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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Pseudohistorical theories of New Zealand settlement</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_human_migration_to_New_Zealand.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/First_human_migration_to_New_Zealand.svg/310px-First_human_migration_to_New_Zealand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/First_human_migration_to_New_Zealand.svg/465px-First_human_migration_to_New_Zealand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/First_human_migration_to_New_Zealand.svg/620px-First_human_migration_to_New_Zealand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="779" data-file-height="499" /></a><figcaption>The mainstream view of the Polynesian settlement of New Zealand and the <a href="/wiki/Chatham_Islands" title="Chatham Islands">Chatham Islands</a> as representing the end-point of a long chain of island-hopping voyages in the <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">South Pacific</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Since the early 1900s it has been accepted by archaeologists and anthropologists that <a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesians</a> (who became the <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a>) were the first ethnic group to settle in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> (first proposed by Captain <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before that time and until the 1920s, however, a small group of prominent anthropologists proposed that the <a href="/wiki/Moriori" title="Moriori">Moriori</a> people of the <a href="/wiki/Chatham_Islands" title="Chatham Islands">Chatham Islands</a> represented a pre-Māori group of people from <a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a>, who once lived across all of New Zealand and were replaced by the Māori.<sup id="cite_ref-jacinta_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacinta-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While this claim was soon disproven by academics, it was widely incorporated into school textbooks during the 20th century, most notably in the <i><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_School_Journal" title="New Zealand School Journal">School Journal</a></i>. This theory has been followed by modern claims of a pre-Māori settlement of New Zealand by various ethnic groups. Today, such theories are considered to be <a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">pseudohistorical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">negationist</a> by scholars and historians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing200329_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing200329-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-conspiracy_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conspiracy-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="The current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS). (April 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In recent times, a greater variety of speculation of New Zealand's first settlers has occurred outside of academia. These ideas typically incorporate aspects of <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">conspiracy theories</a> as they are in opposition to the last 100 years of academic research.<sup id="cite_ref-Neale_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neale-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The common acceptance of these unsubstantiated theories has been used by prominent politicians and public figures to attack Māori politics and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-jacinta_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacinta-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hamilton2017_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton2017-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Māori_oral_traditions"><span id="M.C4.81ori_oral_traditions"></span>Māori oral traditions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-M%C4%81ori_settlement_of_New_Zealand_theories&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Māori oral traditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_mythology" title="Māori mythology">Māori mythology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ui-te-Rangiora" title="Ui-te-Rangiora">Ui-te-Rangiora</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kupe_Group_Statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Kupe_Group_Statue.jpg/200px-Kupe_Group_Statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Kupe_Group_Statue.jpg/300px-Kupe_Group_Statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Kupe_Group_Statue.jpg/400px-Kupe_Group_Statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2707" data-file-height="3610" /></a><figcaption>Statue of the legendary explorer Kupe</figcaption></figure> <p>Māori traditions speak of all manner of spirits, fairy folk, giants, and ogres living in parts of New Zealand when Māori arrived. The pale-skinned <span title="Māori-language text"><i lang="mi"><a href="/wiki/Patupaiarehe" title="Patupaiarehe">patupaiarehe</a></i></span> are perhaps the most well-known, of which Ngāti Kura, Ngāti Korakorako, and Ngāti Tūrehu are said to be sub-groupings.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wikaira_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wikaira-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In oral tradition, <span title="Māori-language text"><i lang="mi">patupaiarehe</i></span> taught weaving and net-making to the Māori, and could not come out during the day.