théot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_Louise_of_Savoy,_Princesse_de_Lamballe" title="Marie Thérèse Louise of Savoy, Princesse de Lamballe">Madame de Lamballe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madame_du_Barry" title="Madame du Barry">Madame du Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Auguste_Le_Tonnelier_de_Breteuil" title="Louis Auguste Le Tonnelier de Breteuil">Louis de Breteuil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Ren%C3%A9_de_Chateaubriand" title="François-René de Chateaubriand">de Chateaubriand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Chouan" title="Jean Chouan">Jean Chouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Charles_de_Lom%C3%A9nie_de_Brienne" title="Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne">Loménie de Brienne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Alexandre_de_Calonne" title="Charles Alexandre de Calonne">Charles Alexandre de Calonne</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jacques Necker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Duval_d%27Epr%C3%A9mesnil" title="Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil">Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_associated_with_the_French_Revolution" title="List of people associated with the French Revolution">List of people associated with the French Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Factions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacobins" title="Jacobins">Jacobins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cordeliers" title="Cordeliers">Cordeliers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on_Club" title="Panthéon Club">Panthéon Club</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Friends_of_Truth" title="Society of the Friends of Truth">Social Club</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Influential_thinkers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Influential thinkers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Les Lumières</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Beaumarchais" title="Pierre Beaumarchais">Beaumarchais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anacharsis_Cloots" title="Anacharsis Cloots">Anacharsis Cloots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Claude_Fran%C3%A7ois_Daunou" title="Pierre Claude François Daunou">Pierre Claude François Daunou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Diderot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Abbé Sieyès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Cultural_impact" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Cultural impact</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/La_Marseillaise" title="La Marseillaise">La Marseillaise</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cockade_of_France" title="Cockade of France">Cockade of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_France" title="Flag of France">Flag of France</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Libert%C3%A9,_%C3%A9galit%C3%A9,_fraternit%C3%A9" title="Liberté, égalité, fraternité">Liberté, égalité, fraternité</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marianne" title="Marianne">Marianne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscadin" title="Muscadin">Muscadin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastille_Day" title="Bastille Day">Bastille Day</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Panth%C3%A9on" title="Panthéon">Panthéon</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Republican_calendar" title="French Republican calendar">French Republican calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metric_system" title="Metric system">Metric system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_the_Supreme_Being" title="Cult of the Supreme Being">Cult of the Supreme Being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_Reason" title="Cult of Reason">Cult of Reason</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Reason" title="Temple of Reason">Temple of Reason</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Sans-culottes" title="Sans-culottes">Sans-culottes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_cap" title="Phrygian cap">Phrygian cap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_French_Revolution" title="Women in the French Revolution">Women in the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incroyables_and_merveilleuses" title="Incroyables and merveilleuses">Incroyables and merveilleuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_in_the_French_Revolution" title="Symbolism in the French Revolution">Symbolism in the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Historiography of the French Revolution">Historiography of the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_the_French_Revolution" title="Influence of the French Revolution">Influence of the French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_during_the_French_Revolution_and_French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="List of films set during the French Revolution and French Revolutionary Wars">Films</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q123062#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div 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style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/11878580X">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79079293">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12058082k">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12058082k">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/031265032">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Necker, Jacques <1732-1804>"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/SBLV202408">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35793792">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ola2007365028&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX966851">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/143894">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068636970">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90261687">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000499092&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000140878">Chile</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=166689">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogo.bn.gov.ar/F/?func=direct&local_base=BNA10&doc_number=000052373">Argentina</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810598633405606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/101967">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007265978605171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058513898806706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14628153">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA04647171?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500354260">ULAN</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1090498">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd11878580X.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/11878580X">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028824490">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/015905">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w61z46b8">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" 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