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id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forms_of_consequentialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forms_of_consequentialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Forms of consequentialism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Forms_of_consequentialism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Forms of consequentialism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Forms_of_consequentialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Utilitarianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Utilitarianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Utilitarianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Utilitarianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rule_consequentialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rule_consequentialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Rule consequentialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rule_consequentialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_consequentialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_consequentialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>State consequentialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_consequentialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethical_egoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethical_egoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Ethical egoism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethical_egoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethical_altruism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethical_altruism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Ethical altruism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethical_altruism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Two-level_consequentialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two-level_consequentialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Two-level consequentialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two-level_consequentialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motive_consequentialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motive_consequentialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Motive consequentialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motive_consequentialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negative_consequentialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negative_consequentialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Negative consequentialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negative_consequentialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acts_and_omissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acts_and_omissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Acts and omissions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acts_and_omissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Actualism_and_possibilism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Actualism_and_possibilism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Actualism and possibilism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Actualism_and_possibilism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Issues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Issues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Action_guidance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Action_guidance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Action guidance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Action_guidance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_ideal_observer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_ideal_observer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>The ideal observer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_ideal_observer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_real_observer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_real_observer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>The real observer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_real_observer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequences_for_whom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequences_for_whom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Consequences for whom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequences_for_whom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agent-focused_or_agent-neutral" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agent-focused_or_agent-neutral"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Agent-focused or agent-neutral</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agent-focused_or_agent-neutral-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human-centered?" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human-centered?"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Human-centered?</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human-centered?-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Value_of_consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Value_of_consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Value of consequences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Value_of_consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Virtue_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virtue_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Virtue ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virtue_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ultimate_end" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ultimate_end"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Ultimate end</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ultimate_end-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Criticisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_consequentialists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_consequentialists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notable consequentialists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_consequentialists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="عواقبية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عواقبية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Консеквенциализъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Консеквенциализъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsekvencialismus" title="Konsekvencialismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Konsekvencialismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canlyniadaeth" title="Canlyniadaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Canlyniadaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsekvensetik" title="Konsekvensetik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Konsekvensetik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsequentialismus" title="Konsequentialismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Konsequentialismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsekventsialism" title="Konsekventsialism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Konsekventsialism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Συνεπειοκρατία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Συνεπειοκρατία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consecuencialismo" title="Consecuencialismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Consecuencialismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsekvencismo" title="Konsekvencismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Konsekvencismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AF%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="پیامدگرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیامدگرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cons%C3%A9quentialisme" title="Conséquentialisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Conséquentialisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%B0%EA%B3%BC%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="결과주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="결과주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="परिणामवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="परिणामवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsekuensialisme" title="Konsekuensialisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Konsekuensialisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequentialismo" title="Consequentialismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Consequentialismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leikslokasi%C3%B0fr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Leikslokasiðfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Leikslokasiðfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequenzialismo" title="Consequenzialismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Consequenzialismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%90%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA" title="תוצאתנות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תוצאתנות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequentialismus" title="Consequentialismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Consequentialismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsekvenci%C4%81lisms" title="Konsekvenciālisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Konsekvenciālisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasekmizmas" title="Pasekmizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pasekmizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gevolgenethiek" title="Gevolgenethiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gevolgenethiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%B0%E7%B5%90%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="帰結主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="帰結主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleologisk_etikk" title="Teleologisk etikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Teleologisk etikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsekwencjalizm" title="Konsekwencjalizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Konsekwencjalizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequencialismo" title="Consequencialismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Consequencialismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Консеквенциализм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Консеквенциализм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Consequentialism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Demosthenes_orator_Louvre.jpg/188px-Demosthenes_orator_Louvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Demosthenes_orator_Louvre.jpg/283px-Demosthenes_orator_Louvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Demosthenes_orator_Louvre.jpg/377px-Demosthenes_orator_Louvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1584" data-file-height="2376" /></a><figcaption>Every advantage in the past is judged in the light of the final issue. — <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">moral philosophy</a>, <b>consequentialism</b> is a class of <a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">normative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleological</a> ethical theories that holds that the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/consequence" class="extiw" title="wikt:consequence">consequences</a> of one's <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">conduct</a> are the ultimate basis for judgement about the <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">rightness or wrongness</a> of that conduct. Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right act (including omission from acting) is one that will produce a good outcome. Consequentialism, along with <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Eudaimonism">eudaimonism</a>, falls under the broader category of <b>teleological ethics</b>, a group of views which claim that the moral value of any act consists in its tendency to produce things of <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">intrinsic value</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequentialists hold in general that an act is right <i><a href="/wiki/If_and_only_if" title="If and only if">if and only if</a></i> the act (or in some views, the rule under which it falls) will produce, will probably produce, or is intended to produce, a greater balance of good over evil than any available alternative. Different consequentialist theories differ in how they define <a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">moral goods</a>, with chief candidates including <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">pleasure</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Aponia" class="mw-redirect" title="Aponia">absence of pain</a>, the satisfaction of one's <a href="/wiki/Preference_utilitarianism" title="Preference utilitarianism">preferences</a>, and broader notions of the "<a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">general good</a>". </p><p>Consequentialism is usually contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">deontological ethics</a> (or <i>deontology</i>): deontology, in which rules and moral duty are central, derives the rightness or wrongness of one's conduct from the character of the behaviour itself, rather than the outcomes of the conduct. It is also contrasted with both <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>, which focuses on the character of the <a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">agent</a> rather than on the nature or consequences of the act (or omission) itself, and <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">pragmatic ethics</a>, which treats morality like <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>: advancing collectively as a society over the course of many lifetimes, such that any moral criterion is subject to revision. </p><p>Some argue that consequentialist theories (such as <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>) and deontological theories (such as <a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a>) are not necessarily mutually exclusive. For example, <a href="/wiki/T._M._Scanlon" title="T. M. Scanlon">T. M. Scanlon</a> advances the idea that <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, which are commonly considered a "deontological" concept, can only be justified with reference to the consequences of having those rights.<sup id="cite_ref-Scheffler_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scheffler-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a> argued for a theory that is mostly consequentialist, but incorporates inviolable "side-constraints" which restrict the sort of actions agents are permitted to do.<sup id="cite_ref-Scheffler_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scheffler-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a> argued that, in practice, when understood properly, rule consequentialism, Kantian deontology, and <a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">contractualism</a> would all end up prescribing the same behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/consequentialism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:consequentialism">consequentialism</a></b></i> or <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/the_end_justifies_the_means" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:the end justifies the means">the end justifies the means</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <p>The term <i>consequentialism</i> was coined by <a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a> in her essay "<a href="/wiki/Modern_Moral_Philosophy" title="Modern Moral Philosophy">Modern Moral Philosophy</a>" in 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Anscombe_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anscombe-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the meaning of the word has changed over the time since Anscombe used it: in the sense she coined it, she had explicitly placed <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">J.S. Mill</a> in the nonconsequentialist and <a href="/wiki/W._D._Ross" title="W. D. Ross">W.D. Ross</a> in the consequentialist camp, whereas, in the contemporary sense of the word, they would be classified the other way round.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is due to changes in the meaning of the word, not due to changes in perceptions of W.D. Ross's and J.S. Mill's views.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One common view is to classify consequentialism, together with <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>, under a broader label of "teleological ethics".<sup id="cite_ref-Britannica_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proponents of teleological ethics (Greek: <i><a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos">telos</a></i>, 'end, purpose' + <i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">logos</a></i>, 'science') argue that the moral value of any act consists in its tendency to produce things of <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">intrinsic value</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning that an act is right <i>if and only if</i> it, or the rule under which it falls, produces, will probably produce, or is intended to produce, a greater balance of good over evil than any alternative act. This concept is exemplified by the famous <a href="/wiki/Aphorism" title="Aphorism">aphorism</a>, "the <a href="/wiki/End_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="End (philosophy)">end</a> justifies the <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value" title="Instrumental and intrinsic value">means</a>," variously attributed to <a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> i.e. if a goal is morally important enough, any method of achieving it is acceptable.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Teleological ethical theories are contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Deontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological">deontological</a> ethical theories, which hold that acts themselves are <i><a href="/wiki/Inherent" class="mw-redirect" title="Inherent">inherently</a></i> good or bad, rather than good or bad because of extrinsic factors (such as the act's consequences or the moral character of the person who acts).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forms_of_consequentialism">Forms of consequentialism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Forms of consequentialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Utilitarianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/220px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/330px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/440px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="536" data-file-height="728" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>, best known for his advocacy of <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand the standard of right and wrong, on the other the chain of causes and effects, are fastened to their throne. They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in all we think...</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Jeremy Bentham, <i>The Principles of Morals and Legislation</i> (1789) Ch I, p 1</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In summary, <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> states that people are driven by their interests and their fears, but their interests take precedence over their fears; their interests are carried out in accordance with how people view the consequences that might be involved with their interests. <i><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></i>, in this account, is defined as the <a href="/wiki/Maximization_(psychology)" title="Maximization (psychology)">maximization</a> of pleasure and the <a href="/wiki/Minimisation_(psychology)" title="Minimisation (psychology)">minimization</a> of pain. It can be argued that the existence of <a href="/wiki/Phenomenal_consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenal consciousness">phenomenal consciousness</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">qualia</a>" is required for the experience of pleasure or pain to have an ethical significance.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historically, <i><a href="/wiki/Hedonistic_utilitarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hedonistic utilitarianism">hedonistic utilitarianism</a></i> is the paradigmatic example of a consequentialist moral theory. This form of utilitarianism holds that what matters is to aggregate happiness; the happiness of everyone, and not the happiness of any particular person. <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>, in his exposition of hedonistic utilitarianism, proposed a hierarchy of pleasures, meaning that the pursuit of certain kinds of pleasure is more highly valued than the pursuit of other pleasures.<sup id="cite_ref-Mill_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mill-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some contemporary utilitarians, such as <a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a>, are concerned with maximizing the satisfaction of preferences, hence <i><a href="/wiki/Preference_utilitarianism" title="Preference utilitarianism">preference utilitarianism</a></i>. Other contemporary forms of utilitarianism mirror the forms of consequentialism outlined below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rule_consequentialism">Rule consequentialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Rule consequentialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Rule_utilitarianism" title="Rule utilitarianism">Rule utilitarianism</a></div> <p>In general, consequentialist theories focus on actions. However, this need not be the case. Rule consequentialism is a theory that is sometimes seen as an attempt to reconcile consequentialism with <a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">deontology</a>, or rules-based ethics<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—and in some cases, this is stated as a criticism of rule consequentialism.