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tregear_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tregear-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Māori-language text"><i lang="mi"><a href="/wiki/Ponaturi" title="Ponaturi">Ponaturi</a></i></span> were similar in that they could not tolerate sunlight, so they lived in the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-Wikaira_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wikaira-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In south <a href="/wiki/Westland_District" title="Westland District">Westland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ng%C4%81i_Tahu" title="Ngāi Tahu">Kāti Māhaki ki Makaawhio</a>'s Te Tauraka Waka a Maui Marae<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is named in honour of a tradition stating that <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ui_(M%C4%81ori_mythology)" title="Māui (Māori mythology)">Māui</a> landed his canoe in <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Bay" title="Bruce Bay">Bruce Bay</a> when he arrived in New Zealand.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a myth collected from <a href="/wiki/Lake_Ellesmere_/_Te_Waihora" title="Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora">Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora</a>, Māui threw a giant to the sea and buried him underneath a mountain to create the area around <a href="/wiki/Banks_Peninsula" title="Banks Peninsula">Banks Peninsula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Horomaka_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horomaka-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kupe" title="Kupe">Kupe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ngahue" title="Ngahue">Ngahue</a> were both contemporaries famous for exploring New Zealand before notable migration voyages began.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter discovered <a href="/wiki/Pounamu" title="Pounamu">pounamu</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the former introduced the first dogs (<span title="Māori-language text"><i lang="mi"><a href="/wiki/Kur%C4%AB" title="Kurī">kurī</a></i></span>) and created <a href="/wiki/Lake_Grassmere" title="Lake Grassmere">Lake Grassmere</a> / Kapara Te Hau to drown Te Kāhui Tipua – who were described as 'giants' or '<a href="/wiki/Ogre" title="Ogre">ogres</a>' living in <a href="/wiki/Marlborough_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Marlborough Region">Marlborough</a> at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Mitch_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitch-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Kupe and Ngahue returned to <a href="/wiki/Hawaiki" title="Hawaiki">Hawaiki</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Biggs_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biggs-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though Ngahue came back with the <span title="Māori-language text"><i lang="mi"><a href="/wiki/Arawa_(canoe)" title="Arawa (canoe)">Arawa</a></i></span> after a war with <a href="/wiki/Uenuku" title="Uenuku">Uenuku</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other Māori traditions exclude the existence of other humans in New Zealand upon their arrival. A well-known story is how Māui fished up the <a href="/wiki/North_Island" title="North Island">North Island</a> out of the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Te_Rangi_H%C4%ABroa" class="mw-redirect" title="Te Rangi Hīroa">Te Rangi Hīroa</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ng%C4%81ti_Mutunga" title="Ngāti Mutunga">Ngāti Mutunga</a> suggests might be a way to say he 'discovered' the island out of the blue, though the rest of the myth is very fanciful in saying parts of his canoe became different areas of both islands.<sup id="cite_ref-Hiroa_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hiroa-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the traditions of <a href="/wiki/Ng%C4%81i_Tahu" title="Ngāi Tahu">Ngāi Tahu</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Waitaha_(South_Island_iwi)" title="Waitaha (South Island iwi)">Waitaha</a> descendants, <a href="/wiki/R%C4%81kaihaut%C5%AB" title="Rākaihautū">Rākaihautū</a> of the <span title="Māori-language text"><i lang="mi"><a href="/wiki/Uruaokapuarangi" title="Uruaokapuarangi">Uruaokapuarangi</a></i></span> was the first man to set foot in the <a href="/wiki/South_Island" title="South Island">South Island</a> by digging up the many lakes and waterways and filling them with fish. He brought with him the ancestors of the groups Te Kāhui Tipua, Te Kāhui Roko, and Te Kāhui Waitaha.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Sir <a href="/wiki/%C4%80pirana_Ngata" title="Āpirana Ngata">Āpirana Ngata</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ng%C4%81ti_Porou" title="Ngāti Porou">Ngāti Porou</a>, Rākaihautū did not go south at all, but rather his legend was brought down there.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some accounts may say he is an ancestor of <a href="/wiki/Toi-te-huatahi" title="Toi-te-huatahi">Toi</a> through a daughter that stayed behind in <a href="/wiki/Hawaiki" title="Hawaiki">Te Patunuioāio</a>, who himself is an ancestor of <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81ti_M%C4%81moe" title="Kāti Māmoe">Kāti Māmoe</a>, Te Kāhea, <a href="/wiki/Ng%C4%81puhi" title="Ngāpuhi">Ngāpuhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ng%C4%81ti_R%C4%81hiri_Tumutumu" title="Ngāti Rāhiri Tumutumu">Ngāti Rāhiri Tumutumu</a>, and Hāwea in some tellings.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hāwea might have alternatively been a different tribe that arrived on the <span title="Māori-language text"><i lang="mi">Kapakitua</i></span> before or at a similar time to Waitaha before merging with them, with other ancient tribal groupings possibly including the <a href="/wiki/Maero" title="Maero">Maero</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Otago_Region#Initial_Māori_settlement_(1300–1500)" title="History of the Otago Region">Rapuwai</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Ng%C4%81i_T%C5%ABhoe" title="Ngāi Tūhoe">Ngāi Tūhoe</a> traditions, Toi's 'ancestor' Tīwakawaka was the first to settle the country aboard <span title="Māori-language text"><i lang="mi"><a href="/wiki/Te_Aratauwh%C4%81iti" title="Te Aratauwhāiti">Te Aratauwhāiti</a></i></span>, "but only his name is remembered".