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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Two major targumim</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two_major_targumim-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Targum_Ketuvim" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Targum_Ketuvim"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Targum Ketuvim</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Targum_Ketuvim-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Targumim_on_the_Torah" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Targumim_on_the_Torah"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Other Targumim on the Torah</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_Targumim_on_the_Torah-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peshitta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peshitta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Peshitta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peshitta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%85" title="الترجوم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الترجوم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1rgum" title="Tárgum – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Tárgum" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Таргум – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Таргум" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targoum" title="Targoum – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Targoum" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A0rgum" title="Tàrgum – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tàrgum" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1rgum" title="Tárgum – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tárgum" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%DA%AF%D9%85" title="ترگم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ترگم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targoum" title="Targoum – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Targoum" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%83%80%EB%A5%B4%EA%B5%BC" title="타르굼 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="타르굼" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%90_%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA" title="תרגומי המקרא לארמית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תרגומי המקרא לארמית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targumas" title="Targumas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Targumas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targoma" title="Targoma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Targoma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%82" title="താർഗും – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="താർഗും" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%85" title="الترجوم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الترجوم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targoem" title="Targoem – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Targoem" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%8F%D9%85" title="ترجُم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ترجُم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Таргум – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Таргум" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targ%C3%BAm" title="Targúm – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Targúm" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Таргум – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Таргум" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum" title="Targum – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Targum" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Таргум – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Таргум" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%85" title="ترجم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ترجم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A1%94%E5%BA%AB%E5%A7%86%E8%AD%AF%E6%9C%AC" title="塔庫姆譯本 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="塔庫姆譯本" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q623703#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Targum_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Targum (disambiguation)">Targum (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Targum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Targum.jpg/330px-Targum.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Targum.jpg/500px-Targum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Targum.jpg/550px-Targum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="946" data-file-height="1102" /></a><figcaption>11th century Hebrew Bible with targum, perhaps from <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, found in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>: part of the <a href="/wiki/Sch%C3%B8yen_Collection" title="Schøyen Collection">Schøyen Collection</a></figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>targum</b> (<a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Aramaic language">Imperial Aramaic</a>: <span lang="arc" dir="rtl">תרגום</span>, <i>interpretation</i>, <i>translation</i>, <i>version</i>; plural: <b>targumim</b>) was an originally spoken translation of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a> (also called the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">תַּנַ״ךְ</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><i>Tana"kh</i></i></span>) that a professional translator (<span title="Imperial Aramaic (700-300 BCE)-language text"><span lang="arc" dir="rtl">מְתוּרגְמָן</span></span> <i>mǝṯurgǝmān</i>) would give in the common language of the listeners when that was not <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a>. This had become necessary near the end of the first century BCE, as the common language was Aramaic and Hebrew was used for little more than schooling and worship.<sup id="cite_ref-Schühlein_1912_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schühlein_1912-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The translator frequently expanded his translation with paraphrases, explanations and examples, so it became a kind of <a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">sermon</a>. </p><p>Writing down the targum was initially prohibited; nevertheless, some targumitic writings appeared as early as the middle of the <a href="/wiki/First_century" class="mw-redirect" title="First century">first century</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schühlein_1912_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schühlein_1912-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were not recognized as authoritative by the religious leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-Schühlein_1912_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schühlein_1912-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some subsequent Jewish traditions, beginning with the Jews of <a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a>, accepted the written targumim as authoritative translations of the Hebrew scriptures into Aramaic. Today, the common meaning of <i>targum</i> is a written Aramaic translation of the Bible. Only <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemenite Jews</a> continue to use the targumim liturgically. </p><p>As translations, the targumim largely reflect <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">midrashic</a> interpretation of the Tanakh from the time they were written and are notable for favoring <a href="/wiki/Allegorical_interpretation_of_the_Bible" title="Allegorical interpretation of the Bible">allegorical readings</a> over <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphisms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, for one, notes this often in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guide_for_the_Perplexed" title="The Guide for the Perplexed">The Guide for the Perplexed</a></i>. That is true both for those targums