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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins_and_early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_and_early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Origins and early history </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins_and_early_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Origins and early history subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Origins_and_early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Romanticism_and_realism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanticism_and_realism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Romanticism and realism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romanticism_and_realism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_early_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_early_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 The early 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_early_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_late_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_late_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 The late 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_late_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modernism_emerges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernism_emerges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Modernism emerges </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modernism_emerges-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modernism emerges subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modernism_emerges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1901_to_1930" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1901_to_1930"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 1901 to 1930 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1901_to_1930-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modernism_continues:_1930–1945" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernism_continues:_1930–1945"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Modernism continues: 1930–1945 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernism_continues:_1930–1945-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attacks_on_early_modernism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attacks_on_early_modernism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Attacks on early modernism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attacks_on_early_modernism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_1945" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_1945"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 After 1945 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-After_1945-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle After 1945 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-After_1945-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theatre_of_the_Absurd" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theatre_of_the_Absurd"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Theatre of the Absurd </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theatre_of_the_Absurd-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pollock_and_abstract_influences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollock_and_abstract_influences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Pollock and abstract influences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pollock_and_abstract_influences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_figures_from_British_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_figures_from_British_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 International figures from British art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_figures_from_British_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_Abstract_Expressionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_Abstract_Expressionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 After Abstract Expressionism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_Abstract_Expressionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pop_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pop_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Pop art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pop_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minimalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minimalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Minimalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minimalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Minimal_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minimal_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.1 Minimal music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minimal_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postminimalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postminimalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.2 Postminimalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postminimalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collage,_assemblage,_installations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collage,_assemblage,_installations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.3 Collage, assemblage, installations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collage,_assemblage,_installations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-Dada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-Dada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.4 Neo-Dada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neo-Dada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Performance_and_happenings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Performance_and_happenings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.5 Performance and happenings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Performance_and_happenings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intermedia,_multi-media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intermedia,_multi-media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.6 Intermedia, multi-media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intermedia,_multi-media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fluxus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fluxus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.7 Fluxus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fluxus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avant-garde_popular_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avant-garde_popular_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Avant-garde popular music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avant-garde_popular_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Late period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modern_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8.1 Modern architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modernism_in_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernism_in_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Modernism in Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernism_in_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modernism_in_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modernism_in_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Modernism in Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modernism_in_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_with_postmodernism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_with_postmodernism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Relationship with postmodernism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_with_postmodernism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_late_modernity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_late_modernity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Criticism of late modernity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_late_modernity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Modernism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 94 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-94" aria-hidden="true" > 94 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Modernisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassische_Moderne" title="Klassische Moderne – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Klassische Moderne" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AB%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حركة حداثية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حركة حداثية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Մոտեռնիզմ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Մոտեռնիզմ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="আধুনিকতাবাদ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="আধুনিকতাবাদ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernizm" title="Modernizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Modernizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="مودرنیزم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مودرنیزم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="আধুনিকতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আধুনিকতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi%C4%81n-t%C4%81i-ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB" title="Hiān-tāi-chú-gī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hiān-tāi-chú-gī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Мадэрнізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Мадэрнізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Мадэрнізм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Мадэрнізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Модернизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Модернизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernizam" title="Modernizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Modernizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernitat" title="Modernitat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Modernitat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Модернизм – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Модернизм" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna" title="Moderna – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Moderna" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimanje-manje" title="Chimanje-manje – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chimanje-manje" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderniaeth" title="Moderniaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Moderniaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Modernisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="تاعصرييت – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="تاعصرييت" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Modernism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Μοντερνισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μοντερνισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernismo_(movimiento_filos%C3%B3fico_y_cultural)" title="Modernismo (movimiento filosófico y cultural) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Modernismo (movimiento filosófico y cultural)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernismo" title="Modernismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Modernismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernismo_(filosofia)" title="Modernismo (filosofia) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Modernismo (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="نوگرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نوگرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Modernisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernismo" title="Modernismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Modernismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8F%BE%E4%BB%A3%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="現代主義 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="現代主義" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AA%A8%EB%8D%94%EB%8B%88%EC%A6%98" title="모더니즘 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="모더니즘" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism_(Zamani)" title="Modernism (Zamani) – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Modernism (Zamani)" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%B8%D5%A4%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Մոդեռնիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մոդեռնիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="आधुनिकतावाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="आधुनिकतावाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernizam" title="Modernizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Modernizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Modernisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernismo" title="Modernismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Modernismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B3dernismi" title="Módernismi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Módernismi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernismo" title="Modernismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Modernismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="מודרניזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מודרניזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%A7%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A6" title="ಆಧುನಿಕತಾವಾದ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆಧುನಿಕತಾವಾದ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="მოდერნიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მოდერნიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Модернизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Модернизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mod%C3%A8rnism" title="Modèrnism – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Modèrnism" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern%C3%AEzm" title="Modernîzm – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Modernîzm" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Модернизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Модернизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Модернизм – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Модернизм" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Modernism" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernismus" title="Modernismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Modernismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernisms" title="Modernisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Modernisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernizmas" title="Modernizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Modernizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Modernisme" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Modernism" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernizmus" title="Modernizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Modernizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Модернизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Модернизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%A7%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%A4" title="ആധുനികത – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആധുനികത" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="მოდერნიზმი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მოდერნიზმი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83%D9%87_%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%87" title="حركه حداثيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="حركه حداثيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modenisme" title="Modenisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Modenisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Модернизм – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Модернизм" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Modernisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Modernisme" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="आधुनिकवाद – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="आधुनिकवाद" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A2%E3%83%80%E3%83%8B%E3%82%BA%E3%83%A0" title="モダニズム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="モダニズム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Modernisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Modernisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernisme" title="Modernisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Modernisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Модернизм – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Модернизм" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernizm" title="Modernizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Modernizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A7%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਆਧੁਨਿਕਤਾਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਆਧੁਨਿਕਤਾਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%DA%88%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%85" title="موڈرنزم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="موڈرنزم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madanizim" title="Madanizim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Madanizim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sztuka_nowoczesna" title="Sztuka nowoczesna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sztuka nowoczesna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernismo" title="Modernismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Modernismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Modernism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Модернизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Модернизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modrenism" title="Modrenism – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Modrenism" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernizmi" title="Modernizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Modernizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Modernism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="جديديت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="جديديت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderna_(za%C4%8Diatok_20._storo%C4%8Dia)" title="Moderna (začiatok 20. storočia) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Moderna (začiatok 20. storočia)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernizem_(gibanje)" title="Modernizem (gibanje) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Modernizem (gibanje)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Модернизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Модернизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernizam" title="Modernizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Modernizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernismi" title="Modernismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Modernismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Modernism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="நவீனவியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நவீனவியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Модернизм – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Модернизм" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1" title="นวยุคนิยม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="นวยุคนิยม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernizm" title="Modernizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Modernizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Cultural and artistic movement</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the cultural and artistic movement. For other uses of the word, see <a href="/wiki/Modernism_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Modernism (disambiguation)">Modernism (disambiguation)</a>. For the period in sociology beginning with industrialization, see <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg/240px-Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg/360px-Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg/480px-Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="4661" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>, <a href="/wiki/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon" title="Les Demoiselles d'Avignon">Les Demoiselles d'Avignon</a> (1907). This <a href="/wiki/Proto-Cubism" title="Proto-Cubism">Proto-Cubist</a> work is considered a seminal influence on subsequent trends in modernist painting.</figcaption></figure> Modernism was an early 20th-century movement in literature, visual arts, and music that emphasized experimentation, <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstraction</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)">subjective</a> experience.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Philosophy, politics, architecture, and <a href="/wiki/Social_issues" class="mw-redirect" title="Social issues">social issues</a> were all aspects of this movement. Modernism centered around beliefs in a "growing <a href="/wiki/Marx%27s_theory_of_alienation" title="Marx's theory of alienation">alienation</a>" from prevailing "<a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">optimism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">convention</a>"<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> and a desire to change how "<a href="/wiki/Social_organization" title="Social organization">human beings in a society interact and live together</a>".<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The modernist movement emerged during the late 19th century in response to significant changes in <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularization</a> and the growing influence of science. It is characterized by a self-conscious rejection of tradition and the search for newer means of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_expressions" title="Cultural expressions">cultural expression</a>. Modernism was influenced by widespread <a href="/wiki/Technological_innovation" title="Technological innovation">technological innovation</a>, industrialization, and urbanization, as well as the cultural and <a href="/wiki/Geopolitical" class="mw-redirect" title="Geopolitical">geopolitical</a> shifts that occurred after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Art_movement" title="Art movement">Artistic movements</a> and techniques associated with modernism include <a href="/wiki/Abstract_art" title="Abstract art">abstract art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness" title="Stream of consciousness">literary stream-of-consciousness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montage_(filmmaking)" title="Montage (filmmaking)">cinematic montage</a>, musical <a href="/wiki/Atonality" title="Atonality">atonality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Twelve-tone_technique" title="Twelve-tone technique">twelve-tonality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modern_architecture" title="Modern architecture">modernist architecture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Modernism took a critical stance towards the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> concept of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>. The movement also rejected the concept of absolute <a href="/wiki/Originality" title="Originality">originality</a> — the idea of "creation from nothingness" — upheld in the 19th century by both <a href="/wiki/Realism_(art_movement)" title="Realism (art movement)">realism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>, replacing it with techniques of <a href="/wiki/Collage" title="Collage">collage</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Eco_1990_p._95-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Reprise" title="Reprise">reprise</a>, incorporation, rewriting, <a href="/wiki/Recapitulation_(music)" title="Recapitulation (music)">recapitulation</a>, revision, and parody.<a href="#cite_note-Eco90-7">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-Steiner98p489-8">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-Childs2000p17-9">[7]</a> Another feature of modernism was <a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">reflexivity</a> about artistic and social convention, which led to experimentation highlighting how works of art are made as well as the material from which they are created.