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like deontology, rule consequentialism holds that <a href="/wiki/Moral_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral behavior">moral behavior</a> involves following certain rules. However, rule consequentialism chooses rules based on the consequences that the selection of those rules has. Rule consequentialism exists in the forms of <a href="/wiki/Rule_utilitarianism" title="Rule utilitarianism">rule utilitarianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rule_egoism" title="Rule egoism">rule egoism</a>. </p><p>Various theorists are split as to whether the rules are the only determinant of moral behavior or not. For example, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a> held that a certain set of minimal rules, which he calls "side-constraints," are necessary to ensure appropriate actions.<sup id="cite_ref-Scheffler_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scheffler-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also differences as to how absolute these moral rules are. Thus, while Nozick's side-constraints are absolute restrictions on behavior, <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a> proposes a theory that recognizes the importance of certain rules, but these rules are not absolute.<sup id="cite_ref-Scheffler_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scheffler-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is, they may be violated if strict adherence to the rule would lead to much more undesirable consequences. </p><p>One of the most common objections to rule-consequentialism is that it is incoherent, because it is based on the consequentialist principle that what we should be concerned with is maximizing the good, but then it tells us not to act to maximize the good, but to follow rules (even in cases where we know that breaking the rule could produce better results). </p><p>In <i>Ideal Code, Real World</i>, <a href="/wiki/Brad_Hooker" title="Brad Hooker">Brad Hooker</a> avoids this objection by not basing his form of rule-consequentialism on the ideal of maximizing the good. He writes:<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>[T]he best argument for rule-consequentialism is not that it derives from an overarching commitment to maximise the good. The best argument for rule-consequentialism is that it does a better job than its rivals of matching and tying together our moral convictions, as well as offering us help with our moral disagreements and uncertainties.</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a> described Hooker's book as the "best statement and defence, so far, of one of the most important moral theories."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_consequentialism">State consequentialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: State consequentialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/State_consequentialism" title="State consequentialism">State consequentialism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is the business of the benevolent man to seek to promote what is beneficial to the world and to eliminate what is harmful, and to provide a model for the world. What benefits he will carry out; what does not benefit men he will leave alone (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 仁之事者, 必务求于天下之利, 除天下之害, 将以为法乎天下. 利人乎, 即为; 不利人乎, 即止).<sup id="cite_ref-Mozi_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mozi-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a>, <i>Mozi</i> (5th century BC) (Chapter 8: Against Music Part I)</cite></div></blockquote> <p><i><a href="/wiki/State_consequentialism" title="State consequentialism">State consequentialism</a></i>, also known as <i>Mohist consequentialism</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-readings_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-readings-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an <a href="/wiki/Ethical_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical theory">ethical theory</a> that evaluates the moral worth of an action based on how much it contributes to the welfare of a state.<sup id="cite_ref-readings_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-readings-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>, Mohist consequentialism, dating back to the 5th century BCE, is the "world's earliest form of consequentialism, a remarkably sophisticated version based on a plurality of <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsic good">intrinsic goods</a> taken as constitutive of human welfare."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike utilitarianism, which views <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">utility</a> as the sole moral good, "the basic goods in Mohist consequentialist thinking are...<a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">order</a>, <a href="/wiki/Material_wealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Material wealth">material wealth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Population_increase" class="mw-redirect" title="Population increase">increase in population</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word "order" refers to Mozi's stance against <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">warfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Violence" title="Violence">violence</a>, which he viewed as pointless and a threat to social stability; "material wealth" of Mohist consequentialism refers to <a href="/wiki/Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">basic needs</a>, like shelter and clothing; and "increase in population" relates to the time of <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a>, war and <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a> were common, and population growth was seen as a moral necessity for a <a href="/wiki/Harmonious_Society" title="Harmonious Society">harmonious society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Norden_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norden-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_History_of_Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="The Cambridge History of Ancient China">The Cambridge History of Ancient China</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinologist">sinologist</a> <a href="/wiki/David_S._Nivison" class="mw-redirect" title="David S. Nivison">David Shepherd Nivison</a> writes that the moral goods of Mohism "are interrelated: more basic wealth, then more <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproduction</a>; more people, then more production and wealth...if people have plenty, they would be good, <a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">filial</a>, kind, and so on unproblematically."<sup id="cite_ref-Cambridge_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cambridge-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Mohists believed that morality is based on "promoting the benefit of <a href="/wiki/All_Under_Heaven" class="mw-redirect" title="All Under Heaven">all under heaven</a> and eliminating harm to all under heaven." In contrast to <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>'s views, state consequentialism is not utilitarian because it is not <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonistic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualistic</a>. The importance of outcomes that are good for the community outweigh the importance of individual pleasure and pain.<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>state consequentialism</i> has also been applied to the political philosophy of the <a href="/wiki/Confucian_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucian philosopher">Confucian philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Xun_Kuang" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Kuang">Xunzi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chatterjee_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chatterjee-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">"legalist"</a> <a href="/wiki/Han_Feizi" title="Han Feizi">Han Fei</a> "is motivated almost totally from the ruler's point of view."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethical_egoism">Ethical egoism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ethical egoism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">Ethical egoism</a></div> <p>Ethical egoism can be understood as a consequentialist theory according to which the consequences for the individual agent are taken to matter more than any other result. Thus, <a href="/wiki/Egoism" title="Egoism">egoism</a> will prescribe actions that may be beneficial, detrimental, or neutral to the welfare of others. Some, like <a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Henry Sidgwick</a>, argue that a certain degree of egoism <i>promotes</i> the general welfare of society for two reasons: because individuals know how to please themselves best, and because if everyone were an austere altruist then general welfare would inevitably decrease.<sup id="cite_ref-Sidgwick_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sidgwick-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethical_altruism">Ethical altruism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ethical altruism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Altruism_(ethics)" title="Altruism (ethics)">Altruism (ethics)</a></div> <p>Ethical altruism can be seen as a consequentialist theory which prescribes that an individual take actions that have the best consequences for everyone, not necessarily including themselves (similar to selflessness).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was advocated by <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a>, who coined the term <i><a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a></i>, and whose ethics can be summed up in the phrase "Live for others."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Two-level_consequentialism">Two-level consequentialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Two-level consequentialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Two-level_utilitarianism" title="Two-level utilitarianism">two-level approach</a> involves engaging in critical reasoning and considering all the possible ramifications of one's actions before making an ethical decision, but reverting to generally reliable moral rules when one is not in a position to stand back and examine the dilemma as a whole. In practice, this equates to adhering to rule consequentialism when one can only reason on an intuitive level, and to act consequentialism when in a position to stand back and reason on a more critical level.