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id="toc-Localizations_of_language_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Localizations_of_language_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Localizations of language processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Localizations_of_language_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Time_course_of_language_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Time_course_of_language_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Time course of language processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Time_course_of_language_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_acquisition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_acquisition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Language acquisition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_acquisition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language_pathology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language_pathology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Language pathology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language_pathology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology_used" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology_used"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Technology used</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Technology_used-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Technology used subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Technology_used-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hemodynamic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hemodynamic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Hemodynamic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hemodynamic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrophysiological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrophysiological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Electrophysiological</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrophysiological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Experimental_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experimental_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Experimental design</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Experimental_design-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Experimental design subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Experimental_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Experimental_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experimental_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Experimental techniques</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experimental_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Subtraction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subtraction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Subtraction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subtraction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mismatch_paradigm" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mismatch_paradigm"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Mismatch paradigm</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mismatch_paradigm-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Violation-based" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Violation-based"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Violation-based</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Violation-based-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Priming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Priming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.4</span> <span>Priming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Priming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stimulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stimulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.5</span> <span>Stimulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stimulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subject_tasks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subject_tasks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Subject tasks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subject_tasks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lexical_decision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexical_decision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Lexical decision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexical_decision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammaticality_judgment,_acceptability_judgment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammaticality_judgment,_acceptability_judgment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Grammaticality judgment, acceptability judgment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammaticality_judgment,_acceptability_judgment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Probe_verification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Probe_verification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Probe verification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Probe_verification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Truth-value_judgment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Truth-value_judgment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Truth-value judgment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Truth-value_judgment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Active_distraction_and_double-task" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active_distraction_and_double-task"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.5</span> <span>Active distraction and double-task</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active_distraction_and_double-task-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Neurolinguistics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolinguistiek" title="Neurolinguistiek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Neurolinguistiek" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لغويات عصبية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغويات عصبية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neyrolinqvistika" title="Neyrolinqvistika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Neyrolinqvistika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="স্নায়ুভাষাবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="স্নায়ুভাষাবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Нейралінгвістыка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Нейралінгвістыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Невролингвистика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Невролингвистика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Neurolingüística – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Neurolingüística" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolingvistika" title="Neurolingvistika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Neurolingvistika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolingvistik" title="Neurolingvistik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Neurolingvistik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolinguistik" title="Neurolinguistik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Neurolinguistik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%89%CF%83%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Νευρογλωσσολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νευρογλωσσολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Neurolingüística – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Neurolingüística" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ne%C5%ADrolingvistiko" title="Neŭrolingvistiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Neŭrolingvistiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolinguistika" title="Neurolinguistika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Neurolinguistika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="عصب‌شناسی زبان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عصب‌شناسی زبان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolinguistique" title="Neurolinguistique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Neurolinguistique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Neurolingüística – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Neurolingüística" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A0%EA%B2%BD%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4%ED%95%99" title="신경언어학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="신경언어학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolinguistik" title="Neurolinguistik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Neurolinguistik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolinguistica" title="Neurolinguistica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Neurolinguistica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%A9%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA" title="נוירובלשנות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נוירובלשנות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ნეიროლინგვისტიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნეიროლინგვისტიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Нейролингвистика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Нейролингвистика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolinguistica" title="Neurolinguistica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Neurolinguistica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolingvisztika" title="Neurolingvisztika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Neurolingvisztika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolingu%C3%AFstiek" title="Neurolinguïstiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Neurolinguïstiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B5%8C%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E5%AD%A6" title="神経言語学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="神経言語学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolingvistikk" title="Neurolingvistikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Neurolingvistikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Neuroscience and linguistics-related studies</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><span>This article is about the academic field of neurolinguistics. For the pseudoscientific psychotherapy and communications model, see <a href="/wiki/Neuro-linguistic_programming" title="Neuro-linguistic programming">Neuro-linguistic programming</a>.</span> <span>Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_linguistics" title="Cognitive linguistics">Cognitive linguistics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Neolinguistics" title="Neolinguistics">Neolinguistics</a>.</span></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray726-Brodman.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Gray726-Brodman.png/220px-Gray726-Brodman.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Gray726-Brodman.png/330px-Gray726-Brodman.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Gray726-Brodman.png/440px-Gray726-Brodman.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Surface of the human brain, with <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann areas">Brodmann areas</a> numbered</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DTI-sagittal-fibers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/DTI-sagittal-fibers.jpg/220px-DTI-sagittal-fibers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/DTI-sagittal-fibers.jpg/330px-DTI-sagittal-fibers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/DTI-sagittal-fibers.jpg/440px-DTI-sagittal-fibers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1021" data-file-height="952" /></a><figcaption>An image of neural pathways in the brain taken using <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_MRI#Diffusion_tensor_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion MRI">diffusion tensor imaging</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Neurolinguistics</b> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">neural</a> mechanisms in the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a> that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>. As an interdisciplinary field, neurolinguistics draws methods and theories from fields such as <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communication_disorder" title="Communication disorder">communication disorders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">neuropsychology</a>. Researchers are drawn to the field from a variety of backgrounds, bringing along a variety of experimental techniques as well as widely varying theoretical perspectives. Much work in neurolinguistics is informed by models in <a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">psycholinguistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_linguistics" title="Theoretical linguistics">theoretical linguistics</a>, and is focused on investigating how the brain can implement the processes that theoretical and psycholinguistics propose are necessary in producing and comprehending language. Neurolinguists study the physiological mechanisms by which the brain processes information related to language, and evaluate linguistic and psycholinguistic theories, using <a href="/wiki/Aphasiology" title="Aphasiology">aphasiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brain_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain imaging">brain imaging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">electrophysiology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Computer_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer modeling">computer modeling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nakai_2017_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nakai_2017-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain_-_Broca%27s_and_Wernicke%27s_area_Diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Brain_-_Broca%27s_and_Wernicke%27s_area_Diagram.svg/200px-Brain_-_Broca%27s_and_Wernicke%27s_area_Diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Brain_-_Broca%27s_and_Wernicke%27s_area_Diagram.svg/300px-Brain_-_Broca%27s_and_Wernicke%27s_area_Diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Brain_-_Broca%27s_and_Wernicke%27s_area_Diagram.svg/400px-Brain_-_Broca%27s_and_Wernicke%27s_area_Diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">Wernicke's area</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_brain" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the brain">History of the brain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience#History" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience § History</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroimaging" title="History of neuroimaging">History of neuroimaging</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science#History" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science § History</a></div> <p>Neurolinguistics is historically rooted in the development in the 19th century of <a href="/wiki/Aphasiology" title="Aphasiology">aphasiology</a>, the study of linguistic deficits (<a href="/wiki/Aphasia" title="Aphasia">aphasias</a>) occurring as the result of <a href="/wiki/Brain_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain damage">brain damage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-phillipssakai_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phillipssakai-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aphasiology attempts to correlate structure to function by analyzing the effect of brain injuries on language processing.