that are fairly literal as well as for those that contain many midrashic expansions. In 1541, <a href="/wiki/Elia_Levita" title="Elia Levita">Elia Levita</a> wrote and published the <i>Sefer Meturgeman,</i> explaining all the Aramaic words found in the Targums <a href="/wiki/Targum_Onkelos" title="Targum Onkelos">Onqelos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Targum_Jonathan" title="Targum Jonathan">Jonathan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Targum_Pseudo-Jonathan" title="Targum Pseudo-Jonathan">pseudo-Jonathan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-JE_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JE-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Targumim are used today as sources in text-critical editions of the Bible (<i><a href="/wiki/Biblia_Hebraica_Stuttgartensia" title="Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia">Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia</a></i> refers to them with the abbreviation <b><a href="/wiki/Fraktur" title="Fraktur">𝔗</a></b>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Targum&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The noun "Targum" is derived from the early <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">semitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Quadriliteral" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadriliteral">quadriliteral</a> <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">root</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1094882035">.mw-parser-output .script-Cprt{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Segoe UI Historic","Noto Sans Cypriot",Code2001}.mw-parser-output .script-Hano{font-size:125%;font-family:"Noto Sans Hanunoo",FreeSerif,Quivira}.mw-parser-output .script-Latf,.mw-parser-output .script-de-Latf{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Breitkopf Fraktur",UnifrakturCook,UniFrakturMaguntia,MarsFraktur,"MarsFraktur OT",KochFraktur,"KochFraktur OT",OffenbacherSchwabOT,"LOB.AlteSchwabacher","LOV.AlteSchwabacher","LOB.AtlantisFraktur","LOV.AtlantisFraktur","LOB.BreitkopfFraktur","LOV.BreitkopfFraktur","LOB.FetteFraktur","LOV.FetteFraktur","LOB.Fraktur3","LOV.Fraktur3","LOB.RochFraktur","LOV.RochFraktur","LOB.PostFraktur","LOV.PostFraktur","LOB.RuelhscheFraktur","LOV.RuelhscheFraktur","LOB.RungholtFraktur","LOV.RungholtFraktur","LOB.TheuerbankFraktur","LOV.TheuerbankFraktur","LOB.VinetaFraktur","LOV.VinetaFraktur","LOB.WalbaumFraktur","LOV.WalbaumFraktur","LOB.WeberMainzerFraktur","LOV.WeberMainzerFraktur","LOB.WieynckFraktur","LOV.WieynckFraktur","LOB.ZentenarFraktur","LOV.ZentenarFraktur"}.mw-parser-output .script-en-Latf{font-size:1.25em;font-family:Cankama,"Old English Text MT","Textura Libera","Textura Libera Tenuis",London}.mw-parser-output .script-it-Latf{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Rotunda Pommerania",Rotunda,"Typographer Rotunda"}.mw-parser-output .script-Lina{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Noto Sans Linear A"}.mw-parser-output .script-Linb{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Noto Sans Linear B"}.mw-parser-output .script-Ugar{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Segoe UI Historic","Noto Sans Ugaritic",Aegean}.mw-parser-output .script-Xpeo{font-size:1.25em;font-family:"Segoe UI Historic","Noto Sans Old Persian",Artaxerxes,Xerxes,Aegean}</style><span class="Unicode">תרגם</span> (<span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">trgm</i></span>), and the Akkadian term <i>targummanu</i> refers to "translator, interpreter".<sup id="cite_ref-Philip_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philip-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It occurs in <a href="/wiki/Ezra_4" title="Ezra 4">Ezra 4</a>:7 "a letter written in Aramaic and translated." Besides denoting the translations of the Bible, "targum" also denoted the oral rendering of Bible <a href="/wiki/Lection" title="Lection">lections</a> in <a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogue</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Philip_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philip-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the translator of the Bible was simply called <i>hammeturgem</i> (he who translates). Other than the meaning "translate", the verb <i>tirgem</i> also means "to explain".<sup id="cite_ref-Philip_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philip-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Targum refers to "<a href="/wiki/Translation" title="Translation">translation</a>" and argumentation or "<a href="/wiki/Explanation#Explanations_and_arguments" title="Explanation">explanation</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Philip_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philip-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Two_major_targumim">Two major targumim</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Targum&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Two major targumim"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Malmesbury Bible"><img alt="The Malmesbury Bible" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/250px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/330px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/500px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1993" data-file-height="1300" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canons</a> and books</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> (OT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> (NT)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books" title="Deuterocanonical books">Deuterocanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antilegomena" title="Antilegomena">Antilegomena</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chapters_and_verses_of_the_Bible" title="Chapters and verses of the Bible">Chapters and verses</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">Apocrypha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_apocrypha" title="Jewish apocrypha">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">OT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament_apocrypha" title="New Testament apocrypha">NT</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Bible" title="Authorship of the Bible">Authorship</a> and development</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Bible" title="Authorship of the Bible">Authorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dating_the_Bible" title="Dating the Bible">Dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_canon" title="Development of the Hebrew Bible canon">Hebrew canon</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Old_Testament_canon" title="Development of the Old Testament canon">Old Testament canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">New Testament canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_of_the_Torah" title="Composition of the Torah">Composition of the Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_authorship" title="Mosaic authorship">Mosaic authorship</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Pauline_epistles" title="Authorship of the Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Petrine_epistles" title="Authorship of the Petrine epistles">Petrine epistles</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Johannine_works" title="Authorship of the Johannine works">Johannine works</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations" title="Bible translations">Translations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biblical_manuscript" title="Biblical manuscript">manuscripts</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea scrolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masoretic_Text" title="Masoretic Text">Masoretic Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Pentateuch" title="Samaritan Pentateuch">Samaritan Pentateuch</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Targumim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vetus_Latina" title="Vetus