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This position can be described as a reconciliation between <i>act consequentialism</i>—in which the morality of an action is determined by that action's effects—and <i>rule consequentialism</i>—in which moral behavior is derived from following rules that lead to positive outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The two-level approach to consequentialism is most often associated with <a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motive_consequentialism">Motive consequentialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Motive consequentialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another consequentialist application view is motive consequentialism, which looks at whether the <a href="/wiki/State_of_affairs_(philosophy)" title="State of affairs (philosophy)">state of affairs</a> that results from the motive to choose an action is better or at least as good as each alternative state of affairs that would have resulted from alternative actions. This version gives relevance to the motive of an act and links it to its consequences. An act can therefore not be wrong if the decision to act was based on a right motive. A possible inference is that one can not be blamed for mistaken judgments if the motivation was to do good.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negative_consequentialism">Negative consequentialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Negative consequentialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Negative_consequentialism" title="Negative consequentialism">Negative consequentialism</a></div> <p>Most consequentialist theories focus on <i>promoting</i> some sort of good consequences. However, negative utilitarianism lays out a consequentialist theory that focuses solely on minimizing bad consequences. </p><p>One major difference between these two approaches is the agent's responsibility. <i>Positive</i> consequentialism demands that we bring about good states of affairs, whereas <i>negative</i> consequentialism requires that we avoid bad ones. Stronger versions of negative consequentialism will require active intervention to prevent bad and ameliorate existing harm. In weaker versions, simple forbearance from acts tending to harm others is sufficient. An example of this is the <a href="/wiki/Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">slippery-slope</a> argument, which encourages others to avoid a specified act on the grounds that it may ultimately lead to undesirable consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Often "negative" consequentialist theories assert that reducing suffering is more important than increasing pleasure. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a>, for example, claimed that "from the moral point of view, pain cannot be outweighed by pleasure."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (While Popper is not a consequentialist per se, this is taken as a classic statement of negative utilitarianism.) When considering a theory of <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>, negative consequentialists may use a statewide or global-reaching principle: the reduction of suffering (for the disadvantaged) is more valuable than increased pleasure (for the affluent or luxurious). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acts_and_omissions">Acts and omissions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Acts and omissions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since pure consequentialism holds that an action is to be judged solely by its result, most consequentialist theories hold that a deliberate action is no different from a deliberate decision not to act. This contrasts with the "<i>acts and omissions doctrine</i>", which is upheld by some medical ethicists and some religions: it asserts there is a significant moral distinction between acts and deliberate non-actions which lead to the same outcome. This contrast is brought out in issues such as <a href="/wiki/Voluntary_euthanasia" title="Voluntary euthanasia">voluntary euthanasia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Actualism_and_possibilism">Actualism and possibilism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Actualism and possibilism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This section is about actualism and possibilism in ethics. For actualism and possibilism in metaphysics, see <a href="/wiki/Actualism" title="Actualism">Actualism</a>.</div> <p>The normative status of an action depends on its consequences according to consequentialism. The consequences of the actions of an agent may include other actions by this agent. <b>Actualism and possibilism</b> disagree on how later possible actions impact the normative status of the current action by the same agent. Actualists assert that it is only relevant what the agent <i>would</i> actually do later for assessing the value of an alternative. Possibilists, on the other hand, hold that we should also take into account what the agent <i>could</i> do, even if she would not do it.<sup id="cite_ref-Timmerman_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timmerman-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jackson_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, assume that Gifre has the choice between two alternatives, eating a cookie or not eating anything. Having eaten the first cookie, Gifre could stop eating cookies, which is the best alternative. But after having tasted one cookie, Gifre would freely decide to continue eating cookies until the whole bag is finished, which would result in a terrible stomach ache and would be the worst alternative. Not eating any cookies at all, on the other hand, would be the second-best alternative. Now the question is: should Gifre eat the first cookie or not? Actualists are only concerned with the actual consequences. According to them, Gifre should not eat any cookies at all since it is better than the alternative leading to a stomach ache. Possibilists, however, contend that the best possible course of action involves eating the first cookie and this is therefore what Gifre should do.<sup id="cite_ref-Portmore5_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Portmore5-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One counterintuitive consequence of actualism is that agents can avoid moral obligations simply by having an imperfect <a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">moral character</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Timmerman_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timmerman-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jackson_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jackson-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a lazy person might justify rejecting a request to help a friend by arguing that, due to her lazy character, she would not have done the work anyway, even if she had accepted the request. By rejecting the offer right away, she managed at least not to waste anyone's time. Actualists might even consider her behavior praiseworthy since she did what, according to actualism, she ought to have done. This seems to be a very easy way to "get off the hook" that is avoided by possibilism. But possibilism has to face the objection that in some cases it sanctions and even recommends what actually leads to the worst outcome.<sup id="cite_ref-Timmerman_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timmerman-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Douglas W. Portmore has suggested that these and other problems of actualism and possibilism can be avoided by constraining what counts as a genuine alternative for the agent.<sup id="cite_ref-Portmore3_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Portmore3-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On his view, it is a requirement that the agent has rational control over the event in question. For example, eating only one cookie and stopping afterward only is an option for Gifre if she has the rational capacity to repress her temptation to continue eating. If the temptation is irrepressible then this course of action is not considered to be an option and is therefore not relevant when assessing what the best alternative is. Portmore suggests that, given this adjustment, we should prefer a view very closely associated with <i>possibilism</i> called <i>maximalism</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Portmore5_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Portmore5-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues">Issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Action_guidance">Action guidance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Action guidance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One important characteristic of many <a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">normative</a> moral theories such as consequentialism is the ability to produce practical moral judgements. At the very least, any moral theory needs to define the standpoint from which the goodness of the consequences are to be determined. What is primarily at stake here is the <i><a href="/wiki/Moral_responsibility" title="Moral responsibility">responsibility</a></i> of the agent.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_ideal_observer">The ideal observer</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The ideal observer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One common tactic among consequentialists, particularly those committed to an <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruistic</a> (selfless) account of consequentialism, is to employ an ideal, neutral observer from which moral judgements can be made. <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a>, a critic of utilitarianism, argues that utilitarianism, in common with other forms of consequentialism, relies on the perspective of such an <a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">ideal observer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Scheffler_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scheffler-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The particular characteristics of this ideal observer can vary from an <a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">omniscient</a> observer, who would grasp all the consequences of any action, to an ideally informed observer, who knows as much as could reasonably be expected, but not necessarily all the circumstances or all the possible consequences. Consequentialist theories that adopt this paradigm hold that right action is the action that will bring about the best consequences from this ideal observer's perspective.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_real_observer">The real observer</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The real observer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In practice, it is very difficult, and at times arguably impossible, to adopt the point of view of an <a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">ideal observer</a>. Individual <a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">moral agents</a> do not know everything about their particular situations, and thus do not know all the possible consequences of their potential actions. For this reason, some theorists have argued that consequentialist theories can only require agents to choose the best action in line with what they know about the situation.