<a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a> Debate about the timeline of modernism continues, with some scholars arguing that it evolved into <a href="/wiki/Late_modernism" title="Late modernism">late modernism</a> or <a href="/wiki/High_modernism" title="High modernism">high modernism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a>, meanwhile, rejects many of the principles of modernism.<a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview_and_definition">Overview and definition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview and definition">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg/240px-NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg/360px-NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg/480px-NYC_-_Guggenheim_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Guggenheim_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Solomon Guggenheim Museum">Solomon Guggenheim Museum</a> completed in 1959,<a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a> designed by the American architect <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a></figcaption></figure> Modernism was a cultural movement that impacted the arts as well as the broader <a href="/wiki/Zeitgeist" title="Zeitgeist">Zeitgeist</a>. It is commonly described as a system of thought and behavior marked by <a href="/wiki/Self-consciousness" title="Self-consciousness">self-consciousness</a> or <a href="/wiki/Self-reference" title="Self-reference">self-reference</a>, prevalent within the <a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">avant-garde</a> of various arts and disciplines.<a href="#cite_note-Everdell-16">[14]</a> It is also often perceived, especially in the West, as a <a href="/wiki/Progressive_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive movement">socially progressive movement</a> that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve, and reshape their environment with the aid of practical experimentation, scientific knowledge, or technology.<a href="#cite_note-18">[c]</a> From this perspective, modernism encourages the re-examination of every aspect of existence. Modernists analyze topics to find the ones they believe to be holding back <a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">progress</a>, replacing them with new ways of reaching the same end. According to historian <a href="/wiki/Roger_Griffin" title="Roger Griffin">Roger Griffin</a>, modernism can be defined as a broad cultural, social, or political initiative sustained by the <a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">ethos</a> of "the temporality of the new". Griffin believed that modernism aspired to restore a "sense of sublime order and purpose to the contemporary world, thereby counteracting the (perceived) erosion of an overarching '<a href="/wiki/Nomos_(sociology)" title="Nomos (sociology)">nomos</a>', or 'sacred canopy', under the fragmenting and secularizing impact of modernity". Therefore, phenomena apparently unrelated to each other such as "<a href="/wiki/Expressionism" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">Futurism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">Psychoanalysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nudism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nudism">Nudism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a>, Utopian town planning and architecture, <a href="/wiki/Modern_dance" title="Modern dance">modern dance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolshevism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romantic_Nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Romantic Nationalism">Organic Nationalism</a> — and even the cult of <a href="/wiki/Self-sacrifice" title="Self-sacrifice">self-sacrifice</a> that sustained the <a href="/wiki/Hecatomb" title="Hecatomb">Hecatomb</a> of the First World War — disclose a common cause and psychological matrix in the fight against (perceived) <a href="/wiki/Decadence" title="Decadence">decadence</a>." All of them embody bids to access a "supra-personal experience of reality" in which individuals believed they could transcend their mortality and eventually that they would cease to be victims of history to instead become its creators.<a href="#cite_note-19">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modernism,_Romanticism,_Philosophy_and_Symbol">Modernism, Romanticism, Philosophy and Symbol</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Modernism, Romanticism, Philosophy and Symbol">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Literary_modernism" title="Literary modernism">Literary modernism</a> is often summed up in a line from <a href="/wiki/W._B._Yeats" title="W. B. Yeats">W. B. Yeats</a>: "Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold" (in '<a href="/wiki/The_Second_Coming_(poem)" title="The Second Coming (poem)">The Second Coming</a>').<a href="#cite_note-20">[17]</a> Modernists often search for a <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> 'centre' but experience its collapse.<a href="#cite_note-21">[18]</a> (<a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a>, by way of contrast, celebrates that collapse, exposing the failure of metaphysics, such as <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Jacques Derrida</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">deconstruction</a> of metaphysical claims.)<a href="#cite_note-22">[19]</a> Philosophically, the collapse of metaphysics can be traced back to the Scottish philosopher <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> (1711–1776), who argued that we never actually perceive one event causing another. We only experience the '<a href="/wiki/Constant_conjunction" title="Constant conjunction">constant conjunction</a>' of events, and do not perceive a metaphysical 'cause'. Similarly, Hume argued that we never know the self as object, only the self as subject, and we are thus blind to our true natures.<a href="#cite_note-23">[20]</a> Moreover, if we only 'know' through sensory experience—such as sight, touch and feeling—then we cannot 'know' and neither can we make metaphysical claims. Thus, modernism can be driven emotionally by the desire for metaphysical truths, while understanding their impossibility. Some modernist novels, for instance, feature characters like Marlow in <a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Darkness" title="Heart of Darkness">Heart of Darkness</a> or Nick Carraway in <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Gatsby" title="The Great Gatsby">The Great Gatsby</a> who believe that they have encountered some great truth about nature or character, truths that the novels themselves treat ironically while offering more mundane explanations.<a href="#cite_note-24">[21]</a> Similarly, many poems of <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Stevens" title="Wallace Stevens">Wallace Stevens</a> convey a struggle with the sense of nature's significance, falling under two headings: poems in which the speaker denies that nature has meaning, only for nature to loom up by the end of the poem; and poems in which the speaker claims nature has meaning, only for that meaning to collapse by the end of the poem. Modernism often rejects nineteenth century <a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">realism</a>, if the latter is understood as focusing on the embodiment of meaning within a naturalistic representation. At the same time, some modernists aim at a more 'real' realism, one that is uncentered. Picasso's proto-cubist painting, <a href="/wiki/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon" title="Les Demoiselles d'Avignon">Les Demoiselles d'Avignon</a> of 1907 (see picture above), does not present its subjects from a single point of view (that of a single viewer), but instead presents a flat, two-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Picture_plane" title="Picture plane">picture plane</a>. 'The Poet' of 1911 is similarly decentred, presenting the body from multiple points of view. As the <a href="/wiki/Peggy_Guggenheim_Collection" title="Peggy Guggenheim Collection">Peggy Guggenheim Collection</a> website puts it, 'Picasso presents multiple views of each object, as if he had moved around it, and synthesizes them into a single compound image'.<a href="#cite_note-25">[22]</a> Modernism, with its sense that 'things fall apart,' can be seen as the <a href="/wiki/Apotheosis" title="Apotheosis">apotheosis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">romanticism</a>, if romanticism is the (often frustrated) quest for metaphysical truths about character, nature, a <a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">higher power</a> and meaning in the world.<a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a> Modernism often yearns for a romantic or metaphysical centre, but later finds its collapse. This distinction between modernism and romanticism extends to their respective treatments of 'symbol'. The romantics at times see an essential relation (the 'ground') between the symbol (or the 'vehicle', in <a href="/wiki/I.A._Richards" class="mw-redirect" title="I.A. Richards">I.A. Richards</a>'s terms)<a href="#cite_note-27">[24]</a> and its 'tenor' (its meaning)—for example in Coleridge's description of nature as 'that eternal language which thy God / Utters'.<a href="#cite_note-28">[25]</a> But while some romantics may have perceived nature and its symbols as God's language, for other romantic theorists it remains inscrutable. As <a href="/wiki/Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="Goethe">Goethe</a> (not himself a romantic) said, ‘the idea [or meaning] remains eternally and infinitely active and inaccessible in the image’.<a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a> This was extended in modernist theory which, drawing on its <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">symbolist</a> precursors, often emphasizes the inscrutability and failure of symbol and metaphor. For example, Wallace Stevens seeks and fails to find meaning in nature, even if he at times seems to sense such a meaning. As such, symbolists and modernists at times adopt a <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mystical</a> approach to suggest a non-rational sense of meaning.<a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a> For these reasons, modernist metaphors may be unnatural, as for instance in T.S. Eliot's description of an evening 'spread out against the sky / Like a patient etherized upon a table'.<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a> Similarly, for many later modernist poets nature is unnaturalized and at times mechanized, as for example in Stephen Oliver's image of the moon busily 'hoisting' itself into consciousness.<a href="#cite_note-32">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_and_early_history">Origins and early history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins and early history">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/250px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/375px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg/500px-Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix_-_La_libert%C3%A9_guidant_le_peuple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3133" data-file-height="2480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Liberty_Leading_the_People" title="Liberty Leading the People">Liberty Leading the People</a>, 1830, a <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> work of art</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Literary_modernism" title="Literary modernism">Literary modernism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modernist_poetry" title="Modernist poetry">Modernist poetry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism in the Catholic Church</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romanticism_and_realism">Romanticism and realism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Romanticism and realism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Realism_(art_movement)" title="Realism (art movement)">Realism (art movement)</a></div> Modernism developed out of Romanticism's revolt against the effects of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a> values. Literary scholar <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Graff" title="Gerald Graff">Gerald Graff</a>, argues that, "The ground motive of modernism was criticism of the 19th-century bourgeois social order and its world view; the modernists, carrying the torch of Romanticism."