<sup id="cite_ref-kamil_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kamil-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the first people to draw a connection between a particular brain area and language processing was <a href="/wiki/Paul_Broca" title="Paul Broca">Paul Broca</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-phillipssakai_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phillipssakai-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a> surgeon who conducted autopsies on numerous individuals who had speaking deficiencies, and found that most of them had brain damage (or <i>lesions</i>) on the left <a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">frontal lobe</a>, in an area now known as <a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a>. <a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">Phrenologists</a> had made the claim in the early 19th century that different brain regions carried out different functions and that language was mostly controlled by the frontal regions of the brain, but Broca's research was possibly the first to offer empirical evidence for such a relationship,<sup id="cite_ref-historic_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historic-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-muskingum_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-muskingum-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has been described as "epoch-making"<sup id="cite_ref-who_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-who-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "pivotal"<sup id="cite_ref-historic_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-historic-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the fields of neurolinguistics and cognitive science. Later, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wernicke" title="Carl Wernicke">Carl Wernicke</a>, after whom <a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_area" title="Wernicke's area">Wernicke's area</a> is named, proposed that different areas of the brain were specialized for different linguistic tasks, with Broca's area handling the <a href="/wiki/Motor_system" title="Motor system">motor</a> production of speech, and Wernicke's area handling auditory speech comprehension.<sup id="cite_ref-phillipssakai_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phillipssakai-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kamil_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kamil-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work of Broca and Wernicke established the field of aphasiology and the idea that language can be studied through examining physical characteristics of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-muskingum_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-muskingum-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early work in aphasiology also benefited from the early twentieth-century work of <a href="/wiki/Korbinian_Brodmann" title="Korbinian Brodmann">Korbinian Brodmann</a>, who "mapped" the surface of the brain, dividing it up into numbered areas based on each area's <a href="/wiki/Cytoarchitecture" title="Cytoarchitecture">cytoarchitecture</a> (cell structure) and function;<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> these areas, known as <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brodmann areas">Brodmann areas</a>, are still widely used in neuroscience today.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The coining of the term <b>neurolinguistics</b> in the late 1940s and 1950s is attributed to Edith Crowell Trager, Henri Hecaen and Alexandr Luria. Luria's 1976 book "Basic Problems of Neurolinguistics" is likely the first book with "neurolinguistics" in the title. Harry Whitaker popularized neurolinguistics in the United States in the 1970s, founding the journal "Brain and Language" in 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-Peng_1985_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peng_1985-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although aphasiology is the historical core of neurolinguistics, in recent years the field has broadened considerably, thanks in part to the emergence of new brain imaging technologies (such as <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">PET</a> and <a href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</a>) and time-sensitive electrophysiological techniques (<a href="/wiki/EEG" class="mw-redirect" title="EEG">EEG</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetoencephalography" title="Magnetoencephalography">MEG</a>), which can highlight patterns of brain activation as people engage in various language tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-phillipssakai_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phillipssakai-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-weisler293_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weisler293-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electrophysiological techniques, in particular, emerged as a viable method for the study of language in 1980 with the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/N400_(neuroscience)" title="N400 (neuroscience)">N400</a>, a brain response shown to be sensitive to <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic</a> issues in language comprehension.<sup id="cite_ref-hagoort_unification20_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hagoort_unification20-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hall274_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall274-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The N400 was the first language-relevant <a href="/wiki/Event-related_potential" title="Event-related potential">event-related potential</a> to be identified, and since its discovery EEG and MEG have become increasingly widely used for conducting language research.<sup id="cite_ref-neurocognition280_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neurocognition280-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discipline">Discipline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Discipline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistics" title="Category:Linguistics">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles" title="Index of linguistics articles">Index</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">General linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Diachronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_typology" title="Linguistic typology">Typology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Applied linguistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_linguistics" title="Applied linguistics">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_distance" title="Linguistic distance">Distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_documentation" title="Language documentation">Documentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography_of_communication" title="Ethnography of communication">Ethnography of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_linguistics" title="History of linguistics">History of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">Philology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">Psycholinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_linguistics" title="Text linguistics">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation_studies" title="Translation studies">Translating</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_interpretation" title="Language interpretation">interpreting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing systems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical frameworks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(linguistics)" title="Formalism (linguistics)">Formalist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phrase_structure_grammar" title="Phrase structure grammar">Constituency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_grammar" title="Dependency grammar">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributionalism" title="Distributionalism">Distributionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossematics" title="Glossematics">Glossematics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_linguistics" title="Functional linguistics">Functional</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_grammar" title="Cognitive grammar">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_grammar" title="Construction grammar">Construction grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_discourse_grammar" title="Functional discourse grammar">Functional discourse grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">Grammaticalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactional_linguistics" title="Interactional linguistics">Interactional linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_linguistic_circle" title="Prague linguistic circle">Prague circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_functional_linguistics" title="Systemic functional linguistics">Systemic functional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usage-based_models_of_language" title="Usage-based models of language">Usage-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_and_innovative_language" title="Conservative and innovative language">Conservative and innovative language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconicity" title="Iconicity">Iconicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(linguistics)" title="Internationalism (linguistics)">Internationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_linguistics" title="Internet linguistics">Internet linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_linguistics" title="LGBTQ linguistics">LGBTQ linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orismology" title="Orismology">Orismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Philosophy of linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Prescriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-language_acquisition" title="Second-language acquisition">Second-language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_language" title="Theory of language">Theory of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminology" title="Terminology">Terminology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Linguistics" title="Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Linguistics" title="Template talk:Linguistics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Linguistics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interaction_with_other_fields">Interaction with other fields</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Interaction with other fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neurolinguistics is closely related to the field of <a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">psycholinguistics</a>, which seeks to elucidate the cognitive mechanisms of language by employing the traditional techniques of <a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">experimental psychology</a>. Today, psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic theories often inform one another, and there is much collaboration between the two fields.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall274_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall274-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hagoort_unification_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hagoort_unification-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much work in neurolinguistics involves testing and evaluating theories put forth by psycholinguists and theoretical linguists. In general, theoretical linguists propose models to explain the structure of language and how language information is organized, psycholinguists propose models and algorithms to explain how language information is processed in the mind, and neurolinguists analyze brain activity to infer how biological structures (populations and networks of neurons) carry out those psycholinguistic processing algorithms.