<sup id="cite_ref-Mackie_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackie-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, if this approach is naïvely adopted, then moral agents who, for example, recklessly fail to reflect on their situation, and act in a way that brings about terrible results, could be said to be acting in a morally justifiable way. Acting in a situation without first informing oneself of the circumstances of the situation can lead to even the most well-intended actions yielding miserable consequences. As a result, it could be argued that there is a moral imperative for agents to inform themselves as much as possible about a situation before judging the appropriate course of action. This imperative, of course, is derived from consequential thinking: a better-informed agent is able to bring about better consequences.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consequences_for_whom">Consequences for whom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Consequences for whom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Moral action always has consequences for certain people or things. Varieties of consequentialism can be differentiated by the beneficiary of the good consequences. That is, one might ask "Consequences for whom?" </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Agent-focused_or_agent-neutral">Agent-focused or agent-neutral</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Agent-focused or agent-neutral"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A fundamental distinction can be drawn between theories which require that agents act for ends perhaps disconnected from their own interests and drives, and theories which permit that agents act for ends in which they have some personal interest or <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivation</a>. These are called "agent-neutral" and "agent-focused" theories respectively. </p><p><b>Agent-neutral</b> consequentialism ignores the specific value a state of affairs has for any particular agent. Thus, in an agent-neutral theory, an actor's personal goals do not count any more than anyone else's goals in evaluating what action the actor should take. <b>Agent-focused</b> consequentialism, on the other hand, focuses on the particular needs of the moral agent. Thus, in an agent-focused account, such as one that <a href="/wiki/Peter_Railton" title="Peter Railton">Peter Railton</a> outlines, the agent might be concerned with the general welfare, but the agent is <i>more</i> concerned with the immediate welfare of herself and her friends and family.<sup id="cite_ref-Scheffler_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scheffler-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These two approaches could be reconciled by acknowledging the tension between an agent's interests as an individual and as a member of various groups, and seeking to somehow optimize among all of these interests.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> For example, it may be meaningful to speak of an action as being good for someone as an individual, but bad for them as a citizen of their town. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human-centered?"><span id="Human-centered.3F"></span>Human-centered?</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Human-centered?"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many consequentialist theories may seem primarily concerned with human beings and their relationships with other human beings. However, some philosophers argue that we should not limit our ethical consideration to the interests of human beings alone. <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>, who is regarded as the founder of <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, argues that animals can experience pleasure and pain, thus demanding that 'non-human animals' should be a serious object of moral concern.<sup id="cite_ref-Bentham_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bentham-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recently, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a> has argued that it is unreasonable that we do not give equal consideration to the interests of animals as to those of human beings when we choose the way we are to treat them.<sup id="cite_ref-Singer_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singer-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such equal consideration does not necessarily imply identical treatment of humans and non-humans, any more than it necessarily implies identical treatment of all humans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Value_of_consequences">Value of consequences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Value of consequences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One way to divide various consequentialisms is by the types of consequences that are taken to matter most, that is, which consequences count as good states of affairs. According to <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, a good action is one that results in an increase in <a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasure</a>, and the best action is one that results in the most pleasure for the greatest number. Closely related is <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonic</a> consequentialism, according to which a full, flourishing life, which may or may not be the same as enjoying a great deal of pleasure, is the ultimate aim. Similarly, one might adopt an aesthetic consequentialism, in which the ultimate aim is to produce beauty. However, one might fix on non-psychological goods as the relevant effect. Thus, one might pursue an increase in <a href="/wiki/Equality_of_outcome" title="Equality of outcome">material equality</a> or <a href="/wiki/Freedom_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom (political)">political liberty</a> instead of something like the more ephemeral "pleasure". Other theories adopt a package of several goods, all to be promoted equally. As the consequentialist approach contains an inherent assumption that the outcomes of a moral decision can be quantified in terms of "goodness" or "badness," or at least put <a href="/wiki/Order_theory" title="Order theory">in order of increasing preference</a>, it is an especially suited moral theory for a <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probabilistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decision_theory" title="Decision theory">decision theoretical</a> approach.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virtue_ethics">Virtue ethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Virtue ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Consequentialism can also be contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Arete_(moral_virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arete (moral virtue)">aretaic</a> moral theories such as <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>. Whereas consequentialist theories posit that consequences of action should be the primary focus of our thinking about ethics, virtue ethics insists that it is the character rather than the consequences of actions that should be the focal point. Some virtue ethicists hold that consequentialist theories totally disregard the development and importance of moral character. For example, <a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a> argues that consequences in themselves have no ethical content, unless it has been provided by a virtue such as benevolence.<sup id="cite_ref-Scheffler_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scheffler-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, consequentialism and virtue ethics need not be entirely antagonistic. <a href="/wiki/Iain_King" title="Iain King">Iain King</a> has developed an approach that reconciles the two schools.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24_and_Philosophy_King_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24_and_Philosophy_King-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MedicalEthics_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MedicalEthics-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zuckerman_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zuckerman-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other consequentialists consider effects on the character of people involved in an action when assessing consequence. Similarly, a consequentialist theory may aim at the maximization of a particular virtue or set of virtues. Finally, following Foot's lead, one might adopt a sort of consequentialism that argues that virtuous activity ultimately produces the best consequences.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (February 2012)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Weber_1894.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Max_Weber_1894.jpg/220px-Max_Weber_1894.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Max_Weber_1894.jpg/330px-Max_Weber_1894.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Max_Weber_1894.jpg 2x" data-file-width="406" data-file-height="542" /></a><figcaption>Max Weber</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ultimate_end">Ultimate end</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Ultimate end"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Ultimate_end" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultimate end">ultimate end</a></i> is a concept in the moral philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, in which individuals act in a faithful, rather than rational, manner.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>We must be clear about the fact that all ethically oriented conduct may be guided by one of two fundamentally differing and irreconcilably opposed maxims: conduct can be oriented to an <i>ethic of ultimate ends</i> or to an <i>ethic of responsibility</i>. [...] There is an abysmal contrast between conduct that follows the maxim of an ethic of ultimate ends — that is in religious terms, "the Christian does rightly and leaves the results with the Lord" — and conduct that follows the maxim of an ethic of responsibility, in which case one has to give an account of the foreseeable results of one's action.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Max Weber, <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_as_a_Vocation" title="Politics as a Vocation">Politics as a Vocation</a></i>, 1918<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a> objects to the consequentialism of Sidgwick on the grounds that the moral worth of an action is premised on the predictive capabilities of the individual, relieving them of the responsibility for the "badness" of an act should they "make out a case for not having foreseen" negative consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-Anscombe_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anscombe-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> makes a similar argument against consequentialism in the case of the inquiring murder. The example asks whether or not it would be right to give false statement to an inquiring murderer in order to misdirect the individual away from the intended victim. He argues, in <a href="/wiki/On_a_Supposed_Right_to_Tell_Lies_from_Benevolent_Motives" title="On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from Benevolent Motives">On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from Benevolent Motives</a>, that lying from "benevolent motives," here the motive to maximize the good consequences by protecting the intended victim, should then make the liar responsible for the consequences of the act. For example, it could be that by misdirecting the inquiring murder away from where one thought the intended victim was actually directed the murder to the intended victim.