Effects of Oxide Powders as Activating Flux on AMIG 304L Welds

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} div.type-section h2 { font-size: 20px; line-height: 26px; font-weight: 300; } div.type-section h3 { margin-left: 15px; margin-bottom: 0px; font-weight: 300; } .journal-tabs .tab-title.active a { } </style> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/slick.css?f38b2db10e01b157?1739771134"> <meta name="title" content="Effects of Oxide Powders as Activating Flux on AMIG 304L Welds"> <meta name="description" content="Activating metal inert gas (AMIG) welding was designed to address difficulties with MIG welding, such as the limitation on workpiece thickness that may be welded in a single pass. This investigation was carried out on 304L stainless steel using ER 308L as a filler metal. Five oxides (SiO2, TiO2, Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and Cr2O3) have been investigated without edge preparation. The welded joints were evaluated for weld morphology, microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion, and the findings were compared. The depth of the AMIG weld was determined to be greater than that of the MIG weld. The microstructure is composed of austenitic and retained delta ferrite with 3.3% for MIG and up to 8% for AMIG weld carried out with Cr2O3 oxide flux, the tensile strength is up to 604 MPa when using Cr2O3 oxide against MIG weld (532 MPa), and the resistance to sudden load in AMIG welds (189 J/cm2) is higher than that of MIG weld (149 J/cm2). The corrosion resistance of the weld made with Fe2O3 oxide flux is greater than that of the other AMIG and MIG welds, as well as the parent metal. The AMIG welding technique variant enhances productivity and decreases the cost and energy consumption of the welding material compared to the traditional MIG process. This allows for joining the same thickness without affecting mechanical properties and corrosion resistance, meeting the industry’s requirements." > <link rel="image_src" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/crystals-logo.png?a2c22e8538083c0b" > <meta name="dc.title" content="Effects of Oxide Powders as Activating Flux on AMIG 304L Welds"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Kamel Touileb"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Rachid Djoudjou"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Abousoufiane Ouis"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Abdeljlil Chihaoui Hedhibi"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Hussein Alrobei"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Ibrahim Abdullah Alnaser"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Rizwan Ahmed Malik"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Ubair Abdus Samad"> <meta name="dc.type" content="Article"> <meta name="dc.source" content="Crystals 2024, Vol. 14, Page 902"> <meta name="dc.date" content="2024-10-18"> <meta name ="dc.identifier" content="10.3390/cryst14100902"> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="dc.rights" content="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/"> <meta name="dc.format" content="application/pdf" > <meta name="dc.language" content="en" > <meta name="dc.description" content="Activating metal inert gas (AMIG) welding was designed to address difficulties with MIG welding, such as the limitation on workpiece thickness that may be welded in a single pass. This investigation was carried out on 304L stainless steel using ER 308L as a filler metal. Five oxides (SiO2, TiO2, Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and Cr2O3) have been investigated without edge preparation. The welded joints were evaluated for weld morphology, microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion, and the findings were compared. The depth of the AMIG weld was determined to be greater than that of the MIG weld. The microstructure is composed of austenitic and retained delta ferrite with 3.3% for MIG and up to 8% for AMIG weld carried out with Cr2O3 oxide flux, the tensile strength is up to 604 MPa when using Cr2O3 oxide against MIG weld (532 MPa), and the resistance to sudden load in AMIG welds (189 J/cm2) is higher than that of MIG weld (149 J/cm2). The corrosion resistance of the weld made with Fe2O3 oxide flux is greater than that of the other AMIG and MIG welds, as well as the parent metal. The AMIG welding technique variant enhances productivity and decreases the cost and energy consumption of the welding material compared to the traditional MIG process. This allows for joining the same thickness without affecting mechanical properties and corrosion resistance, meeting the industry’s requirements." > <meta name="dc.subject" content="AMIG welding" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="304L stainless steel" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="activating flux" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="mechanical properties" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="corrosion resistance" > <meta name ="prism.issn" content="2073-4352"> <meta name ="prism.publicationName" content="Crystals"> <meta name ="prism.publicationDate" content="2024-10-18"> <meta name ="prism.volume" content="14"> <meta name ="prism.number" content="10"> <meta name ="prism.section" content="Article" > <meta name ="prism.startingPage" content="902" > <meta name="citation_issn" content="2073-4352"> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Crystals"> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="citation_title" content="Effects of Oxide Powders as Activating Flux on AMIG 304L Welds"> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2024/10"> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2024/10/18"> <meta name="citation_volume" content="14"> <meta name="citation_issue" content="10"> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="902"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Touileb, Kamel"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Djoudjou, Rachid"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Ouis, Abousoufiane"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Hedhibi, Abdeljlil Chihaoui"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Alrobei, Hussein"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Alnaser, Ibrahim Abdullah"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Malik, Rizwan Ahmed"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Abdus Samad, Ubair"> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.3390/cryst14100902"> <meta name="citation_id" content="mdpi-cryst14100902"> <meta name="citation_abstract_html_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902"> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/pdf?version=1729243614"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/pdf" title="PDF Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/pdf?version=1729243614"> <meta name="fulltext_pdf" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/pdf?version=1729243614"> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/htm"> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" title="HTML Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/htm"> <meta name="fulltext_html" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/htm"> <link rel="alternate" type="text/xml" title="XML Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/xml"> <meta name="fulltext_xml" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/xml"> <meta name="citation_xml_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/xml"> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@MDPIOpenAccess" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/crystals-logo-social.png?a2c22e8538083c0b" /> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="131189377574"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="MDPI"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Effects of Oxide Powders as Activating Flux on AMIG 304L Welds" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Activating metal inert gas (AMIG) welding was designed to address difficulties with MIG welding, such as the limitation on workpiece thickness that may be welded in a single pass. This investigation was carried out on 304L stainless steel using ER 308L as a filler metal. Five oxides (SiO2, TiO2, Fe2O3, Mn2O3, and Cr2O3) have been investigated without edge preparation. The welded joints were evaluated for weld morphology, microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion, and the findings were compared. The depth of the AMIG weld was determined to be greater than that of the MIG weld. The microstructure is composed of austenitic and retained delta ferrite with 3.3% for MIG and up to 8% for AMIG weld carried out with Cr2O3 oxide flux, the tensile strength is up to 604 MPa when using Cr2O3 oxide against MIG weld (532 MPa), and the resistance to sudden load in AMIG welds (189 J/cm2) is higher than that of MIG weld (149 J/cm2). The corrosion resistance of the weld made with Fe2O3 oxide flux is greater than that of the other AMIG and MIG welds, as well as the parent metal. The AMIG welding technique variant enhances productivity and decreases the cost and energy consumption of the welding material compared to the traditional MIG process. This allows for joining the same thickness without affecting mechanical properties and corrosion resistance, meeting the industry’s requirements." /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g001-550.jpg?1729243696" /> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="MDPI Publishing - Latest articles" href="https://www.mdpi.com/rss"> <meta name="google-site-verification" content="PxTlsg7z2S00aHroktQd57fxygEjMiNHydKn3txhvwY"> <meta name="facebook-domain-verification" content="mcoq8dtq6sb2hf7z29j8w515jjoof7" /> <script id="Cookiebot" data-cfasync="false" src="https://consent.cookiebot.com/uc.js" data-cbid="51491ddd-fe7a-4425-ab39-69c78c55829f" type="text/javascript" async></script>  <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="statistics"> (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); 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itemprop="name"> Effects of Oxide Powders as Activating Flux on AMIG 304L Welds </h1> <div class="art-authors hypothesis_container"> by <span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop13285743' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Kamel Touileb</div><div id="profile-card-drop13285743" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Kamel Touileb</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/1125323?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button 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src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1739771134" title="ORCID" style="position: relative; width: 13px; margin-left: 3px; max-width: 13px !important; height: auto; top: -5px;"></a>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop13285744' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Rachid Djoudjou</div><div id="profile-card-drop13285744" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Rachid Djoudjou</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a 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class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Hussein Alrobei</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/997173?