<sup id="cite_ref-pylkannen_slides_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pylkannen_slides-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, experiments in <a href="/wiki/Sentence_processing" title="Sentence processing">sentence processing</a> have used the <a href="/wiki/ELAN_(neuroscience)" class="mw-redirect" title="ELAN (neuroscience)">ELAN</a>, <a href="/wiki/N400_(neuroscience)" title="N400 (neuroscience)">N400</a>, and <a href="/wiki/P600_(neuroscience)" title="P600 (neuroscience)">P600</a> brain responses to examine how physiological brain responses reflect the different predictions of sentence processing models put forth by psycholinguists, such as <a href="/wiki/Janet_Dean_Fodor" title="Janet Dean Fodor">Janet Fodor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lyn_Frazier" title="Lyn Frazier">Lyn Frazier</a>'s "serial" model,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Theo Vosse and Gerard Kempen's "unification model".<sup id="cite_ref-hagoort_unification_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hagoort_unification-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neurolinguists can also make new predictions about the structure and organization of language based on insights about the physiology of the brain, by "generalizing from the knowledge of neurological structures to language structure".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neurolinguistics research is carried out in all the major areas of linguistics; the main linguistic subfields, and how neurolinguistics addresses them, are given in the table below. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Subfield</th> <th>Description</th> <th>Research questions in neurolinguistics </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">Phonetics</a></td> <td>the study of speech sounds</td> <td>how the brain extracts speech sounds from an <a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">acoustic</a> signal, how the brain separates speech sounds from background noise </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">Phonology</a></td> <td>the study of how sounds are organized in a language</td> <td>how the phonological system of a particular language is represented in the brain </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">Morphology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lexicology" title="Lexicology">lexicology</a></td> <td>the study of how words are structured and stored in the <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">mental lexicon</a></td> <td>how the brain stores and accesses words that a person knows </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">Syntax</a></td> <td>the study of how multiple-word utterances are constructed</td> <td rowspan="2">how the brain combines words into <a href="/wiki/Constituent_(linguistics)" title="Constituent (linguistics)">constituents</a> and sentences; how structural and semantic information is used in understanding sentences </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">Semantics</a></td> <td>the study of how meaning is encoded in language </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Topics_considered">Topics considered</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Topics considered"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neurolinguistics research investigates several topics, including where language information is processed, how <a href="/wiki/Language_processing_in_the_brain" title="Language processing in the brain">language processing</a> unfolds over time, how brain structures are related to language acquisition and learning, and how neurophysiology can contribute to <a href="/wiki/Speech_and_language_pathology" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech and language pathology">speech and language pathology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Localizations_of_language_processes">Localizations of language processes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Localizations of language processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Much work in neurolinguistics has, like Broca's and Wernicke's early studies, investigated the locations of specific language "<a href="/wiki/Language_module" title="Language module">modules</a>" within the brain. Research questions include what course language information follows through the brain as it is processed,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whether or not particular areas specialize in processing particular sorts of information,<sup id="cite_ref-embicketal_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-embicketal-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> how different brain regions interact with one another in language processing,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and how the locations of brain activation differ when a subject is producing or perceiving a language other than his or her first language.<sup id="cite_ref-wangetal_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wangetal-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LSA_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LSA-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Time_course_of_language_processes">Time course of language processes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Time course of language processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another area of neurolinguistics literature involves the use of <a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">electrophysiological</a> techniques to analyze the rapid processing of language in time.<sup id="cite_ref-phillipssakai_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phillipssakai-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The temporal ordering of specific <a href="/wiki/Event-related_potential#ERP_Components_Nomenclature" title="Event-related potential">patterns of brain activity</a> may reflect discrete computational processes that the brain undergoes during language processing; for example, one neurolinguistic theory of sentence parsing proposes that three brain responses (the <a href="/wiki/ELAN_(neuroscience)" class="mw-redirect" title="ELAN (neuroscience)">ELAN</a>, <a href="/wiki/N400_(neuroscience)" title="N400 (neuroscience)">N400</a>, and <a href="/wiki/P600_(neuroscience)" title="P600 (neuroscience)">P600</a>) are products of three different steps in syntactic and semantic processing.<sup id="cite_ref-friederici2002_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-friederici2002-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Language_acquisition">Language acquisition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Language acquisition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another topic is the relationship between brain structures and <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">language acquisition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research in first language acquisition has already established that infants from all linguistic environments go through similar and predictable stages (such as <a href="/wiki/Babbling" title="Babbling">babbling</a>), and some neurolinguistics research attempts to find correlations between stages of language development and stages of brain development,<sup id="cite_ref-caplan12_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caplan12-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while other research investigates the physical changes (known as <a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">neuroplasticity</a>) that the brain undergoes during <a href="/wiki/Second_language_acquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Second language acquisition">second language acquisition</a>, when adults learn a new language.<sup id="cite_ref-sereno_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sereno-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neuroplasticity is observed when both Second Language acquisition and Language Learning experience are induced, the result of this language exposure concludes that an increase of gray and white matter could be found in children, young adults and the elderly.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Language_pathology">Language pathology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Language pathology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neurolinguistic techniques are also used to study disorders and breakdowns in language, such as <a href="/wiki/Aphasia" title="Aphasia">aphasia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dyslexia" title="Dyslexia">dyslexia</a>, and how they relate to physical characteristics of the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-LSA_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LSA-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-caplan12_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-caplan12-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology_used">Technology used</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Technology used"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PET-image.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/PET-image.jpg/150px-PET-image.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/PET-image.jpg/225px-PET-image.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/PET-image.jpg/300px-PET-image.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1132" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging.jpg/150px-Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging.jpg/225px-Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging.jpg 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="208" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Images of the brain recorded with <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">PET</a> (top) and <a href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</a> (bottom). In the PET image, the red areas are the most active. In the fMRI image, the yellowest areas are the areas that show the greatest difference in activation between two tasks (watching a moving stimulus, versus watching a black screen).</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Since one of the focuses of this field is the testing of linguistic and psycholinguistic models, the technology used for experiments is highly relevant to the study of neurolinguistics. Modern brain imaging techniques have contributed greatly to a growing understanding of the anatomical organization of linguistic functions.<sup id="cite_ref-phillipssakai_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phillipssakai-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LSA_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LSA-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brain imaging methods used in neurolinguistics may be classified into <a href="/wiki/Hemodynamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemodynamic">hemodynamic</a> methods, <a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">electrophysiological</a> methods, and methods that stimulate the cortex directly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hemodynamic">Hemodynamic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hemodynamic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></div> <p>Hemodynamic techniques take advantage of the fact that when an area of the brain works at a task, blood is sent to supply that area with oxygen (in what is known as the Blood Oxygen Level-Dependent, or BOLD, response).<sup id="cite_ref-ward_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ward-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such techniques include <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">PET</a> and <a href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</a>. These techniques provide high <i>spatial resolution</i>, allowing researchers to pinpoint the location of activity within the brain;<sup id="cite_ref-phillipssakai_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phillipssakai-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>temporal resolution</i> (or information about the timing of brain activity), on the other hand, is poor, since the BOLD response happens much more slowly than language processing.<sup id="cite_ref-weisler293_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-weisler293-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kutas_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kutas-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to demonstrating which parts of the brain may subserve specific language tasks or computations,<sup id="cite_ref-embicketal_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-embicketal-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-friederici2002_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-friederici2002-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hemodynamic methods have also been used to demonstrate how the structure of the brain's language architecture and the distribution of language-related activation may change over time, as a function of linguistic exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-wangetal_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wangetal-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sereno_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sereno-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to PET and fMRI, which show which areas of the brain are activated by certain tasks, researchers also use <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_tensor_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion tensor imaging">diffusion tensor imaging</a> (DTI), which shows the neural pathways that connect different brain areas,<sup id="cite_ref-Filler1992_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Filler1992-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus providing insight into how different areas interact. <a href="/wiki/Functional_near-infrared_spectroscopy" title="Functional near-infrared spectroscopy">Functional near-infrared spectroscopy</a> (fNIRS) is another hemodynamic method used in language tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-dieleretal2011_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dieleretal2011-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrophysiological">Electrophysiological</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Electrophysiological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spike-waves.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spike-waves.png/220px-Spike-waves.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spike-waves.png/330px-Spike-waves.