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That such an act is immoral mirrors Anscombe's objection to Sidgwick that his consequentialism would problematically absolve the consequentalist of moral responsibility when the consequentalist fails to foresee the true consequences of an act. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">future amplification of the effects of small decisions</a><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an important factor that makes it more difficult to predict the ethical value of consequences,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even though most would agree that only predictable consequences are charged with a <a href="/wiki/Moral_responsibility" title="Moral responsibility">moral responsibility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a> has argued that consequentialism is alienating because it requires moral agents to put too much distance between themselves and their own projects and commitments. Williams argues that consequentialism requires moral agents to take a strictly impersonal view of all actions, since it is only the consequences, and not who produces them, that are said to matter. Williams argues that this demands too much of moral agents—since (he claims) consequentialism demands that they be willing to sacrifice any and all personal projects and commitments in any given circumstance in order to pursue the most beneficent course of action possible. He argues further that consequentialism fails to make sense of intuitions that it can matter whether or not someone is personally the author of a particular consequence. For example, that participating in a crime can matter, even if the crime would have been committed anyway, or would even have been worse, without the agent's participation.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams1973_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams1973-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some consequentialists—most notably <a href="/wiki/Peter_Railton" title="Peter Railton">Peter Railton</a>—have attempted to develop a form of consequentialism that acknowledges and avoids the objections raised by Williams. Railton argues that Williams's criticisms can be avoided by adopting a form of consequentialism in which moral decisions are to be determined by the sort of life that they express. On his account, the agent should choose the sort of life that will, on the whole, produce the best overall effects.<sup id="cite_ref-Scheffler_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scheffler-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_consequentialists">Notable consequentialists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notable consequentialists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_utilitarians" title="List of utilitarians">List of utilitarians</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">R. M. Adams</a> (born 1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Baron" title="Jonathan Baron">Jonathan Baron</a> (born 1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> (1748–1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_B._Brandt" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard B. Brandt">Richard B. Brandt</a> (1910–1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> (1857–1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Driver" title="Julia Driver">Julia Driver</a> (1961- )</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> (1912–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_D._Friedman" title="David D. Friedman">David Friedman</a> (born 1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">William Godwin</a> (1756–1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a> (1919–2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Harsanyi" title="John Harsanyi">John Harsanyi</a> (1920–2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brad_Hooker" title="Brad Hooker">Brad Hooker</a> (born 1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Francis Hutcheson</a> (1694–1746)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelly_Kagan" title="Shelly Kagan">Shelly Kagan</a> (born 1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a> (1469–1527)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Mill" title="James Mill">James Mill</a> (1773–1836)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> (1806–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a> (1873–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a> (470–391 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Philip Pettit</a> (born 1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Railton" title="Peter Railton">Peter Railton</a> (born 1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Henry Sidgwick</a> (1838–1900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a> (born 1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a> (1920–2012)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demandingness_objection" title="Demandingness objection">Demandingness objection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma-yuddha" title="Dharma-yuddha">Dharma-yuddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_altruism" title="Effective altruism">Effective altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value" title="Instrumental and intrinsic value">Instrumental and intrinsic value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_of_two_evils_principle" title="Lesser of two evils principle">Lesser of two evils principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_reservation" title="Mental reservation">Mental reservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omission_bias" title="Omission bias">Omission bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_double_effect" title="Principle of double effect">Principle of double effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situational_ethics" title="Situational ethics">Situational ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfarism" title="Welfarism">Welfarism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/teleological-ethics">Teleological Ethics</a>." <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>. via <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia.com" title="Encyclopedia.com">Encyclopedia.com</a>.</i> 28 May 2020. Retrieved 2 July 2020.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scheffler-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scheffler_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scheffler_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scheffler_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scheffler_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scheffler_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scheffler_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scheffler_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scheffler_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFScheffler1988" class="citation book cs1">Scheffler, Samuel (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/consequentia_xxxx_1988_000_9240564"><i>Consequentialism and Its Critics</i></a></span>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875073-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-875073-4"><bdi>978-0-19-875073-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consequentialism+and+Its+Critics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-19-875073-4&rft.aulast=Scheffler&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconsequentia_xxxx_1988_000_9240564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Parfit, Derek. 2011. <i>On What Matters</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeidel2018" class="citation book cs1">Seidel, Christian (2018). <i>Consequentialism: New Directions, New Problems</i>. 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Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781315396347" title="Special:BookSources/9781315396347">9781315396347</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12657%2F30007">20.500.12657/30007</a></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mill-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mill_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMill1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill, John Stuart</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.utilitarianism.com/mill1.htm"><i>Utilitarianism</i></a>. 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(2011). <i>Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Hackett_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hackett Publishing">Hackett Publishing</a>. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60384-468-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60384-468-0"><bdi>978-1-60384-468-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Classical+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-60384-468-0&rft.aulast=Van+Norden&rft.aufirst=Bryan+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Handbook-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Handbook_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJay_L._GarfieldWilliam_Edelglass2011" class="citation book cs1">Jay L. Garfield; William Edelglass (9 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F06FKmKKIXwC&pg=PA62"><i>The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532899-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532899-8"><bdi>978-0-19-532899-8</bdi></a>. <q>The goods that serve as criteria of morality are collective or public, in contrast, for instance, to individual happiness or well-being</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+World+Philosophy&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011-06-09&rft.isbn=978-0-19-532899-8&rft.au=Jay+L.+Garfield&rft.au=William+Edelglass&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF06FKmKKIXwC%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chatterjee-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chatterjee_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeen_K._Chatterjee2011" class="citation book cs1">Deen K. Chatterjee (6 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2swUg4ZKTgsC&pg=PA1170"><i>Encyclopedia of Global Justice</i></a>. Springer. p. 1170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-9159-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-9159-9"><bdi>978-1-4020-9159-9</bdi></a>. <q>in this sense, one can interpret Xunzi's political philosophy as a form of state utilitarianism or state consequentialism</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Global+Justice&rft.pages=1170&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2011-10-06&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-9159-9&rft.au=Deen+K.+Chatterjee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2swUg4ZKTgsC%26pg%3DPA1170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansen1994" class="citation journal cs1">Hansen, Chad (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/45241/1/3006.pdf">"Fa (Standards: Laws) and Meaning Changes in Chinese Philosophy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Philosophy East and West</i>. <b>44</b> (3): 435–488. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1399736">10.2307/1399736</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10722%2F45241">10722/45241</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1399736">1399736</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/45241/1/3006.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2022-10-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+East+and+West&rft.atitle=Fa+%28Standards%3A+Laws%29+and+Meaning+Changes+in+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=435-488&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10722%2F45241&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1399736%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1399736&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Chad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhub.hku.hk%2Fbitstream%2F10722%2F45241%2F1%2F3006.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sidgwick-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sidgwick_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSidgwick1907" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick, Henry</a> (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071209092717/http://www.la.utexas.edu/methsidg/me/"><i>The Method of Ethics</i></a>. NY: Dover (1981). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-915145-28-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-915145-28-7"><bdi>978-0-915145-28-7</bdi></a>. 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"Motive Utilitarianism". <i>Journal of Philosophy</i>. <b>73</b> (14): 467–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2025783">10.2307/2025783</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2025783">2025783</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Motive+Utilitarianism&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=467-81&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2025783&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2025783%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=R.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaighWoodStewart2016" class="citation journal cs1">Haigh, Matthew; Wood, Jeffrey S.; Stewart, Andrew J. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Actualism+and+Possibilism+in+Ethics&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Timmerman&rft.aufirst=Travis&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Yishai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Factualism-possibilism-ethics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenTimmerman2016" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, Yishai; Timmerman, Travis (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/COHAHC">"Actualism Has Control Issues"</a>. <i>Journal of Ethics and Social Philosophy</i>. <b>10</b> (3): 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.26556%2Fjesp.v10i3.104">10.26556/jesp.v10i3.104</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Ethics+and+Social+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Actualism+Has+Control+Issues&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.26556%2Fjesp.v10i3.104&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Yishai&rft.au=Timmerman%2C+Travis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FCOHAHC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jackson-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jackson_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimmermanSwenson2019" class="citation journal cs1">Timmerman, Travis; 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Pargetter, Robert (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/JACOOA">"Oughts, Options, and Actualism"</a>. <i>Philosophical Review</i>. <b>95</b> (2): 233–255. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2185591">10.2307/2185591</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2185591">2185591</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Review&rft.atitle=Oughts%2C+Options%2C+and+Actualism&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=233-255&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2185591&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2185591%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft.au=Pargetter%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FJACOOA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Portmore5-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Portmore5_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Portmore5_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPortmore2019" class="citation book cs1">Portmore, Douglas W. (2019). "5. Rationalist Maximalism". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/POROFT"><i>Opting for the Best: Oughts and Options</i></a>. New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=5.+Rationalist+Maximalism&rft.btitle=Opting+for+the+Best%3A+Oughts+and+Options&rft.pub=New+York%2C+NY%2C+USA%3A+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Portmore&rft.aufirst=Douglas+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FPOROFT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldman1976" class="citation journal cs1">Goldman, Holly S. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/GOLDRA">"Dated Rightness and Moral Imperfection"</a>. <i>Philosophical Review</i>. <b>85</b> (4): 449–487. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2184275">10.2307/2184275</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2184275">2184275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Review&rft.atitle=Dated+Rightness+and+Moral+Imperfection&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=449-487&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2184275&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2184275%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Goldman&rft.aufirst=Holly+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FGOLDRA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Portmore3-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Portmore3_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPortmore2019" class="citation book cs1">Portmore, Douglas W. (2019). "3. What's the Relevant Sort of Control?". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/POROFT"><i>Opting for the Best: Oughts and Options</i></a>. New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3.+What%27s+the+Relevant+Sort+of+Control%3F&rft.btitle=Opting+for+the+Best%3A+Oughts+and+Options&rft.pub=New+York%2C+NY%2C+USA%3A+Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Portmore&rft.aufirst=Douglas+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FPOROFT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStables2016" class="citation journal cs1">Stables, Andrew (2016). "Responsibility beyond rationality: The case for rhizomatic consequentialism". <i>International Journal of Children's Spirituality</i>. <b>9</b> (2): 219–225. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1364436042000234404">10.1080/1364436042000234404</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:214650271">214650271</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Children%27s+Spirituality&rft.atitle=Responsibility+beyond+rationality%3A+The+case+for+rhizomatic+consequentialism&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=219-225&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F1364436042000234404&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A214650271%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Stables&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mackie-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mackie_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackie1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie, J. L.</a> (1990) [1977]. <i>Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong</i>. London: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-013558-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-013558-9"><bdi>978-0-14-013558-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics%3A+Inventing+Right+and+Wrong&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-14-013558-9&rft.aulast=Mackie&rft.aufirst=J.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bentham-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bentham_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBentham1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham, Jeremy</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080105091421/http://www.la.utexas.edu/research/poltheory/bentham/ipml/ipml.toc.html"><i>An Introduction to the Principles of Moral Legislation</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820516-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820516-6"><bdi>978-0-19-820516-6</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.la.utexas.edu/research/poltheory/bentham/ipml/ipml.toc.html">the original</a> on January 5, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Principles+of+Moral+Legislation&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-820516-6&rft.aulast=Bentham&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.la.utexas.edu%2Fresearch%2Fpoltheory%2Fbentham%2Fipml%2Fipml.toc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Singer-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Singer_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer, Peter</a> (2002). Helga Kuhse (ed.). <i>Unsanctifying Human Life</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22507-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22507-2"><bdi>978-0-631-22507-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unsanctifying+Human+Life&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-631-22507-2&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simmons, H. J. 1986. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/5782/1/fulltext.pdf">The quantification of 'happinenss' in utilitarianism</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Ph.D._thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ph.D. thesis">Ph.D. thesis</a>). Hamilton, ON: <a href="/wiki/McMaster_University" title="McMaster University">McMaster University</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Audi, Robert</a>. 2007. "Can Utilitarianism Be Distributive? Maximization and Distribution as Criteria in Managerial Decisions." <i><a href="/wiki/Business_Ethics_Quarterly" title="Business Ethics Quarterly">Business Ethics Quarterly</a></i> 17(4):593–611.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Iain_King" title="Iain King">King, Iain</a>. 