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data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Hoofkieslys</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">skuif na kantbalk</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">versteek</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigasie </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Tuisblad" title="Besoek die Tuisblad [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Tuisblad</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Gebruikersportaal" title="Meer oor die projek, wat jy kan doen, nuttige skakels"><span>Gebruikersportaal</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Geselshoekie" title="Agtergrondinligting oor aktuele sake"><span>Geselshoekie</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Onlangse_wysigings" title="'n Lys van onlangse wysigings [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Onlangse wysigings</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Lukraak" title="Laai 'n lukrake bladsye [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Lukrake bladsy</span></a></li><li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Help:Contents" title="Vind meer uit oor iets"><span>Hulp</span></a></li><li id="n-Sandput" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Sandput"><span>Sandput</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Tuisblad" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-af.svg" width="118" height="13" style="width: 7.375em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Soek" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Deursoek Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Soek</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search 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emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Voorkoms"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Voorkoms" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Voorkoms</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=af.wikipedia.org&uselang=af" class=""><span>Skenkings</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:SkepRekening&returnto=Geneeskunde" title="U word aangemoedig om 'n gebruiker te skep en aan te meld, hoewel dit nie verpligtend is nie." class=""><span>Skep gebruiker</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:Teken_in&returnto=Geneeskunde" title="U word aangemoedig om aan te meld. Dit is egter nie verpligtend nie. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Meld aan</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Meer opsies" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Persoonlike gereedskap" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Persoonlike gereedskap</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=af.wikipedia.org&uselang=af"><span>Skenkings</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:SkepRekening&returnto=Geneeskunde" title="U word aangemoedig om 'n gebruiker te skep en aan te meld, hoewel dit nie verpligtend is nie."><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Skep gebruiker</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:Teken_in&returnto=Geneeskunde" title="U word aangemoedig om aan te meld. Dit is egter nie verpligtend nie. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Meld aan</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Bladsye vir uitgemelde redakteurs <a href="/wiki/Hulp:Inleiding" aria-label="Leer meer oor redigering"><span>leer meer</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Mybydrae" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Bydraes</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Mybespreking" title="Bespreking oor bydraes van hierdie IP-adres [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Bespreking</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Werf"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Inhoud" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Inhoud</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">skuif na kantbalk</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">versteek</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Inleiding</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Geskiedenis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geskiedenis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Geskiedenis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geskiedenis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Wissel Geskiedenis subafdeling</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geskiedenis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Griekse_en_Romeinse_geneeskunde" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Griekse_en_Romeinse_geneeskunde"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Griekse en Romeinse geneeskunde</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Griekse_en_Romeinse_geneeskunde-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middeleeue_en_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middeleeue_en_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Middeleeue en Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middeleeue_en_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negentiende_en_twintigste_eeu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negentiende_en_twintigste_eeu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Negentiende en twintigste eeu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negentiende_en_twintigste_eeu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geneeskunde_en_die_samelewing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geneeskunde_en_die_samelewing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Geneeskunde en die samelewing</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geneeskunde_en_die_samelewing-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Wissel Geneeskunde en die samelewing subafdeling</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geneeskunde_en_die_samelewing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Verontmensliking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verontmensliking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Verontmensliking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verontmensliking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Die_pasiënt_se_seggenskap" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Die_pasiënt_se_seggenskap"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Die pasiënt se seggenskap</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Die_pasiënt_se_seggenskap-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verskaffing_van_sorg" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verskaffing_van_sorg"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Verskaffing van sorg</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verskaffing_van_sorg-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mediese_etiek" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mediese_etiek"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mediese etiek</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mediese_etiek-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sien_ook" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sien_ook"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Sien ook</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sien_ook-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bronne" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronne"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Bronne</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bronne-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verwysings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verwysings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Verwysings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verwysings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eksterne_skakels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eksterne_skakels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Eksterne skakels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eksterne_skakels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Inhoud" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Wissel die inhoudsopgawe" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Wissel die inhoudsopgawe</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Geneeskunde</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Gaan na 'n artikel in 'n ander taal. Beskikbaar in 190 tale" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-190" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">190 tale</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medizin" title="Medizin – Switserse Duits" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Medizin" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Switserse Duits" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%95%E1%8A%AD%E1%88%9D%E1%8A%93" title="ሕክምና – Amharies" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሕክምና" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Aragonees" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="طب – Arabies" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="طب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%90%DC%A3%DC%9D%DC%98%DC%AC%DC%90" title="ܐܣܝܘܬܐ – Aramees" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܐܣܝܘܬܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="طب – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="طب" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="طب – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="طب" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE-%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="চিকিৎসা-বিজ্ঞান – Assamees" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="চিকিৎসা-বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Asturies" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Avaries" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaries" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qulla" title="Qulla – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Qulla" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibb" title="Tibb – Azerbeidjans" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tibb" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbeidjans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%DB%8C%D8%A8" title="طیب – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="طیب" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="voorbladartikel"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Baskir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Baskir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Med%C4%97c%C4%97na" title="Medėcėna – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Medėcėna" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagbulong" title="Pagbulong – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pagbulong" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медыцына – Belarussies" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Медыцына" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarussies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Мэдыцына – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мэдыцына" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Bulgaars" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgaars" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80_(%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE)" title="डाक्टरी (बिद्या) – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="डाक्टरी (बिद्या)" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisin" title="Medisin – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Medisin" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C9%94k%C9%94t%C9%94r%C9%94ya" title="Dɔkɔtɔrɔya – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Dɔkɔtɔrɔya" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bamanankan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="চিকিৎসাবিজ্ঞান – Bengaals" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চিকিৎসাবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bengaals" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82" title="གསོ་རིག – Tibettaans" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="གསོ་རིག" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibettaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="চিকিৎসা বিজ্ঞান – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="চিকিৎসা বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezegiezh" title="Mezegiezh – Bretons" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Mezegiezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Bretons" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Bosnies" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Анагааха ухаан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Анагааха ухаан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Katalaans" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Katalaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%AC-h%C5%8Fk" title="Ĭ-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ĭ-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Tsjetsjeens" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Tsjetsjeens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisina" title="Medisina – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Medisina" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%85%E1%8F%AC%E1%8F%98" title="ᏅᏬᏘ – Cherokees" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏅᏬᏘ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="پزیشکی – Sorani" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پزیشکی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Sorani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Korsikaans" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Korsikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9ka%C5%99stv%C3%AD" title="Lékařství – Tsjeggies" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Lékařství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Tsjeggies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medic%C3%ABna" title="Medicëna – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Medicëna" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meddygaeth" title="Meddygaeth – Wallies" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Meddygaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Wallies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A6gevidenskab" title="Lægevidenskab – Deens" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Lægevidenskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Deens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medizin" title="Medizin – Duits" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Medizin" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="Duits" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%B1b" title="Tıb – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Tıb" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Ιατρική – Grieks" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιατρική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Grieks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine – Engels" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Medicine" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="Engels" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicino" title="Medicino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Medicino" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Spaans" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditsiin" title="Meditsiin – Estnies" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Meditsiin" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estnies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medikuntza" title="Medikuntza – Baskies" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Medikuntza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Baskies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medecina" title="Medecina – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Medecina" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B2%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="پزشکی – Persies" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پزشکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4%C3%A4ketiede" title="Lääketiede – Fins" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Lääketiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Fins" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arstitiid%C3%BCs" title="Arstitiidüs – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Arstitiidüs" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A6knafr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Læknafrøði – Faroëes" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Læknafrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroëes" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9decine" title="Médecine – Frans" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Médecine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="Frans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A8decina" title="Mèdecina – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Mèdecina" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisine" title="Medisine – Friuliaans" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Medisine" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friuliaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen%C3%AAskunde" title="Genêskunde – Fries" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Genêskunde" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Fries" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ADochaine" title="Míochaine – Iers" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Míochaine" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Iers" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9dsin" title="Médsin – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Médsin" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%B2las-leighis" title="Eòlas-leighis – Skotse Gallies" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Eòlas-leighis" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Skotse Gallies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Galisies" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galisies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poh%C3%A3nokuaa" title="Pohãnokuaa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Pohãnokuaa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kedokteran" title="Kedokteran – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Kedokteran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lheeys" title="Lheeys – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Lheeys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C3%AE-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Yî-ho̍k – Hakka-Sjinees" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Yî-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka-Sjinees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%90%D7%94" title="רפואה – Hebreeus" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רפואה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebreeus" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="आयुर्विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आयुर्विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctori" title="Doctori – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Doctori" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Kroaties" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Kroaties" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medsin" title="Medsin – Haïtiaans" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Medsin" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haïtiaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orvostudom%C3%A1ny" title="Orvostudomány – Hongaars" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Orvostudomány" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hongaars" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%AA%D5%B7%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բժշկություն – Armeens" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բժշկություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armeens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%AA%D5%B7%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բժշկութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Բժշկութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kedokteran" title="Kedokteran – Indonesies" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kedokteran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisina" title="Medisina – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Medisina" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Лорал – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Лорал" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicino" title="Medicino – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Medicino" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A6knisfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Læknisfræði – Yslands" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Læknisfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Yslands" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Italiaans" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italiaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%91%96%E1%92%83%E1%91%8E" title="ᑖᒃᑎ – Inoektitoet" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᑖᒃᑎ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inoektitoet" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="医学 – Japannees" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="医学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japannees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisn" title="Medisn – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Medisn" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kedhokteran" title="Kedhokteran – Javaans" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kedhokteran" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="მედიცინა – Georgies" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მედიცინა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnujjya" title="Tasnujjya – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasnujjya" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Kazaks" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazaks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ವೈದ್ಯವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವೈದ್ಯವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%98%ED%95%99" title="의학 – Koreaans" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="의학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Koreaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%8E%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC_%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86" title="یێلاج زان – Kasjmirs" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="یێلاج زان" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kasjmirs" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bij%C3%AE%C5%9Fk%C3%AE" title="Bijîşkî – Koerdies" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Bijîşkî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Koerdies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medhegneth" title="Medhegneth – Kornies" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Medhegneth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Kornies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Kirgisies" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kirgisies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Latyn" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisina" title="Medisina – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Medisina" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medezin" title="Medezin – Luxemburgs" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Medezin" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxemburgs" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medica" title="Medica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Medica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genaesk%C3%B3nde" title="Genaeskónde – Limburgs" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Genaeskónde" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgs" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ABxinn-a" title="Mëxinn-a – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Mëxinn-a" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ແພດສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ແພດສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Litaus" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Litaus" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medic%C4%ABna" title="Medicīna – Letties" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Medicīna" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Letties" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Медицин – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Медицин" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadokteran" title="Kadokteran – Minangkabaus" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Kadokteran" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabaus" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Masedonies" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Masedonies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="വൈദ്യശാസ്ത്രം – Malabaars" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വൈദ്യശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malabaars" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%85_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Анагаах ухаан – Mongools" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Анагаах ухаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongools" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%8D%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%97%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%9B%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯍꯤꯗꯥꯛꯂꯣꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯍꯤꯗꯥꯛꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="वैद्यकशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वैद्यकशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perubatan" title="Perubatan – Maleis" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perubatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Maleis" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medi%C4%8Bina" title="Mediċina – Maltees" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Mediċina" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medecina" title="Medecina – Mirandees" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Medecina" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%95%E1%80%8A%E1%80%AC" title="ဆေးပညာ – Birmaans" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆေးပညာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Birmaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mericina" title="Mericina – Neapolitaans" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Mericina" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medizin" title="Medizin – Nederduits" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Medizin" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Nederduits" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genaeskeunde" title="Genaeskeunde – Nedersaksies" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Genaeskeunde" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Nedersaksies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="चिकित्सा विज्ञान – Nepalees" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="चिकित्सा विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepalees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%83" title="वासः – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="वासः" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneeskunde" title="Geneeskunde – Nederlands" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geneeskunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Nederlands" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisin" title="Medisin – Nuwe Noors" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Medisin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Nuwe Noors" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisin" title="Medisin – Boeknoors" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Medisin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Boeknoors" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisine" title="Medisine – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Medisine" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medecina" title="Medecina – Oksitaans" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Medecina" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Oksitaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9A%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BE_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ଚିକିତ୍ସା ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Oriya" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଚିକିତ୍ସା ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Oriya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%C3%A6" title="Медицинæ – Osseties" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Медицинæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Osseties" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%A1%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A8" title="ਮੈਡੀਸਿਨ – Pandjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੈਡੀਸਿਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Pandjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9decinne" title="Médecinne – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Médecinne" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="चिकित्सा विज्ञान – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="चिकित्सा विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>पालि</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisin" title="Medisin – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Medisin" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medycyna" title="Medycyna – Pools" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Medycyna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Pools" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="طب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="طب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%84%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="درملگري – Pasjtoe" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="درملگري" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pasjtoe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Portugees" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portugees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampi_yachay" title="Hampi yachay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Hampi yachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medischina" title="Medischina – Reto-Romaans" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Medischina" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Reto-Romaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicin%C4%83" title="Medicină – Roemeens" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Medicină" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Roemeens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Russies" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%96%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медіціна – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Медіціна" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="आयुर्विज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="आयुर्विज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Sakhaans" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Sakhaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%AA%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9_%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%AC%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A5" title="ᱛᱤᱠᱪᱷᱟᱹ ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ – Santalies" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱛᱤᱠᱪᱷᱟᱹ ᱥᱟᱬᱮᱥ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santalies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meighina" title="Meighina – Sardinies" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Meighina" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midicina" title="Midicina – Sisiliaans" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Midicina" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sisiliaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicin" title="Medicin – Skots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Medicin" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Skots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="طب – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="طب" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Serwo-Kroaties" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serwo-Kroaties" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnijjit" title="Tasnijjit – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tasnijjit" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9B%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Medicine" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medic%C3%ADna" title="Medicína – Slowaaks" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Medicína" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slowaaks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina" title="Medicina – Sloweens" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Medicina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Sloweens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wumuti" title="Wumuti – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Wumuti" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daawo" title="Daawo – Somalies" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Daawo" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somalies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mjek%C3%ABsia" title="Mjekësia – Albanees" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mjekësia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Serwies" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serwies" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heelkunde" title="Heelkunde – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Heelkunde" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatamba" title="Tatamba – Sundanees" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Tatamba" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicin_(vetenskap)" title="Medicin (vetenskap) – Sweeds" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Medicin (vetenskap)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Sweeds" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiba" title="Tiba – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Tiba" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மருத்துவம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மருத்துவம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="వైద్యశాస్త్రం – Teloegoe" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వైద్యశాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Teloegoe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%BA%D3%A3" title="Пизишкӣ – Tadjiks" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Пизишкӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tadjiks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="แพทยศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แพทยศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a href="https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%95%E1%8A%AD%E1%88%9D%E1%8A%93" title="ሕክምና – Tigrinya" lang="ti" hreflang="ti" data-title="ሕክምና" data-language-autonym="ትግርኛ" data-language-local-name="Tigrinya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ትግርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisina" title="Medisina – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Medisina" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%99bob%C9%99t" title="Təbobət – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Təbobət" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%B1p" title="Tıp – Turks" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tıp" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vutshunguri" title="Vutshunguri – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Vutshunguri" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Tataars" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tataars" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mankhwala" title="Mankhwala – Toemboeka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Mankhwala" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Toemboeka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiTumbuka</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%87%D9%8A%D8%BA%DB%87%D8%B1_%D8%AA%DB%90%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%89%D8%AA%D9%89" title="ئۇيغۇر تېبابىتى – Uighur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئۇيغۇر تېبابىتى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uighur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Медицина – Oekraïens" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Медицина" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Oekraïens" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8" title="طب – Oerdoe" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="طب" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Oerdoe" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibbiyot" title="Tibbiyot – Oezbeeks" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tibbiyot" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Oezbeeks" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medezina" title="Medezina – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Medezina" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicin" title="Medicin – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Medicin" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Y học – Viëtnamees" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Y học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Viëtnamees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanav" title="Sanav – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Sanav" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medcene" title="Medcene – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Medcene" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medisina" title="Medisina – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Medisina" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paj" title="Paj – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Paj" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8" title="醫學 – Wu-Sjinees" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="醫學" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu-Sjinees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="მედიცინა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მედიცინა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%9F" title="מעדיצין – Jiddisj" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מעדיצין" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Jiddisj" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ywhag" title="Ywhag – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Ywhag" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="医学 – Chinees" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="医学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-ha%CC%8Dk" title="I-ha̍k – Min Nan-Sjinees" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="I-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Min Nan-Sjinees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E5%AD%B8" title="醫學 – Kantonees" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="醫學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Kantonees" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11190#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Wysig skakels tussen tale" class="wbc-editpage">Wysig skakels</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Naamruimtes"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Geneeskunde" title="Bekyk die inhoudbladsy [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Bladsy</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bespreking:Geneeskunde" rel="discussion" title="Bespreking oor die inhoudbladsy [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Bespreking</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Verander taalvariant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Afrikaans</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> 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data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Gereedskap</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">skuif na kantbalk</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">versteek</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Geneeskunde"><span>Lees</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-ve-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&veaction=edit" title="Redigeer hierdie bladsy [v]" accesskey="v"><span>Wysig</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="collapsible vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=edit" title="Wysig die bladsy se bonkode [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Wysig bron</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=history"><span>Wys geskiedenis</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Algemeen </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Skakels_hierheen/Geneeskunde" title="'n Lys bladsye wat hierheen skakel [j]" accesskey="j"><span>Skakels hierheen</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:OnlangseVeranderingsMetSkakels/Geneeskunde" rel="nofollow" title="Onlangse wysigings aan bladsye wat vanaf hierdie bladsy geskakel is [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Verwante veranderings</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Spesiale_bladsye" title="'n Lys van al die spesiale bladsye [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Spesiale bladsye</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&oldid=2717712" title="'n Permanente skakel na hierdie weergawe van die bladsy"><span>Permanente skakel</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Bladinligting</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:CiteThisPage&page=Geneeskunde&id=2717712&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Inligting oor hoe u hierdie bladsy kan verwys"><span>Haal dié blad aan</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:UrlQ%C4%B1sald%C4%B1c%C4%B1s%C4%B1&url=https%3A%2F%2Faf.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGeneeskunde"><span>Kry verkorte URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:QrKodu&url=https%3A%2F%2Faf.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGeneeskunde"><span>Laai QR-kode af</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Druk/uitvoer </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-create_a_book" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:Boek&bookcmd=book_creator&referer=Geneeskunde"><span>Skep boek</span></a></li><li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:DownloadAsPdf&page=Geneeskunde&action=show-download-screen"><span>Laai af as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&printable=yes" title="Drukbare weergawe van hierdie bladsy [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Drukbare weergawe</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Ander projekte </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11190" title="Skakel na gekonnekteerde databank item [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata-item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Voorkoms"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Voorkoms</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">skuif na kantbalk</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">versteek</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">in Wikipedia, die vrye ensiklopedie</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="af" dir="ltr"><div style="max-width:300px;float:right;padding:0 0.4em;border:1px solid #aaa;margin:0 0 0.4em 0.4em"><div style="background-color:#bfbfbf;text-align:center;font-weight:bold;padding:0.5em 0;margin:0.5em 0;font-size:120%">Geneeskunde</div><div><span typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Physical_examination.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Physical_examination.jpg/300px-Physical_examination.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="427" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Physical_examination.jpg/450px-Physical_examination.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Physical_examination.jpg/600px-Physical_examination.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1895" data-file-height="2700" /></a></span></div><table style="word-break:break-word;text-align:left;font-size:90%"><caption style="background-color:#bfbfbf;font-weight:bold;text-transform:capitalize;margin-top:0.2em"><span><span>vakgebied</span>, <span>akademiese dissipline</span>, <span>werksveld</span>, <span>akademiese hoofvak</span></span></caption><tbody><tr><th scope="row">Subklas van</th><td style="text-transform:capitalize"><span><span>gesondheidswetenskap</span></span><span class="mw-valign-text-top noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190#P279" title="Wysig"><img alt="Wysig" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/5px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/8px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Onderdeel van</th><td style="text-transform:capitalize"><span><span>life sciences</span></span><span class="mw-valign-text-top noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190#P361" title="Wysig"><img alt="Wysig" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/5px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/8px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Industrie</th><td style="text-transform:capitalize"><span><span>gesondheidsorgbedryf</span></span><span class="mw-valign-text-top noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190#P452" title="Wysig"><img alt="Wysig" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/5px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/8px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Gekarakteriseer deur</th><td style="text-transform:capitalize"><span><span>mediese eienskap</span></span><span class="mw-valign-text-top noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190#P1552" title="Wysig"><img alt="Wysig" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/5px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/8px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Geskiedenis van die onderwerp</th><td style="text-transform:capitalize"><span><span><a href="/wiki/Geskiedenis_van_medisyne" title="Geskiedenis van medisyne">geskiedenis van medisyne</a></span></span><span class="mw-valign-text-top noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190#P2184" title="Wysig"><img alt="Wysig" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/5px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/8px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Beoefen deur</th><td style="text-transform:capitalize"><span><span><a href="/wiki/Dokter" title="Dokter">dokter</a></span>, <span>public health physician</span>, <span>military officer of healthcare</span>, <span>physician assistant</span>, <span>nurse practitioner</span></span><span class="mw-valign-text-top noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190#P3095" title="Wysig"><img alt="Wysig" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/5px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/8px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Entry in abbreviations table</th><td style="text-transform:capitalize"><span><span>tıp.