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Spike-waves.png/440px-Spike-waves.png 2x" data-file-width="478" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Brain waves recorded using <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">EEG</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Electrophysiological techniques take advantage of the fact that when a group of neurons in the brain fire together, they create an <a href="/wiki/Dipole" title="Dipole">electric dipole</a> or current. The technique of <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">EEG</a> measures this electric current using sensors on the scalp, while <a href="/wiki/Magnetoencephalography" title="Magnetoencephalography">MEG</a> measures the magnetic fields that are generated by these currents.<sup id="cite_ref-tracking_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tracking-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to these non-invasive methods, <a href="/wiki/Electrocorticography" title="Electrocorticography">electrocorticography</a> has also been used to study language processing. These techniques are able to measure brain activity from one millisecond to the next, providing excellent <i>temporal resolution</i>, which is important in studying processes that take place as quickly as language comprehension and production.<sup id="cite_ref-tracking_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tracking-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, the location of brain activity can be difficult to identify in EEG;<sup id="cite_ref-kutas_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kutas-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-van_petten?_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van_petten?-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> consequently, this technique is used primarily to <i>how</i> language processes are carried out, rather than <i>where</i>. Research using EEG and MEG generally focuses on <a href="/wiki/Event-related_potential" title="Event-related potential">event-related potentials</a> (ERPs),<sup id="cite_ref-kutas_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kutas-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which are distinct brain responses (generally realized as negative or positive peaks on a graph of neural activity) elicited in response to a particular stimulus. Studies using ERP may focus on each ERP's <i>latency</i> (how long after the stimulus the ERP begins or peaks), <i>amplitude</i> (how high or low the peak is), or <i>topography</i> (where on the scalp the ERP response is picked up by sensors).<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some important and common ERP components include the <a href="/wiki/N400_(neuroscience)" title="N400 (neuroscience)">N400</a> (a negativity occurring at a latency of about 400 milliseconds),<sup id="cite_ref-kutas_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kutas-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Mismatch_negativity" title="Mismatch negativity">mismatch negativity</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pulvermulleretal2008_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pulvermulleretal2008-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Early_left_anterior_negativity" title="Early left anterior negativity">early left anterior negativity</a> (a negativity occurring at an early latency and a front-left topography),<sup id="cite_ref-frisch194_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frisch194-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/P600_(neuroscience)" title="P600 (neuroscience)">P600</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-neurocognition280_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neurocognition280-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Lateralized_readiness_potential" title="Lateralized readiness potential">lateralized readiness potential</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-vanTurrenout_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vanTurrenout-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experimental_design">Experimental design</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Experimental design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Experimental_techniques">Experimental techniques</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Experimental techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Neurolinguists employ a variety of experimental techniques in order to use brain imaging to draw conclusions about how language is represented and processed in the brain. These techniques include the <i>subtraction</i> paradigm, <i><a href="/wiki/Mismatch_negativity" title="Mismatch negativity">mismatch</a> design</i>, <i>violation-based</i> studies, various forms of <i><a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">priming</a></i>, and <i>direct stimulation</i> of the brain. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Subtraction">Subtraction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Subtraction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many language studies, particularly in <a href="/wiki/FMRI" class="mw-redirect" title="FMRI">fMRI</a>, use the subtraction paradigm,<sup id="cite_ref-Grabowski_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grabowski-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which brain activation in a task thought to involve some aspect of language processing is compared against activation in a baseline task thought to involve similar non-linguistic processes but not to involve the linguistic process. For example, activations while participants read words may be compared to baseline activations while participants read strings of random letters (in attempt to isolate activation related to lexical processing—the processing of real words), or activations while participants read <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactically</a> complex sentences may be compared to baseline activations while participants read simpler sentences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mismatch_paradigm">Mismatch paradigm</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mismatch paradigm"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mismatch_negativity" title="Mismatch negativity">Mismatch negativity</a></div> <p>The mismatch negativity (MMN) is a rigorously documented ERP component frequently used in neurolinguistic experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-pulvermulleretal2008_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pulvermulleretal2008-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pulvermullershtyrov2003_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pulvermullershtyrov2003-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an electrophysiological response that occurs in the brain when a subject hears a "deviant" stimulus in a set of perceptually identical "standards" (as in the sequence <i>s s s s s s s d d s s s s s s d s s s s s d</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-phillips_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phillips-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the MMN is elicited only in response to a rare "oddball" stimulus in a set of other stimuli that are perceived to be the same, it has been used to test how speakers perceive sounds and organize stimuli categorically.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a landmark study by <a href="/wiki/Colin_Phillips" title="Colin Phillips">Colin Phillips</a> and colleagues used the mismatch negativity as evidence that subjects, when presented with a series of speech sounds with <a href="/wiki/Acoustics" title="Acoustics">acoustic</a> parameters, perceived all the sounds as either /t/ or /d/ in spite of the acoustic variability, suggesting that the human brain has representations of abstract <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a>—in other words, the subjects were "hearing" not the specific acoustic features, but only the abstract phonemes.<sup id="cite_ref-phillips_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phillips-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the mismatch negativity has been used to study syntactic processing and the recognition of <a href="/wiki/Lexical_category" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexical category">word category</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pulvermulleretal2008_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pulvermulleretal2008-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pulvermullershtyrov2003_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pulvermullershtyrov2003-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Violation-based">Violation-based</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Violation-based"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ComponentsofERP.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/ComponentsofERP.svg/220px-ComponentsofERP.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/ComponentsofERP.svg/330px-ComponentsofERP.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/ComponentsofERP.svg/440px-ComponentsofERP.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="317" data-file-height="258" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Event-related_potential" title="Event-related potential">event-related potential</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Many studies in neurolinguistics take advantage of anomalies or <i>violations</i> of <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic</a> rules in experimental stimuli, and analyzing the brain responses elicited when a subject encounters these violations. For example, sentences beginning with phrases such as *<i>the garden was on the worked</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which violates an English <a href="/wiki/Phrase_structure_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrase structure rule">phrase structure rule</a>, often elicit a brain response called the <a href="/wiki/Early_left_anterior_negativity" title="Early left anterior negativity">early left anterior negativity</a> (ELAN).<sup id="cite_ref-frisch194_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frisch194-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Violation techniques have been in use since at least 1980,<sup id="cite_ref-frisch194_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frisch194-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when Kutas and Hillyard first reported <a href="/wiki/Event-related_potential" title="Event-related potential">ERP</a> evidence that <a href="/wiki/Semantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic">semantic</a> violations elicited an N400 effect.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using similar methods, in 1992, Lee Osterhout first reported the <a href="/wiki/P600_(neuroscience)" title="P600 (neuroscience)">P600</a> response to syntactic anomalies.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Violation designs have also been used for hemodynamic studies (fMRI and PET): Embick and colleagues, for example, used grammatical and spelling violations to investigate the location of syntactic processing in the brain using fMRI.<sup id="cite_ref-embicketal_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-embicketal-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another common use of violation designs is to combine two kinds of violations in the same sentence and thus make predictions about how different language processes interact with one another; this type of crossing-violation study has been used extensively to investigate how <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic</a> processes interact while people read or hear sentences.<sup id="cite_ref-martin-loeches_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-martin-loeches-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-frisch195_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frisch195-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Priming">Priming</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Priming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">Priming (psychology)</a></div> <p>In psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics, <i>priming</i> refers to the phenomenon whereby a subject can recognize a word more quickly if he or she has recently been presented with a word that is similar in meaning<sup id="cite_ref-athabasca_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-athabasca-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> makeup (i.e., composed of similar parts).<sup id="cite_ref-fiorentino_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fiorentino-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a subject is presented with a "prime" word such as <i>doctor</i> and then a "target" word such as <i>nurse</i>, if the subject has a faster-than-usual response time to <i>nurse</i> then the experimenter may assume that word <i>nurse</i> in the brain had already been accessed when the word <i>doctor</i> was accessed.<sup id="cite_ref-probe_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-probe-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Priming is used to investigate a wide variety of questions about how words are stored and retrieved in the brain<sup id="cite_ref-fiorentino_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fiorentino-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-devlin_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-devlin-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and how structurally complex sentences are processed.<sup id="cite_ref-zurif_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zurif-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stimulation">Stimulation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Stimulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation" title="Transcranial magnetic stimulation">Transcranial magnetic stimulation</a> (TMS), a new noninvasive<sup id="cite_ref-mayo_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mayo-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> technique for studying brain activity, uses powerful magnetic fields that are applied to the brain from outside the head.