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.com/scholars?q=Hussein%20Alrobei" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Hussein%20Alrobei&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Hussein%20Alrobei" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div><div class="profile-card__biography"><div class="js-profile-card__biography-item js-default-open"> Hussein Alrobei joined the Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Prince bin [...] </div><div class="js-profile-card__biography-item js-default-closed" style="display: none;"> Hussein Alrobei joined the Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University as a Lecturer in 2015, was appointed Assistant Professor in 2018, and is currently an Associate Professor. He received his Bachelor’s in Mechanical Engineering from King Abdul-Aziz University, College of Engineering, Jeddah in 2008, and completed his Master’s and Ph.D., both in Mechanical Engineering from the University of South Florida, College of Engineering, Tampa in 2014 and 2018, respectively. His main research interests are focused on (1) Materials Science and Engineering, and (2) Renewable Energy. </div><div><a href="#" class='js-profile-card__biography-item js-default-open'>Read more</a><a href="#" class='js-profile-card__biography-item js-default-closed' style="display: none;">Read less</a></div></div></div><sup> 1</sup><span style="display: inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="13285747" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#446b272a206927232d6b286b2129252d286934362b302127302d2b2a6774747072727c747d747075257473742574207475767c757c7526747d7520707274207427752070727526747d"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a><a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5294-9678" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1739771134" title="ORCID" style="position: relative; width: 13px; margin-left: 3px; max-width: 13px !important; height: auto; top: -5px;"></a>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop13285748' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Ibrahim Abdullah Alnaser</div><div id="profile-card-drop13285748" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; 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margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="13285749" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#e5ca868b81c886828cca89ca8088848c89c895978a918086918c8a8bc6d5d5d086d2d7d483d4d6d480d487d4dcd6d7d5d7d5d4d4d6d5d2d086d4d2d4d3d5d2d086d5d4d4d6"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop13285750' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Ubair Abdus Samad</div><div id="profile-card-drop13285750" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/bundles/mdpisciprofileslink/img/unknown-user.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Ubair Abdus Samad</span></div></div></div><div class="profile-card__buttons" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"><a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/916194?utm_source=mdpi.com&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=avatar_name" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> SciProfiles </a><a href="https://scilit.com/scholars?q=Ubair%20Abdus%20Samad" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Scilit </a><a href="https://www.preprints.org/search?search1=Ubair%20Abdus%20Samad&field1=authors" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank"> Preprints.org </a><a href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Ubair%20Abdus%20Samad" class="button button--color-inversed" target="_blank" rels="noopener noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 4</sup><a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5376-9903" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1739771134" title="ORCID" style="position: relative; width: 13px; margin-left: 3px; max-width: 13px !important; height: auto; top: -5px;"></a></span> </div> <div class="nrm"></div> <span style="display:block; height:6px;"></span> <div></div> <div style="margin: 5px 0 15px 0;" class="hypothesis_container"> <div class="art-affiliations"> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>1</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering in Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 655, Al-Kharj 16273, Saudi Arabia</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>2</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Department of Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering in Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 655, Al-Kharj 16273, Saudi Arabia</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>3</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Laboratory of Mechanics of Sousse (LMS), National Engineering School of Sousse, P.O. Box 264, Erriaydh, Sousse 4023, Tunisia</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>4</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Center of Excellence for Research in Engineering Materials (CEREM), King Saud University, P.O. Box 800, Al-Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia</div> </div> <div class="affiliation"> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>*</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="bib-identity" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <em>Crystals</em> <b>2024</b>, <em>14</em>(10), 902; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14100902">https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14100902</a> </div> <div class="pubhistory" style="font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px;"> <span style="display: inline-block">Submission received: 18 September 2024</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Revised: 13 October 2024</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Accepted: 15 October 2024</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Published: 18 October 2024</span> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Special Issue <a href=" /journal/crystals/special_issues/F11TPDY50B ">Welding and Joining of Metallic Materials: Microstructure and Mechanical Properties, 2nd Edition</a>)<br/> </div> <div class="highlight-box1"> <div class="download"> <a class="button button--color-inversed button--drop-down" data-dropdown="drop-download-1501540" aria-controls="drop-supplementary-1501540" aria-expanded="false"> Download <i class="material-icons">keyboard_arrow_down</i> </a> <div id="drop-download-1501540" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--button" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <a class="UD_ArticlePDF" href="/2073-4352/14/10/902/pdf?version=1729243614" data-name="Effects of Oxide Powders as Activating Flux on AMIG 304L Welds" data-journal="crystals">Download PDF</a> <br/> <a id="js-pdf-with-cover-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/2073-4352/14/10/902/pdf-with-cover" class="accessCaptcha">Download PDF with Cover</a> <br/> <a id="js-xml-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/2073-4352/14/10/902/xml" class="accessCaptcha">Download XML</a> <br/> <a href="/2073-4352/14/10/902/epub" id="epub_link">Download Epub</a> <br/> </div> <div class="js-browse-figures" style="display: inline-block;"> <a href="#" class="button button--color-inversed margin-bottom-10 openpopupgallery UI_BrowseArticleFigures" data-target='article-popup' data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/browse" >Browse Figures</a> </div> <div id="article-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g001.png?1729243696" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>MIG welding machine with a motorized carriage.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g002.png?1729243697" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>Flux preparation (<b>a</b>) and deposition before welding (<b>b</b>).</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g003.png?1729243698" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Specimens for mechanical, corrosion, and metallographic tests.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g004.png?1729243698" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>The tensile test specimen (units in mm).</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g005.png?1729243699" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Microhardness indentation locations.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g006.png?1729243699" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Test impact test specimen (units in mm).</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g007.png?1729243702" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>The delta ferrite percentages in MIG weld (<b>a</b>), AMIG weld with SiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>b</b>), AMIG weld with TiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>c</b>), AMIG weld with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>d</b>), AMIG weld with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>e</b>), and AMIG weld with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>f</b>).</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g008a.png?1729243703" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>The EDS point scans in bulk weld zone for MIG (<b>a</b>), AMIG with SiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>b</b>), AMIG with TiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>c</b>), AMIG with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>d</b>), AMIG with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>e</b>), and AMIG with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>f</b>).</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g008b.png?1729243704" title=" <strong>Figure 8 Cont.</strong><br/> <p>The EDS point scans in bulk weld zone for MIG (<b>a</b>), AMIG with SiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>b</b>), AMIG with TiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>c</b>), AMIG with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>d</b>), AMIG with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>e</b>), and AMIG with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>f</b>).</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g009.png?1729243706" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Hardness (Hv) measurements in the weld zone for MIG &amp; AMIG with SiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>a</b>), MIG &amp; AMIG with TiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>b</b>), MIG &amp; AMIG with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>c</b>), MIG &amp; AMIG with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>d</b>), and MIG &amp; AMIG with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>e</b>).</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g010.png?1729243711" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>The fractography for MIG weld (<b>a</b>), AMIG weld with SiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>b</b>), AMIG weld with TiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>c</b>), AMIG weld with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>d</b>), AMIG weld with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>e</b>), and AMIG weldwith Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>f</b>) ×500.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g011.png?1729243714" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Potentiodynamic polarization curves were obtained for base metal, MIG, and AMIG samples.