Latina">Vetus Latina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Bible" title="Gothic Bible">Gothic Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Luther Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_English" title="Bible translations into English">English Bibles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Bible_translations_by_language" title="List of Bible translations by language">by language</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_studies" title="Biblical studies">Biblical studies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Archeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology" title="List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology">Artifacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dating_the_Bible" title="Dating the Bible">Dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_the_Bible" title="Historicity of the Bible">Historicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_consistency_of_the_Bible" title="Internal consistency of the Bible">Internal consistency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biblical_figures_identified_in_extra-biblical_sources" title="List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biblical_places" title="List of biblical places">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biblical_names" title="List of biblical names">Names</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Biblia_Hebraica_Stuttgartensia" title="Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia">Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rahlfs%27_edition_of_the_Septuagint" title="Alfred Rahlfs' edition of the Septuagint">Rahlfs' Septuagint</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Novum_Testamentum_Graece" title="Novum Testamentum Graece">Novum Testamentum Graece</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_hypothesis" title="Documentary hypothesis">Documentary hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synoptic_Gospels#The_synoptic_problem" title="Synoptic Gospels">Synoptic problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categories_of_New_Testament_manuscripts" title="Categories of New Testament manuscripts">NT textual categories</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_criticism" title="Historical criticism">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">Textual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_criticism_(biblical_studies)" title="Source criticism (biblical studies)">Source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Form_criticism" title="Form criticism">Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redaction_criticism" title="Redaction criticism">Redaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canonical_criticism" title="Canonical criticism">Canonical</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Interpretation</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_hermeneutics" title="Biblical hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesher" title="Pesher">Pesher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_(exegesis)" title="Pardes (exegesis)">Pardes</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allegorical_interpretation_of_the_Bible" title="Allegorical interpretation of the Bible">Allegorical interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical-grammatical_method" title="Historical-grammatical method">Historical-grammatical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_inspiration" title="Biblical inspiration">Inspiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_literalism" title="Biblical literalism">Literalism</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_in_the_Bible" title="Alcohol in the Bible">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_conspiracy_theory" title="Biblical conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_the_Bible" title="Ethics in the Bible">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_Bible" title="Capital punishment in the Bible">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_homosexuality" title="The Bible and homosexuality">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_humor" title="The Bible and humor">Humor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incest_in_the_Bible" title="Incest in the Bible">Incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_and_the_Bible" title="Muhammad and the Bible">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_prophecy" title="Bible prophecy">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_in_the_Hebrew_Bible" title="Rape in the Hebrew Bible">Rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpents_in_the_Bible" title="Serpents in the Bible">Serpents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_in_the_Hebrew_Bible" title="Sex in the Hebrew Bible">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_violence" title="The Bible and violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_the_Hebrew_Bible" title="War in the Hebrew Bible">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Bible" title="Women in the Bible">Women</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Perspectives</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnostic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_the_Bible" title="Islamic view of the Bible">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_narratives_in_the_Quran" title="Biblical narratives in the Quran">Quranic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_inerrancy" title="Biblical inerrancy">Inerrancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_infallibility" title="Biblical infallibility">Infallibility</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Bible" title="Criticism of the Bible">Criticism of the Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_authority" title="Biblical authority">Biblical authority</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Bible-related_topics" title="Outline of Bible-related topics">Outline of Bible-related topics</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/40px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/60px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg/120px-Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1993" data-file-height="1300" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Bible" title="Portal:Bible">Bible portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bible_sidebar" title="Template:Bible sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bible_sidebar" title="Template talk:Bible sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bible_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bible sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The two most important targumim for liturgical purposes are:<sup id="cite_ref-BrotzmanTully2016_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrotzmanTully2016-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum_Onkelos" title="Targum Onkelos">Targum Onkelos</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targum_Jonathan" title="Targum Jonathan">Targum Jonathan</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li></ul> <p>These two targumim are mentioned in the Babylonian <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> as <i>targum dilan</i> ("our Targum"), giving them official status. In the synagogues of Talmudic times, Targum Onkelos was read alternately with the Torah, verse by verse, and Targum Jonathan was read alternately with the selection from Nevi'im (i.e., the <a href="/wiki/Haftara" title="Haftara">haftara</a>), though in the case of Nevi'im it was permitted to translate in units of up to three verses. This custom continues today in Yemenite Jewish synagogues. </p><p>Besides its public function in the synagogue, the Babylonian Talmud also mentions targum in the context of a personal study requirement: "A person should always review his portions of scripture along with the community, reading the scripture twice and the targum once" (Berakhot 8a–b). This, too, refers to Targum Onkelos on the public Torah reading and to Targum Jonathan on the haftarot from Nevi'im.