<a href="#cite_note-Barth79Replenishment-34">[d]</a><a href="#cite_note-Graff73-35">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Graff75-36">[32]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LenbachF%C3%BCrstBismarck1895.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/LenbachF%C3%BCrstBismarck1895.jpg/180px-LenbachF%C3%BCrstBismarck1895.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/LenbachF%C3%BCrstBismarck1895.jpg/270px-LenbachF%C3%BCrstBismarck1895.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/LenbachF%C3%BCrstBismarck1895.jpg/360px-LenbachF%C3%BCrstBismarck1895.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1416" data-file-height="1886" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Lenbach" title="Franz von Lenbach">Franz von Lenbach</a>, Fürst Otto von Bismarck, 1895. A <a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">realist</a> portrait of <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> during his retirement. Modernist artists largely rejected realism.</figcaption></figure> While <a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">J. M. W. Turner</a> (1775–1851), one of the most notable landscape painters of the 19th century, was a member of the Romantic movement, his pioneering work in the study of light, color, and atmosphere "anticipated the French <a href="/wiki/Impressionists" class="mw-redirect" title="Impressionists">Impressionists</a>" and therefore modernism "in breaking down conventional formulas of representation; though unlike them, he believed that his works should always express significant historical, mythological, literary, or other narrative themes."<a href="#cite_note-37">[33]</a> However, the modernists were critical of the Romantics' belief that art serves as a window into the nature of reality. They argued that since each viewer interprets art through their own subjective perspective, it can never convey the ultimate metaphysical truth that the Romantics sought. Nonetheless, the modernists did not completely reject the idea of art as a means of understanding the world. To them, it was a tool for challenging and disrupting the viewer's point of view, rather than as a direct means of accessing a higher reality.<a href="#cite_note-38">[34]</a> Modernism often rejects 19th-century realism when the latter is understood as focusing on the embodiment of meaning within a naturalistic representation. Instead, some modernists aim at a more 'real' realism, one that is uncentered. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Picasso's</a> 1907 <a href="/wiki/Proto-Cubism" title="Proto-Cubism">Proto-Cubist</a> painting <a href="/wiki/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon" title="Les Demoiselles d'Avignon">Les Demoiselles d'Avignon</a> does not present its subjects from a single point of view, instead presenting a flat, two-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Picture_plane" title="Picture plane">picture plane</a>. The Poet of 1911 is similarly decentered, presenting the body from multiple points of view. As the <a href="/wiki/Peggy_Guggenheim_Collection" title="Peggy Guggenheim Collection">Peggy Guggenheim Collection</a> comments, "Picasso presents multiple views of each object, as if he had moved around it, and synthesizes them into a single compound image."<a href="#cite_note-39">[35]</a> Modernism, with its sense that "things fall apart," is often seen as the <a href="/wiki/Apotheosis" title="Apotheosis">apotheosis</a> of Romanticism. As August Wilhelm Schlegel, an early German Romantic, described it, while Romanticism searches for metaphysical truths about character, nature, <a href="/wiki/Conceptions_of_God" title="Conceptions of God">higher power</a>, and meaning in the world, modernism, although yearning for such a metaphysical center, only finds its collapse.<a href="#cite_note-40">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_early_19th_century">The early 19th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The early 19th century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Impressionism" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Palace_General_view_from_Water_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Crystal_Palace_General_view_from_Water_Temple.jpg/220px-Crystal_Palace_General_view_from_Water_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Crystal_Palace_General_view_from_Water_Temple.jpg/330px-Crystal_Palace_General_view_from_Water_Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Crystal_Palace_General_view_from_Water_Temple.jpg/440px-Crystal_Palace_General_view_from_Water_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="928" data-file-height="706" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Crystal_Palace" title="The Crystal Palace">The Crystal Palace</a> at Sydenham (1854). At the time it was built, the Crystal Palace boasted the greatest area of glass ever seen in a building.</figcaption></figure> In the context of the Industrial Revolution (~1760–1840), influential innovations included <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam-powered industrialization</a>, especially the development of railways starting in Britain in the 1830s,<a href="#cite_note-41">[37]</a> and the subsequent advancements in physics, engineering, and architecture they led to. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was the <a href="/wiki/The_Crystal_Palace" title="The Crystal Palace">Crystal Palace</a>, the huge cast-iron and plate-glass exhibition hall built for the <a href="/wiki/Great_Exhibition" title="Great Exhibition">Great Exhibition of 1851</a> in London. Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals throughout the city, including <a href="/wiki/London_King%27s_Cross_railway_station" title="London King's Cross railway station">King's Cross station</a> (1852)<a href="#cite_note-42">[38]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paddington_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Paddington Station">Paddington Station</a> (1854).<a href="#cite_note-43">[39]</a> These technological advances spread abroad, leading to later structures such as the <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Bridge" title="Brooklyn Bridge">Brooklyn Bridge</a> (1883) and the <a href="/wiki/Eiffel_Tower" title="Eiffel Tower">Eiffel Tower</a> (1889), the latter of which broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be. While such engineering feats radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people, the human experience of time itself was altered with the development of the <a href="/wiki/Electric_telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric telegraph">electric telegraph</a> in 1837,<a href="#cite_note-44">[40]</a> as well as the adoption of "<a href="/wiki/Standard_time" title="Standard time">standard time</a>" by British railway companies from 1845, a concept which would be adopted throughout the rest of the world over the next fifty years.<a href="#cite_note-45">[41]</a> Despite continuing technological advances, the ideas that history and civilization were inherently progressive and that such advances were always good came under increasing attack in the 19th century. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but in fact oftentimes opposed, and that society's current values were antithetical to further progress; therefore, civilization could not move forward in its present form. Early in the century, the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a> (1788–1860) (<a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a>, 1819/20) called into question previous optimism. His ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> (1844–1900).<a href="#cite_note-Stanford-46">[42]</a> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a> (1813–1855)<a href="#cite_note-Stanford-46">[42]</a> and Nietzsche<a href="#cite_note-Collinson-47">[43]</a>: 120  both later rejected the idea that reality could be understood through a purely objective lens, a rejection that had a significant influence on the development of <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edouard_Manet_-_Olympia_-_Google_Art_Project_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Edouard_Manet_-_Olympia_-_Google_Art_Project_3.jpg/220px-Edouard_Manet_-_Olympia_-_Google_Art_Project_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Edouard_Manet_-_Olympia_-_Google_Art_Project_3.jpg/330px-Edouard_Manet_-_Olympia_-_Google_Art_Project_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Edouard_Manet_-_Olympia_-_Google_Art_Project_3.jpg/440px-Edouard_Manet_-_Olympia_-_Google_Art_Project_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3510" data-file-height="2391" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Manet" title="Édouard Manet">Édouard Manet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olympia_(Manet)" title="Olympia (Manet)">Olympia</a>, 1863–65, <a href="/wiki/Oil_on_canvas" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil on canvas">Oil on canvas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Orsay" title="Musée d'Orsay">Musée d'Orsay</a>. Olympia's confrontational gaze caused great controversy when the painting was first exhibited at the 1865 <a href="/wiki/Salon_(Paris)" title="Salon (Paris)">Paris Salon</a>, especially as a number of details identified her as a <a href="/wiki/Demimonde" title="Demimonde">demi-mondaine</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Courtesan" title="Courtesan">courtesan</a>. These include the fact that the name "Olympia" was associated with prostitutes in 1860s Paris. Conservatives condemned the work as "immoral" and "vulgar".</figcaption></figure> Around 1850, the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood" title="Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood">Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood</a> (a group of English poets, painters, and art critics) began to challenge the dominant trends of industrial <a href="/wiki/Victorian_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Victorian England">Victorian England</a> in "opposition to technical skill without inspiration."<a href="#cite_note-Bloomsbury-48">[44]</a>: 815  They were influenced by the writings of the art critic <a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">John Ruskin</a> (1819–1900), who had strong feelings about the role of art in helping to improve the lives of the urban working classes in the rapidly expanding industrial cities of Britain.<a href="#cite_note-Bloomsbury-48">[44]</a>: 816  Art critic <a href="/wiki/Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Clement Greenberg</a> described the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-modernists: "There the proto-modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites (and even before them, as proto-proto-modernists, the German <a href="/wiki/Nazarene_movement" title="Nazarene movement">Nazarenes</a>). The Pre-Raphaelites foreshadowed <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Manet" title="Édouard Manet">Manet</a> (1832–1883), with whom modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, holding that its realism wasn't truthful enough."<a href="#cite_note-Greenberg-49">[45]</a> Two of the most significant thinkers of the mid-19th century were biologist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> (1809–1882), author of <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species through Natural Selection</a> (1859), and political scientist <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> (1818–1883), author of <a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a> (1867). Despite coming from different fields, both of their theories threatened the established order. Darwin's <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of evolution">theory of evolution</a> by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> undermined <a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth" title="Religious views on truth">religious certainty</a> and the idea of <a href="/wiki/Anthropocentrism" title="Anthropocentrism">human uniqueness</a>; in particular, the notion that human beings are driven by the <a href="/wiki/Instinct" title="Instinct">same impulses</a> as "lower animals" proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[46]</a> Meanwhile, Marx's arguments that there are fundamental contradictions within the <a href="/wiki/Capitalist_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist system">capitalist system</a> and that workers are <a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">anything but free</a> led to the formulation of <a href="/wiki/Marxist_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist theory">Marxist theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[47]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Redon_spirit-waters.