<sup id="cite_ref-nami_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nami-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a method of exciting or interrupting brain activity in a specific and controlled location, and thus is able to imitate aphasic symptoms while giving the researcher more control over exactly which parts of the brain will be examined.<sup id="cite_ref-nami_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nami-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, it is a less invasive alternative to <a href="/wiki/Electrocorticography#DCES" title="Electrocorticography">direct cortical stimulation</a>, which can be used for similar types of research but requires that the subject's scalp be removed, and is thus only used on individuals who are already undergoing a major brain operation (such as individuals undergoing surgery for <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The logic behind TMS and direct cortical stimulation is similar to the logic behind aphasiology: if a particular language function is impaired when a specific region of the brain is knocked out, then that region must be somehow implicated in that language function. Few neurolinguistic studies to date have used TMS;<sup id="cite_ref-phillipssakai_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phillipssakai-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> direct cortical stimulation and <a href="/wiki/Electrocorticography" title="Electrocorticography">cortical recording</a> (recording brain activity using electrodes placed directly on the brain) have been used with <a href="/wiki/Macaque" title="Macaque">macaque monkeys</a> to make predictions about the behavior of human brains.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subject_tasks">Subject tasks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Subject tasks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In many neurolinguistics experiments, subjects do not simply sit and listen to or watch <a href="/wiki/Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">stimuli</a>, but also are instructed to perform some sort of task in response to the stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subjects perform these tasks while recordings (electrophysiological or hemodynamic) are being taken, usually in order to ensure that they are paying attention to the stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-VP93_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VP93-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least one study has suggested that the task the subject does has an effect on the brain responses and the results of the experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-task_effects_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-task_effects-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lexical_decision">Lexical decision</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Lexical decision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lexical_decision_task" title="Lexical decision task">Lexical decision task</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Lexical_decision_task" title="Lexical decision task">lexical decision task</a> involves subjects seeing or hearing an isolated word and answering whether or not it is a real word. It is frequently used in <a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">priming</a> studies, since subjects are known to make a lexical decision more quickly if a word has been primed by a related word (as in "doctor" priming "nurse").<sup id="cite_ref-athabasca_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-athabasca-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fiorentino_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fiorentino-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-probe_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-probe-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Grammaticality_judgment,_acceptability_judgment"><span id="Grammaticality_judgment.2C_acceptability_judgment"></span>Grammaticality judgment, acceptability judgment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Grammaticality judgment, acceptability judgment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Acceptability_judgment_task" title="Acceptability judgment task">Acceptability judgment task</a></div> <p>Many studies, especially violation-based studies, have subjects make a decision about the "acceptability" (usually <a href="/wiki/Grammaticality" title="Grammaticality">grammatical acceptability</a> or <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic</a> acceptability) of stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-task_effects_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-task_effects-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-yeetal2006_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yeetal2006-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-frisch200_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frisch200-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-osterhout_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-osterhout-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hagoort2003_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hagoort2003-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a task is often used to "ensure that subjects [are] reading the sentences attentively and that they [distinguish] acceptable from unacceptable sentences in the way the [experimenter] expect[s] them to do."<sup id="cite_ref-frisch200_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frisch200-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Experimental evidence has shown that the instructions given to subjects in an acceptability judgment task can influence the subjects' brain responses to stimuli. One experiment showed that when subjects were instructed to judge the "acceptability" of sentences they did not show an <a href="/wiki/N400_(neuroscience)" title="N400 (neuroscience)">N400</a> brain response (a response commonly associated with <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantic</a> processing), but that they did show that response when instructed to ignore grammatical acceptability and only judge whether or not the sentences "made sense".<sup id="cite_ref-task_effects_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-task_effects-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Probe_verification">Probe verification</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Probe verification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some studies use a "probe verification" task rather than an overt acceptability judgment; in this paradigm, each experimental sentence is followed by a "probe word", and subjects must answer whether or not the probe word had appeared in the sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-probe_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-probe-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-frisch200_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frisch200-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This task, like the acceptability judgment task, ensures that subjects are reading or listening attentively, but may avoid some of the additional processing demands of acceptability judgments, and may be used no matter what type of violation is being presented in the study.<sup id="cite_ref-probe_55-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-probe-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Truth-value_judgment">Truth-value judgment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Truth-value judgment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Subjects may be instructed not to judge whether or not the sentence is grammatically acceptable or logical, but whether the <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">proposition</a> expressed by the sentence is true or false. This task is commonly used in psycholinguistic studies of child language.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Active_distraction_and_double-task">Active distraction and double-task</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Active distraction and double-task"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some experiments give subjects a "distractor" task to ensure that subjects are not consciously paying attention to the experimental stimuli; this may be done to test whether a certain computation in the brain is carried out automatically, regardless of whether the subject devotes <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attentional resources</a> to it. For example, one study had subjects listen to non-linguistic tones (long beeps and buzzes) in one ear and speech in the other ear, and instructed subjects to press a button when they perceived a change in the tone; this supposedly caused subjects not to pay explicit attention to grammatical violations in the speech stimuli. The subjects showed a <a href="/wiki/Mismatch_negativity" title="Mismatch negativity">mismatch response</a> (MMN) anyway, suggesting that the processing of the grammatical errors was happening automatically, regardless of attention<sup id="cite_ref-pulvermulleretal2008_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pulvermulleretal2008-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—or at least that subjects were unable to consciously separate their attention from the speech stimuli. </p><p>Another related form of experiment is the double-task experiment, in which a subject must perform an extra task (such as sequential finger-tapping or articulating nonsense syllables) while responding to linguistic stimuli; this kind of experiment has been used to investigate the use of <a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a> in language processing.<sup id="cite_ref-rogalskyetal_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rogalskyetal-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurosemiotics" title="Neurosemiotics">Neurosemiotics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Nakai_2017-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNakaiJeongBrownRothermel2017" class="citation journal cs1">Nakai, Y; Jeong, JW; Brown, EC; Rothermel, R; Kojima, K; Kambara, T; Shah, A; Mittal, S; Sood, S; Asano, E (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5405238">"Three- and four-dimensional mapping of speech and language in patients with epilepsy"</a>. <i>Brain</i>. <b>140</b> (5): 1351–1370. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbrain%2Fawx051">10.1093/brain/awx051</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5405238">5405238</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28334963">28334963</a>.</cite><span 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Cabanis (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbrain%2Fawm042">"Paul Broca's historic cases: high resolution MR imaging of the brains of Leborgne and Lelong"</a>. <i>Brain</i>. <b>130</b> (Pt 5): 1432–3, 1441. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbrain%2Fawm042">10.1093/brain/awm042</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17405763">17405763</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brain&rft.atitle=Paul+Broca%27s+historic+cases%3A+high+resolution+MR+imaging+of+the+brains+of+Leborgne+and+Lelong&rft.volume=130&rft.issue=Pt+5&rft.pages=1432-3%2C+1441&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fbrain%2Fawm042&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17405763&rft.aulast=Dronkers&rft.aufirst=N.F.&rft.au=O.+Plaisant%3B+M.T.+Iba-Zizen%3B+E.A.+Cabanis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fbrain%252Fawm042&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-muskingum-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-muskingum_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-muskingum_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeter2000" class="citation web cs1">Teter, Theresa (May 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090205094518/http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/broca.htm">"Pierre-Paul Broca"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Muskingum_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Muskingum College">Muskingum College</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/broca.htm">the original</a> on 5 February 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pierre-Paul+Broca&rft.pub=Muskingum+College&rft.date=2000-05&rft.aulast=Teter&rft.aufirst=Theresa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.muskingum.edu%2F~psych%2Fpsycweb%2Fhistory%2Fbroca.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-who-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-who_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/1982.html">"Pierre Paul Broca"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Who_Named_It%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="Who Named It?">Who Named It?</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Who+Named+It%3F&rft.atitle=Pierre+Paul+Broca&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whonamedit.com%2Fdoctor.cfm%2F1982.