</span></span><span class="mw-valign-text-top noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190#P8703" title="Wysig"><img alt="Wysig" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/5px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/8px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">WordLift URL</th><td style="text-transform:capitalize"><span><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://data.thenextweb.com/tnw/entity/medicine">http://data.thenextweb.com/tnw/entity/medicine</a></span></span><span class="mw-valign-text-top noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190#P6363" title="Wysig"><img alt="Wysig" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/5px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/8px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Mastodon instance URL</th><td style="text-transform:capitalize"><span><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://med-mastodon.com">https://med-mastodon.com</a></span></span><span class="mw-valign-text-top noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190#P11810" title="Wysig"><img alt="Wysig" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/5px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/8px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">Teenoorgestelde van</th><td style="text-transform:capitalize"><span><span><a href="/wiki/Alternatiewe_medikasie" title="Alternatiewe medikasie">alternatiewe medikasie</a></span></span><span class="mw-valign-text-top noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11190#P461" title="Wysig"><img alt="Wysig" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/5px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/8px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Asklepios.3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Asklepios.3.jpg/220px-Asklepios.3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Asklepios.3.jpg/330px-Asklepios.3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Asklepios.3.jpg/440px-Asklepios.3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="494" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Asklepios" title="Asklepios">Asklepios</a>, in die <a href="/wiki/Griekse_mitologie" title="Griekse mitologie">Griekse mitologie</a> die god van medisyne en genesing</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Geneeskunde</b> is die vakgebied toegespits op die bestudering van die <a href="/wiki/Sel_(biologie)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sel (biologie)">sel</a>-, weefsel- en orgaansisteme (fisies en chemies), asook die patologiese manifestasies (<a href="/wiki/Biochemie" title="Biochemie">biochemie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Histologie" title="Histologie">histologie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hematologie" title="Hematologie">hematologie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mikrobiologie" title="Mikrobiologie">mikrobiologie</a>...). Sekondêr (holistiese benaderings) – <a href="/wiki/Sielkunde" title="Sielkunde">sielkunde</a> en <a href="/wiki/Psigiatrie" title="Psigiatrie">psigiatrie</a>. Daar word gestreef na die herstelling van die mens na 'n gesonde toestand d.m.v. diagnose, prognose en voorkoming. </p><p>Westerse geneeskunde is gebaseer op bewyse en analise. Daar is 'n logiese verband tussen oorsaak en gevolg – dus word die diagnose gemaak deur kliniese voorkoms en toetse ter bevestiging. </p><p>Bestaande terapie sluit <a href="/wiki/Geneesmiddel" title="Geneesmiddel">farmakologie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chirurgie" title="Chirurgie">chirurgie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Onkologie" title="Onkologie">onkologie</a> (bestraling) en <a href="/wiki/Psigoterapie" title="Psigoterapie">psigoterapie</a> in. <a href="/wiki/Alternatiewe_medikasie" title="Alternatiewe medikasie">Alternatiewe geneeskunde</a> word al hoe meer populêr. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geskiedenis">Geskiedenis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Wysig afdeling: Geskiedenis" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Geskiedenis"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In die verlede het die mens geglo dat ernstige siektes deur die werking van bonatuurlike magte veroorsaak is. Dit is trouens vandag nog so by sekere volke waar die toordokter ontbied word as iemand in die familie ernstig siek is, omdat hulle glo dat hy as magiër die bemiddelaar tussen die mens en die bonatuurlike magte is. Daar word geglo dat die toordokter daartoe in staat is om bose geeste uit 'n sieke se liggaam te dryf of om die pasiënt se siel weer in sy liggaam terug te plaas. Verskeie metodes word gebruik om "bose geeste" uit 'n pasiënt te "verdryf". Die algemeenste metode is deur 'n opening in die skedel te boor (trepanering), waardeur die siekte dan kan "ontsnap". </p><p>In Europa en Suid-Amerika is skedels met trepaneringsopeninge gevind wat uit die prehistoriese tyd dateer. Die wette van die Babiloniese koning <a href="/wiki/Hammoerabi" title="Hammoerabi">Hammoerabi</a> gee 'n beeld van die geneeskunde wat omstreeks 2000 v.C. in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotami%C3%AB" title="Mesopotamië">Mesopotamië</a> beoefen is. Uit tekste wat op 'n pilaar gegraveer is, blyk onder andere dat 'n organisasie van geneeshere destyds al bestaan het. Die wette het bepaal dat 'n swaar straf opgelê moes word as die mediese behandeling nie suksesvol was nie. Daar is geglo dat die verloop van 'n siekte voorspel kon word uit natuurlike tekens soos lig en donker, die vlug van voëls of uit die voorkoms van offerdiere se ingewande. Uit 'n aantal <a href="/wiki/Papirus" title="Papirus">papirusrolle</a> wat bewaar gebly het, veral die Ebers- en die Smith-papirus, blyk dat die geneeskunde in Ou Egipte 'n hoë peil bereik het, hoewel dit steeds nou aan die mities-magiese denke verbonde was. </p><p>Benewens 'n aantal mediese voorskrifte bevat die Ebers-papirus ook sekere besweringsformules. In die Smith-papirus is daar weer 'n verhandeling oor wondversorging. Die feit dat daar in daardie jare al geglo is in die "lewensasem" blyk uit die beskrywing daarvan op sarkofae (doodskiste): die asem is toe al as die belangrikste beginsel van lewe beskou. Daar is getuienis dat die geneeskunde in Indië en China reeds 'n paar duisend jaar voor Christus beoefen is. Die Hindoes het in daardie jare al onder meer blaasoperasies uitgevoer. Die Chinese was bekend met die gebruik van baie kruie en ander stowwe vir mediese doeleindes. Baie van die kruie is later deur die Westerse geneeskunde oorgeneem, onder andere die middel reserpien, wat die <a href="/wiki/Bloeddruk" title="Bloeddruk">bloeddruk</a> kan verlaag, en die bloedvatvernouer efedrien, wat ook teen asma gebruik word. </p><p>Teen die jaar 2500 v.C. het die Chinese reeds <a href="/wiki/Akupunktuur" title="Akupunktuur">akupunktuur</a> ontdek, 'n toegepaste metode om pyn te verlig deur goue of silwernaalde in die weefsels of organe te steek. Hierdie metode word vandag nog gebruik </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Griekse_en_Romeinse_geneeskunde">Griekse en Romeinse geneeskunde</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Wysig afdeling: Griekse en Romeinse geneeskunde" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Griekse en Romeinse geneeskunde"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hippokrates" title="Hippokrates">Hippokrates</a> (460-377 v.C.) was 'n die "vader van die geneeskunde" bekend staan. Daar is vandag min oor sy lewe bekend; hy het waarskynlik op die Griekse eiland Kos, waar hy gebore is, geleef. In die ou geskrifte wat aan Hippokrates toegeskryf word, word daar vir die eerste keer beweer dat daar net natuurlike oorsake van siektes is. Hierdie opvatting van Hippokrates is voorafgegaan deur 'n geleidelike verandering in die opvattinge van siektes. Die geneeskunde was oorspronklik in die hande van die tempelpriesters van Asklepios (ook bekend as Aesculapius) die god van genesing. </p><p>Die leerstellings van filosowe soos <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> (geb. 582 v.C.) en <a href="/wiki/Empedokles" title="Empedokles">Empedokles</a> (490-430 v.C.) het die grondslag gelê vir 'n meer natuurwetenskaplike benadering in die geneeskunde. In die versamelde Griekse geneeskundige geskrifte, wat Hippokrates se ware werke insluit, die <i>Corpus Hippocraticum,</i> word klem gelê op waarneming en die rasionele verwerking daarvan. Hippokrates het die menslike liggaam en die fisiologiese prosesse gesien as 'n afspieëling van die skepping in sy geheel. Die liggaam bevat daarvolgens vier soorte vog, ·te wete bloed, slym, geel gal en swart gal. 'n Goeie vermenging van hierdie liggaamsvogte, die sogenaamde humores, is noodsaaklik vir goeie gesondheid en 'n ewewigtige persoonlikheid. Hierdie teorie oor siektes word die humorale patologie genoem. </p><p>Volgens hierdie geskrifte het Hippokrates sy behandeling gegrond op die selfgenesende werking van die natuur. Hy het probeer om genesing met die gebruik van maatreëls wat 'n teenoorgestelde uitwerking gehad het as die wat die siekte veroorsaak het, te bevorder. Die Eed van Hippokrates (ook bekend as die <a href="/wiki/Hippokratiese_eed" title="Hippokratiese eed">Hippokratiese eed</a>), 'n handleiding oor die gedragsreëls vir geneeskundiges, is deur die eeue heen as die etiese grondslag van die mediese praktyk beskou. In hierdie eed word klem gelê op die geheimhoudingsplig van 'n dokter en die noodsaaklikheid van die beskerming van menselewens. Genadedood en aborsie word by name in die eed genoem en terselfdertyd veroordeel. </p><p>In die daaropvolgende eeue het die geneeskunde in steeds groter wordende mate in 'n natuurwetenskaplike rigting ontwikkel. In die eerste paar eeue na die geboorte van Christus het baie Griekse geneeskundiges na Rome gegaan. Een van hulle, <a href="/wiki/Claudius_Galenus" title="Claudius Galenus">Claudius Galenus</a> (130-200 n.C.), het van Pergamum in Klein-Asië gekom en hom in 164 n.C. in Rome gevestig. Galenus was 'n aanhanger van die humorale patologie en het met sy anatomiese en fisiologiese eksperimente op diere (die oopsny van lyke was tot aan die einde van die Middeleeue verbode) onder andere ontdek dat die <a href="/wiki/Bloedvat" title="Bloedvat">bloedvate</a> <a href="/wiki/Bloed" title="Bloed">bloed</a> bevat en nie <a href="/wiki/Lug" class="mw-redirect" title="Lug">lug</a> soos voorheen gemeen is nie. Tog het hy geen begrip van <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bloedsirkulasie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bloedsirkulasie (bladsy bestaan nie)">bloedsirkulasie</a> gehad nie en geglo dat die bloed heen en weer in die slagare golf. Die <a href="/wiki/Hart" title="Hart">hart</a> was die oorsprong van die slagare en die <a href="/wiki/Lewer" title="Lewer">lewer</a> die oorsprong van die are, het Galenus geglo. Hy het ook baie geskryf oor sy eksperimente en só 'n soort ensiklopediese oorsig saamgestel waaruit mediese verskynsels tot en met die <i>17e</i> eeu verklaar is. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middeleeue_en_Renaissance">Middeleeue en Renaissance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Wysig afdeling: Middeleeue en Renaissance" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Middeleeue en Renaissance"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kennis van die geneeskunde het van Rome na die Oos-Romeinse Ryk versprei en van daar na Arabië. In Wes-Europa is die geneeskunde eeue lank deur monnike beoefen en was dit steeds volledig gegrond op wat van die Grieks-Romeinse geneeskunde bewaar gebly het. Ná die val van die Romeinse Ryk is weinig vooruitgang op geneeskundige gebied gemaak. Navorsers is nie meer aangemoedig om te eksperimenteer nie en dit was selfs gevaarlik om met nuwe opvattings vorendag te kom. Siekte is al hoe meer gesien as 'n straf vir sonde. In die vroeë Middeleeue het die monnike hulle veral toegelê op die kopiëring en vertaling van klassieke Griekse mediese geskrifte. </p><p>In die Arabiese Ryk het die geneeskunde wel verder ontwikkel. Die geskrifte van die Persiese geneeskundige Avicenna (980-1037 n.C.) is eeue lank as die mediese standaardwerk beskou. Die Arabiese geneeskunde het 'n belangrike bydrae gelewer tot die hedendaagse kennis van geneesmiddels en die chemie. Gedurende dieselfde tydperk (die 11e en die 12e eeu) is die mediese skool van Salerno in Suid-Italië gestig. Studente uit verskillende lande het hier kom studeer. Ná die jaar 1200 het soortgelyke skole ook in Montpellier, Parys, Bologna en Padua ontstaan. Onder die invloed van die Renaissance is die praktyk van eksperimentering geleidelik weer aangemoedig, hoewel Galenus se anatomiese teorieë steeds aanhang geniet het. </p><p>In 1527 is die alchemis Theophrastus Bombastus Paracelsus von Hohenheim (1493-1541), wat as Paracelsus bekend gestaan het, as professor in Basel aangestel. Paracelsus het revolusionêre idees gehad en voordat hy sy eerste lesings gelewer het, het hy die werke van Avicenna en Galenus in die openbaar verbrand. Volgens Paracelsus bestaan die liggaam uit 3 elemente, naamlik <a href="/wiki/Sout_(chemiese_stof)" title="Sout (chemiese stof)">sout</a>, swael en <a href="/wiki/Kwik" title="Kwik">kwik</a>. As een van hierdie bestanddele die ander oorheers, sal dit 'n siekte veroorsaak. As die ewewig herstel word, sal die siekte genees word. Paracelsus se belangrikste bydrae tot die geneeskunde is die bekendstelling van chemiese geneesmiddels (iatrochemie), waarvan hy 'n spesiale studie, veral van kwikpreparate, gemaak het. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Hermanus_Boerhaave_(1668-1738)._Hoogleraar_in_de_geneeskunde_te_Leiden_met_zijn_vrouw_Maria_Drolenvaux_(1686-1746)_en_dochtertje_Johanna_Maria_(1712-1791)_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4034.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Hermanus_Boerhaave_%281668-1738%29._Hoogleraar_in_de_geneeskunde_te_Leiden_met_zijn_vrouw_Maria_Drolenvaux_%281686-1746%29_en_dochtertje_Johanna_Maria_%281712-1791%29_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4034.jpeg/220px-thumbnail.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Hermanus_Boerhaave_%281668-1738%29._Hoogleraar_in_de_geneeskunde_te_Leiden_met_zijn_vrouw_Maria_Drolenvaux_%281686-1746%29_en_dochtertje_Johanna_Maria_%281712-1791%29_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4034.jpeg/330px-thumbnail.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Hermanus_Boerhaave_%281668-1738%29._Hoogleraar_in_de_geneeskunde_te_Leiden_met_zijn_vrouw_Maria_Drolenvaux_%281686-1746%29_en_dochtertje_Johanna_Maria_%281712-1791%29_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4034.jpeg/440px-thumbnail.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2904" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Hermanus Boerhaave (1668-1738). Hoogleraar in geneeskunde met sy vrou Maria Drolenvaux (1686-1746) en dogtertjie Johanna Maria (1712-1791) Rijksmuseum</figcaption></figure> <p>Die Vlaamse geneeskundige Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), 'n professor in Padua, het ook die idees van Galenus verwerp op grond van sy eie waarnemings by die ondersoek van menslike Iyke. In 1543 het hy sy werk oor die anatomie, <i>De humani corporis fabrica,</i> in 7 dele gepubliseer. </p><p>In 1628 het die Engelsman <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a> (1578-1657) met berekenings en eksperimente wat hy gedoen het, bewys dat Galenus se teorie oor die golfbeweging van die bloed nie korrek kon wees nie. Hy het tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat die bloed in 'n kringloop moet vloei, wat gelei het tot die ontdekking van die <a href="/wiki/Bloedsomloopstelsel" title="Bloedsomloopstelsel">bloedsomloopstelsel</a>. In die 17de en <a href="/wiki/18de_eeu" title="18de eeu">18de eeu</a> is 'n hele aantal ander belangrike ontdekkings gedoen, veral op die gebied van die bou van die liggaam (anatomie) en die funksies van die <a href="/wiki/Orgaan" title="Orgaan">organe</a> (fisiologie). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a> (1632-1723) van Nederland het in 1683 met behulp van lense en 'n mikroskoop wat hyself ontwerp het, daarin geslaag om bakterieë te beskryf. 'n Hoogleraar aan die universiteit van Leiden, Hermanus Boerhaave (1668-1738), het nie self belangrike ontdekkings gedoen nie, maar het die kennis wat tot in daardie stadium oor die geneeskunde ingewin is, gesistematiseer. Hy word ook as die grondlegger van die kliniese ondersoek beskou. </p><p>Van historiese betekenis was die gebruik om mense teen pokke in te ent. In 1796 het die Engelsman <a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a> (1749-1823) ontdek dat <a href="/wiki/Inenting" title="Inenting">inenting</a> met beespokke-entstof beskerming teen pokke gebied het. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negentiende_en_twintigste_eeu">Negentiende en twintigste eeu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Wysig afdeling: Negentiende en twintigste eeu" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Negentiende en twintigste eeu"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i> </i>In die loop van die 18eeeu is redelike vooruitgang gemaak op die gebied van die anatomie en die fisiologie, maar aan die begin van die <i>1ge</i> eeu is daar, onder die invloed van 'n meer romantiese en fatalistiese lewensbeskouing, baie min geëksperimenteer. In die tweede helfte van die 1ge eeu het daar egter 'n geweldige wetenskaplike oplewing ontstaan (met Berlyn as Europese middelpunt). wat inderdaad tot vandag voortgeduur het. </p><p>In 1848 het Rudolph Virchow (1820-1901) die studie van sellulêre patologie bekend gestel deurdat hy aangetoon het dat siekteprosesse in die <a href="/wiki/Sel" title="Sel">selle</a> plaasvind. Hierdie ontdekking het gelei tot die mikroskopiese studie van hierdie "boustenen” in die liggaam en hulle gedrag tydens siekte. Die era van die humorale patologie is hiermee finaal beëindig. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> (1822-1895), 'n Franse chemikus, het ontdek dat sekere <a href="/wiki/Bakterie" title="Bakterie">bakterie</a>ë 'n rol in siektes speel. Hierdeur is die grondslag gelê vir antisepsis (kiemwerende behandeling deur die toediening van kiemdodende stowwe) . Danksy hierdie ontdekking en die ontwikkeling van <a href="/wiki/Narkose" title="Narkose">narkose</a> is daar in die tweede helfte van die 19e eeu geweldige vooruitgang gemaak op die gebied van die chirurgie. Deur Pasteur se ontdekkings kon <a href="/wiki/Melk" title="Melk">melk</a> later gepasteuriseer word. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a> was nog 'n pionier van antisepsis en is baie deur die werk van Pasteur beïnvloed. Lister het hom beywer vir die bestryding van infeksie deur die gebruik van karbolsuur. </p><p>Reinier de Graaf (1641-1673) het belangrike anatomiese en fisiologiese ondersoeke op die gebied van die geslagsorgane gedoen. Hy het o.m. die ryp follikels in die eierstokke beskryf (later die follikels van Graaf genoem). Hy het ook opgemerk dat die follikels in die volgende stadium (ná <a href="/wiki/Ovulasie" title="Ovulasie">ovulasie</a>) gebars het. Hy het egter nie die <a href="/wiki/Eiersel" title="Eiersel">eiersel</a> self waargeneem nie<i>.</i> </p><p>In 1877 het sir Patrick Manson vir die eerste keer bewys dat <a href="/wiki/Insek" title="Insek">insekte</a> ook siektes kan versprei. Manson het aangetoon dat die parasiet <i>Filaria bancrofti,</i> wat die siekte elefantiase veroorsaak, 'n deel van sy lewensiklus in sekere <a href="/wiki/Muskiet" title="Muskiet">muskiete</a> deurbring en dat die parasiet só aan die mens oorgedra kan word. </p><p>Die Duitse bakterioloog <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a> het in 1882 die basil (bakterie) wat <a href="/wiki/Tuberkulose" title="Tuberkulose">tering</a> veroorsaak, geïdentifiseer en in die daaropvolgende jare ook die cholerabakterie geïdentifiseer. Koch se werk het bakteriologie as 'n aparte wetenskap gevestig en dit is steeds die grondslag waarop siektes in die hedendaagse geneeskunde bestudeer word. </p><p>In 1895 het <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen</a> (1845-1923) die Röntgen- of X-straaldiagnose begin gebruik. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Alexander_Fleming_1945.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Alexander_Fleming_1945.jpg/220px-Alexander_Fleming_1945.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Alexander_Fleming_1945.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>Alexander Fleming 1945</figcaption></figure> <p>Ook van groot belang vir die geneeskunde was die bekendstelling van die psigoanalise deur <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> (1856-1939) aan die begin van die 20ste eeu. In die 20ste eeu het die geneeskunde so vinnig ontwikkel dat dit inderdaad 'n totale gedaantewisseling ondergaan het. Aan die begin van hierdie eeu was alle aandag op ernstige siektes soos tuberkulose (tering) en witseerkeel (difterie) gevestig. </p><p>Tans is al hierdie siektes goed onder beheer, met uitsondering van kanker. Die aandag is met ander woorde verskuif van die behoud van 'n pasiënt se lewe na die behoud van sy gesondheid. Dit is deur 'n groot aantal ontwikkelings moontlik gemaak, veral deur die ontwikkeling van chemiese geneesmiddeis en antibiotika. Een van die eerste gebeurtenisse wat tot hierdie ontwikkeling aanleiding gegee het, was die ontdekking deur die Duitser Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) dat Salvarsan, wat uit arseen berei word, die sifilisbakterie vernietig. Hierdie ontwikkeling is eers in die dertigerjare voortgesit, toe die farmakologiese werking van sulfapreparate ontdek is. </p><p>In 1928 het sir <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a> (1881-1955) die kiemdodende werking van <a href="/wiki/Penisillien" title="Penisillien">penisillien</a> ontdek, wat gedurende die Tweede Wêreldoorlog vir grootskaalse mediese gebruik beskikbaar gestel is. Sedertdien is baie nuwe antibiotika ontdek en die meeste van hierdie stowwe kan nou sinteties (kunsmatig) berei word. </p><p>Die ontwikkeling van immunologie (die studie van die <a href="/wiki/Liggaam" class="mw-disambig" title="Liggaam">liggaam</a> se natuurlike verdedigingsmeganisme) is ook van groot belang vir die ontwikkeling van geneeskunde. Dit het aanleiding gegee tot inentingsveldtogte teen onder meer ingewandskoors (1897), tetanus en difterie (1890) en tering (1908). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Inenting" title="Inenting">Inenting</a> teen <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">virus</a>siektes is eers in die dertigerjare van hierdie eeu suksesvol toegepas, toe navorsers vir die eerste keer genoeg inligting oor hierdie <a href="/wiki/Mikro-organisme" class="mw-redirect" title="Mikro-organisme">mikroörganisme</a> ingewin het. Dit is duidelik dat <a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a> met sy inenting teen die virussiekte <a href="/wiki/Pokke" title="Pokke">pokke</a> in die 18e eeu sy tyd ver vooruit was. </p><p>Teen die einde van die dertigerjare is 'n entstof teen <a href="/wiki/Geelkoors" title="Geelkoors">geelkoors</a> ontwikkel en in 1945 ook teen <a href="/wiki/Griep" title="Griep">griep</a> (influensa). In 1954 is die polio-entstof ontwikkel en in die sestigerjare 'n entstof teen <a href="/wiki/Masels" title="Masels">masels</a> en <a href="/wiki/Duitse_masels" title="Duitse masels">rubella</a> (Duitse masels). Die ontwikkeling van die immunologie het gedurende die laaste jare met rasse skrede vooruitgegaan en het tot 'n groot aantal nuwe diagnostiese moontlikhede gelei. </p><p>Die kennis wat op hierdie gebied ingewin is, word ook op die gebied van orgaanoorplantings en in kankernavorsing gebruik. Endokrinologie, die studie van die endokriene kliere en die hormone, is eers in die 20ste eeu ontwikkel. </p><p>Van groot belang was die ontdekking van die hormoon <a href="/wiki/Insulien" title="Insulien">insulien</a>, wat in die alvleisklier (<a href="/wiki/Pankreas" title="Pankreas">pankreas</a>) vervaardig word, en die gebruik daarvan om <a href="/wiki/Suikersiekte" class="mw-redirect" title="Suikersiekte">suikersiekte</a> (1921) te behandel. Die ontdekking van die bynierskorshormone (1949) was van groot belang weens die geslaagdheid daarvan in die behandeling van sekere siektes en hul doeltreffendheid om die weerstand te verhoog en ontsteking te vertraag. </p><p>Die studie oor die werking van die geslagshormone het tot die ontwikkeling van die voorbehoedpil gelei. Die meeste van die bekende vitamiene is ook in die eerste helfte van die 20ste eeu ontdek. Ten spyte van al die navorsing oor die oorsaak en behandeling van <a href="/wiki/Kanker" title="Kanker">kanker</a>, bly dit steeds ‘n siekte wat in 'n gevorderde stadium gewoonlik ongeneeslik is en op die dood uitloop. </p><p>Die belangrikste ontwikkeling in die behandeling van kanker is die ontdekking dat dit deur bestraling bedwing kan word. Kort ná die ontdekking van <a href="/wiki/X-straal" title="X-straal">X-strale</a> is daar met hierdie vorm van terapie begin. Later is die behandelingsmoontlikhede van kanker nog verder uitgebrei vanweë die ontdekking van radioaktiewe isotope. </p><p>Die <a href="/wiki/Chirurgie" title="Chirurgie">chirurgie</a> het vinnig ontwikkel na die invoering van antisepsis, die ontwikkeling van narkose, die moontlikhede van diagnose deur X-strale en metodes om skok teë te werk. Laasgenoemde is moontlik gemaak ná die ontdekking van die <a href="/wiki/Bloedgroep" title="Bloedgroep">bloedgroepe</a> deur Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943) in 1900. Van toe af kon <a href="/wiki/Bloedoortapping" title="Bloedoortapping">bloedoortappings</a> met groot veiligheid gedoen word en kon ernstige bloedverlies, die belangrikste oorsaak van skok, voorkom word. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Heartransplant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Heartransplant.jpg/220px-Heartransplant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Heartransplant.jpg/330px-Heartransplant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Heartransplant.jpg/440px-Heartransplant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="262" /></a><figcaption>Hartoorplanting</figcaption></figure> <p>Groot longoperasies was sedert die dertigerjare moontlik. Hartoperasies word reeds sedert die einde van die 19e eeu gedoen, maar het eers werklik ná die <a href="/wiki/Tweede_W%C3%AAreldoorlog" title="Tweede Wêreldoorlog">Tweede Wêreldoorlog</a> ontwikkel. </p><p>Orgaanoorplantings is van 1954 af gedoen (nieroorplantings) en het 'n voorlopige hoogtepunt bereik toe die Suid-Afrikaanse hartchirurg professor <a href="/wiki/Chris_Barnard" class="mw-disambig" title="Chris Barnard">Chris Barnard</a> in 1967 die eerste <a href="/wiki/Hartoorplantings" class="mw-redirect" title="Hartoorplantings">hartoorplanting</a> gedoen het. So het die geneeskunde in minder as honderd jaar tot 'n "tegniese" wetenskap ontwikkel wat in verskeie spesialiteitsrigtings en superspesialiteitsrigtings ingedeel kan word. </p><p>Mediese navorsing is veral gebaseer op wetenskappe soos die <a href="/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie">biologie</a>, die <a href="/wiki/Chemie" title="Chemie">chemie</a> en <a href="/wiki/Fisika" title="Fisika">fisika</a> en op die <a href="/wiki/Tegnologie" title="Tegnologie">tegnologie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ingenieurswese" title="Ingenieurswese">ingenieurswese</a>). Die verhouding tussen die dokter en die pasiënt bly egter steeds van groot belang. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geneeskunde_en_die_samelewing">Geneeskunde en die samelewing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Wysig afdeling: Geneeskunde en die samelewing" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Geneeskunde en die samelewing"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Die geneeskunde word deur die algemene veranderings en verskuiwings in die samelewing geraak, soos byvoorbeeld die veranderings in waarde- en normepatrone. Die omgekeerde is ook waar, want veranderings in die geneeskunde beïnvloed ook die samelewing. Die verlenging van die gemiddelde lewensduur van die mens is hiervan 'n voorbeeld . </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verontmensliking">Verontmensliking</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Wysig afdeling: Verontmensliking" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: Verontmensliking"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:A_medical_doctor_with_the_Spanish_Marines_renders_medical_aid_to_a_Haitian_Boy_DVIDS254507.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/A_medical_doctor_with_the_Spanish_Marines_renders_medical_aid_to_a_Haitian_Boy_DVIDS254507.jpg/220px-A_medical_doctor_with_the_Spanish_Marines_renders_medical_aid_to_a_Haitian_Boy_DVIDS254507.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/A_medical_doctor_with_the_Spanish_Marines_renders_medical_aid_to_a_Haitian_Boy_DVIDS254507.jpg/330px-A_medical_doctor_with_the_Spanish_Marines_renders_medical_aid_to_a_Haitian_Boy_DVIDS254507.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/A_medical_doctor_with_the_Spanish_Marines_renders_medical_aid_to_a_Haitian_Boy_DVIDS254507.jpg/440px-A_medical_doctor_with_the_Spanish_Marines_renders_medical_aid_to_a_Haitian_Boy_DVIDS254507.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2176" /></a><figcaption>'n Mediese doktor ondersoek 'n seun</figcaption></figure> <p>Die tegniese ontwikkeling van die geneeskunde en die nuwe behandelingsmetodes, veral in groter <a href="/wiki/Hospitaal" title="Hospitaal">hospitale</a>, kan tot die verontmensliking van mediese behandeling lei. Die pasiënt kan as bloot 'n objek van die mediese tegnologie gesien word, eerder as 'n mens vir wie die siekte 'n onaangename ondervinding is. Ten nouste verwant aan hierdie probleem is die vraag of die menslike lewe met behulp van masjiene verleng mag word en of dit dan toelaatbaar is om sulke behandeling in sekere omstandighede te staak. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Die_pasiënt_se_seggenskap"><span id="Die_pasi.C3.ABnt_se_seggenskap"></span>Die pasiënt se seggenskap</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Wysig afdeling: Die pasiënt se seggenskap" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Die pasiënt se seggenskap"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Die standaard en funksionering van gesondheidsorg word al hoe meer deur pasiënte en potensiële pasiënte ondersoek. In die verlede is gebeure wat die beeld van die geneeskunde skade kon berokken, soos die foutiewe toediening van narkose of geneesmiddels, beskou as 'n saak wat net die geneesheer betrek het. Nou word sulke foute egter in die openbaar gekritiseer. </p><p>In Suid-Afrika byvoorbeeld kan geneeshere voor die Raad op Gesondheidsberoepe (voorheen SAGTR) gedaag word as hulle oneties optree. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verskaffing_van_sorg">Verskaffing van sorg</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Wysig afdeling: Verskaffing van sorg" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Verskaffing van sorg"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd><i><div class="rellink boilerplate sienook">Sien ook: <a href="/wiki/Kliniek" title="Kliniek">kliniek</a> en <a href="/wiki/Hospitaal" title="Hospitaal">hospitaal</a></div></i></dd></dl> <p>Die verskaffing van mediese sorg word in primêre, sekondêre en tersiêre sorg gekategoriseer. </p><p><b>Primêre sorg</b> mediese dienste word gelewer deur dokters, mediese assistente, verpleegkundiges of ander gesondheidswerkers wat eerste kontak het met 'n pasiënt wat mediese behandeling of sorg benodig. </p><p><b>Sekondêre sorg</b> mediese dienste word deur mediese spesialis in hul kantore of klinieke of by plaaslike gemeenskapshospitale gelewer vir 'n pasiënt wat deur 'n primêre sorgverskaffer verwys word wat die pasiënt eers gediagnoseer of behandel het. Verwysings word gedoen vir die pasiënte wat kundigheid of prosedures benodig wat deur spesialiste uitgevoer word. </p><p>Mediese dienste vir <b>tersiêre sorg</b> word voorsien deur spesialishospitale of streeksentrums wat toegerus is met diagnostiese en behandelingsfasiliteite wat gewoonlik nie by plaaslike hospitale beskikbaar is nie. </p><p>In lande met lae inkomste is moderne gesondheidsorg dikwels vir die gemiddelde persoon te duur. Internasionale navorsers vir gesondheidsorgbeleid het gepleit dat 'gebruikers fooie' in hierdie gebiede verwyder word om toegang te verseker, hoewel daar selfs na verwydering aansienlike koste en hindernisse bly.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Skeiding van voorskryf en verskaffing is 'n praktyk in die geneeskunde en apteek waarin die <a href="/wiki/Dokter" title="Dokter">dokter</a> wat 'n mediese voorskrif verskaf onafhanklik is van die <a href="/wiki/Apteker" title="Apteker">apteker</a> wat die <a href="/wiki/Voorskrifmedisyne" title="Voorskrifmedisyne">voorskrifmedisyne</a> verskaf. In die <a href="/wiki/Westerse_w%C3%AAreld" class="mw-redirect" title="Westerse wêreld">Westerse wêreld</a> bestaan daar eeue van tradisie wat aptekers van dokters te skei. In Asiatiese lande is dit tradisioneel dat dokters ook medisyne verskaf.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mediese_etiek">Mediese etiek</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Wysig afdeling: Mediese etiek" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Mediese etiek"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Etiek is die wetenskap van die sedelike norme en waardes wat die mens se gedrag teenoor sy medemens bepaal. Sulke waardes en norme bly nie vir ewig staan nie, maar kan verskuif en binne 'n algemene veranderingsproses 'n ander inhoud kry. Terwyl daar in die verlede groot ooreenstemming was oor waardes en norme, is daar tans soms groot verskille. Binne die mediese professie kan daar vandag nie meer gepraat word van die mediese etiek as 'n gemeenskaplike oriëntasiepunt vir alle geneeshere nie. </p><p>Die belangrikste oorsaak hiervan is die ontwikkeling wat die mediese wetenskap deurgemaak het en wat tot 'n herwaardering van die uitgangspunt vir geneeskundige optrede gelei het. Die kwaliteit van die mens se lewe (die moontlikheid om 'n menswaardige lewe te kan lei) word nou beklemtoon, terwyl die belangrikste oorweging in die verlede, naamlik eerbied vir die menslike lewe, 'n absolute waarde was. </p><p>Die geskiedenis van die Westerse geneeskunde kan in drie tydperke ingedeel word. Die eerste tydperk het van die oertyd tot ongeveer 1870 geduur en word gekenmerk deur geneeskundige en tegniese onkunde. Die geneesheer was magteloos wat betref ingryping in siektetoestande. Die behandeling wat die pasiënte gekry het, was grotendeels ondoeltreffend. </p><p>Die tweede tydperk het omstreeks 1870 begin en tot in die sestigerjare van hierdie eeu geduur. Hierdie tydperk, gekenmerk deur geweldige vooruitgang, kan gesien word as 'n oorgangsfase wat tot 'n tydperk van medies-tegniese mag gelei het. </p><p>Die derde tydperk het in die sestigerjare begin en word gekenmerk deur die geweldige groot moontlikhede van die geneeskundige tegniek. Die geneesheer kan nou ingryp op gebiede wat baie etiese en morele implikasies het, soos onder andere seksualiteit, lewe en dood. </p><p>Aan die een kant het die tegniese ontwikkelinge op die gebied van die geneeskunde daartoe bygedra dat norme verander het (seksualiteit, voorbehoedpille), terwyl sulke nuwe norme aan die ander kant die mag van die geneeskunde kan beperk. Probleme betreffende die mediese etiek word deesdae al hoe meer bespreek. Een van die belangrikste vraagstukke is dié van genadedood (eutanasie). Hier word die vraag gevra of die menslike lewe so lank as moontlik verleng moet word, selfs as dit net met behulp van radikale geneeskundige metodes gedoen kan word, dan wel of daar 'n oomblik is wanneer die behandeling gestaak moet word. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Genadedood" title="Genadedood">Genadedood</a> kan passief wees, wanneer sekere behandelings nie toegepas word nie, of dit kan meer aktief wees, wanneer behandeling gestaak word ("die masjien word afgeskakel") of die een of ander dodelike preparaat toegedien word. 'n Soortgelyke etiese dilemma is dié wat betrekking het op aborsie en opwekking (resussitasie). </p><p>Resussitasie kan omskryf word as die opwekking van die menslike liggaam direk nadat die dood ingetree het. Somtyds is ernstige skade reeds aan die <a href="/wiki/Brein" title="Brein">brein</a> gedoen sodat lewe ná resussitasie nie veel meer as "vegetatief" kan wees nie. Die bepaling van die doodsoomblik van pasiënte wat organe vir oorplantings moet skenk, kan eweneens etiese probleme oplewer. Die Hippokratiese eed as uitgangspunt van geneeskundige optrede is as gevolg hiervan ook 'n besprekingspunt. Volgens die oorspronklike eed is die dokter genoodsaak om die menslike lewe te behou en te probeer verleng wanneer en waar dit ook al moontlik is. Die neiging bestaan egter deesdae om meer klem te lê op die behoud van lewe slegs as dit sinvol kan wees.   </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sien_ook">Sien ook</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Wysig afdeling: Sien ook" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Sien ook"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Gesondheidsorg – Die gesondheidsorg is as mediese dissipline 'n toegepaste wetenskap wat met die gesondheid van mense te doen het. Onder gesondheidsorg word nie alleen die ondersoek, die studie en die kennis van gesondheid begryp nie, maar ook die toepassing van die kennis om die gesondheid van mense te verhoog, infeksiesiekte te genees, en die liggaamlike funksies te verbeter. Gesondheidsorg gebruik die biologie, snykunde en natuurkunde en die sosiale wetenskappe (byvoorbeeld die mediese sosiologie) as boustene.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patologie" title="Patologie">Patologie</a> – die studie van siektes by die mens</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ortopedie" title="Ortopedie">Ortopedie</a> – Die term "ortopedie" kom van die samevoeging van twee Griekse woorde, naamlik <i>orthos</i> (reguit) en <i>pais</i> (kind). Ortopedie is die vertakking van die geneeskunde wat betrekking het op die korreksie van skeletale misvormings en afwykings met betrekking tot die lokomotoriese strukture van die liggaam (Brink, 97: 454; Taber’s, 93:1358). Dit is gerig op die studie van die vorm en funksie van die menslike liggaamsbou en toestande wat tot misvorming aanleiding kan gee of die gebalanseerde meganisme van die menslike liggaam kan omverwerp.</li> <li>Osteoartritis – Progressiewe degenerasie van artikulerende kraakbeen. Subartikulêre been reageer deur verdikking en sklerose en later vorm daar subchondrale siste, en die kraakbeen fragmenteer. Gewrigte is benig vergroot, pynlik, en teer. Non-steroïdale anti-inflamatoriese middels word soms voorgeskryf vir pynlike osteoartritis. Newe-effekte sluit in gastrointestinale bloeding asook nierfunksie inkorting.</li> <li>Retinopatie – Retinopatie is 'n oogkomplikasie, wat verminderde sig kan veroorsaak, en soms tot blindheid kan lei. Een van die oorsake van retinopatie blyk hoë bloeddruk te wees. 'n Studie word tans uitgevoer om te kyk of die medikasie Candesartan ('n bloeddrukpil) doeltreffend aangewend sal kan word om die pasiënt se risiko te verminder om retinopatie te kry, of indien hy reeds diabetiese retinopatie in die beginstadium het, te kyk of Candesartan kan verhoed dat sy sig verswak. Toetse sal ook gedoen word om te bepaal of Candesartan die niere kan beskerm teen beskadiging. Nuwe tegnologie maak dit ook moontlik om beskadiging van die macula te herstel deur middel van laserbehandeling.</li> <li>Linkerventrikulêre hipertrofie – Een van die mees algemene oorsake van hipertrofie van die linkerventrikel is hipertensie. Met hipertrofie van die linkerventrikel verskuif die gemiddelde elektriese as na links (linkerasafwyking). Die rede vir die verskuiwing is dat die ventrikel wat hipertrofieer, meer spierweefsel bevat. Dit ontwikkel dus meer elektrisiteit as die normale ventrikel. Die prekordiale afleidings is die geskikste om hipertrofie mee te diagnoseer.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elektrokardiogram" title="Elektrokardiogram">Elektrokardiogram</a> – Die EKG is 'n grafiese rekord van die hart se elektriese aktiwiteit. Die elektriese aktiwiteit word na die liggaamsoppervlak gelei, waar dit met behulp van elektrodes op die vel waargeneem word, vanwaar dit geïnterpreteer word deur 'n apparaat wat dan die bekende EKG-grafiek verskaf. Die normale EKG bestaan uit 12 afleiverbindings. 'n Rustende EKG toon 'n sinusritme van 72 slae/min (normaal).</li> <li>Komplementêre medisyne of komplementêre gesondheidsorg neem meer en meer toe, veral sedert die gewone mediese kostes ontplof het en nog steeds besig is om te styg. Pasiente kyk na <i>alternatiewe</i> en <i>komplimentêre</i> <a href="/wiki/Geneesmiddel" title="Geneesmiddel">geneesmiddels</a> en gesondheidsorg. Hierby tel 'n hele string van verskeie modaliteite, soos b.v. <a href="/wiki/Refleksologie" title="Refleksologie">refleksologie</a>, iridologie, kruiekunde, kinesiologie, <a href="/wiki/Reiki" title="Reiki">reiki</a> en ander <a href="/wiki/Energiemedisyne" title="Energiemedisyne">energiebehandelinge</a>, een van die nuwer areas is seker die magneetveld-behandelinge, geopatologie en ander areas in die <a href="/wiki/Omgewingsgesondheid" title="Omgewingsgesondheid">omgewingsgesondheid</a>, ens.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bronne">Bronne</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Wysig afdeling: Bronne" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Bronne"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Brink, A.J. et al. 1997. Woordeboek van Afrikaanse Geneeskundeterme. Kaapstad: Pharos.</li> <li>Brody, J.E. “New Hope for Taming Deadly Septic Shock” in The New York Times, 5 Maart 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.nytimes.com">http://www.nytimes.com</a>.</li> <li>E-orthopaedics: Load Tran – A numerical Laboratory for the Analysis of Prosthesis Fixation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.e-orthopaedics.com/loadtran/index.htm">http://www.e-orthopaedics.com/loadtran/index.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050206234820/http://www.e-orthopaedics.com/loadtran/index.htm">Geargiveer</a> 6 Februarie 2005 op <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>“An Implanted Prosthesis Can Restore Walking” in Hopkins Medical News , Lente 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/hmn/sp00/mu_3.html">http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/hmn/sp00/mu_3.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050212110753/http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/hmn/sp00/mu_3.html">Geargiveer</a> 12 Februarie 2005 op <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Lippincott Manual of Practical Nursing, The. (Nettina, S.M. (Redakteur)). 2001. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincot.</li> <li>“Sulzer artificial hip implants recall of hip joint surgery” <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.hip-implant-replacement.com">http://www.hip-implant-replacement.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121030021206/http://hip-implant-replacement.com/">Geargiveer</a> 30 Oktober 2012 op <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Thibodeau, G.A. en Patton, K.T. 1987. Anatomy & Physiology St. Louis: Mosby.</li> <li>Taber’s Encyclopedic Medical Dictionary. (Thomas, C.L. (Red)) 1993. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.</li> <li>Viljoen M.J. en Uys L.R. (Reds). 1997. Algemene Verpleegkunde – Mediese en Chirurgiese Handleiding. Deel 2. Pretoria: Kagiso.</li> <li>Vlok, M.E. 1989. Handboek van Verpleegkunde (Vol 1: Basiese Verpleegkunde). Kaapstad: Juta.</li> <li>Wêreldspektrum, Volume 8, bl.5-12, <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/0908409419" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 090840941 9</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verwysings">Verwysings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Wysig afdeling: Verwysings" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: Verwysings"><span>wysig bron</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2205490">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:12px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFLaokriWeilDraboDembelé2013" class="citation journal cs1">Laokri S, Weil O, Drabo KM, Dembelé SM, Kafando B, Dujardin B (April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3629451">"Removal of user fees no guarantee of universal health coverage: observations from Burkina Faso"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the World Health Organization</i>. <b>91</b> (4): 277–82. <a href="/wiki/Digitale_objek-identifiseerder" title="Digitale objek-identifiseerder">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2471%2FBLT.12.110015">10.2471/BLT.12.110015</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Vrylik beskikbaar"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3629451">3629451</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23599551">23599551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=Removal+of+user+fees+no+guarantee+of+universal+health+coverage%3A+observations+from+Burkina+Faso&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=277-82&rft.date=2013-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3629451%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23599551&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2471%2FBLT.12.110015&rft.aulast=Laokri&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Weil%2C+O&rft.au=Drabo%2C+KM&rft.au=Dembel%C3%A9%2C+SM&rft.au=Kafando%2C+B&rft.au=Dujardin%2C+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3629451&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AGeneeskunde" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490"><cite id="CITEREFChouYipLeeHuang2003" class="citation journal cs1">Chou YJ, Yip WC, Lee CH, Huang N, Sun YP, Chang HJ (September 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fheapol%2Fczg038">"Impact of separating drug prescribing and dispensing on provider behaviour: Taiwan's experience"</a>. <i>Health Policy and Planning</i>. <b>18</b> (3): 316–29. <a href="/wiki/Digitale_objek-identifiseerder" title="Digitale objek-identifiseerder">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Vrylik beskikbaar"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fheapol%2Fczg038">10.1093/heapol/czg038</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12917273">12917273</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Policy+and+Planning&rft.atitle=Impact+of+separating+drug+prescribing+and+dispensing+on+provider+behaviour%3A+Taiwan%27s+experience&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=316-29&rft.date=2003-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fheapol%2Fczg038&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12917273&rft.aulast=Chou&rft.aufirst=YJ&rft.au=Yip%2C+WC&rft.au=Lee%2C+CH&rft.au=Huang%2C+N&rft.au=Sun%2C+YP&rft.au=Chang%2C+HJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fheapol%252Fczg038&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3AGeneeskunde" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eksterne_skakels">Eksterne skakels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geneeskunde&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Wysig afdeling: Eksterne skakels" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>wysig</span></a><span 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