<sup id="cite_ref-Biggs_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Biggs-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A man named <a href="/wiki/Uenuku#Kahukura" title="Uenuku">Kahukura</a> took Toi's own canoe, the <span title="Māori-language text"><i lang="mi"><a href="/wiki/Horouta" title="Horouta">Horouta</a></i></span>, and returned to Hawaiki. He sent <span title="Māori-language text"><i lang="mi"><a href="/wiki/Sweet_potato" title="Sweet potato">kūmara</a></i></span> back to the new lands with the canoe.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_European_speculation">Early European speculation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-M%C4%81ori_settlement_of_New_Zealand_theories&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early European speculation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_migration_canoes#"Great_fleet"_hypothesis" title="Māori migration canoes">Māori migration canoes § "Great fleet" hypothesis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Thor Heyerdahl</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElsdonBest_and_PercySmith_1908.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/ElsdonBest_and_PercySmith_1908.jpg/240px-ElsdonBest_and_PercySmith_1908.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/ElsdonBest_and_PercySmith_1908.jpg/360px-ElsdonBest_and_PercySmith_1908.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/ElsdonBest_and_PercySmith_1908.jpg/480px-ElsdonBest_and_PercySmith_1908.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>Ethnographers <a href="/wiki/Elsdon_Best" title="Elsdon Best">Elsdon Best</a> and <a href="/wiki/Percy_Smith_(ethnologist)" title="Percy Smith (ethnologist)">Percy Smith</a>, the two most prominent academic proponents of pre-Māori settlement.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Julius_von_Haast" title="Julius von Haast">Julius von Haast</a> suggested in 1871 that an early Polynesian people who hunted the <a href="/wiki/Moa" title="Moa">moa</a> preceded the Māori, who introduced agriculture and lived in small villages.<sup id="cite_ref-jacinta_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacinta-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ideas about <a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryan</a> migrations became popular during the 19th century, and these were applied to New Zealand. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Robert_Tregear" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Robert Tregear">Edward Tregear</a>'s <i>The Aryan Maori</i> (1885) suggested that Aryans from India migrated to southeast Asia and thence to the islands of the Pacific, including New Zealand.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two works published in 1915, <a href="/wiki/Percy_Smith_(ethnologist)" title="Percy Smith (ethnologist)">Percy Smith</a>'s book <i>The Lore of the Whare-wānanga: Part II</i> and <a href="/wiki/Elsdon_Best" title="Elsdon Best">Elsdon Best</a>'s journal article "Maori and Maruiwi" in the <i><a href="/wiki/Transactions_and_Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_of_New_Zealand" title="Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand">Transactions of the New Zealand Institute</a></i>, theorised about pre-Māori settlement. Their work inspired theories that the Māori had displaced a more primitive, at least part-<a href="/wiki/Melanesians" title="Melanesians">Melanesian</a> pre-Māori population of <a href="/wiki/Moriori" title="Moriori">Moriori</a> in mainland New Zealand – and that the Moriori of the <a href="/wiki/Chatham_Islands" title="Chatham Islands">Chatham Islands</a> were the last remnant of this earlier race.<sup id="cite_ref-jacinta_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacinta-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Articles in three issues of the <i><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_School_Journal" title="New Zealand School Journal">New Zealand School Journal</a></i> in 1916 followed, saying that Moriori preceded Māori people,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that they were Melanesian,<sup id="cite_ref-jacinta_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jacinta-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that Māori had driven them from mainland New Zealand to refuge in the Chatham Islands.<sup id="cite_ref-Neale_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neale-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Michael_King_(historian)" title="Michael King (historian)">Michael King</a> said that "for hundreds of thousands of New Zealand children, the version of Moriori history carried in the <i>School Journal</i> and other publications which drew from that source, reinforced over 60-odd years by primary school teachers, was the one that lodged in the national imagination".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing200346_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing200346-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2010 three special editions of the <i>School Journal</i> were published to correct the inaccuracies,<sup id="cite_ref-Neale_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neale-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2010_cover_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2010_cover-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the New Zealand government officially apologised for the journal's errors in settlement of the Moriori <a href="/wiki/Waitangi_Tribunal" title="Waitangi Tribunal">Waitangi Tribunal</a> claim.