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Redon_spirit-waters.jpg/220px-Redon_spirit-waters.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Redon_spirit-waters.jpg/330px-Redon_spirit-waters.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Redon_spirit-waters.jpg/440px-Redon_spirit-waters.jpg 2x" data-file-width="831" data-file-height="1028" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Odilon_Redon" title="Odilon Redon">Odilon Redon</a>, Guardian Spirit of the Waters, 1878, charcoal on paper, <a href="/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago" title="Art Institute of Chicago">Art Institute of Chicago</a>. Describing his work, Redon explained, "My drawings inspire, and are not to be defined. They place us, as does music, in the ambiguous realm of the undetermined."<a href="#cite_note-Goldwater-52">[48]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_late_19th_century">The late 19th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The late 19th century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Post-Impressionism" title="Post-Impressionism">Post-Impressionism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Impressionism" title="Neo-Impressionism">Neo-Impressionism</a></div> Art historians have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Historian <a href="/wiki/William_Everdell" title="William Everdell">William Everdell</a> argued that modernism began in the 1870s when metaphorical (or <a href="/wiki/Ontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological">ontological</a>) continuity began to yield to the discrete with mathematician <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dedekind" title="Richard Dedekind">Richard Dedekind</a>'s (1831–1916) <a href="/wiki/Dedekind_cut" title="Dedekind cut">Dedekind cut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann" title="Ludwig Boltzmann">Ludwig Boltzmann</a>'s (1844–1906) <a href="/wiki/Statistical_thermodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical thermodynamics">statistical thermodynamics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Everdell-16">[14]</a> Everdell also believed modernism in painting began in 1885–1886 with post-Impressionist artist <a href="/wiki/Georges_Seurat" title="Georges Seurat">Georges Seurat</a>'s development of <a href="/wiki/Divisionism" title="Divisionism">Divisionism</a>, the "dots" used to paint <a href="/wiki/A_Sunday_Afternoon_on_the_Island_of_La_Grande_Jatte" title="A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte">A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte</a>. On the other hand, visual art critic <a href="/wiki/Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Clement Greenberg</a> called German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> (1724–1804) "the first real modernist",<a href="#cite_note-53">[49]</a> although he also wrote, "What can be safely called modernism emerged in the middle of the last century—and rather locally, in France, with <a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Charles Baudelaire</a> (1821–1867) in literature and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Manet" title="Édouard Manet">Manet</a> in painting, and perhaps with <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Flaubert" title="Gustave Flaubert">Gustave Flaubert</a> (1821–1880), too, in prose fiction. (It was a while later, and not so locally, that modernism appeared in music and architecture)."<a href="#cite_note-Greenberg-49">[45]</a> The poet Baudelaire's <a href="/wiki/Les_Fleurs_du_mal" title="Les Fleurs du mal">Les Fleurs du mal</a> (The Flowers of Evil) and the author Flaubert's <a href="/wiki/Madame_Bovary" title="Madame Bovary">Madame Bovary</a> were both published in 1857. Baudelaire's essay "<a href="/wiki/The_Painter_of_Modern_Life" title="The Painter of Modern Life">The Painter of Modern Life</a>" (1863) inspired young artists to break away from tradition and innovate new ways of portraying their world in art. Beginning in the 1860s, two approaches in the arts and letters developed separately in France. The first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done not in studios, but outdoors (<a href="/wiki/En_plein_air" title="En plein air">en plein air</a>). Impressionist paintings attempted to convey that human beings do not see objects, but instead see light itself. The school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners and became increasingly influential. Initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the time, the government-sponsored <a href="/wiki/Paris_Salon" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Salon">Paris Salon</a>, the Impressionists organized yearly group exhibitions in commercial venues during the 1870s and 1880s, timing them to coincide with the official Salon. In 1863, the <a href="/wiki/Salon_des_Refus%C3%A9s" title="Salon des Refusés">Salon des Refusés</a>, created by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Emperor Napoleon III</a>, displayed all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by inferior artists, the work of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Manet" title="Édouard Manet">Manet</a> attracted attention and opened commercial doors to the movement. The second French school was <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">symbolism</a>, which literary historians see beginning with Charles Baudelaire and including the later poets <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Rimbaud" title="Arthur Rimbaud">Arthur Rimbaud</a> (1854–1891) with <a href="/wiki/A_Season_in_Hell" title="A Season in Hell">Une Saison en Enfer</a> (A Season in Hell, 1873), <a href="/wiki/Paul_Verlaine" title="Paul Verlaine">Paul Verlaine</a> (1844–1896), <a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Mallarm%C3%A9" title="Stéphane Mallarmé">Stéphane Mallarmé</a> (1842–1898), and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Val%C3%A9ry" title="Paul Valéry">Paul Valéry</a> (1871–1945). The symbolists "stressed the priority of suggestion and evocation over direct description and explicit analogy," and were especially interested in "the musical properties of language."<a href="#cite_note-54">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cabaret" title="Cabaret">Cabaret</a>, which gave birth to so many of the arts of modernism, including the immediate precursors of film, may be said to have begun in France in 1881 with the opening of the <a href="/wiki/Le_Chat_Noir" title="Le Chat Noir">Black Cat</a> in <a href="/wiki/Montmartre" title="Montmartre">Montmartre</a>, the beginning of the ironic monologue, and the founding of the Society of Incoherent Arts.<a href="#cite_note-55">[51]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bonheur_Matisse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Bonheur_Matisse.jpg/220px-Bonheur_Matisse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Bonheur_Matisse.jpg/330px-Bonheur_Matisse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Bonheur_Matisse.jpg/440px-Bonheur_Matisse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1088" data-file-height="784" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henri_Matisse" title="Henri Matisse">Henri Matisse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Le_bonheur_de_vivre" title="Le bonheur de vivre">Le bonheur de vivre</a>, 1905–06, <a href="/wiki/Barnes_Foundation" title="Barnes Foundation">Barnes Foundation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Merion,_PA" class="mw-redirect" title="Merion, PA">Merion, PA</a>. An Early <a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">Fauvist</a> masterpiece.</figcaption></figure> The theories of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> (1856–1939), <a href="/wiki/Richard_Freiherr_von_Krafft-Ebing" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing">Krafft-Ebing</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">sexologists</a> were influential in the early days of modernism. Freud's first major work was <a href="/wiki/Studies_on_Hysteria" title="Studies on Hysteria">Studies on Hysteria</a> (with <a href="/wiki/Josef_Breuer" title="Josef Breuer">Josef Breuer</a>, 1895). Central to Freud's thinking is the idea "of the primacy of the unconscious mind in mental life", so that all subjective reality was based on the interactions between basic drives and instincts, through which the outside world was perceived. Freud's description of subjective states involved an unconscious mind full of primal impulses, and counterbalancing self-imposed restrictions derived from social values.<a href="#cite_note-Bloomsbury-48">[44]</a>: 538  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Matissedance.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a7/Matissedance.jpg/300px-Matissedance.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a7/Matissedance.jpg/450px-Matissedance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a7/Matissedance.jpg/600px-Matissedance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="874" data-file-height="575" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henri_Matisse" title="Henri Matisse">Henri Matisse</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Dance_(second_version)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Dance (second version)">The Dance</a>, 1910, <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">Hermitage Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a>, Russia. At the beginning of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Matisse" title="Henri Matisse">Henri Matisse</a> and several other young artists, including the pre-cubist <a href="/wiki/Georges_Braque" title="Georges Braque">Georges Braque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Derain" title="André Derain">André Derain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raoul_Dufy" title="Raoul Dufy">Raoul Dufy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maurice_de_Vlaminck" title="Maurice de Vlaminck">Maurice de Vlaminck</a> revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild", multi-colored, expressive landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called <a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">Fauvism</a>. Henri Matisse's second version of <a href="/wiki/The_Dance_(painting)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Dance (painting)">The Dance</a> signifies a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting.<a href="#cite_note-56">[52]</a></figcaption></figure> The works of <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> (1844–1900) were another major precursor of modernism,<a href="#cite_note-57">[53]</a> with a philosophy in which psychological drives, specifically the "<a href="/wiki/Will_to_power" title="Will to power">will to power</a>" (Wille zur macht), were of central importance: "Nietzsche often identified life itself with 'will to power', that is, with an instinct for growth and durability."<a href="#cite_note-58">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a> (1859–1941), on the other hand, emphasized the difference between scientific, clock time and the direct, subjective human experience of time.<a href="#cite_note-Collinson-47">[43]</a>: 131  His work on time and consciousness "had a great influence on 20th-century novelists" especially those modernists who used the "<a href="/wiki/Stream_of_consciousness" title="Stream of consciousness">stream of consciousness</a>" technique, such as <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Richardson" title="Dorothy Richardson">Dorothy Richardson</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" title="Virginia Woolf">Virginia Woolf</a> (1882–1941).<a href="#cite_note-60">[56]</a> Also important in Bergson's philosophy was the idea of élan vital, the life force, which "brings about the creative evolution of everything."<a href="#cite_note-Collinson-47">[43]</a>: 132  His philosophy also placed a high value on <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">intuition</a>, though without rejecting the importance of the intellect.