</p> "> </a> </div> <a class="button button--color-inversed" href="/2073-4352/14/10/902/notes">Versions Notes</a> </div> </div> <div class="responsive-moving-container small hidden" data-id="article-counters" style="margin-top: 15px;"></div> <div class="html-dynamic"> <section> <div class="art-abstract art-abstract-new in-tab hypothesis_container"> <p> <div><section class="html-abstract" id="html-abstract"> <h2 id="html-abstract-title">Abstract</h2><b>:</b> <div class="html-p">Activating metal inert gas (AMIG) welding was designed to address difficulties with MIG welding, such as the limitation on workpiece thickness that may be welded in a single pass. This investigation was carried out on 304L stainless steel using ER 308L as a filler metal. Five oxides (SiO<sub>2</sub>, TiO<sub>2</sub>, Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, and Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) have been investigated without edge preparation. The welded joints were evaluated for weld morphology, microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion, and the findings were compared. The depth of the AMIG weld was determined to be greater than that of the MIG weld. The microstructure is composed of austenitic and retained delta ferrite with 3.3% for MIG and up to 8% for AMIG weld carried out with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> oxide flux, the tensile strength is up to 604 MPa when using Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> oxide against MIG weld (532 MPa), and the resistance to sudden load in AMIG welds (189 J/cm<sup>2</sup>) is higher than that of MIG weld (149 J/cm<sup>2</sup>). The corrosion resistance of the weld made with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> oxide flux is greater than that of the other AMIG and MIG welds, as well as the parent metal. The AMIG welding technique variant enhances productivity and decreases the cost and energy consumption of the welding material compared to the traditional MIG process. This allows for joining the same thickness without affecting mechanical properties and corrosion resistance, meeting the industry’s requirements.</div> </section> <div id="html-keywords"> <div class="html-gwd-group"><div id="html-keywords-title">Keywords: </div><a href="/search?q=AMIG+welding">AMIG welding</a>; <a href="/search?q=304L+stainless+steel">304L stainless steel</a>; <a href="/search?q=activating+flux">activating flux</a>; <a href="/search?q=mechanical+properties">mechanical properties</a>; <a href="/search?q=corrosion+resistance">corrosion resistance</a></div> <div> </div> </div> </div> </p> </div> </section> </div> <div class="hypothesis_container"> <ul class="menu html-nav" data-prev-node="#html-quick-links-title"> </ul> <div class="html-body"> <section id='sec1-crystals-14-00902' type='intro'><h2 data-nested='1'> 1. Introduction</h2><div class='html-p'>Welding is a popular fabrication method used in industries. Fusion welding processes are widespread in many industries and are capable of joining several types of materials [<a href="#B1-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">1</a>]. Besides that, solid-state welding is a good substitute for welding light materials to avoid drawbacks faced in fusion welding processes, such as porosities [<a href="#B2-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">2</a>]. Metal inert gas (MIG) welding is a widespread technique used in many industries owing to its simplicity and cost efficiency. In MIG welding, a feed system controls the rate at which a consumable wire electrode is delivered into the weld pool. At the same time, a consistent shield gas surrounds the wire to protect the weld pool from environmental contaminations. The MIG process offers a continuous wire feed, eliminating the requirement to change electrodes. Additionally, MIG welding can be performed at a fast travel speed [<a href="#B3-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">3</a>]. The MIG process allows the welding of different materials, regardless of their type. The only drawback to this process is the multiple passes required to create a fully penetrated weld. Compared with the conventional MIG welding process, AMIG represents an innovative welding technology characterized by exceptional productivity, sound welding, minimal energy consumption, and cost-effectiveness. The equipment used in the AMIG process is identical to that used in the MIG technique, with the exception that a layer of paste is pasted on the edges to be joined before the welding operation takes place. The main mechanisms associated with depth weld enhancement are inverse Marangoni convection and arc constriction [<a href="#B4-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">4</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>The main components of all stainless steels are iron and at least 10.5% chromium. When exposed to oxygen, chromium forms a protective and passive oxide layer that coats the material’s entire surface. The 304L grades have a carbon proportion of no more than 0.03 wt.% [<a href="#B5-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">5</a>]. The austenitic stainless steel with a lower carbon content than the L grades was invented to enhance weldability. Stainless steel is widely used in foodstuffs, power plants, seawater desalination plants, chemical industries, automobiles, shipbuilding, and medical equipment. Austenitic stainless steels exhibit versatility and are widely used due to their ability to resist corrosion and their high strength at elevated temperatures. Austenitic stainless steels (2xx and 3xx series) constitute the most widespread use of stainless steel. Chromium is the main alloying element ranging between 16% and 26% of the steel by mass. Another important alloying agent is nickel, ranging from 6% to 22%. Manganese is included in amounts between 2% and 6%. Smaller quantities of elements like molybdenum, nitrogen, silicon, phosphorus, and sulfur are also present. This material is versatile and popular due to its outstanding corrosion resistance, especially in acidic and alkaline environments [<a href="#B6-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">6</a>]. It also exhibits good performance in cryogenic conditions, maintaining toughness and ductility at very low temperatures, and demonstrating strong high-temperature strength [<a href="#B6-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">6</a>]. In the literature, many studies were focused on comparisons between TIG and activated tungsten inert gas (ATIG) [<a href="#B7-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">7</a>,<a href="#B8-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">8</a>,<a href="#B9-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">9</a>,<a href="#B10-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">10</a>,<a href="#B11-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">11</a>]; but few studies were related to the activated metal inert gas process (AMIG). Several studies were dedicated to MIG welding. Many studies put into practice methods like Taguchi, and response surface methods relate the impact of MIG welding parameters on weld mechanical properties [<a href="#B12-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">12</a>,<a href="#B13-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">13</a>]. Other studies use optimizing methods to find mathematical models from the experimental data to study relationships between process parameters and weld shape morphology and to find out the optimal set of parameters to enhance the weld aspect [<a href="#B14-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">14</a>,<a href="#B15-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">15</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>In their research on GMAW metal mode transfer, Weglowski et al. [<a href="#B16-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">16</a>] observed that the droplet diameter size varied from 1.29 ± 0.25 mm to 0.51 ± 0.15 mm when wire feed rates ranged between 150 and 240 inch/min, under pure argon shield gas. Ibrahim et al. [<a href="#B17-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">17</a>] argue that the microstructure of the grain boundaries shifts from larger to smaller sizes as the welding parameters vary between 150 and 210 A. This change is observed while investigating the impact of GMAW processes on various welding parameters. Sadat Ali Rizvi [<a href="#B18-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">18</a>] has verified that using gas mixtures of Ar with 1% O<sub>2</sub> or Ar with 5% H<sub>2</sub> can effectively increase the depth/width ratio. Conversely, when employing a shielding gas mixture of 50% He and 50% Ar, the weld shape is broad and shallow. Hybrid welding is becoming more and more popular in industries. The combination of various welding methods is used to carry out a single weld bead. This fulfills the demand from industries for a more powerful energy source. Hybrid TIG/MIG welding technology and its application were proposed and some work was conducted [<a href="#B19-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">19</a>]. The TIG/MIG hybrid welding process allows for the welding of similar and dissimilar materials and combines the benefits of both methods [<a href="#B20-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">20</a>,<a href="#B21-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">21</a>,<a href="#B22-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">22</a>].</div><div class='html-p'>The potential benefits of the AMIG process have not received thorough investigation, despite the well-established advantages of the ATIG technique [<a href="#B23-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">23</a>,<a href="#B24-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">24</a>]. So far, numerous researchers have been investigating the impact of ATIG welds, yet there has been relatively limited research on the activated MIG [<a href="#B25-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">25</a>,<a href="#B26-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">26</a>,<a href="#B27-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">27</a>]. The advantages of AMIG welding are low energy consumption and low cost since a thickness of 8 mm can be achieved in one pass [<a href="#B28-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">28</a>,<a href="#B29-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">29</a>]. The literature shows that the main mechanism leading to the increase in the penetration of the weld bead depth is related to the inverse Marangoni effect [<a href="#B30-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">30</a>]. Active fluxes have been tested to improve the form factor of a weld bead. The effect of three different active fluxes on the form factor of the MIG welded stainless steel 202 has been studied. Fluxes such as ammonium ferro-sulfate, sodium bicarbonate, and ammonium carbonate used in activated flux material significantly affect the penetration depth, bead width, and overall weld quality [<a href="#B31-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">31</a>,<a href="#B32-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">32</a>,<a href="#B33-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">33</a>]. Kumar et al. [<a href="#B34-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">34</a>] examined three oxides (Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, TiO<sub>2</sub>, and Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) on a 5 mm thick mild steel sheet. The highest tensile strength was observed in the TiO<sub>2</sub>-coated MIG weld when compared to the other oxides that were tested.</div><div class='html-p'>This study focused on comparing the microstructure, mechanical properties, and corrosion resistance of MIG and AMIG welds. The objective is to explore how the presence of five oxides—TiO<sub>2</sub>, SiO<sub>2</sub>, Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, and Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>—impacts the AMIG welds of 304L stainless steel when using ER 308L filler metal. This work enriches the currently available data on AMIG welding.</div></section><section id='sec2-crystals-14-00902' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 2. Materials and Methods</h2><section id='sec2dot1-crystals-14-00902' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.1. Material</h4><div class='html-p'><a href="#crystals-14-00902-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a> depicts the chemical composition of the stainless steel grade 304L. <a href="#crystals-14-00902-t002" class="html-table">Table 2</a> shows the chemical composition of filler metal ER 308L. <a href="#crystals-14-00902-t003" class="html-table">Table 3</a> depicts the oxide’s thermophysical properties.