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starting in the 1920s, <a href="/wiki/Harry_Skinner_(ethnologist)" title="Harry Skinner (ethnologist)">H. D. Skinner</a> and others overturned the hypothesis about a pre-Māori people by showing the continuation and adaptation of the 'Archaic' <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_culture" title="Māori culture">Māori culture</a> into the 'Classic' Māori culture. This negated the need for pre-Māori settlement in models of prehistoric New Zealand. Since this time archeology has become a more professional and scientifically rigorous practice and the model of Polynesians arriving in an uninhabited New Zealand and adapting to its environment has not fundamentally changed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe2008166–178_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe2008166–178-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recent_revivals_of_pre-Māori_settlement_theories"><span id="Recent_revivals_of_pre-M.C4.81ori_settlement_theories"></span>Recent revivals of pre-Māori settlement theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-M%C4%81ori_settlement_of_New_Zealand_theories&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Recent revivals of pre-Māori settlement theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_New_Zealand" title="Archaeology of New Zealand">Modern New Zealand archaeology</a> has clarified the origin and dates of the earliest migrations, establishing firmly that Māori were the first people to settle New Zealand, in line with Māori oral history. As far back as the 19th century, any claim to the contrary has been considered to be <a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">pseudohistorical</a> due to a lack of evidence.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="By whom was it considered pseudoscientific? The theory was accepted in schoolbooks until recently. (September 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">conspiracy theorists</a> have continued to speculate that what is now New Zealand was discovered by Melanesians, Celts, Greeks, Egyptians or the Chinese, before the arrival of the Polynesian ancestors of the Māori.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these ideas have also been supported by politicians and media personalities.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Don_Brash" title="Don Brash">Don Brash</a>, formerly <a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_New_Zealand_National_Party" title="Leader of the New Zealand National Party">leader of the New Zealand National Party</a>, is a high-profile proponent of pre-Māori settlement theories.<sup id="cite_ref-Brash_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brash-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An earlier proponent of the racist theory of a pre-Polynesian European settlement of New Zealand was by white supremacist and Holocaust denier <a href="/wiki/Kerry_Bolton" title="Kerry Bolton">Kerry Bolton</a>. In his 1987 pamphlet <i>Lords of the Soil</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he states that "Polynesia has been occupied by peoples of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_race" title="Caucasian race">Europoid</a> race since ancient times".<sup id="cite_ref-Sargeant_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sargeant-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other books presenting such theories include <i>The Great Divide: The Story of New Zealand & its Treaty</i> (2012) by journalist <a href="/wiki/Ian_Wishart_(journalist)" title="Ian Wishart (journalist)">Ian Wishart</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>To the Ends of the Earth</i> by Maxwell C. Hill, Gary Cook and <a href="/wiki/Noel_Hilliam" title="Noel Hilliam">Noel Hilliam</a>, which claims without evidence that New Zealand was discovered by explorers from ancient Egypt and Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians and archaeologists dismiss any such theories. <a href="/wiki/Michael_King_(historian)" title="Michael King (historian)">Michael King</a> wrote in his history of New Zealand, "Despite a plethora of amateur theories about <a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesian</a>, South American, Egyptian, <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> colonisation of New Zealand, there is not a shred of evidence that the first human settlers were anything other than Polynesian",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKing200329_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing200329-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Richard Hill, professor of New Zealand Studies at <a href="/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Wellington" title="Victoria University of Wellington">Victoria University of Wellington</a>, said in 2012, "Not one of [the theories] has ever passed any remote academic scrutiny."<sup id="cite_ref-conspiracy_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conspiracy-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hugh Laracy of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Auckland" title="University of Auckland">University of Auckland</a> called them "wild speculation" that has been "thoroughly disposed of by academic specialists".<sup id="cite_ref-stoush_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stoush-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Vincent O'Malley regards the theories as having a political element, seeking to cast doubt on the status of Māori as the first people of New Zealand and as <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Waitangi" title="Treaty of Waitangi">Treaty of Waitangi</a> partners.<sup id="cite_ref-conspiracy_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conspiracy-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Amateur archaeologist Garry Law regards the theories as having a racist element, seeking to undermine <a href="/wiki/Waitangi_Tribunal" title="Waitangi Tribunal">Waitangi Tribunal</a> claims.