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Medieval biblical manuscripts of the <a href="/wiki/Masoretic_Text" title="Masoretic Text">Masoretic Text</a> sometimes contain the Hebrew text interpolated, verse-by-verse, with the <i>targumim</i>. This scribal practice is rooted in the public reading of the Targum and the requirement for private study.In these manuscripts, and in <a href="/wiki/Mikraot_Gedolot" title="Mikraot Gedolot">rabbinic Bibles</a> up to and including the second printed Venice edition, Targumim were written or printed with <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_cantillation" title="Hebrew cantillation">cantillation marks</a>. </p><p>The two "official" targumim are considered eastern (Mesopotamian, called "Babylonian"). Nevertheless, scholars believe they, too, originated in <a href="/wiki/Syria_Palestina" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria Palestina">Syria Palestina</a> because of a strong linguistic substratum of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a>. Though these targumim were later "orientalised", the substratum belying their origins remains. </p><p>When most Jewish communities ceased speaking Aramaic in the 10th century, the public reading of Targum, along with the Torah and Haftarah, was abandoned in most communities, Yemen being a well-known exception. </p><p>The private study requirement to review the Targum was never entirely relaxed, even when Jewish communities had largely ceased speaking Aramaic, and the Targum never ceased to be a major source for <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exegesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish exegesis">Jewish exegesis</a>. For instance, it serves as a major source in Shlomo Yitzhaki's Torah commentary, "<a href="/wiki/Rashi" title="Rashi">Rashi</a>," and has always been the standard fare for <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a> onward. </p><p>For these reasons, Jewish editions of the Tanakh which include commentaries still almost always print the Targum alongside the text, in all Jewish communities. Nevertheless, later halakhic authorities argued that the requirement to privately review the <i>targum</i> might also be met by reading a translation in the current vernacular in place of the official Targum, or else by studying an important commentary containing midrashic interpretation (especially that of Rashi). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Targum_Ketuvim">Targum Ketuvim</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Targum&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Targum Ketuvim"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Talmud explicitly states that no official <i>targumim</i> were composed besides these two on Torah and Nevi'im alone, and that there is no official <i>targum</i> to <a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a> ("The Writings"). The Talmud stories state:<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Targum of the Pentateuch was composed by Onkelos the proselyte from the mouths of R. Eleazar and R. Joshua. The Targum of the Prophets was composed by Jonathan ben Uzziel under the guidance of Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">land of Israel</a> [thereupon] quaked over an area of four hundred parasangs by four hundred parasangs, and a <a href="/wiki/Bath_Kol" class="mw-redirect" title="Bath Kol">Bath Kol</a> (heavenly voice) came forth and exclaimed, "Who is this that has revealed My secrets to mankind?" Jonathan b. Uzziel arose and said, "It is I who have revealed Thy secrets to mankind. It is fully known to Thee that I have not done this for my own honour or for the honour of my father's house, but for Thy honour I have done it, that dissension may not increase in Israel." He further sought to reveal [by] a targum [the inner meaning] of Ketuvim, but a Bath Kol went forth and said, "Enough!" What was the reason? Because the date of the Messiah is foretold in it.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Nevertheless, most books of Ketuvim (with the exceptions of Daniel and Ezra-Nehemiah, which both contain Aramaic portions) have <i>targumim</i>, whose origin is mostly Palestinian rather than Mesopotamian. But they were poorly preserved and less well known for lack of a fixed place in the liturgy. From Palestine, the tradition of targum to Ketuvim made its way to Italy, and from there to medieval <a href="/wiki/Ashkenaz" title="Ashkenaz">Ashkenaz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sepharad" title="Sepharad">Sepharad</a>. The targumim of Psalms, Proverbs, and Job are generally treated as a unit, as are the targumim of the five scrolls (Esther has a longer "<a href="/wiki/Targum_Sheni" title="Targum Sheni">Second Targum</a>" as well.) The targum of Chronicles is quite late, possibly medieval. It is traditionally attributed to "Rav Yosef" (meaning either <a href="/wiki/Rav_Yosef" class="mw-redirect" title="Rav Yosef">Rav Yosef</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Rav <a href="/wiki/Yosef_bar_Hama" class="mw-redirect" title="Yosef bar Hama">Yosef bar Hama</a><sup id="cite_ref-daat_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daat-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). (The targum to Neviim is also sometimes referred to as the targum of Rav Yosef.<sup id="cite_ref-daat_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daat-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_Targumim_on_the_Torah">Other Targumim on the Torah</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Targum&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Other Targumim on the Torah"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are also a variety of western <i>targumim</i> on the Torah, each of which was traditionally called <i>Targum Yerushalmi</i> ("Jerusalem Targum"), and written in Western Aramaic. An important one of these was mistakenly labeled "Targum Jonathan" in later printed versions (though all medieval authorities refer to it by its correct name). The error crept in because of an abbreviation: the printer interpreted the abbreviation <i>TY</i> (ת"י) to stand for <i>Targum Yonathan</i> (תרגום יונתן) instead of the correct <i>Targum Yerushalmi</i> (תרגום ירושלמי). Scholars refer to this <i>targum</i> as <a href="/wiki/Targum_Pseudo-Jonathan" title="Targum Pseudo-Jonathan">Targum Pseudo-Jonathan</a>. To attribute this targum to <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_ben_Uzziel" title="Jonathan ben Uzziel">Jonathan ben Uzziel</a> flatly contradicts the Talmudic tradition (Megillah 3a), which quite clearly attributes the targum to Nevi'im alone to him, while stating that there is no official targum to the Ketuvim. In the same printed versions, a similar fragment targum is correctly labeled as <i>Targum Yerushalmi</i>. </p><p>The Western Targumim on the Torah, or Palestinian Targumim as they are also called, consist of three manuscript groups: <a href="/wiki/Targum_Neofiti" title="Targum Neofiti">Targum Neofiti</a> I, Fragment Targums, and Cairo Geniza Fragment Targums. </p><p>Of these <a href="/wiki/Targum_Neofiti" title="Targum Neofiti">Targum Neofiti</a> I is the largest. It consist of 450 folios covering all books of the Pentateuch, with only a few damaged verses. The history of the manuscript begins 1587 when the censor <a href="/w/index.php?title=Andrea_de_Monte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Andrea de Monte (page does not exist)">Andrea de Monte</a> (d. 1587) bequeathed it to Ugo Boncompagni—which presents an oddity, since Boncompagni, better known as <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XIII" title="Pope Gregory XIII">Pope Gregory XIII</a>, died in 1585. The transmission route may instead be by a certain "Giovan Paolo Eustachio romano neophito."