</div></section><section id='sec2dot2-crystals-14-00902' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.2. Welding Procedure</h4><div class='html-p'>The welding machine used is the ESAB type with a motorized carriage to ensure that the weld is performed at a constant speed and length of arc welding, as shown in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a>. The shielding gas used is argon.</div><div class='html-p'>The experimental procedure involves the welding of a 20 cm line onto a rectangular plate that is 6 mm thick. Before the welding process, the plates measuring 100 × 200 × 6 mm were thoroughly cleaned with acetone. The powders have been individually heated in the furnace at 100 °C for 1 h to remove any moisture. Powdered flux has been combined with acetone in a 1:1 ratio to create a paste. The mixture was then applied to the plain edges using a brush, as depicted in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a>. The flux was applied with a 10 mm wide and 0.2–0.4 mm thick flux on the surface. The micrometric method is utilized to measure the thickness of the flux layer. This approach permits the use of a digital micrometer tool with a measurement error threshold of 5 microns to gauge the thickness of the flux layer. The layer thickness is ascertained by conducting a minimum of five measurements. The thickness of the applied paste is calculated as the mean of five readings.</div><div class='html-p'>The square butt weld design was used to join the joints without any edge preparation. A 1 mm gap distance was maintained while clamping both plates. <a href="#crystals-14-00902-t004" class="html-table">Table 4</a> lists the welding parameters.</div><div class='html-p'>Following the welding process, the samples were cut 30 mm away from the starting welding point to make sure that the arc welding had stabilized, as illustrated in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>. An analysis of the weld morphology for both MIG and AMIG welding was conducted. The weld zone of 304L SS was etched by Glyceregia solution (15 cc HCl + 5 cc HNO<sub>3</sub> + 10 cc glycerol). Subsequently, the weld morphology was examined by optical Motic Images plus version 2.0 software integrated with a microscope CAROLINA (CAROLINA, Burlington, NJ, USA). Measurements of depth and width were obtained from three different zones, and the average and standard deviation were then calculated.</div></section><section id='sec2dot3-crystals-14-00902' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.3. Microstructure Study</h4><div class='html-p'>The JEOL JSM-7600F scanning electron microscope (SEM) (JEOL, Tokyo, Japan) was used to conduct a microstructure study aimed at observing the microstructural differences following both MIG and AMIG welding. Micrographs of the microstructure were captured in the fusion zone.</div></section><section id='sec2dot4-crystals-14-00902' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.4. Tensile Test</h4><div class='html-p'>The testing of tensile strength was carried out at a room temperature of 24 °C, using a computer-controlled electro-hydraulic servo universal testing machine model WAW-300E (Jinan testing equipment IE, Jinan, China), at a test rate of 0.5 mm/min and a low strain rate of 1.5 × 10<sup>⁻4</sup> s<sup>−1</sup>. The specimens were prepared under the ASTM E8M-04 [<a href="#B36-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">36</a>] specifications, as depicted in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a>. Each weld underwent tensile testing using 3 samples.</div></section><section id='sec2dot5-crystals-14-00902' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.5. Hardness Test</h4><div class='html-p'>The digital hardness tester model HVS-500 (SCTMC, Shanghai, China) was used to obtain Vickers hardness measurements in accordance with ASTM E92-82 [<a href="#B36-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">36</a>], applying a standard load of 98 N. Every sample had at least 32 indentations in the weld bead, and the minimum, maximum, and average values were considered based on these indentations, as depicted in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f005" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>. The approximate distance between the two indentations was around 0.5 mm, and the readings were taken at 3 mm from the top of the welds.</div></section><section id='sec2dot6-crystals-14-00902' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.6. Impact Test</h4><div class='html-p'>The Charpy “V” notch impact testing machine model JBS-500 (Jinan testing equipment IE, Jinan, China) was used to conduct the impact tests. The specimens were prepared under ASTM E23 [<a href="#B36-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">36</a>], as shown in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a>, and were fractured in the weld zone during the impact test. Impact tests were conducted at room temperature (24 °C) on 3 samples for each weld.</div></section><section id='sec2dot7-crystals-14-00902' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.7. Corrosion Behavior</h4><div class='html-p'>The specimens for the corrosion resistance studies were made with dimensions of 20 × 10 mm<sup>2</sup>. Before the electrochemical measurements, the samples were all polished using SiC Emri papers to a 1200-grit finish. The tests were performed on stainless steel base metal, MIG, and AMIG welded materials using an AUTOLAB-PGSTAT302N device (Metrohm, Utrecht, The Netherlands) as a potentiostat system. Following a 1 h immersion in a 3.5% solution of NaCl at room temperature, relevant data was gathered, and the potentiodynamic polarization curves were generated. The potential underwent scanning from −1.400 V in the forward direction to 0.6 mV versus Ag/AgCl at a scan rate of 1.0 mV/s. The experiments were conducted with the sample serving as the working electrode, the reference electrode being silver chloride (Ag/AgCl), and platinum (Pt) used as the auxiliary electrode.</div></section></section><section id='sec3-crystals-14-00902' type='results'><h2 data-nested='1'> 3. Results and Discussions</h2><section id='sec3dot1-crystals-14-00902' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.1. Morphology</h4><div class='html-p'><a href="#crystals-14-00902-t005" class="html-table">Table 5</a> displays the morphology of MIG and AMIG welds. In this study, a current of up to 180 A is used, and the deposition rate associated with filler metal occurs in fine droplets, which increases weld penetration. With this level of welding current, we ensure that the filler metal is transferred in small drops. In addition, the penetration depth is also influenced by the diameter of the consumable electrode. The reduction of the electrode diameter (1.2 mm in this study) increases welding current density, leading to an improvement in penetration depth.</div><div class='html-p'>The maximum weld depth is obtained with SiO<sub>2</sub> oxide. The vapors from fluxes migrate to the arc and contribute to shrinking the arc and, consequently, the liquid droplets undergo a constriction, which reduces their size. As the current increases, more and more SiO<sub>2</sub> powder is evaporated, and oxide metal contributes to arc constriction. Oxides with low-tension surfaces facilitate the separation of drops from the end of the consumed electrode. The transfer of molten filler metal during welding occurs in a small drop size.</div><div class='html-p'>The weld performed with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> exhibits the highest aspect ratio with 0.96, which represents a more homogenous shape regarding the weld depth to weld width ratio. The excess root penetration is recommended to be less than 25% of the nominal plate thickness of the thinner component being joined, as suggested by ASME B31.3 [<a href="#B37-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">37</a>]. The excess root is 0.52 mm less than that limited by the required standards. The MIG weld shape shows the largest weld width and smallest depth weld with an aspect ratio of up to 0.70.</div></section><section id='sec3dot2-crystals-14-00902' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.2. Microstructure Study</h4><div class='html-p'>The Creq/Nieq ratio of the filler material as well as the base material has an impact on the microstructure, on the one hand, and the mechanical properties of the weld joint on the other. Moreover, the microstructures of austenitic stainless steel welds depend on their compositions, which are related to the equivalents of Ni (Ni<sub>eq</sub>) and Cr (Cr<sub>eq</sub>). With a low Cr<sub>eq</sub>/Ni<sub>eq</sub> ratio (1.25 < Creq/Nieq < 1.48), the weld zone solidifies as primary austenite (γ) [<a href="#B38-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">38</a>,<a href="#B39-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">39</a>]. The Creq and Nieq calculation is done by Equations (1) and (2) as suggested by DeLong [<a href="#B40-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">40</a>]. <div class='html-disp-formula-info' id=''> <div class='f'> Creq = wt.% Cr + wt.% Mo + 1.5wt.% Si + 0.5wt.% Nb </div> <div class='l'> <label >(1)</label> </div> </div><div class='html-disp-formula-info' id=''> <div class='f'> Nieq = wt.% Ni + 0.5wt.% Mn + 30 (wt.% N + wt.% C) </div> <div class='l'> <label >(2)</label> </div> </div></div><div class='html-p'>With the values of Creq = 18.63, Nieq = 12.9, the DeLong expression is 1.44, which means that the solidification is AF mode according to the following process. <div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD1-crystals-14-00902'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>L</mi> <mo>ⅈ</mo> <mi>q</mi> <mo>→</mo> <mi>L</mi> <mo>ⅈ</mo> <mi>q</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>→</mo> <mi>L</mi> <mo>ⅈ</mo> <mi>q</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>δ</mi> <mo>→</mo> <mi>γ</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>δ</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> </div> </div></div><div class='html-p'>By raising the welding current density in AMIG welds, a higher heat input is generated, resulting in a slower cooling rate. This, in turn, causes the weld to remain at the δ→γ transformation temperature range for a longer period, ultimately leading to the formation of a greater quantity of δ-ferrite into austenite [<a href="#B41-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">41</a>]. The microstructure displayed in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f007" class="html-fig">Figure 7</a>a represents the weld bead area of the MIG weld. In contrast, <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f007" class="html-fig">Figure 7</a>b–f illustrate the same for the AMIG welds, revealing the presence of both delta ferrite (δ) and austenite (γ) phases. After the solidification of the molten metal, an austenitic matrix is immediately formed, followed by the nucleation of δ-ferrite, which starts in a new cooling cycle. As the primary austenite, chromium segregates to the liquid in advance of the solid-liquid interface. This continues until ferrite is formed along sub-grain boundaries during the terminal transient period. In the solidification range’s cooling phase, the majority of the ferrite retains its stability and is visible as a semi-continuous component along the boundaries of grains and sub-grains in the as-welded microstructure [<a href="#B41-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">41</a>]. The delta ferrite solidifies as a vermicular as-welded microstructure, shown in red in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f007" class="html-fig">Figure 7</a>a–f. In primary austenite solidification, a microstructure exhibits ferrite along solidification sub-grain boundaries as shown in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f007" class="html-fig">Figure 7</a>a.