<a href="#cite_note-Collinson-47">[43]</a>: 132  Important literary precursors of modernism included esteemed writers such as <a href="/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky" title="Fyodor Dostoevsky">Fyodor Dostoevsky</a> (1821–1881), whose novels include <a href="/wiki/Crime_and_Punishment" title="Crime and Punishment">Crime and Punishment</a> (1866) and <a href="/wiki/The_Brothers_Karamazov" title="The Brothers Karamazov">The Brothers Karamazov</a> (1880);<a href="#cite_note-61">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Walt_Whitman" title="Walt Whitman">Walt Whitman</a> (1819–1892), who published the poetry collection <a href="/wiki/Leaves_of_Grass" title="Leaves of Grass">Leaves of Grass</a> (1855–1891); and <a href="/wiki/August_Strindberg" title="August Strindberg">August Strindberg</a> (1849–1912), especially his later plays, including the trilogy To Damascus 1898–1901,A Dream Play (1902) and The Ghost Sonata (1907). <a href="/wiki/Henry_James" title="Henry James">Henry James</a> has also been suggested as a significant precursor to modernism in works as early as <a href="/wiki/The_Portrait_of_a_Lady" title="The Portrait of a Lady">The Portrait of a Lady</a> (1881).<a href="#cite_note-62">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modernism_emerges">Modernism emerges</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modernism emerges">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wrightfallingwater.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Wrightfallingwater.jpg/170px-Wrightfallingwater.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Wrightfallingwater.jpg/255px-Wrightfallingwater.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Wrightfallingwater.jpg/340px-Wrightfallingwater.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1948" data-file-height="2929" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fallingwater" title="Fallingwater">Fallingwater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mill_Run,_Fayette_County,_Pennsylvania" class="mw-redirect" title="Mill Run, Fayette County, Pennsylvania">Mill Run</a>, Pennsylvania (1937). Fallingwater was one of Wright's most famous private residences (completed in 1937).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modernism_(music)" title="Modernism (music)">Modernism (music)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Twentieth-century_English_literature" title="Twentieth-century English literature">Twentieth-century English literature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/American_modernism" title="American modernism">American modernism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1901_to_1930">1901 to 1930</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1901 to 1930">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Woluwe-St-Pierre_-_Hoffmann_050917_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Woluwe-St-Pierre_-_Hoffmann_050917_%281%29.jpg/220px-Woluwe-St-Pierre_-_Hoffmann_050917_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Woluwe-St-Pierre_-_Hoffmann_050917_%281%29.jpg/330px-Woluwe-St-Pierre_-_Hoffmann_050917_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Woluwe-St-Pierre_-_Hoffmann_050917_%281%29.jpg/440px-Woluwe-St-Pierre_-_Hoffmann_050917_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stoclet_Palace" title="Stoclet Palace">Stoclet Palace</a> (1905–1911) by <a href="/wiki/Modern_architecture" title="Modern architecture">Modernist architect</a> <a href="/wiki/Josef_Hoffmann" title="Josef Hoffmann">Josef Hoffmann</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Picasso_Portrait_of_Daniel-Henry_Kahnweiler_1910.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/68/Picasso_Portrait_of_Daniel-Henry_Kahnweiler_1910.jpg/170px-Picasso_Portrait_of_Daniel-Henry_Kahnweiler_1910.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/68/Picasso_Portrait_of_Daniel-Henry_Kahnweiler_1910.jpg/255px-Picasso_Portrait_of_Daniel-Henry_Kahnweiler_1910.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/68/Picasso_Portrait_of_Daniel-Henry_Kahnweiler_1910.jpg/340px-Picasso_Portrait_of_Daniel-Henry_Kahnweiler_1910.jpg 2x" data-file-width="551" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Pablo Picasso, Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Daniel-Henry_Kahnweiler" title="Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler">Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler</a>, 1910, <a href="/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago" title="Art Institute of Chicago">Art Institute of Chicago</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pablo_Picasso,_1911,_The_Poet_(Le_po%C3%A8te),_C%C3%A9ret,_oil_on_linen,_131.2_%C3%97_89.5_cm,_The_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Foundation,_Peggy_Guggenheim_Collection,_Venice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/dc/Pablo_Picasso%2C_1911%2C_The_Poet_%28Le_po%C3%A8te%29%2C_C%C3%A9ret%2C_oil_on_linen%2C_131.2_%C3%97_89.5_cm%2C_The_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Foundation%2C_Peggy_Guggenheim_Collection%2C_Venice.jpg/215px-Pablo_Picasso%2C_1911%2C_The_Poet_%28Le_po%C3%A8te%29%2C_C%C3%A9ret%2C_oil_on_linen%2C_131.2_%C3%97_89.5_cm%2C_The_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Foundation%2C_Peggy_Guggenheim_Collection%2C_Venice.jpg" decoding="async" width="215" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/dc/Pablo_Picasso%2C_1911%2C_The_Poet_%28Le_po%C3%A8te%29%2C_C%C3%A9ret%2C_oil_on_linen%2C_131.2_%C3%97_89.5_cm%2C_The_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Foundation%2C_Peggy_Guggenheim_Collection%2C_Venice.jpg/323px-Pablo_Picasso%2C_1911%2C_The_Poet_%28Le_po%C3%A8te%29%2C_C%C3%A9ret%2C_oil_on_linen%2C_131.2_%C3%97_89.5_cm%2C_The_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Foundation%2C_Peggy_Guggenheim_Collection%2C_Venice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/dc/Pablo_Picasso%2C_1911%2C_The_Poet_%28Le_po%C3%A8te%29%2C_C%C3%A9ret%2C_oil_on_linen%2C_131.2_%C3%97_89.5_cm%2C_The_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Foundation%2C_Peggy_Guggenheim_Collection%2C_Venice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="328" data-file-height="490" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Poet_(1911_painting)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Poet (1911 painting) (page does not exist)">The Poet</a>, 1911, <a href="/wiki/Oil_on_canvas" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil on canvas">Oil on canvas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peggy_Guggenheim_Collection" title="Peggy Guggenheim Collection">Peggy Guggenheim Collection</a>. <a href="/wiki/Proto-Cubism" title="Proto-Cubism">Proto-Cubism</a> was an early development within modernism that tended to present its subject from multiple points of view.</figcaption></figure> Out of the collision of ideals derived from Romanticism and an attempt to find a way for knowledge to explain that which was as yet unknown, came the first wave of modernist works in the opening decade of the 20th century. Although their authors considered them to be extensions of existing trends in art, these works broke the implicit understanding the general public had of art: that artists were the interpreters and representatives of bourgeois culture and ideas. These "modernist" landmarks include the atonal ending of <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg" title="Arnold Schoenberg">Arnold Schoenberg</a>'s <a href="/wiki/String_Quartets_(Schoenberg)" title="String Quartets (Schoenberg)">Second String Quartet</a> in 1908, the Expressionist paintings of <a href="/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky" title="Wassily Kandinsky">Wassily Kandinsky</a> starting in 1903, and culminating with his first abstract painting and the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Der_Blaue_Reiter" title="Der Blaue Reiter">Blue Rider</a> group in <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a> in 1911, and the rise of <a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">fauvism</a> and the inventions of Cubism from the studios of <a href="/wiki/Henri_Matisse" title="Henri Matisse">Henri Matisse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Braque" title="Georges Braque">Georges Braque</a>, and others, in the years between 1900 and 1910. An important aspect of modernism is how it relates to tradition through its adoption of techniques like reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, and parody in new forms.<a href="#cite_note-Eco90-7">[a]</a><a href="#cite_note-Steiner98p489-8">[b]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Piet_Mondrian,_1909,_View_from_the_Dunes_with_Beach_and_Piers,_Domburg,_MoMA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Piet_Mondrian%2C_1909%2C_View_from_the_Dunes_with_Beach_and_Piers%2C_Domburg%2C_MoMA.jpg/220px-Piet_Mondrian%2C_1909%2C_View_from_the_Dunes_with_Beach_and_Piers%2C_Domburg%2C_MoMA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Piet_Mondrian%2C_1909%2C_View_from_the_Dunes_with_Beach_and_Piers%2C_Domburg%2C_MoMA.jpg/330px-Piet_Mondrian%2C_1909%2C_View_from_the_Dunes_with_Beach_and_Piers%2C_Domburg%2C_MoMA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Piet_Mondrian%2C_1909%2C_View_from_the_Dunes_with_Beach_and_Piers%2C_Domburg%2C_MoMA.jpg/440px-Piet_Mondrian%2C_1909%2C_View_from_the_Dunes_with_Beach_and_Piers%2C_Domburg%2C_MoMA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1485" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Piet_Mondrian" title="Piet Mondrian">Piet Mondrian</a>, View from the Dunes with Beach and Piers, Domburg, 1909, oil and pencil on cardboard, <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="Museum of Modern Art">Museum of Modern Art</a>, New York City</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a> made significant comments on the relation of the artist to tradition, including: "[W]e shall often find that not only the best, but the most individual parts of [a poet's] work, may be those in which the dead poets, his ancestors, assert their immortality most vigorously."<a href="#cite_note-Eliot19-64">[60]</a> However, the relationship of modernism with tradition was complex, as literary scholar Peter Child's indicates: "There were paradoxical if not opposed trends towards revolutionary and reactionary positions, fear of the new and delight at the disappearance of the old, <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a> and fanatical enthusiasm, creativity, and despair."<a href="#cite_note-Childs2000p17-9">[7]</a> An example of how modernist art can apply older traditions while also incorporating new techniques can be found within the music of the composer <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg" title="Arnold Schoenberg">Arnold Schoenberg</a>. On the one hand, he rejected traditional <a href="/wiki/Tonality" title="Tonality">tonal harmony</a>, the hierarchical system of organizing works of music that had guided musical composition for at least a century and a half. Schoenberg believed he had discovered a wholly new way of organizing sound based on the use of <a href="/wiki/Twelve-tone_technique" title="Twelve-tone technique">twelve-note rows</a>. Yet, while this was indeed a wholly new technique, its origins can be traced back to the work of earlier composers such as <a href="/wiki/Franz_Liszt" title="Franz Liszt">Franz Liszt</a>,<a href="#cite_note-65">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wagner" title="Richard Wagner">Richard Wagner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Mahler" title="Gustav Mahler">Gustav Mahler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Richard Strauss</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Max_Reger" title="Max Reger">Max Reger</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[63]</a> In the world of art, in the first decade of the 20th century, young painters such as <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henri_Matisse" title="Henri Matisse">Henri Matisse</a> caused much controversy and attracted great criticism with their rejection of traditional <a href="/wiki/Perspective_(visual)" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspective (visual)">perspective</a> as the means of structuring paintings,<a href="#cite_note-68">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[65]</a> though the Impressionist <a href="/wiki/Monet" class="mw-redirect" title="Monet">Claude Monet</a> had already been innovative in his use of perspective.