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCaffrey2008" class="citation web cs1">McCaffrey, Patrick (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csuchico.edu/~pmccaffrey/syllabi/CMSD%20320/362unit4.html">"CMSD 620 Neuroanatomy of Speech, Swallowing and Language"</a>. <i>Neuroscience on the Web</i>. <a href="/wiki/California_State_University,_Chico" title="California State University, Chico">California State University, Chico</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 February</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Neuroscience+on+the+Web&rft.atitle=CMSD+620+Neuroanatomy+of+Speech%2C+Swallowing+and+Language&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=McCaffrey&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csuchico.edu%2F~pmccaffrey%2Fsyllabi%2FCMSD%2520320%2F362unit4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarey2006" class="citation book cs1">Garey, Laurence (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/biomed/neuroscience/book/978-0-387-26917-7"><i>Brodmann's</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780387269177" title="Special:BookSources/9780387269177"><bdi>9780387269177</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 February</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brodmann%27s&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780387269177&rft.aulast=Garey&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.springer.com%2Fbiomed%2Fneuroscience%2Fbook%2F978-0-387-26917-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peng_1985-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Peng_1985_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeng1985" class="citation journal cs1">Peng, F.C.C. (1985). "What is neurolinguistics?". <i>Journal of Neurolinguistics</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 7–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0911-6044%2885%2980003-8">10.1016/S0911-6044(85)80003-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20322583">20322583</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Neurolinguistics&rft.atitle=What+is+neurolinguistics%3F&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-30&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0911-6044%2885%2980003-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20322583%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Peng&rft.aufirst=F.C.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, Colin M.; and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Hagoort" title="Peter Hagoort">Peter Hagoort</a> (1999). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iQN6DwAAQBAJ&q=%22The+cognitive+neuroscience+of+language%22">The cognitive neuroscience of language</a>." in Brown & Hagoort, <i>The Neurocognition of Language.</i> p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-weisler293-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-weisler293_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-weisler293_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Weisler (1999), p. 293.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hagoort_unification20-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hagoort_unification20_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHagoort2003" class="citation journal cs1">Hagoort, Peter (2003). "How the brain solves the binding problem for language: a neurocomputational model of syntactic processing". <i>NeuroImage</i>. <b>20</b>: S18–29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuroimage.2003.09.013">10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.013</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0013-1E0C-2">11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1E0C-2</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14597293">14597293</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18845725">18845725</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NeuroImage&rft.atitle=How+the+brain+solves+the+binding+problem+for+language%3A+a+neurocomputational+model+of+syntactic+processing&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=S18-29&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-0013-1E0C-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18845725%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14597293&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuroimage.2003.09.013&rft.aulast=Hagoort&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hall274-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hall274_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hall274_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2005" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Christopher J (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RWspkUKj274C&q=neurolinguistics+and+psycholinguistics&pg=PA69"><i>An Introduction to Language and Linguistics</i></a>. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 274. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8734-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-8734-6"><bdi>978-0-8264-8734-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Language+and+Linguistics&rft.pages=274&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-8734-6&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Christopher+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRWspkUKj274C%26q%3Dneurolinguistics%2Band%2Bpsycholinguistics%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-neurocognition280-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-neurocognition280_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-neurocognition280_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hagoort, Peter; Colin M. Brown; Lee Osterhout (1999). "The neurocognition of syntactic processing." in Brown & Hagoort. <i>The Neurocognition of Language</i>. p. 280.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hagoort_unification-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hagoort_unification_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hagoort_unification_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHagoort2003" class="citation journal cs1">Hagoort, Peter (2003). "How the brain solves the binding problem for language: a neurocomputational model of syntactic processing". <i>NeuroImage</i>. <b>20</b>: S19–S20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuroimage.2003.09.013">10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.09.013</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0013-1E0C-2">11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1E0C-2</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14597293">14597293</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18845725">18845725</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NeuroImage&rft.atitle=How+the+brain+solves+the+binding+problem+for+language%3A+a+neurocomputational+model+of+syntactic+processing&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=S19-S20&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-0013-1E0C-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18845725%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14597293&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neuroimage.2003.09.013&rft.aulast=Hagoort&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pylkannen_slides-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pylkannen_slides_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPylkkänen" class="citation web cs1">Pylkkänen, Liina. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003754/http://www.psych.nyu.edu/pylkkanen/Neural_Bases/01_Intro.pdf">"What is neurolinguistics?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 2. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psych.nyu.edu/pylkkanen/Neural_Bases/01_Intro.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+neurolinguistics%3F&rft.pages=2&rft.aulast=Pylkk%C3%A4nen&rft.aufirst=Liina&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.psych.nyu.edu%2Fpylkkanen%2FNeural_Bases%2F01_Intro.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriederici2002" class="citation journal cs1">Friederici, Angela D. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2800%2901839-8">"Towards a neural basis of auditory sentence processing"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Trends_(journals)" title="Trends (journals)">Trends in Cognitive Sciences</a></i>. <b>6</b> (2): 78–84. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2800%2901839-8">10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01839-8</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0010-E573-8">11858/00-001M-0000-0010-E573-8</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15866191">15866191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=Towards+a+neural+basis+of+auditory+sentence+processing&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=78-84&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-0010-E573-8&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15866191&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2800%2901839-8&rft.aulast=Friederici&rft.aufirst=Angela+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252FS1364-6613%252800%252901839-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span>, which discusses how three brain responses reflect three stages of Fodor and Frazier's model.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weisler (1999), p. 280.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHickockDavid_Poeppel2007" class="citation journal cs1">Hickock, Gregory; David Poeppel (2007). 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Sakai (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18573">"A syntactic specialization for Broca's area"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></i>. <b>97</b> (11): 6150–6154. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PNAS...97.6150E">2000PNAS...97.6150E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.100098897">10.1073/pnas.100098897</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC18573">18573</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10811887">10811887</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=A+syntactic+specialization+for+Broca%27s+area&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=6150-6154&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC18573%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10811887&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.100098897&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PNAS...97.6150E&rft.aulast=Embick&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Alec+Marantz%3B+Yasushi+Miyashita%3B+Wayne+O%27Neil%3B+Kuniyoshi+L.+Sakai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC18573&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, Colin M.; and Peter Hagoort (1999). "The cognitive neuroscience of language." in Brown & Hagoort. <i>The Neurocognition of Language</i>. p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wangetal-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wangetal_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wangetal_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWang_YueJoan_A._Sereno;_Allard_Jongman;_and_Joy_Hirsch2003" class="citation journal cs1">Wang Yue; Joan A. Sereno; Allard Jongman; and Joy Hirsch (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/1808/12458/1/JongmanJCN15.pdf">"fMRI evidence for cortical modification during learning of Mandarin lexical tone"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience</i>. <b>15</b> (7): 1019–1027. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F089892903770007407">10.1162/089892903770007407</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1808%2F12458">1808/12458</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14614812">14614812</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4812588">4812588</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cognitive+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=fMRI+evidence+for+cortical+modification+during+learning+of+Mandarin+lexical+tone&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1019-1027&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1808%2F12458&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4812588%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14614812&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F089892903770007407&rft.au=Wang+Yue&rft.au=Joan+A.+Sereno%3B+Allard+Jongman%3B+and+Joy+Hirsch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkuscholarworks.ku.edu%2Fbitstream%2F1808%2F12458%2F1%2FJongmanJCN15.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LSA-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LSA_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LSA_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LSA_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMenn" class="citation web cs1">Menn, Lise. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081211081710/http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields-neuro.cfm">"Neurolinguistics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Society_of_America" title="Linguistic Society of America">Linguistic Society of America</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields-neuro.cfm">the original</a> on 11 December 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Neurolinguistics&rft.pub=Linguistic+Society+of+America&rft.aulast=Menn&rft.aufirst=Lise&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lsadc.org%2Finfo%2Fling-fields-neuro.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100725023240/http://www.sfn.org/index.cfm?pagename=brainBriefings_thebilingualbrain">"The Bilingual Brain"</a>. <i>Brain Briefings</i>. <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Neuroscience" title="Society for Neuroscience">Society for Neuroscience</a>. February 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfn.org/index.cfm?pagename=brainBriefings_thebilingualbrain">the original</a> on 25 July 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 February</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brain+Briefings&rft.atitle=The+Bilingual+Brain&rft.date=2008-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfn.org%2Findex.cfm%3Fpagename%3DbrainBriefings_thebilingualbrain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-friederici2002-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-friederici2002_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-friederici2002_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriederici2002" class="citation journal cs1">Friederici, Angela D. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2800%2901839-8">"Towards a neural basis of auditory sentence processing"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Trends_(journals)" title="Trends (journals)">Trends in Cognitive Sciences</a></i>. <b>6</b> (2): 78–84. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2800%2901839-8">10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01839-8</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0010-E573-8">11858/00-001M-0000-0010-E573-8</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15866191">15866191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=Towards+a+neural+basis+of+auditory+sentence+processing&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=78-84&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-0010-E573-8&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15866191&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1364-6613%2800%2901839-8&rft.aulast=Friederici&rft.aufirst=Angela+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252FS1364-6613%252800%252901839-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caplan (1987), p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-caplan12-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-caplan12_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-caplan12_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Caplan (1987), p. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sereno-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sereno_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sereno_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerenoYue_Wang2007" class="citation book cs1">Sereno, Joan A; Yue Wang (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F4twnj4T2owC&q=%22Behavioral+and+cortical+effects+of+learning+a+second+language%3A+The+acquisition+of+tone%22&pg=PA239">"Behavioral and cortical effects of learning a second language: The acquisition of tone"</a>. 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"On Broca, brain, and binding: a new framework". <i><a href="/wiki/Trends_(journals)" title="Trends (journals)">Trends in Cognitive Sciences</a></i>. <b>9</b> (9): 416–23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tics.2005.07.004">10.1016/j.tics.2005.07.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0013-1E16-A">11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1E16-A</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16054419">16054419</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2826729">2826729</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=On+Broca%2C+brain%2C+and+binding%3A+a+new+framework&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=416-23&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-0013-1E16-A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2826729%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16054419&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tics.2005.07.004&rft.aulast=Hagoort&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">One common exception to this is studies using the mismatch paradigm, in which subjects are often instructed to watch a silent movie or otherwise not pay attention actively to the stimuli. See, for example: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulvermüllerRamin_Assadollahi2007" class="citation journal cs1">Pulvermüller, Friedemann; Ramin Assadollahi (2007). "Grammar or serial order?: discrete combinatorial brain mechanicsms reflected by the syntactic mismatch negativity". <i>Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience</i>. <b>19</b> (6): 971–980. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fjocn.2007.19.6.971">10.1162/jocn.2007.19.6.971</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17536967">17536967</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6682016">6682016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cognitive+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Grammar+or+serial+order%3F%3A+discrete+combinatorial+brain+mechanicsms+reflected+by+the+syntactic+mismatch+negativity&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=971-980&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6682016%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17536967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fjocn.2007.19.6.971&rft.aulast=Pulverm%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=Friedemann&rft.au=Ramin+Assadollahi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulvermüllerYury_Shtyrov2003" class="citation journal cs1">Pulvermüller, Friedemann; Yury Shtyrov (2003). "Automatic processing of grammar in the human brain as revealed by the mismatch negativity". <i>NeuroImage</i>. <b>20</b> (1): 159–172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1053-8119%2803%2900261-1">10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00261-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14527578">14527578</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27124567">27124567</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NeuroImage&rft.atitle=Automatic+processing+of+grammar+in+the+human+brain+as+revealed+by+the+mismatch+negativity&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=159-172&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27124567%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14527578&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1053-8119%2803%2900261-1&rft.aulast=Pulverm%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=Friedemann&rft.au=Yury+Shtyrov&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-VP93-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-VP93_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Petten1993" class="citation journal cs1">Van Petten, Cyma (1993). "A comparison of lexical and sentence-level context effects in event-related potentials". <i>Language and Cognitive Processes</i>. <b>8</b> (4): 490–91. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01690969308407586">10.1080/01690969308407586</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Cognitive+Processes&rft.atitle=A+comparison+of+lexical+and+sentence-level+context+effects+in+event-related+potentials&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=490-91&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01690969308407586&rft.aulast=Van+Petten&rft.aufirst=Cyma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-task_effects-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-task_effects_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-task_effects_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-task_effects_64-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHahneAngela_D._Friederici2002" class="citation journal cs1">Hahne, Anja; Angela D. Friederici (2002). "Differential task effects on semantic and syntactic processes as revealed by ERPs". <i>Cognitive Brain Research</i>. <b>13</b> (3): 339–356. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0926-6410%2801%2900127-6">10.1016/S0926-6410(01)00127-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0010-ABA4-1">11858/00-001M-0000-0010-ABA4-1</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11918999">11918999</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognitive+Brain+Research&rft.atitle=Differential+task+effects+on+semantic+and+syntactic+processes+as+revealed+by+ERPs&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=339-356&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11858%2F00-001M-0000-0010-ABA4-1&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11918999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0926-6410%2801%2900127-6&rft.aulast=Hahne&rft.aufirst=Anja&rft.au=Angela+D.+Friederici&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yeetal2006-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-yeetal2006_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZheng_YeYue-jia_Luo;_Angela_D._Friederici;_Xiaolin_Zhou2006" class="citation journal cs1">Zheng Ye; Yue-jia Luo; Angela D. Friederici; Xiaolin Zhou (2006). "Semantic and syntactic processing in Chinese sentence comprehension: evidence from event-related potentials". <i>Brain Research</i>. <b>1071</b> (1): 186–196. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.brainres.2005.11.085">10.1016/j.brainres.2005.11.085</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16412999">16412999</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18324338">18324338</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brain+Research&rft.atitle=Semantic+and+syntactic+processing+in+Chinese+sentence+comprehension%3A+evidence+from+event-related+potentials&rft.volume=1071&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=186-196&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18324338%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16412999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.brainres.2005.11.085&rft.au=Zheng+Ye&rft.au=Yue-jia+Luo%3B+Angela+D.+Friederici%3B+Xiaolin+Zhou&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-frisch200-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frisch200_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frisch200_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frisch200_66-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrischAnja_Hahne;_Angela_D._Friederici2004" class="citation journal cs1">Frisch, Stefan; Anja Hahne; Angela D. Friederici (2004). "Word category and verb–argument structure information in the dynamics of parsing". <i>Cognition</i>. <b>91</b> (3): 200–201. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cognition.2003.09.009">10.1016/j.cognition.2003.09.009</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15168895">15168895</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44889189">44889189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cognition&rft.atitle=Word+category+and+verb%26ndash%3Bargument+structure+information+in+the+dynamics+of+parsing&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=200-201&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A44889189%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15168895&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cognition.2003.09.009&rft.aulast=Frisch&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Anja+Hahne%3B+Angela+D.+Friederici&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-osterhout-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-osterhout_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsterhout1997" class="citation journal cs1">Osterhout, Lee (1997). "On the brain response to syntactic anomalies: manipulations of word position and word class reveal individual differences". <i>Brain and Language</i>. <b>59</b> (3): 494–522 [500]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fbrln.1997.1793">10.1006/brln.1997.1793</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9299074">9299074</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14354089">14354089</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brain+and+Language&rft.atitle=On+the+brain+response+to+syntactic+anomalies%3A+manipulations+of+word+position+and+word+class+reveal+individual+differences&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=494-522+500&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14354089%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9299074&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1006%2Fbrln.1997.1793&rft.aulast=Osterhout&rft.aufirst=Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hagoort2003-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hagoort2003_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHagoort2003" class="citation journal cs1">Hagoort, Peter (2003). "Interplay between syntax and semantics during sentence comprehension: ERP effects of combining syntactic and semantic violations". <i>Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience</i>. <b>15</b> (6): 883–899. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.70.9046">10.1.1.70.9046</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F089892903322370807">10.1162/089892903322370807</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14511541">14511541</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15814199">15814199</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cognitive+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Interplay+between+syntax+and+semantics+during+sentence+comprehension%3A+ERP+effects+of+combining+syntactic+and+semantic+violations&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=883-899&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.70.9046%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15814199%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14511541&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2F089892903322370807&rft.aulast=Hagoort&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Peter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100609030820/http://faculty.tc.columbia.edu/upload/pg328/TRUTHVALUECHAPT.pdf">"The Truth-Value Judgment Task"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In D. McDaniel; C. McKee; H. Cairns (eds.). <i>Methods for assessing children's syntax</i>. Cambridge: MIT Press. p. 1. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.tc.columbia.edu/upload/pg328/TRUTHVALUECHAPT.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 June 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Truth-Value+Judgment+Task&rft.btitle=Methods+for+assessing+children%27s+syntax&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.tc.columbia.edu%2Fupload%2Fpg328%2FTRUTHVALUECHAPT.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crain, Stephen, Luisa Meroni, and Utako Minai. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050709173234/http://www.maccs.mq.edu.au/~scrain/papers/GALA%2704.pdf">If Everybody Knows, then Every Child Knows</a>." University of Maryland at College Park. Retrieved 14 December 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rogalskyetal-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rogalskyetal_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogalskyWilliam_Matchin;_Gregory_Hickok2008" class="citation journal cs1">Rogalsky, Corianne; William Matchin; Gregory Hickok (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2572210">"Broca's Area, Sentence Comprehension, and Working Memory: An fMRI Study"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Frontiers_Research_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontiers Research Foundation">Frontiers in Human Neuroscience</a></i>. <b>2</b>: 14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Fneuro.09.014.2008">10.3389/neuro.09.014.2008</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2572210">2572210</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18958214">18958214</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Human+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Broca%27s+Area%2C+Sentence+Comprehension%2C+and+Working+Memory%3A+An+fMRI+Study&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=14&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2572210%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18958214&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Fneuro.09.014.2008&rft.aulast=Rogalsky&rft.aufirst=Corianne&rft.au=William+Matchin%3B+Gregory+Hickok&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2572210&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColin_M._BrownPeter_Hagoort1999" class="citation book cs1">Colin M. Brown; Peter Hagoort, eds. (1999). <i>The Neurocognition of Language</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Neurocognition+of+Language&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaplan1987" class="citation book cs1">Caplan, David (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neurolinguistics0000capl"><i>Neurolinguistics and Linguistic Aphasiology: An Introduction</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neurolinguistics0000capl/page/498">498</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31195-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31195-3"><bdi>978-0-521-31195-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neurolinguistics+and+Linguistic+Aphasiology%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=498&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-521-31195-3&rft.aulast=Caplan&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneurolinguistics0000capl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngram2007" class="citation book cs1">Ingram, John C.L. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CQ8agSNL9MYC"><i>Neurolinguistics: An Introduction to Spoken Language Processing and Its Disorders</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 420. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79190-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79190-8"><bdi>978-0-521-79190-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neurolinguistics%3A+An+Introduction+to+Spoken+Language+Processing+and+Its+Disorders&rft.pages=420&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-79190-8&rft.aulast=Ingram&rft.aufirst=John+C.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCQ8agSNL9MYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeislerSlavoljub_P._Milekic1999" class="citation book cs1">Weisler, Stephen; Slavoljub P. Milekic (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wIaGLUFHtxsC&q=what+is+neurolinguistics&pg=PA273">"Brain and Language"</a>. <i>Theory of Language</i>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. p. 344. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-73125-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-73125-6"><bdi>978-0-262-73125-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Brain+and+Language&rft.btitle=Theory+of+Language&rft.pages=344&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-262-73125-6&rft.aulast=Weisler&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Slavoljub+P.+Milekic&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwIaGLUFHtxsC%26q%3Dwhat%2Bis%2Bneurolinguistics%26pg%3DPA273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Noun-linguistics.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/25px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/38px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Noun-linguistics.svg/51px-Noun-linguistics.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="29" data-file-height="32" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Linguistics portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhlsén2006" class="citation book cs1">Ahlsén, Elisabeth (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jVR1AAAACAAJ&q=Introduction+to+Neurolinguistics"><i>Introduction to Neurolinguistics</i></a>. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-3233-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-3233-5"><bdi>978-90-272-3233-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Neurolinguistics&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-90-272-3233-5&rft.aulast=Ahls%C3%A9n&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjVR1AAAACAAJ%26q%3DIntroduction%2Bto%2BNeurolinguistics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoro2008" class="citation book cs1">Moro, Andrea (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121007002039/http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=11488"><i>The Boundaries of Babel. The Brain and the Enigma of Impossible Languages</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. p. 257. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-13498-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-13498-9"><bdi>978-0-262-13498-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?ttype=2&tid=11488">the original</a> on 7 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Boundaries+of+Babel.+The+Brain+and+the+Enigma+of+Impossible+Languages&rft.pages=257&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-262-13498-9&rft.aulast=Moro&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmitpress.mit.edu%2Fcatalog%2Fitem%2Fdefault.asp%3Fttype%3D2%26tid%3D11488&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStemmerHarry_A._Whitaker1998" class="citation book cs1">Stemmer, Brigitte; Harry A. Whitaker (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4tkFAAAACAAJ&q=Handbook+of+Neurolinguistics"><i>Handbook of Neurolinguistics</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>. p. 788. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-666055-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-666055-5"><bdi>978-0-12-666055-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Neurolinguistics&rft.pages=788&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-12-666055-5&rft.aulast=Stemmer&rft.aufirst=Brigitte&rft.au=Harry+A.+Whitaker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4tkFAAAACAAJ%26q%3DHandbook%2Bof%2BNeurolinguistics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeurolinguistics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p>Some relevant journals include the <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/866/description#description">Journal of Neurolinguistics</a></i> and <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/622799/description#description">Brain and Language</a></i>. Both are subscription access journals, though some abstracts may be generally available. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neurolinguistics&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfn.org/">Society for Neuroscience (SfN)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.linguisticsociety.org/content/language-and-brain">Neurolinguistics Resources from the LSA</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://talkingbrains.blogspot.com/">Talking Brains</a>, blog by neurolinguists Greg Hickock and David Poeppel</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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title="Neuroanatomy">Neuroanatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurobiology">Neurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrinology" title="Neuroendocrinology">Neuroendocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenetics" title="Neurogenetics">Neurogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroinformatics" title="Neuroinformatics">Neuroinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurometrics" title="Neurometrics">Neurometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphology" title="Neuromorphology">Neuromorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysics" title="Neurophysics">Neurophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Systems neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray739.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/130px-Gray739.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/195px-Gray739.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Gray739.png/260px-Gray739.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="379" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neuroscience" title="Clinical neuroscience">Clinical<br />neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neurology" title="Behavioral neurology">Behavioral neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epileptology" class="mw-redirect" title="Epileptology">Epileptology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocardiology" title="Neurocardiology">Neurocardiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepidemiology" title="Neuroepidemiology">Neuroepidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system#Function" title="Enteric nervous system">Neurogastroenterology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmunology" title="Neuroimmunology">Neuroimmunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurointensive_care" title="Neurointensive care">Neurointensive care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-oncology" title="Neuro-oncology">Neuro-oncology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuro-ophthalmology" title="Neuro-ophthalmology">Neuro-ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropathology" title="Neuropathology">Neuropathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropharmacology" title="Neuropharmacology">Neuropharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroprosthetics" title="Neuroprosthetics">Neuroprosthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatry" title="Neuropsychiatry">Neuropsychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorehabilitation" title="Neurorehabilitation">Neurorehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotology" title="Neurotology">Neurotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurovirology" title="Neurovirology">Neurovirology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_neuroscience" title="Nutritional neuroscience">Nutritional neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">Cognitive<br />neuroscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">Behavioral neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cellular_cognition" title="Molecular cellular cognition">Molecular cellular cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuroscience" title="Sensory neuroscience">Sensory neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_neuroscience" title="Social cognitive neuroscience">Social cognitive neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary<br />fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_neuroscience" title="Consumer neuroscience">Consumer neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience" title="Cultural neuroscience">Cultural neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_neuroscience" title="Educational neuroscience">Educational neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_neurosurgery" title="Global neurosurgery">Global neurosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology">Neuroanthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_engineering" title="Neural engineering">Neural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurobiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurocriminology" title="Neurocriminology">Neurocriminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroeconomics" title="Neuroeconomics">Neuroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroepistemology" title="Neuroepistemology">Neuroepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroethology" title="Neuroethology">Neuroethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurohistory" title="Neurohistory">Neurohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurolaw" title="Neurolaw">Neurolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromarketing" title="Neuromarketing">Neuromarketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromorphic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromorphic engineering">Neuromorphic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropolitics" title="Neuropolitics">Neuropolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurorobotics" title="Neurorobotics">Neurorobotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoneurobiology" title="Paleoneurobiology">Paleoneurobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_neuroscience" title="Social neuroscience">Social neuroscience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brain%E2%80%93computer_interface" title="Brain–computer interface">Brain–computer interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system" title="Development of the nervous system">Development of the nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">Neural network (artificial)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_circuit" title="Neural circuit">Neural network (biological)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detection_theory" title="Detection theory">Detection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraoperative_neurophysiological_monitoring" title="Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring">Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochip" title="Neurochip">Neurochip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease" title="Neurodegenerative disease">Neurodegenerative disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder" title="Neurodevelopmental disorder">Neurodevelopmental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenesis" title="Neurogenesis">Neurogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">Neuroimaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmune_system" title="Neuroimmune system">Neuroimmune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromanagement" title="Neuromanagement">Neuromanagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromodulation" title="Neuromodulation">Neuromodulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotechnology" title="Neurotechnology">Neurotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxin" title="Neurotoxin">Neurotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self" title="Neural basis of self">Self-awareness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" 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