</div><div class='html-p'>An analysis utilizing energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) was conducted through a point scan in three different zones in the weld bead zone. The analyses focused on iron, chromium, and nickel distributions in the weld bead cross-section as shown in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f008" class="html-fig">Figure 8</a>. The weight percentages of chromium, nickel, and iron have almost the same values in the range of 67.32–70.85% for iron, 18.79–21.15% for chromium, and 8.92–10.35% for nickel.</div></section><section id='sec3dot3-crystals-14-00902' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.3. Tensile Test</h4><div class='html-p'>In <a href="#crystals-14-00902-t006" class="html-table">Table 6</a>, the ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and the standard deviation of MIG and AMIG welds are displayed. The highest average UTS value is obtained for AMIG welds performed with SiO<sub>2</sub> and Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> flux oxide, up to 604 MPa and 602 MPa, respectively. The lowest UTS is obtained with conventional MIG welding (532 MPa). We notice that the failure occurs in the parent metal side, away from the weld zone, for both MIG and AMIG welds. This indicates that the integrity of the weld joint is safe. Moreover, the oxides used are not detrimental to tensile strength properties. The standard deviation range is between 4 and 6.9 MPa, which can be considered an indication that the test was performed in good condition.</div></section><section id='sec3dot4-crystals-14-00902' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.4. Hardness Test</h4><div class='html-p'>The microhardness readings were plotted in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f009" class="html-fig">Figure 9</a>a–e for MIG and AMIG weldments. The results reveal that the microhardness of the MIG weld zone exceeds that of AMIG welds, irrespective of the oxide type used. The hardness of the MIG weld zone is up to 425 HV. However, the microhardness of AMIG welds is in the range of 400–414 HV, as shown in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-t007" class="html-table">Table 7</a>. The higher hardness values of the MIG weld in comparison to AMIG joints are apparently ascribed to the volume of melted metal. The MIG weld bead size is lesser regarding the morphology results. The melted metal in the MIG weld solidifies relatively faster than AMIG’s melted metal, whereas the width of the MIG weld is wide so the heat produced during the welding process quickly moves to the surrounding area. The average value is a good indicator for comparison between welds.</div><div class='html-p'>The standard deviation is under a value of 6.2 HV. These results confirm small fluctuations between the minimum and maximum hardness values. The standard deviation is low, which attests to the accuracy of the hardness test.</div></section><section id='sec3dot5-crystals-14-00902' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.5. Impact Test</h4><div class='html-p'><a href="#crystals-14-00902-t008" class="html-table">Table 8</a> represents the impact energy and its MIG and AMIG standard deviations at the weld zone. The average absorbed energy in AMIG welding is highest for welds performed by TiO<sub>2</sub>, Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, and Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> oxides (189 J/cm<sup>2</sup>), followed by welds performed with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> oxide (185 J/cm<sup>2</sup>), and finally the AMIG weld carried out with SiO<sub>2</sub> oxide (154 J/cm<sup>2</sup>). The MIG weld absorbs energy of up to 149 J/cm<sup>2</sup>. The results displayed in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-t008" class="html-table">Table 8</a> are in good conformity with the fractography analyses mentioned above. The AMIG welds withstand sudden loads better than MIG welds. The oxide flux used does not alter the impact resistance of the AMIG weld. The standard deviation is under a value of 6.2 J/cm<sup>2</sup>, which attests to the accuracy of the conducted tests.</div><div class='html-p'>The topography of the impact specimens of welded joints was assessed using the SEM to identify the type of failure. <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f010" class="html-fig">Figure 10</a> displays the micrographs of the fractured surfaces of both MIG and AMIG impact test specimens. <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f010" class="html-fig">Figure 10</a>a,b represents the MIG and AMIG weld fractography performed with SiO<sub>2</sub> oxide [<a href="#B42-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">42</a>]. Fine dimples can be observed, and they are separated by facies of quasi-cleavage, indicating that the specimens are less resistant to impact loads. On the other hand, in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f010" class="html-fig">Figure 10</a>c–f we can observe small dimples with spreading small voids indicating that the fracture mode is ductile [<a href="#B43-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">43</a>]. During the impact test, the absorbed energy represents the energy dissipated in the form of deformation and damage such as plastic deformation. Ductile materials exhibit greater toughness compared to brittle materials. As a result, ductile materials generally require more energy to fail than brittle or quasi-brittle materials. In this study, the energy absorbed during the impact test for AMIG welds performed with oxide fluxes, such as Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, and TiO<sub>2</sub>, is higher than that of the MIG weld or the weld carried out with SiO<sub>2</sub>. This is an indicator that the AMIG welds executed with a deposited paste containing Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, and TiO<sub>2</sub> better withstand impact shocks by absorbing more energy. The fractography SEM images are in good concordance with these results.</div></section><section id='sec3dot6-crystals-14-00902' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.6. Corrosion Behaviour</h4><div class='html-p'>The results of the electrochemical corrosion test of the 304L stainless steel base metal, MIG welded material, and AMIG welded materials with four different fluxes (SiO<sub>2</sub>, TiO<sub>2</sub>, Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, and Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) are shown in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f011" class="html-fig">Figure 11</a> and <a href="#crystals-14-00902-t009" class="html-table">Table 9</a>, respectively. The curves in <a href="#crystals-14-00902-f011" class="html-fig">Figure 11</a> show that the different fluxes significantly influenced the corrosion behavior of 304L stainless steel welds. The findings indicate that there has been a change in the corrosion potential of Ecorr. to a more positive value from the base metal of all metal welded with flux, except for SiO<sub>2</sub> flux, in the NaCl environment. The AMIG welded sample with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> flux is followed by welded samples with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> flux, Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> flux, and TiO<sub>2</sub> flux, respectively. On the contrary, the MIG weld and SiO<sub>2</sub> flux are shifted to a more negative value from the base metal. However, the corrosion rate value (CR), characterizing surface material kinetic, was less for all the welded samples with fluxes than MIG and base metal. Furthermore, in a welded sample with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> flux, the lowest corrosion rate value was observed, as compared to the other samples. The AMIG weld with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> flux exhibits a minimum corrosion rate (CR = 0.600 mm/y). This indicates that the flux used in this welding process results in a weld that shows improved resistance to corrosion, compared to the other welds obtained with the other fluxes as well as the MIG weld and the base metal.</div></section></section><section id='sec4-crystals-14-00902' type='conclusions'><h2 data-nested='1'> 4. Conclusions</h2><div class='html-p'>The objective of this research is to conduct a comparison between 304L MIG weld and AMIG welds, utilizing a single oxide flux including SiO<sub>2</sub>, TiO<sub>2</sub>, Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, and Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>. The joints were performed with butt weld design. The following main findings can be drawn:</div><div class='html-p'><dl class='html-bullet'><dt id=''>➢</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>AMIG welds exhibit higher MIG welds regardless of the type of oxide used. The SiO<sub>2</sub> flux allows for AMIG welds with a thickness of 6 mm or more in a single pass and without any edge preparation. The productivity is increased and the complexity of welding work (e.g., edge preparation) is reduced using the AMIG technique. Consequently, AMIG economizes both welding materials and energy consumption.</div></dd><dt id=''>➢</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>The microstructure of the MIG and AMIG welds contains austenitic ferrite and retained delta ferrite. The proportion of δ ferrite in the case of AMIG welds (range between 4.3–8%) is higher than that of MIG welds (3.3%). The proportion of δ ferrite is up to 4.3% for welds carried out with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> oxide, compared to 8% for welds carried out with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> oxide. SEM-EDS analysis shows no difference in chromium, nickel, or iron content in AMIG welds.</div></dd><dt id=''>➢</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>The tensile strength and the resistance to sudden impact are higher for AMIG welds in comparison to MIG welds. The fracture is located at the base metal level. However, the hardness of MIG welds (up to 425 HV) is higher than that of AMIG welds regardless of the type of oxide tested (400 HV–414 HV). The mechanical properties are not altered by the AMIG technique.</div></dd><dt id=''>➢</dt><dd><div class='html-p'>A minimum corrosion rate has been observed for the AMIG welds when compared to the parent metal and the MIG weldment. Moreover, the metal welded with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> flux exhibits better corrosion resistance.</div></dd></dl></div></section> </div> <div class="html-back"> <section class='html-notes'><h2 >Author Contributions</h2><div class='html-p'>Conceptualization, K.T. and R.D.; methodology, K.T., R.D. and A.C.H. software, A.C.H., H.A. and R.A.M.; validation, R.D., K.T. and A.O.; formal analysis, I.A.A., K.T. and U.A.S.; investigation, A.C.H., R.D., U.A.S. and K.T.; resources, K.T., R.D., A.O. and A.C.H.; data curation, I.A.A. and A.O.; writing—original draft preparation, K.T. and R.D.; writing—review and editing, R.D., H.A., K.T. and R.A.M.; visualization, H.A., U.A.S. and K.T.; supervision, K.T., R.D. and A.C.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2>Funding</h2><div class='html-p'>This research received no external funding.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Data Availability Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Conflicts of Interest</h2><div class='html-p'>The authors declare no conflict of interest.</div></section><section id='html-references_list'><h2>References</h2><ol class='html-xx'><li id='B1-crystals-14-00902' class='html-x' data-content='1.'