2008. <i><a href="/wiki/How_to_Make_Good_Decisions_and_Be_Right_All_the_Time" title="How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time">How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time: Solving the Riddle of Right and Wrong</a>,</i> London: <a href="/wiki/Continuum_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuum Books">Continuum</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24_and_Philosophy_King-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24_and_Philosophy_King_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler_Brett2014" class="citation web cs1">Chandler Brett (2014-07-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://andphilosophy.com/2014/07/16/24-and-philosophy">"24 and Philosophy"</a>. Blackwell<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=24+and+Philosophy&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2014-07-16&rft.au=Chandler+Brett&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fandphilosophy.com%2F2014%2F07%2F16%2F24-and-philosophy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MedicalEthics-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MedicalEthics_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrezzo2018" class="citation book cs1">Frezzo, Eldo (2018-10-25). <i>Medical Ethics: A Reference Guide</i>. Routledge. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138581074" title="Special:BookSources/978-1138581074"><bdi>978-1138581074</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medical+Ethics%3A+A+Reference+Guide&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018-10-25&rft.isbn=978-1138581074&rft.aulast=Frezzo&rft.aufirst=Eldo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zuckerman-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zuckerman_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuckerman2019" class="citation book cs1">Zuckerman, Phil (2019-09-10). <i>What it Means to be Moral</i>. Counterpoint. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1640092747" title="Special:BookSources/978-1640092747"><bdi>978-1640092747</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+it+Means+to+be+Moral&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Counterpoint&rft.date=2019-09-10&rft.isbn=978-1640092747&rft.aulast=Zuckerman&rft.aufirst=Phil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Mohr_Siebeck" title="Mohr Siebeck">Siebeck, Mohr</a>. 2018. "Revisiting Max Weber's Ethic of Responsibility." <i>Perspektiven Der Ethik</i> 12. p. 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Originally a speech at Munich University, 1918. Published as "Politik als Beruf," (Munich: Duncker & Humblodt, 1919). Later in Max Weber, <i>Gesammelte Politische Schriften</i> (Munich, 1921), 396-450. In English: H.H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, trans. and ed., in <i>Max Weber: Essays in Sociology</i> (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), 77-128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kant, I.: 1898, ‘On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from Benevolent Motives’, In: T.K. Abbott (trans.), Kant's Critique of Practical Reason and Other Works on the Theory of Ethics. London: Longmans, Green and Co.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gregersen, Hal B., and Lee Sailer. 1993. "Chaos theory and its implications for social science research." <i><a href="/wiki/Human_Relations_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Relations (journal)">Human Relations</a></i> 46(7):777–802. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001872679304600701">10.1177/001872679304600701</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1993-43681-001">Abstract</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_Lenman" title="James Lenman">Lenman, James</a>. 2000. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2672830?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">Consequentialism and Cluelessness</a>." <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_%26_Public_Affairs" title="Philosophy & Public Affairs">Philosophy & Public Affairs</a></i> 29(4):342–70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams1973-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams1973_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">Smart, J. J. C.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a>. 1973. <i>Utilitarianism: For and Against</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 98 ff.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Darwall, Stephen, ed. (2002). <i>Consequentialism</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23108-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23108-0"><bdi>978-0-631-23108-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consequentialism&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-631-23108-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Goodman, Charles (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/consequencesofco0000good"><i>Consequences of Compassion: An interpretation and Defense of Buddhist Ethics</i></a></span>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537519-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537519-0"><bdi>978-0-19-537519-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consequences+of+Compassion%3A+An+interpretation+and+Defense+of+Buddhist+Ethics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-537519-0&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconsequencesofco0000good&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Honderich, Ted</a> (October 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctytho/ted9.htm">"Consequentialism, Moralities of Concern and Selfishness"</a>. <i>Philosophy</i>. <b>71</b> (278): 499-520. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0031819100053432">10.1017/S0031819100053432</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146267944">146267944</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-09-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy&rft.atitle=Consequentialism%2C+Moralities+of+Concern+and+Selfishness&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=278&rft.pages=499-520&rft.date=1996-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0031819100053432&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146267944%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Honderich&rft.aufirst=Ted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucl.ac.uk%2F~uctytho%2Fted9.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Portmore, Douglas W. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/commonsenseconsequentialism/home"><i>Commonsense Consequentialism: Wherein Morality Meets Rationality</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979453-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979453-9"><bdi>978-0-19-979453-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commonsense+Consequentialism%3A+Wherein+Morality+Meets+Rationality&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-979453-9&rft.aulast=Portmore&rft.aufirst=Douglas+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsites.google.com%2Fsite%2Fcommonsenseconsequentialism%2Fhome&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Price, Terry (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC">"Consequentialism"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hamowy" title="Ronald Hamowy">Hamowy, Ronald</a> (ed.). <i>The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism</i>. Thousand Oaks, CA: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publishing">SAGE</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cato_Institute" title="Cato Institute">Cato Institute</a>. pp. 91–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n60">10.4135/9781412965811.n60</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6580-4"><bdi>978-1-4129-6580-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151">2008009151</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024">750831024</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Consequentialism&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Libertarianism&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+CA&rft.pages=91-93&rft.pub=SAGE%3B+Cato+Institute&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F750831024&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008009151&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781412965811.n60&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyxNgXs3TkJYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Scheffler, Samuel (1994). <i>The Rejection of Consequentialism: A Philosophical Investigation of the Considerations Underlying Rival Moral Conceptions</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-823511-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-823511-8"><bdi>978-0-19-823511-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rejection+of+Consequentialism%3A+A+Philosophical+Investigation+of+the+Considerations+Underlying+Rival+Moral+Conceptions&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-823511-8&rft.aulast=Scheffler&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPortmore2020" class="citation book cs1">Portmore, Douglas W. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34273"><i>The Oxford handbook of consequentialism</i></a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190905323" title="Special:BookSources/9780190905323"><bdi>9780190905323</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+handbook+of+consequentialism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780190905323&rft.aulast=Portmore&rft.aufirst=Douglas+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fedited-volume%2F34273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Consequentialism" class="extiw" title="q:Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Consequentialism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/conseque">"Consequentialism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Consequentialism&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fconseque&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/">"Consequentialism"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Consequentialism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Sinnott-Armstrong&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fconsequentialism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooker" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hooker, Brad. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism-rule/">"Rule Consequentialism"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rule+Consequentialism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Hooker&rft.aufirst=Brad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fconsequentialism-rule%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsequentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/consequentialism">University of Texas. Ethics Unwrapped – Consequentialism</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a 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normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" 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ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists<br /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 322 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1726)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1740)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1759)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1780)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1785)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1843)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1861)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1887)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1903)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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