<a href="#cite_note-70">[66]</a> In 1907, as Picasso was painting <a href="/wiki/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon" title="Les Demoiselles d'Avignon">Les Demoiselles d'Avignon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oskar_Kokoschka" title="Oskar Kokoschka">Oskar Kokoschka</a> was writing Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen (Murderer, Hope of Women), the first Expressionist play (produced with scandal in 1909), and Arnold Schoenberg was composing his String Quartet No.2 in F sharp minor (1908), his first composition without a tonal center. A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of three-dimensional form in the late works of <a href="/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne" title="Paul Cézanne">Paul Cézanne</a>, which were displayed in a retrospective at the 1907 <a href="/wiki/Salon_d%27Automne" title="Salon d'Automne">Salon d'Automne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Christopher_Green-71">[67]</a> In Cubist artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up, and reassembled in an abstract form; instead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context.<a href="#cite_note-72">[68]</a> Cubism was brought to the attention of the general public for the first time in 1911 at the <a href="/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_Artistes_Ind%C3%A9pendants" title="Société des Artistes Indépendants">Salon des Indépendants</a> in Paris (held 21 April – 13 June). <a href="/wiki/Jean_Metzinger" title="Jean Metzinger">Jean Metzinger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Gleizes" title="Albert Gleizes">Albert Gleizes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Le_Fauconnier" title="Henri Le Fauconnier">Henri Le Fauconnier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Delaunay" title="Robert Delaunay">Robert Delaunay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fernand_L%C3%A9ger" title="Fernand Léger">Fernand Léger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roger_de_La_Fresnaye" title="Roger de La Fresnaye">Roger de La Fresnaye</a> were shown together in Room 41, provoking a 'scandal' out of which Cubism emerged and spread throughout Paris and beyond. Also in 1911, <a href="/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky" title="Wassily Kandinsky">Kandinsky</a> painted Bild mit Kreis (Picture with a Circle), which he later called the first abstract painting.<a href="#cite_note-Sheppard-73">[69]</a>: 167  In 1912, Metzinger and Gleizes wrote the first (and only) major Cubist manifesto, <a href="/wiki/Du_%22Cubisme%22" title="Du "Cubisme"">Du "Cubisme"</a>, published in time for the Salon de la <a href="/wiki/Section_d%27Or" title="Section d'Or">Section d'Or</a>, the largest Cubist exhibition to date. In 1912 Metzinger painted and exhibited his enchanting <a href="/wiki/La_Femme_au_Cheval" class="mw-redirect" title="La Femme au Cheval">La Femme au Cheval</a> (Woman with a Horse) and Danseuse au Café (<a href="/wiki/Dancer_in_a_Caf%C3%A9" title="Dancer in a Café">Dancer in a Café</a>). Albert Gleizes painted and exhibited his <a href="/wiki/Les_Baigneuses_(Gleizes)" class="mw-redirect" title="Les Baigneuses (Gleizes)">Les Baigneuses</a> <a href="/wiki/Les_Baigneuses_(Gleizes)" class="mw-redirect" title="Les Baigneuses (Gleizes)">(The Bathers)</a> and his monumental Le Dépiquage des Moissons (<a href="/wiki/Harvest_Threshing" title="Harvest Threshing">Harvest Threshing</a>). This work, along with La Ville de Paris (City of Paris) by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Delaunay" title="Robert Delaunay">Robert Delaunay</a>, was the largest and most ambitious Cubist painting undertaken during the pre-war Cubist period.<a href="#cite_note-74">[70]</a> In 1905, a group of four German artists, led by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ludwig_Kirchner" title="Ernst Ludwig Kirchner">Ernst Ludwig Kirchner</a>, formed <a href="/wiki/Die_Br%C3%BCcke" title="Die Brücke">Die Brücke</a> (The Bridge) in the city of <a href="/wiki/Dresden" title="Dresden">Dresden</a>. This was arguably the founding organization for the <a href="/wiki/German_Expressionist" class="mw-redirect" title="German Expressionist">German Expressionist</a> movement, though they did not use the word itself. A few years later, in 1911, a like-minded group of young artists formed <a href="/wiki/Der_Blaue_Reiter" title="Der Blaue Reiter">Der Blaue Reiter</a> (The Blue Rider) in Munich. The name came from <a href="/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky" title="Wassily Kandinsky">Wassily Kandinsky</a>'s Der Blaue Reiter painting of 1903. Among their members were <a href="/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky" title="Wassily Kandinsky">Kandinsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Marc" title="Franz Marc">Franz Marc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Paul Klee</a>, and <a href="/wiki/August_Macke" title="August Macke">August Macke</a>. However, the term "Expressionism" did not firmly establish itself until 1913.<a href="#cite_note-Sheppard-73">[69]</a>: 274  Though initially mainly a German artistic movement,<a href="#cite_note-77">[e]</a> most predominant in painting, poetry and the theatre between 1910 and 1930, most precursors of the movement were not German. Furthermore, there have been Expressionist writers of prose fiction, as well as non-German speaking Expressionist writers, and, while the movement had declined in Germany with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> in the 1930s, there were subsequent Expressionist works. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egon_Schiele_-_Eduard_Kosmack_-_4702_-_%C3%96sterreichische_Galerie_Belvedere.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Egon_Schiele_-_Eduard_Kosmack_-_4702_-_%C3%96sterreichische_Galerie_Belvedere.jpg/220px-Egon_Schiele_-_Eduard_Kosmack_-_4702_-_%C3%96sterreichische_Galerie_Belvedere.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Egon_Schiele_-_Eduard_Kosmack_-_4702_-_%C3%96sterreichische_Galerie_Belvedere.jpg/330px-Egon_Schiele_-_Eduard_Kosmack_-_4702_-_%C3%96sterreichische_Galerie_Belvedere.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Egon_Schiele_-_Eduard_Kosmack_-_4702_-_%C3%96sterreichische_Galerie_Belvedere.jpg/440px-Egon_Schiele_-_Eduard_Kosmack_-_4702_-_%C3%96sterreichische_Galerie_Belvedere.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3487" data-file-height="3508" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Eduard Kosmack (1910) by <a href="/wiki/Egon_Schiele" title="Egon Schiele">Egon Schiele</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VillaSavoye.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3c/VillaSavoye.jpg/220px-VillaSavoye.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3c/VillaSavoye.jpg/330px-VillaSavoye.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3c/VillaSavoye.jpg/440px-VillaSavoye.jpg 2x" data-file-width="792" data-file-height="594" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a>, The <a href="/wiki/Villa_Savoye" title="Villa Savoye">Villa Savoye</a> in <a href="/wiki/Poissy" title="Poissy">Poissy</a> (1928–1931)</figcaption></figure> Expressionism is notoriously difficult to define, in part because it "overlapped with other major 'isms' of the modernist period: with <a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">Futurism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vorticism" title="Vorticism">Vorticism</a>, Cubism, <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Grace_1989_26-76">[72]</a> Richard Murphy also comments: "[The] search for an all-inclusive definition is problematic to the extent that the most challenging Expressionists," such as the novelist <a href="/wiki/Franz_Kafka" title="Franz Kafka">Franz Kafka</a>, poet <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Benn" title="Gottfried Benn">Gottfried Benn</a>, and novelist <a href="/wiki/Alfred_D%C3%B6blin" title="Alfred Döblin">Alfred Döblin</a> were simultaneously the most vociferous anti-Expressionists.<a href="#cite_note-Murphy-78">[73]</a>: 43  What, however, can be said, is that it was a movement that developed in the early 20th century mainly in Germany in reaction to the dehumanizing effect of industrialization and the growth of cities, and that "one of the central means by which Expressionism identifies itself as an avant-garde movement, and by which it marks its distance to traditions and the cultural institution as a whole is through its relationship to realism and the dominant conventions of representation."<a href="#cite_note-Murphy-78">[73]</a>: 43  More explicitly: the Expressionists rejected the ideology of realism.<a href="#cite_note-Murphy-78">[73]</a>: 43–48 <a href="#cite_note-79">[74]</a> There was a concentrated Expressionist movement in early 20th-century German theater, of which <a href="/wiki/Georg_Kaiser" title="Georg Kaiser">Georg Kaiser</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Toller" title="Ernst Toller">Ernst Toller</a> were the most famous playwrights. Other notable Expressionist dramatists included <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Sorge" title="Reinhard Sorge">Reinhard Sorge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Hasenclever" title="Walter Hasenclever">Walter Hasenclever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Henny_Jahnn" title="Hans Henny Jahnn">Hans Henny Jahnn</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arnolt_Bronnen" title="Arnolt Bronnen">Arnolt Bronnen</a>. They looked back to Swedish playwright <a href="/wiki/August_Strindberg" title="August Strindberg">August Strindberg</a> and German actor and dramatist <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wedekind" title="Frank Wedekind">Frank Wedekind</a> as precursors of their <a href="/wiki/Dramaturgy" title="Dramaturgy">dramaturgical</a> experiments. <a href="/wiki/Oskar_Kokoschka" title="Oskar Kokoschka">Oskar Kokoschka</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Murderer,_the_Hope_of_Women" title="Murderer, the Hope of Women">Murderer, the Hope of Women</a> was the first fully Expressionist work for the theater, which opened on 4 July 1909 in <a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[75]</a> The extreme simplification of characters to mythic <a href="/wiki/Archetype" title="Archetype">types</a>, choral effects, declamatory dialogue and heightened intensity would become characteristic of later Expressionist plays. The first full-length Expressionist play was <a href="/wiki/The_Son_(Hasenclever_play)" title="The Son (Hasenclever play)">The Son</a> by Walter Hasenclever, which was published in 1914 and first performed in 1916.<a href="#cite_note-81">[76]</a> Futurism is another modernist movement.<a href="#cite_note-82">[77]</a> In 1909, the Parisian newspaper <a href="/wiki/Le_Figaro" title="Le Figaro">Le Figaro</a> published <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti" title="Filippo Tommaso Marinetti">F. T. Marinetti</a>'s first manifesto. Soon afterward, a group of painters (<a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Balla" title="Giacomo Balla">Giacomo Balla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umberto_Boccioni" title="Umberto Boccioni">Umberto Boccioni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Carr%C3%A0" title="Carlo Carrà">Carlo Carrà</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Russolo" title="Luigi Russolo">Luigi Russolo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gino_Severini" title="Gino Severini">Gino Severini</a>) co-signed the <a href="/wiki/Futurist_Manifesto" class="mw-redirect" title="Futurist Manifesto">Futurist Manifesto</a>. Modeled on Marx and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a>' famous "<a href="/wiki/Communist_Manifesto" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Manifesto">Communist Manifesto</a>" (1848), such manifestos put forward ideas that were meant to provoke and to gather followers. However, arguments in favor of geometric or purely abstract painting were, at this time, largely confined to "little magazines" which had only tiny circulations. Modernist primitivism and pessimism were controversial, and the mainstream in the first decade of the 20th century was still inclined towards a faith in progress and liberal optimism. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Metzinger,_1913,_En_Canot,_oil_on_canvas,_146_x_114_cm,_missing_or_destroyed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c5/Jean_Metzinger%2C_1913%2C_En_Canot%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_146_x_114_cm%2C_missing_or_destroyed.jpg/220px-Jean_Metzinger%2C_1913%2C_En_Canot%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_146_x_114_cm%2C_missing_or_destroyed.