>Shravan, C.; Radhika, N.; Deepak, K.N.H.; Sivasailam, B. A review on welding techniques: Properties, characterizations and engineering applications. <span class='html-italic'>Adv. Mater. Process. Technol.</span> <b>2023</b>, <span class='html-italic'>10</span>, 1–56. 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data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g001.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g001.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g001" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g001-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f001"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 1.</b> MIG welding machine with a motorized carriage.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f001"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 1.</b> MIG welding machine with a motorized carriage.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g001.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g001.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g001" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g001.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-f002"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f002"> <img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g002.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g002.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g002" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g002-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f002"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 2.</b> Flux preparation (<b>a</b>) and deposition before welding (<b>b</b>).  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f002"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 2.</b> Flux preparation (<b>a</b>) and deposition before welding (<b>b</b>).</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g002.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g002.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g002" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g002.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-f003"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f003"> <img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g003.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g003.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g003" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g003-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f003"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 3.</b> Specimens for mechanical, corrosion, and metallographic tests.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f003"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 3.</b> Specimens for mechanical, corrosion, and metallographic tests.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g003.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g003.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g003" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g003.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-f004"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f004"> <img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g004.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g004.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g004" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g004-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f004"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 4.</b> The tensile test specimen (units in mm).  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f004"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 4.</b> The tensile test specimen (units in mm).</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g004.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g004.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g004" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g004.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-f005"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f005"> <img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g005.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g005.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g005" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g005-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f005"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 5.</b> Microhardness indentation locations.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f005"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 5.</b> Microhardness indentation locations.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g005.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g005.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g005" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g005.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-f006"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f006"> <img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g006.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g006.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g006" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g006-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f006"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 6.</b> Test impact test specimen (units in mm).  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f006"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 6.</b> Test impact test specimen (units in mm).</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g006.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g006.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g006" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g006.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-f007"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f007"> <img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g007.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g007.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g007" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g007-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f007"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 7.</b> The delta ferrite percentages in MIG weld (<b>a</b>), AMIG weld with SiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>b</b>), AMIG weld with TiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>c</b>), AMIG weld with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>d</b>), AMIG weld with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>e</b>), and AMIG weld with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>f</b>).  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f007"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 7.</b> The delta ferrite percentages in MIG weld (<b>a</b>), AMIG weld with SiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>b</b>), AMIG weld with TiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>c</b>), AMIG weld with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>d</b>), AMIG weld with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>e</b>), and AMIG weld with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>f</b>).</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g007.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g007.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g007" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g007.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-f008"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f008"> <img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g008a.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g008a.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g008a" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g008a-550.jpg" /><img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g008b.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g008b.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g008b" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g008b-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f008"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 8.</b> The EDS point scans in bulk weld zone for MIG (<b>a</b>), AMIG with SiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>b</b>), AMIG with TiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>c</b>), AMIG with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>d</b>), AMIG with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>e</b>), and AMIG with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>f</b>).  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f008"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 8.</b> The EDS point scans in bulk weld zone for MIG (<b>a</b>), AMIG with SiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>b</b>), AMIG with TiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>c</b>), AMIG with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>d</b>), AMIG with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>e</b>), and AMIG with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>f</b>).</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g008a.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g008a.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g008a" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g008a.png" /><img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g008b.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g008b.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g008b" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g008b.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-f009"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f009"> <img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g009.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g009.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g009" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g009-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f009"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 9.</b> Hardness (Hv) measurements in the weld zone for MIG & AMIG with SiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>a</b>), MIG & AMIG with TiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>b</b>), MIG & AMIG with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>c</b>), MIG & AMIG with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>d</b>), and MIG & AMIG with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>e</b>).  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f009"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 9.</b> Hardness (Hv) measurements in the weld zone for MIG & AMIG with SiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>a</b>), MIG & AMIG with TiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>b</b>), MIG & AMIG with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>c</b>), MIG & AMIG with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>d</b>), and MIG & AMIG with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>e</b>).</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g009.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g009.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g009" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g009.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-f010"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f010"> <img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g010.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g010.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g010" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g010-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f010"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 10.