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scott Hamilton in "No to Nazi Pseudo-history: an Open Letter" further explains objections to the theories of Bolton and Martin Doutré (and the website <i>Ancient Celtic New Zealand</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Claims_of_evidence">Claims of evidence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-M%C4%81ori_settlement_of_New_Zealand_theories&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Claims of evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kaimanawa_wall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Kaimanawa_wall.jpg/300px-Kaimanawa_wall.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Kaimanawa_wall.jpg/450px-Kaimanawa_wall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Kaimanawa_wall.jpg/600px-Kaimanawa_wall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1824" data-file-height="1368" /></a><figcaption>The Kaimanawa Wall, a natural outcrop of ignimbrite with regular <a href="/wiki/Joint_(geology)" title="Joint (geology)">joint sets</a>, which are interpreted by some to be man-made</figcaption></figure> <p>A feature that has been put forward by conspiracy theorists as evidence of pre-Polynesian settlers is the <a href="/wiki/Kaimanawa_Range#Kaimanawa_Wall" title="Kaimanawa Range">Kaimanawa Wall</a>, which some claim is a remnant of ancient human construction that the Māori could not have built because they did not build with stone in such a way.<sup id="cite_ref-wall_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wall-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Howe_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howe-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wall formation was inspected by an <a href="/wiki/Archaeologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeologist">archaeologist</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">geologist</a>. Neither saw evidence of a human origin and they concluded the formation is a natural <a href="/wiki/Ignimbrite" title="Ignimbrite">ignimbrite</a> outcrop formed 330,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-wall_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wall-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Howe_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Howe-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Archaeologist Neville Ritchie of the <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Department_of_Conservation" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand Department of Conservation">New Zealand Department of Conservation</a> observed "matching micro-irregularities along the joints." This indicated that the blocks in the wall were too perfectly matched. He also observed the joints were neither straight nor truly horizontal nor perpendicular, indicating the joint alignments were too poorly constructed. Ritchie concluded the blocks are a natural formation based on the presence of matching micro-irregularities in blocks and imperfect joint alignment.<sup id="cite_ref-wall_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wall-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peter Wood, a geologist of the <a href="/wiki/GNS_Science" title="GNS Science">Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences</a>, inspected the blocks and concluded they are natural fractures in "<a href="/wiki/Joint_(geology)" title="Joint (geology)">jointed</a> Rangitaiki <a href="/wiki/Ignimbrite" title="Ignimbrite">ignimbrite</a>, a 330,000 year old volcanic rock that is common in the <a href="/wiki/Taup%C5%8D_Volcanic_Zone" title="Taupō Volcanic Zone">Taupō Volcanic Zone</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-wall_52-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wall-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both vertical and horizontal joints are common. Fractures in the Rangitaiki ignimbrite formed when it cooled and contracted after flowing into place during an eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-wall_52-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wall-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Boulders that were originally on a hill in <a href="/wiki/Silverdale,_Auckland" title="Silverdale, Auckland">Silverdale</a>, Auckland, have been argued by Martin Doutré in a self-published 1999 book to be artefacts left by a pre-Polynesian Celtic population, who according to the theory came to be known as the <span title="Māori-language text"><i lang="mi">patupaiarehe</i></span>, and used the boulders as part of a system spanning around the area, used for calendar tracking and survey functions.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thompson_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> History professor K. R. Howe described Doutre as "a self-styled archaeo-astronomer" who argues that certain configurations of stones in the New Zealand landscape are remnants of mathematically advanced astronomical devices built by ancient Celts who had links with the builders of Stonehenge and the Great Pyramid."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe2008148_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe2008148-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bruce Hayward, a Geological Society spokesman, says the boulders were formed in the ocean 70 million years ago and naturally pushed into the hills over time.<sup id="cite_ref-Thompson_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other supposed structures and creations of pre-Polynesian settlers are described as the <a href="/wiki/Waipoua_Forest" title="Waipoua Forest">Waipoua</a> 'stone city',<sup id="cite_ref-Hamilton2017_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton2017-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the 'Waitapu Valley (<a href="/wiki/Maunganui_Bluff" title="Maunganui Bluff">Maunganui Bluff</a>) solar observatory' including Puketapu hill and a mountain at <a href="/wiki/Hokianga" title="Hokianga">Hokianga</a>, a 'stone village' in the Tapapakanga Regional Park, and all manner of <a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">petroglyphs</a> and carvings found throughout the islands. Most of these ideas are propounded by Doutré.