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before this de Monte had censored it by deleting most references to idolatry. In 1602 Boncompagni's estate gave it to the <a href="/wiki/College_of_the_Neophytes" title="College of the Neophytes">College of the Neophytes</a>, a college for converts from Judaism and Islam, until 1886, when the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a> bought it along with other manuscripts when the Collegium closed (which is the reason for the manuscripts name and its designation). It was then mistitled as a manuscript of Targum Onkelos until 1949, when <a href="/wiki/Alejandro_D%C3%ADez_Macho" title="Alejandro Díez Macho">Alejandro Díez Macho</a> noticed that it differed significantly from Targum Onkelos. It was translated and published during 1968–79, and has since been considered the most important of the Palestinian Targumim, as it is by far the most complete and, apparently, the earliest as well.<sup id="cite_ref-McNamara_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNamara-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sysling_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sysling-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Fragment Targums (formerly known as Targum Yerushalmi II) consist of fragments divided into ten manuscripts. Of these P, V and L were first published in 1899 by M Ginsburger, A, B, C, D, F and G in 1930 by P Kahle and E in 1955 by A Díez Macho. These manuscripts are all too fragmented to confirm what their purpose was, but they seem to be either the remains of a single complete targum or short variant readings of another targum. As a group, they often share theological views and with Targum Neofiti, which has led to the belief that they could be variant readings of that targum.<sup id="cite_ref-McNamara_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNamara-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sysling_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sysling-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" title="Cairo Geniza">Cairo Geniza</a> Fragment Targums originate from the Ben Ezra Synagogue's genizah in Cairo. They share similarities with the Fragment Targums in that they consist of many fragmented manuscripts that have been collected in one targum-group. The manuscripts A and E are the oldest among the Palestinian Targum and have been dated to around the seventh century. Manuscripts C, E, H and Z contain only passages from Genesis, A from Exodus while MS B contain verses from both as well as from Deuteronomium.<sup id="cite_ref-McNamara_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNamara-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sysling_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sysling-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Samaritan community <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Pentateuch#Translations" title="Samaritan Pentateuch">has their own Targum</a> to their text of the Torah. Other Targumim were also discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Peshitta">Peshitta</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Targum&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Peshitta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a> is the traditional Bible of <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Syriac Christians">Syriac Christians</a>, who speak several different dialects of Aramaic. The translation of the Peshitta is thought to be before the year 300.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams2001_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams2001-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Targum&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_ben_Mordecai_of_R%C3%B6delheim" title="Aaron ben Mordecai of Rödelheim">Aaron ben Mordecai of Rödelheim</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Targum&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Schühlein_1912-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schühlein_1912_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schühlein_1912_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schühlein_1912_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSchühlein1912" class="citation book cs1">Schühlein, Franz (1912). <i>Targum</i>. New York: Robert Appleton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Targum&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Sch%C3%BChlein&rft.aufirst=Franz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOesterleyBox1920" class="citation book cs1">Oesterley, WOE; Box, GH (1920). <i>A Short Survey of the Literature of Rabbinical and Mediæval Judaism</i>. New York: Burt Franklin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+Survey+of+the+Literature+of+Rabbinical+and+Medi%C3%A6val+Judaism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Burt+Franklin&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Oesterley&rft.aufirst=WOE&rft.au=Box%2C+GH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JE-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JE_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/9864-levita-elijah">"Levita, Elijah"</a>, in the 1906 <i>Jewish Encyclopedia.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLevita1542" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elia_Levita" title="Elia Levita">Levita, Elia</a> (1542). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9zVGAAAAYAAJ"><i>Sefer meturgeman</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sefer+meturgeman&rft.date=1542&rft.aulast=Levita&rft.aufirst=Elia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9zVGAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Philip-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Philip_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Philip_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Philip_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Philip_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip S. Alexander, (1992) "Targum, Targumim", in <i>The Anchor Bible Dictionary</i>, ed. David Noel Freedman (New York: Doubleday), 6:320–31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BrotzmanTully2016-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BrotzmanTully2016_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEllis_R._BrotzmanEric_J._Tully2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ellis_R._Brotzman" title="Ellis R. Brotzman">Ellis R. Brotzman</a>; Eric J. Tully (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FZ7_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT77"><i>Old Testament Textual Criticism: A Practical Introduction</i></a>. Baker Publishing Group. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4934-0475-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4934-0475-9"><bdi>978-1-4934-0475-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Old+Testament+Textual+Criticism%3A+A+Practical+Introduction&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Baker+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4934-0475-9&rft.au=Ellis+R.+Brotzman&rft.au=Eric+J.+Tully&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFZ7_DAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Megilah 3a</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jonathan b. Uzziel was a disciple of <a href="/wiki/Hillel_the_Elder" title="Hillel the Elder">Hillel</a>, so he had traditions handed down from them (<a href="/wiki/Maharsha" title="Maharsha">Maharsha</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A possible reference to the end of the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">book of Daniel</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.daat.ac.il/encyclopedia/value.asp?id1=2842">אנציקלופדיה יהודית דעת: יוסף</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-daat-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-daat_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-daat_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.daat.ac.il/encyclopedia/value.asp?id1=2153">אנציקלופדיה יהודית דעת: תרגום יונתן לנביאים</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Studi di biblioteconomia e storia del libro in onore di Francesco Barberi</i>, ed. Giorgio De Gregori, Maria Valenti – 1976 "(42) Trascrivo una supplica dell'Eustachio al Sirleto : « Giovan Paolo Eustachio romano neophito devotissimo servidor di... (44) « Die 22 mensis augusti 1602. Inventarium factum in domo illustrissimi domini Ugonis Boncompagni posita".