</b> The fractography for MIG weld (<b>a</b>), AMIG weld with SiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>b</b>), AMIG weld with TiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>c</b>), AMIG weld with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>d</b>), AMIG weld with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>e</b>), and AMIG weldwith Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>f</b>) ×500.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f010"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 10.</b> The fractography for MIG weld (<b>a</b>), AMIG weld with SiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>b</b>), AMIG weld with TiO<sub>2</sub> (<b>c</b>), AMIG weld with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>d</b>), AMIG weld with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>e</b>), and AMIG weldwith Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (<b>f</b>) ×500.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g010.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g010.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g010" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g010.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-fig-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-f011"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f011"> <img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g011.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g011.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g011" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g011-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f011"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 11.</b> Potentiodynamic polarization curves were obtained for base metal, MIG, and AMIG samples.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id="fig_body_display_crystals-14-00902-f011"> <div class="html-caption"> <b>Figure 11.</b> Potentiodynamic polarization curves were obtained for base metal, MIG, and AMIG samples.</div> <div class="html-img"><img data-large="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g011.png" data-original="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g011.png" alt="Crystals 14 00902 g011" data-lsrc="/crystals/crystals-14-00902/article_deploy/html/images/crystals-14-00902-g011.png" /></div> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-t001"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href='#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t001'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t001"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 1.</b> The chemical composition and melting point of austenitic SS 304L. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t001"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 1.</b> The chemical composition and melting point of austenitic SS 304L.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Elements</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >C%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Mn%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >P%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >S%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Si%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Cr%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Ni%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >N%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >304L Melting Point (°C)</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Percentage %</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.03</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.045</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.003</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.75</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >17.5</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >8</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.1</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1450</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-t002"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href='#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t002'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t002"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 2.</b> The chemical composition of filler metal ER 308L. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t002"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 2.</b> The chemical composition of filler metal ER 308L.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Elements</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >C%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Mn%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Si%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >P%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >S%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Ni%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Cr%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Mo%</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Cu%</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >ER 308L</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.03<br>max</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.0<br>–<br>2.5</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.30<br>–<br>0.65</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.03 max</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.03 max</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >9.0<br>–<br>11.0</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >19.5<br>–<br>22.0</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.75<br>max</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.75<br>max</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-t003"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href='#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t003'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t003"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 3.</b> The oxide’s thermophysical properties [<a href="#B35-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">35</a>]. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t003"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 3.</b> The oxide’s thermophysical properties [<a href="#B35-crystals-14-00902" class="html-bibr">35</a>].</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Oxide Properties</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >SiO<sub>2</sub></th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >TiO<sub>2</sub></th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Tension de surface (N/m)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >260</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >360</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >300</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >310</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >800</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Temperature de fusion (°C)</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1722</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1830</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1540</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >940</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2435</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-t004"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href='#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t004'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t004"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 4.</b> Welding conditions. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t004"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 4.</b> Welding conditions.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Parameters</th><th align='left' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Range</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Current Intensity</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >180 A</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Voltage</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >24 V</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Metal feed speed</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >5 m/min</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Welding speed</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >24 cm/min</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Filler metal–workpiece distance</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >6 mm</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Gap between workpieces</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >1 mm</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Shielding gas top side: Argon</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >10 L/min</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Shielding gas back side: Argon</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >8 L/min</td></tr><tr ><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >Filler metal diameter-ER 308L</td><td align='left' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-left' >1.2 mm</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-t005"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href='#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t005'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t005"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 5.</b> The morphology of MIG and AMIG welds. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t005"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 5.</b> The morphology of MIG and AMIG welds.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Welds</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Weld Depth<br>(D) (mm)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Weld Depth<br>Standard Deviation<br>(mm)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Weld Width<br>(W) (mm)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Weld Width<br>Standard Deviation<br>(mm)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Aspect Ratio<br>(D/W)</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >MIG</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.20</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.02</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >8.78</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.4</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.70</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with SiO<sub>2</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >9.20</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.05</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >10.3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.89</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with TiO<sub>2</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >8.68</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.08</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >9.8</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.2</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.86</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.52</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.02</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.8</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.96</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >7.71</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.08</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >9.1</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.35</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.85</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >7.23</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.05</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >8.4</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.4</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.79</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-t006"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href='#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t006'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t006"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 6.