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamilton2017_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton2017-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2017, journalist Mike Barrington published a lengthy piece in the <i>Northern Advocate</i> claiming evidence that a pre-Māori Celtic population existed in the modern-day <a href="/wiki/Northland_Region" title="Northland Region">Northland Region</a>, thanks to the efforts of amateur archeologist Noel Hilliam. Barrington reported that Hilliam had excavated two skulls and sent them to "Edinburgh University", where an unnamed forensic pathologist had examined them and decided that they had Welsh origins.<sup id="cite_ref-Hamilton2017_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton2017-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When contacted by <i><a href="/wiki/Vice_(magazine)" title="Vice (magazine)">Vice</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a> denied this, and responded that "nobody [here] knows anything about this ... we are not aware of any academic from the University of Edinburgh having contributed to this project."<sup id="cite_ref-McClure_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClure-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Barrington and Hilliam were largely ridiculed for their claims, particularly for the <a href="/wiki/Forensic_facial_reconstruction" title="Forensic facial reconstruction">forensic facial reconstructions</a> in the article,<sup id="cite_ref-McClure_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClure-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and for Hilliam insisting that he had found a "distinctively Welsh skull".<sup id="cite_ref-Hamilton2017_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton2017-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Māori questioned whether Hilliam had robbed Māori urupā (burial sites) of the skulls. In New Zealand, it is illegal to disturb or destroy an archaeological site, and can result in substantial fines and a criminal conviction.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Heritage_New_Zealand" title="Heritage New Zealand">Heritage New Zealand</a> investigated how Hilliam had obtained the skulls and whether he had sent human remains out of New Zealand, but found no evidence beyond his claims to have done so.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-M%C4%81ori_settlement_of_New_Zealand_theories&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span 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id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-M%C4%81ori_settlement_of_New_Zealand_theories&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See 1904 paper by A. Shand on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz/volume/rsnz_37/rsnz_37_00_001370.html"><i>The Early History of the Morioris</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFShapiro1940" class="citation journal cs1">Shapiro, H. L. (1940). 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Scoop Review of Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=No+to+Nazi+Pseudo-history%3A+an+Open+Letter&rft.pub=Scoop+Review+of+Books&rft.date=2008-11-18&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.scoop.co.nz%2F2008%2F11%2F18%2Fno-to-nazi-pseudo-history-an-open-letter%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-M%C4%81ori+settlement+of+New+Zealand+theories" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wall-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wall_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wall_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wall_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wall_52-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wall_52-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRitchie1996" class="citation web cs1">Ritchie, Neville (1 November 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://articles.skeptics.nz/1996/11/01/a-new-age-myth-the-kaimanawa-wall/">"A New Age myth: The Kaimanawa Wall"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NZ_Skeptics" title="NZ Skeptics">NZ Skeptics</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+New+Age+myth%3A+The+Kaimanawa+Wall&rft.pub=NZ+Skeptics&rft.date=1996-11-01&rft.aulast=Ritchie&rft.aufirst=Neville&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farticles.skeptics.nz%2F1996%2F11%2F01%2Fa-new-age-myth-the-kaimanawa-wall%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-M%C4%81ori+settlement+of+New+Zealand+theories" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Howe-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Howe_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Howe_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowe2005" class="citation web cs1">Howe, K. R. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://teara.govt.nz/en/document/1603/the-kaimanawa-wall">"Ideas about Māori origins: The Kaimanawa Wall"</a>. <i>Te Ara Enyclopedia of New Zealand</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Te+Ara+Enyclopedia+of+New+Zealand&rft.atitle=Ideas+about+M%C4%81ori+origins%3A+The+Kaimanawa+Wall&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=K.