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McNamara-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McNamara_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNamara_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNamara_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McNamara, M. (1972) <i>Targum and Testament</i>. Shannon, Irish University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sysling-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sysling_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sysling_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sysling_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sysling, H. (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eg8kJweeplcC">Tehiyyat Ha-Metim</a>. Tübingen, JCB Mohr.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/explore-the-archive/search#q='targum'">"The Dead Sea Scrolls - Browse Manuscripts"</a>. <i>www.deadseascrolls.org.il</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.deadseascrolls.org.il&rft.atitle=The+Dead+Sea+Scrolls+-+Browse+Manuscripts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deadseascrolls.org.il%2Fexplore-the-archive%2Fsearch%23q%3D%27targum%27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams2001-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams2001_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For the date of translation, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPeter_J._Williams2001" class="citation book cs1">Peter J. Williams (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fXC-7dneVTkC&pg=PA2"><i>Studies in the Syntax of the Peshitta of 1 Kings</i></a>. BRILL. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-11978-7" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-11978-7"><bdi>90-04-11978-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+the+Syntax+of+the+Peshitta+of+1+Kings&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=90-04-11978-7&rft.au=Peter+J.+Williams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfXC-7dneVTkC%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p>Tadmor, H., 1991. "On the role of Aramaic in the Assyrian empire", in M. Mori, H. Ogawa and M. Yoshikawa (eds.), Near Eastern Studies Dedicated to H.I.H. Prince Takahito Mikasa on the Occasion of his Seventy-Fifth Birthday, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, pp. 419–426 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Targum&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>English translations of Targum</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastes" title="Ecclesiastes">Ecclesiastes</a> in <i>The Song of Songs and Coheleth</i>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_David_Ginsburg" title="Christian David Ginsburg">Christian David Ginsburg</a> (1857) pages 503–519.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEtheridge2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Etheridge" title="John Wesley Etheridge">Etheridge, John Wesley</a> (7 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://targum.info/?page_id=8">"Targum Pseudo-Jonathan and Targum Onkelos"</a>. <i>Newsletter for Targumic and Cognate Studies</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Newsletter+for+Targumic+and+Cognate+Studies&rft.atitle=Targum+Pseudo-Jonathan+and+Targum+Onkelos&rft.date=2013-09-07&rft.aulast=Etheridge&rft.aufirst=John+Wesley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftargum.info%2F%3Fpage_id%3D8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCook" class="citation web cs1">Cook, Edward M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://targum.info/pss/ps1.htm">"The Aramaic Targum to Psalms"</a>. Targum.info. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171211052502/http://targum.info/pss/ps1.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Aramaic+Targum+to+Psalms&rft.pub=Targum.info&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Edward+M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftargum.info%2Fpss%2Fps1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTreat" class="citation web cs1">Treat, Jay C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~jtreat/song/targum/">"The Aramaic Targum to the Song of Songs (Shir HaShirim)"</a>. University of Pennsylvania.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Aramaic+Targum+to+the+Song+of+Songs+%28Shir+HaShirim%29&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania&rft.aulast=Treat&rft.aufirst=Jay+C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fccat.sas.upenn.edu%2F~jtreat%2Fsong%2Ftargum%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLevey" class="citation web cs1">Levey, Samson H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://targum.info/meg/ruth.htm">"The Aramaic Targum to Ruth"</a>. Targum.info.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Aramaic+Targum+to+Ruth&rft.pub=Targum.info&rft.aulast=Levey&rft.aufirst=Samson+H&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftargum.info%2Fmeg%2Fruth.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrady2011" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christian_M._M._Brady" title="Christian M. M. Brady">Brady, Christian 'Chris' MM</a> (18 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://targuman.org/blog/targum-ruth/targum-ruth-in-english/">"Targum Ruth in English"</a>. Targuman.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Targum+Ruth+in+English&rft.pub=Targuman&rft.date=2011-06-18&rft.aulast=Brady&rft.aufirst=Christian+%27Chris%27+MM&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftarguman.org%2Fblog%2Ftargum-ruth%2Ftargum-ruth-in-english%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrady" class="citation web cs1">————————. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://targum.info/meg/tglam.htm">"The Aramaic Targum to Lamentations"</a>. Targum.info.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Aramaic+Targum+to+Lamentations&rft.pub=Targum.info&rft.aulast=Brady&rft.aufirst=Christian+%27Chris%27+MM&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftargum.info%2Fmeg%2Ftglam.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tanakh.info">Aramaic Targums</a>—The Aramaic text of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tanakh.info/gn2-1">Targum Onkelos</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tanakh.info/gn1-1">Samaritan Targum</a> with a new English translation for each version and critical apparatus.</li></ul> <p><b>Other sources on Targum</b> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=67&letter=T">"Targum"</a>. <i>The Jewish Encyclopedia</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Targum&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishencyclopedia.com%2Fview.jsp%3Fartid%3D67%26letter%3DT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cal1.cn.huc.edu/">"The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon"</a>. HUC.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Comprehensive+Aramaic+Lexicon&rft.pub=HUC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcal1.cn.huc.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span>—contains critical editions of all the <i>targumim</i> along with lexical tools and grammatical analysis.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14454b.htm">"Targum"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. New Advent.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Targum&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=New+Advent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F14454b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFaur" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jose_Faur" class="mw-redirect" title="Jose Faur">Faur, Jose</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080720160655/http://faur.derushah.com/articlesbyhakhamjosefaur.html#targumim">"The Targumim and Halakha"</a>. Derushah. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faur.derushah.com/articlesbyhakhamjosefaur.html#targumim">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(article)</span> on 20 July 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Targumim+and+Halakha&rft.pub=Derushah&rft.aulast=Faur&rft.aufirst=Jose&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaur.derushah.com%2Farticlesbyhakhamjosefaur.html%23targumim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span>, analyzing the status of the Targumim in Jewish law</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Targum"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Targum">"Targum" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i>. 1905.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Targum&rft.btitle=New+International+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATargum" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-9780195393361-0187.xml">Targum</a> at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/">Oxford Bibliographies</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/8700">Michael Klein on the Targums</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004205215/Bej.9789004202955.i-313_020.xml">Chapter Ninteen</a> at Brill</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bible-researcher.com/aramaic.html">The Aramaic Targums</a>, at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bible-researcher.com/index.html">Bible Research</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Book_of_Ezekiel" title="Book of Ezekiel">Ezekiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Daniel" title="Book of Daniel">Daniel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Hosea" title="Book of Hosea">Hosea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Joel" title="Book of Joel">Joel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Amos" title="Book of Amos">Amos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Obadiah" title="Book of Obadiah">Obadiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jonah" title="Book of Jonah">Jonah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Micah" title="Book of Micah">Micah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Nahum" title="Book of Nahum">Nahum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Habakkuk" title="Book of Habakkuk">Habakkuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Zephaniah" title="Book of Zephaniah">Zephaniah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Haggai" title="Book of Haggai">Haggai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Zechariah" title="Book of Zechariah">Zechariah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Malachi" title="Book of Malachi">Malachi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books" title="Deuterocanonical books">Deuterocanon</a><br /> or <a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">apocrypha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Bible" title="Catholic Bible">Catholic</a>, <br /><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> & others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Tobit" title="Book of Tobit">Tobit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Judith" title="Book of Judith">Judith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Esther#Additions_to_Esther" title="Book of Esther">Additions to Esther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1_Maccabees" title="1 Maccabees">1 Maccabees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Maccabees" title="2 Maccabees">2 Maccabees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Wisdom" title="Book of Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Sirach" title="Book of Sirach">Sirach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Baruch" title="Book of Baruch">Baruch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Letter_of_Jeremiah" title="Letter of Jeremiah">Letter of Jeremiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Additions_to_Daniel" title="Additions to Daniel">Additions to Daniel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_(Book_of_Daniel)" title="Susanna (Book of Daniel)">Susanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Prayer_of_Azariah_and_Song_of_the_Three_Holy_Children" class="mw-redirect" title="The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children">Song of the Three Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bel_and_the_Dragon" title="Bel and the Dragon">Bel and the Dragon</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Eastern Orthodox & others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1_Esdras" title="1 Esdras">1 Esdras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Esdras" title="2 Esdras">2 Esdras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_of_Manasseh" title="Prayer of Manasseh">Prayer of Manasseh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psalm_151" title="Psalm 151">Psalm 151</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3_Maccabees" title="3 Maccabees">3 Maccabees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4_Maccabees" title="4 Maccabees">4 Maccabees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Odes_(Bible)" title="Book of Odes (Bible)">Odes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Tewahedo" title="Orthodox Tewahedo">Orthodox Tewahedo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Enoch" title="Book of Enoch">Enoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Jubilees" title="Book of Jubilees">Jubilees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meqabyan" title="Meqabyan">1, 2, and 3 Meqabyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rest_of_the_Words_of_Baruch" title="Rest of the Words of Baruch">Paralipomena of Baruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Tewahedo_biblical_canon#Broader_canon" title="Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon">Broader canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Syriac <a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psalms_152%E2%80%93155" title="Psalms 152–155">Psalms 152–155</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2_Baruch" title="2 Baruch">2 Baruch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Testaments_of_the_Three_Patriarchs" title="Testaments of the Three Patriarchs">Testaments of the Three Patriarchs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Testament_of_Abraham" title="Testament of Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testament_of_Isaac" title="Testament of Isaac">Isaac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testament_of_Jacob" title="Testament of Jacob">Jacob</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/New_Testament_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="New Testament canon">Canon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Matthew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Mark" title="Gospel of Mark">Mark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Luke" title="Gospel of Luke">Luke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Romans" title="Epistle to the Romans">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_to_the_Corinthians" title="First Epistle to the Corinthians">1 Corinthians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_the_Corinthians" title="Second Epistle to the Corinthians">2 Corinthians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Galatians" title="Epistle to the Galatians">Galatians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Ephesians" title="Epistle to the Ephesians">Ephesians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Philippians" title="Epistle to the Philippians">Philippians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Colossians" title="Epistle to the Colossians">Colossians</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Laodiceans" title="Epistle to the Laodiceans">Laodiceans</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_to_the_Thessalonians" title="First Epistle to the Thessalonians">1 Thessalonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_the_Thessalonians" title="Second Epistle to the Thessalonians">2 Thessalonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_to_Timothy" title="First Epistle to Timothy">1 Timothy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_to_Timothy" title="Second Epistle to Timothy">2 Timothy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_Titus" title="Epistle to Titus">Titus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_Philemon" title="Epistle to Philemon">Philemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Hebrews" title="Epistle to the Hebrews">Hebrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_James" title="Epistle of James">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_of_Peter" title="First Epistle of Peter">1 Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_of_Peter" title="Second Epistle of Peter">2 Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_of_John" title="First Epistle of John">1 John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_of_John" title="Second Epistle of John">2 John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Epistle_of_John" title="Third Epistle of John">3 John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_Jude" title="Epistle of Jude">Jude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antilegomena" title="Antilegomena">Antilegomena</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Paul" title="Acts of Paul">Acts of Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalypse_of_Peter" title="Apocalypse of Peter">Apocalypse of Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Didache" title="Didache">Didache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_the_Hebrews" title="Gospel of the Hebrews">Gospel of the Hebrews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_Barnabas" title="Epistle of Barnabas">Epistle of Barnabas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_of_Clement" title="First Epistle of Clement">1 Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_of_Clement" title="Second Epistle of Clement">2 Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Epistle_to_the_Corinthians" title="Third Epistle to the Corinthians">3 Corinthians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shepherd_of_Hermas" class="mw-redirect" title="Shepherd of Hermas">Shepherd of Hermas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chapters_and_verses_of_the_Bible" title="Chapters and verses of the Bible">Chapters and verses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torah#Pentateuch" title="Torah">Pentateuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_books" title="Historical books">Historical books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom_literature#Sapiential_Books" title="Wisdom literature">Wisdom books</a> (<a href="/wiki/Poetic_Books" title="Poetic Books">Poetic Books</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_books" title="Prophetic books">Prophetic books</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Major_prophet" title="Major prophet">Major prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Minor_Prophets" title="Twelve Minor Prophets">Minor prophets</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gospels" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Gospels">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synoptic_Gospels" title="Synoptic Gospels">Synoptic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistle" title="Epistle">Epistles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johannine_epistles" title="Johannine epistles">Johannine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_epistles" title="Pastoral epistles">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">Catholic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature" title="Apocalyptic literature">Apocalyptic literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authorship_of_the_Bible" title="Authorship of the Bible">Authorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_canon" title="Development of the Hebrew Bible canon">Jewish canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertestamental_period" title="Intertestamental period">Intertestamental period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the Christian biblical canon">Christian canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Old_Testament_canon" title="Development of the Old Testament canon">Old Testament canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">New Testament canon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antilegomena" title="Antilegomena">Antilegomena</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">Apocrypha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_apocrypha" title="Jewish apocrypha">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_apocrypha" title="Biblical apocrypha">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament_apocrypha" title="New Testament apocrypha">New Testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudepigrapha" title="Pseudepigrapha">Pseudepigrapha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Old_Testament_pseudepigrapha" title="List of Old Testament pseudepigrapha">Old Testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dating_the_Bible" title="Dating the Bible">Dating the Bible</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_manuscript" title="Biblical manuscript">Manuscripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls" title="Dead Sea Scrolls">Dead Sea Scrolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Pentateuch" title="Samaritan Pentateuch">Samaritan Pentateuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Targum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Diatessaron" title="Diatessaron">Diatessaron</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muratorian_fragment" title="Muratorian fragment">Muratorian fragment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peshitta" title="Peshitta">Peshitta</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vetus_Latina" title="Vetus Latina">Vetus Latina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masoretic_Text" title="Masoretic Text">Masoretic Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categories_of_New_Testament_manuscripts" title="Categories of New Testament manuscripts">New Testament manuscript categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_papyri" title="List of New Testament papyri">New Testament papyri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Testament_uncials" title="List of New Testament uncials">New Testament uncials</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_version_debate" title="Bible version debate">Bible version debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_Bible_translations" title="List of English Bible translations">English Bible translations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-canonical_books_referenced_in_the_Bible" title="Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible">Other books referenced in the Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_texts#Christianity" title="List of religious texts">Additional Scriptures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_studies" title="Biblical studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_and_Quranic_narratives" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical and Quranic narratives">Biblical and Quranic narratives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Hippo" title="Synod of Hippo">Synod of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">Textual criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bible" title="Category:Bible">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Bible" title="Portal:Bible">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Bible" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Bible">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://auth.wikimedia.org/loginwiki/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: 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