</b> Ultimate tensile strength and its standard deviation of MIG and AMIG joints. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t006"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 6.</b> Ultimate tensile strength and its standard deviation of MIG and AMIG joints.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Joints</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Maximum<br>UTS<br>(MPa)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Minimum <br>UTS<br>(MPa)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Average <br>UTS<br>(MPa)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >UTS Standard Deviation<br>(MPa)</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >MIG</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >536</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >527</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >532</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >4.6</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with SiO<sub>2</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >606</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >595</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >602</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.4</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with TiO<sub>2</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >595</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >584</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >589</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >5.6</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >587</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >578</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >579</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.9</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >593</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >585</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >590</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >4.0</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >610</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >600</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >604</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >5.3</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-t007"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href='#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t007'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t007"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 7.</b> The weld zone Vickers hardness readings and its standard deviation for MIG and AMIG welds. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t007"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 7.</b> The weld zone Vickers hardness readings and its standard deviation for MIG and AMIG welds.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Welds</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Maximum<br>Reading<br>Hv</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Minimum <br>Reading<br>Hv</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Average<br>Value<br>Hv</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Standard<br>Deviation<br>Hv</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >MIG</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >443</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >398</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >425</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >5.15</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with SiO<sub>2</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >438</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >398</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >413</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >5.2</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with TiO<sub>2</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >440</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >384</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >414</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >441</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >397</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >410</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.2</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >412</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >385</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >400</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.11</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >408</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >385</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >408</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.0</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-t008"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href='#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t008'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t008"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 8.</b> The impact energy absorbed in 304L for MIG and AMIG welds using filler metals ER 308L. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t008"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 8.</b> The impact energy absorbed in 304L for MIG and AMIG welds using filler metals ER 308L.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Welds</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Maximum Impact Energy Absorbed<br>(J/cm<sup>2</sup>)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Minimum Impact Energy Absorbed<br>(J/cm<sup>2</sup>)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Average Impact Energy Absorbed<br>(J/cm<sup>2</sup>)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Standard Deviation<br>(J/cm<sup>2</sup>)</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >MIG</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >153</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >144</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >149</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >4.7</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with SiO<sub>2</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >160</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >148</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >154</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with TiO<sub>2</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >192</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >182</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >189</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >5.8</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >193</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >184</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >189</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >4.6</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >193</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >182</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >189</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.1</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG with Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >190</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >178</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >185</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.2</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> <div class="html-table-wrap" id="crystals-14-00902-t009"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td"> <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href='#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t009'> <img data-lsrc="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4352/14/10/902/display" href="#table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t009"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 9.</b> Electrochemical data of base metal, MIG, and AMIG weld metals were obtained from potentiodynamic polarization tests in a solution of 3.5% NaCl. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id="table_body_display_crystals-14-00902-t009"> <div class="html-caption"><b>Table 9.</b> Electrochemical data of base metal, MIG, and AMIG weld metals were obtained from potentiodynamic polarization tests in a solution of 3.5% NaCl.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Sample No.</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >βc<br>V·Dec<sup>−1</sup></th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >E<sub>Corr.</sub><br>V</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >βa<br>V·Dec<sup>−1</sup></th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >j<sub>Corr.</sub><br>A·cm<sup>−2</sup></th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Corrosion Rate<br>mm/y</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Base</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.49749</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >−0.998</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.19705</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >8.88 × 10<sup>−5</sup></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.032</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >MIG</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.57144</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >−1.054</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.14753</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.03 × 10<sup>−4</sup></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >1.198</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG-SiO<sub>2</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.58918</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >−1.038</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.16853</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >8.37 × 10<sup>−5</sup></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.973</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG-TiO<sub>2</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.42715</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >−0.986</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.18802</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.48 × 10<sup>−5</sup></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.753</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG-Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.36625</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >−0.975</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.17068</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >5.17 × 10<sup>−5</sup></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.600</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG-Mn<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.37139</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >−0.890</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.22965</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >5.77 × 10<sup>−5</sup></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.670</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >AMIG-Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.39</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >−0.887</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.25568</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.08 × 10<sup>−5</sup></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.707</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div> </section><section class='html-fn_group'><table><tr id=''><td></td><td><div class='html-p'><b>Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note:</b> The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). 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