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fteara.govt.nz%2Fen%2Fdocument%2F1603%2Fthe-kaimanawa-wall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-M%C4%81ori+settlement+of+New+Zealand+theories" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoutré1999" class="citation book cs1">Doutré, Martin (1999). <i>Ancient Celtic New Zealand</i>. Auckland: Dé Danann Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780473053673" title="Special:BookSources/9780473053673"><bdi>9780473053673</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Celtic+New+Zealand&rft.place=Auckland&rft.pub=D%C3%A9+Danann+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9780473053673&rft.aulast=Doutr%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-M%C4%81ori+settlement+of+New+Zealand+theories" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thompson-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thompson_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thompson_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2009" class="citation news cs1">Thompson, Wayne (6 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/kahu/call-to-save-hilltop-boulders/HTA7MZHHPHT5JBV5UVO7CEL24U/">"Call to save hilltop boulders"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Zealand_Herald" title="The New Zealand Herald">The New Zealand Herald</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Zealand+Herald&rft.atitle=Call+to+save+hilltop+boulders&rft.date=2009-05-06&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Wayne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzherald.co.nz%2Fkahu%2Fcall-to-save-hilltop-boulders%2FHTA7MZHHPHT5JBV5UVO7CEL24U%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-M%C4%81ori+settlement+of+New+Zealand+theories" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHowe2008148-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHowe2008148_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHowe2008">Howe 2008</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McClure-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McClure_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McClure_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcClure2017" class="citation web cs1">McClure, Tess (18 May 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vice.com/en/article/kb4yjw/a-group-of-far-right-grave-robbers-could-be-digging-up-sacred-maori-sites">"Grave robbers with far-right links are stealing ancestral Māori skulls"</a>. <i>Vice</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vice&rft.atitle=Grave+robbers+with+far-right+links+are+stealing+ancestral+M%C4%81ori+skulls&rft.date=2017-05-18&rft.aulast=McClure&rft.aufirst=Tess&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vice.com%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fkb4yjw%2Fa-group-of-far-right-grave-robbers-could-be-digging-up-sacred-maori-sites&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-M%C4%81ori+settlement+of+New+Zealand+theories" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/northern-advocate/news/amateur-northland-historian-asked-to-explain-source-of-skulls/RG6KF3LI3H3C3OFKKXBMBHSPL4/">"Amateur Northland historian asked to explain source of skulls"</a>. <i>Northern Advocate</i>. 30 May 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2024</span> – via nzherald.co.nz.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Northern+Advocate&rft.atitle=Amateur+Northland+historian+asked+to+explain+source+of+skulls&rft.date=2017-05-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzherald.co.nz%2Fnorthern-advocate%2Fnews%2Famateur-northland-historian-asked-to-explain-source-of-skulls%2FRG6KF3LI3H3C3OFKKXBMBHSPL4%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-M%C4%81ori+settlement+of+New+Zealand+theories" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzherald.co.nz/northern-advocate/news/no-legal-action-over-noel-hilliams-welsh-maori-skulls/D4SCDFKFRJM5NFV63ILX4GSTNQ/">"No legal action over Noel Hilliam's 'Welsh' Maori skulls"</a>. <i>Northern Advocate</i>. 15 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 November</span> 2024</span> – via nzherald.co.nz.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Northern+Advocate&rft.atitle=No+legal+action+over+Noel+Hilliam%27s+%27Welsh%27+Maori+skulls&rft.date=2017-08-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzherald.co.nz%2Fnorthern-advocate%2Fnews%2Fno-legal-action-over-noel-hilliams-welsh-maori-skulls%2FD4SCDFKFRJM5NFV63ILX4GSTNQ%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-M%C4%81ori+settlement+of+New+Zealand+theories" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-M%C4%81ori_settlement_of_New_Zealand_theories&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowe2008" class="citation book cs1">Howe, K. R. (2008) [1st ed. 2003]. <i>The Quest for Origins: Who First Discovered and Settled New Zealand and the Pacific Islands?</i> (Rev. ed.). <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780143008453" title="Special:BookSources/9780143008453"><bdi>9780143008453</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Quest+for+Origins%3A+Who+First+Discovered+and+Settled+New+Zealand+and+the+Pacific+Islands%3F&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780143008453&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=K.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-M%C4%81ori+settlement+of+New+Zealand+theories" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_King_(historian)" title="Michael King (historian)">King, Michael</a> (2003). <i>The Penguin History of New Zealand</i>. Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-301867-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-301867-1"><bdi>0-14-301867-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+History+of+New+Zealand&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-14-301867-1&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APre-M%C4%81ori+settlement+of+New+Zealand+theories" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-M%C4%81ori_settlement_of_New_Zealand_theories&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Pre-M%C4%81ori_settlement_of_New_Zealand_theories" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Pre-Māori settlement of New Zealand theories">Pre-Māori settlement of New Zealand theories</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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