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c5/Jean_Metzinger%2C_1913%2C_En_Canot%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_146_x_114_cm%2C_missing_or_destroyed.jpg/330px-Jean_Metzinger%2C_1913%2C_En_Canot%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_146_x_114_cm%2C_missing_or_destroyed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c5/Jean_Metzinger%2C_1913%2C_En_Canot%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_146_x_114_cm%2C_missing_or_destroyed.jpg/440px-Jean_Metzinger%2C_1913%2C_En_Canot%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_146_x_114_cm%2C_missing_or_destroyed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="453" data-file-height="578" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jean_Metzinger" title="Jean Metzinger">Jean Metzinger</a>, 1913, <a href="/wiki/En_Canot" title="En Canot">En Canot (Im Boot)</a>, oil on canvas, 146 x 114 cm (57.5 in × 44.9 in), exhibited at Moderni Umeni, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1nes_Union_of_Fine_Arts" title="Mánes Union of Fine Arts">S.V.U. Mánes</a>, Prague, 1914, acquired in 1916 by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Muche" title="Georg Muche">Georg Muche</a> at the Galerie <a href="/wiki/Der_Sturm" title="Der Sturm">Der Sturm</a>, confiscated by the Nazis circa 1936–1937, displayed at the <a href="/wiki/Degenerate_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Degenerate Art">Degenerate Art</a> show in Munich, and missing ever since<a href="#cite_note-83">[78]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Abstract_art" title="Abstract art">Abstract</a> artists, taking as their examples the Impressionists, as well as <a href="/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne" title="Paul Cézanne">Paul Cézanne</a> (1839–1906) and <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Munch" title="Edvard Munch">Edvard Munch</a> (1863–1944), began with the assumption that color and <a href="/wiki/Shape" title="Shape">shape</a>, not the depiction of the natural world, formed the essential characteristics of art.<a href="#cite_note-84">[79]</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Western art">Western art</a> had been, from the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> up to the middle of the 19th century, underpinned by the logic of <a href="/wiki/Perspective_(visual)" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspective (visual)">perspective</a> and an attempt to reproduce an illusion of visible reality. The arts of cultures other than the European had become accessible and showed alternative ways of describing visual experience to the artist. By the end of the 19th century, many artists felt a need to create a new kind of art that encompassed the fundamental changes taking place in technology, science and philosophy. The sources from which individual artists drew their theoretical arguments were diverse and reflected the social and intellectual preoccupations in all areas of Western culture at that time.<a href="#cite_note-85">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky" title="Wassily Kandinsky">Wassily Kandinsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piet_Mondrian" title="Piet Mondrian">Piet Mondrian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kazimir_Malevich" title="Kazimir Malevich">Kazimir Malevich</a> all believed in redefining art as the arrangement of pure color. The use of photography, which had rendered much of the representational function of visual art obsolete, strongly affected this aspect of modernism.<a href="#cite_note-impressionism758-86">[81]</a> Modernist <a href="/wiki/Architects" class="mw-redirect" title="Architects">architects</a> and designers, such as <a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Frank Lloyd Wright</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[82]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a>,<a href="#cite_note-88">[83]</a> believed that new technology rendered old styles of building obsolete. Le Corbusier thought that buildings should function as "machines for living in", analogous to cars, which he saw as machines for traveling in.<a href="#cite_note-89">[84]</a> Just as cars had replaced the horse, so modernist design should reject the old styles and structures inherited from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. Following this <a href="/wiki/Machine_aesthetic" title="Machine aesthetic">machine aesthetic</a>, modernist designers typically rejected decorative motifs in design, preferring to emphasize the materials used and pure geometrical forms.<a href="#cite_note-GEMbook-90">[85]</a> The skyscraper is the archetypal modernist building, and the <a href="/wiki/Wainwright_Building" title="Wainwright Building">Wainwright Building</a>, a 10-story office building completed in 1891 in <a href="/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Louis, Missouri">St. Louis, Missouri</a>, United States, is among the <a href="/wiki/Early_skyscrapers" title="Early skyscrapers">first skyscrapers</a> in the world.<a href="#cite_note-91">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" title="Ludwig Mies van der Rohe">Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Seagram_Building" title="Seagram Building">Seagram Building</a> in New York (1956–1958) is often regarded as the pinnacle of this modernist high-rise architecture.<a href="#cite_note-obit-92">[87]</a> Many aspects of modernist design persist within the mainstream of <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_architecture" title="Contemporary architecture">contemporary architecture</a>, though previous dogmatism has given way to a more playful use of decoration, historical quotation, and spatial drama. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pedestal_Table_in_the_Studio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Pedestal_Table_in_the_Studio.jpg/220px-Pedestal_Table_in_the_Studio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Pedestal_Table_in_the_Studio.jpg/330px-Pedestal_Table_in_the_Studio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/be/Pedestal_Table_in_the_Studio.jpg/440px-Pedestal_Table_in_the_Studio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="730" data-file-height="601" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Masson" title="André Masson">André Masson</a>, Pedestal Table in the Studio 1922, an early example of <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealism</a></figcaption></figure> In 1913—which was the year of philosopher <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>'s Ideas, physicist <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>'s quantized atom, <a href="/wiki/Ezra_Pound" title="Ezra Pound">Ezra Pound</a>'s founding of <a href="/wiki/Imagism" title="Imagism">imagism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Armory_Show" title="Armory Show">Armory Show</a> in New York, and in <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a> the "first futurist opera", <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Matyushin" title="Mikhail Matyushin">Mikhail Matyushin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Victory_over_the_Sun" title="Victory over the Sun">Victory over the Sun</a>—another Russian composer, <a href="/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky" title="Igor Stravinsky">Igor Stravinsky</a>, composed <a href="/wiki/The_Rite_of_Spring" title="The Rite of Spring">The Rite of Spring</a>, a ballet that depicts <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human sacrifice</a> and has a musical score full of dissonance and primitive rhythm. This caused an uproar on its first performance in Paris. At this time, though modernism was still "progressive", it increasingly saw traditional forms and social arrangements as hindering progress and recast the artist as a revolutionary, engaged in overthrowing rather than enlightening society. Also in 1913, a less violent event occurred in France with the publication of the first volume of <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Proust" title="Marcel Proust">Marcel Proust</a>'s important novel sequence <a href="/wiki/%C3%80_la_recherche_du_temps_perdu" class="mw-redirect" title="À la recherche du temps perdu">À la recherche du temps perdu</a> (1913–1927) (In Search of Lost Time). This is often presented as an early example of a writer using the <a href="/wiki/Stream-of-consciousness_technique" class="mw-redirect" title="Stream-of-consciousness technique">stream-of-consciousness technique</a>, but Robert Humphrey comments that Proust "is concerned only with the reminiscent aspect of consciousness" and that he "was deliberately recapturing the past for the purpose of communicating; hence he did not write a stream-of-consciousness novel."<a href="#cite_note-93">[88]</a> Stream of consciousness was an important modernist literary innovation, and it has been suggested that <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schnitzler" title="Arthur Schnitzler">Arthur Schnitzler</a> (1862–1931) was the first to make full use of it in his short story "Leutnant Gustl" ("None but the brave") (1900).<a href="#cite_note-94">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Richardson" title="Dorothy Richardson">Dorothy Richardson</a> was the first English writer to use it, in the early volumes of her <a href="/wiki/Novel_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Novel sequence">novel sequence</a> <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage_(novel_sequence)" title="Pilgrimage (novel sequence)">Pilgrimage</a> (1915–1967).<a href="#cite_note-96">[f]</a> Other modernist novelists that are associated with the use of this narrative technique include <a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_(novel)" title="Ulysses (novel)">Ulysses</a> (1922) and <a href="/wiki/Italo_Svevo" title="Italo Svevo">Italo Svevo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Zeno%27s_Conscience" title="Zeno's Conscience">La coscienza di Zeno</a> (1923).<a href="#cite_note-97">[91]</a> However, with the coming of the Great War of 1914–1918 (World War I) and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> of 1917, the world was drastically changed, and doubt was cast on the beliefs and institutions of the past. The failure of the previous status quo seemed self-evident to a generation that had seen millions die fighting over scraps of earth: before 1914, it had been argued that no one would fight such a war, since the cost was too high. The birth of a machine age, which had made major changes in the conditions of daily life in the 19th century had now radically changed the nature of warfare. The traumatic nature of recent experience altered basic assumptions, and a realistic depiction of life in the arts seemed inadequate when faced with the fantastically surreal nature of <a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">trench warfare</a>. The view that mankind was making steady moral progress now seemed ridiculous in the face of the senseless slaughter, described in works such as <a href="/wiki/Erich_Maria_Remarque" title="Erich Maria Remarque">Erich Maria Remarque</a>'s novel <a href="/wiki/All_Quiet_on_the_Western_Front" title="All Quiet on the Western Front">All Quiet on the Western Front</a> (1929). Therefore, modernism's view of reality, which had been a minority taste before the war, became more generally accepted in the 1920s. In literature and visual art, some modernists sought to defy expectations mainly to make their art more vivid or to force the audience to take the trouble to question their own preconceptions. This aspect of modernism has often seemed a reaction to <a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">consumer culture</a>, which developed in Europe and North America in the late 19th century. Whereas most manufacturers try to make products that will be marketable by appealing to preferences and prejudices, <a href="/wiki/High_modernism" title="High modernism">high modernists</a> reject such consumerist attitudes to undermine conventional thinking. The art critic <a href="/wiki/Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Clement Greenberg</a> expounded this theory of modernism in his essay <a href="/wiki/Avant-Garde_and_Kitsch" title="Avant-Garde and Kitsch">Avant-Garde and Kitsch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-98">[92]</a> Greenberg labeled the products of consumer culture "<a href="/wiki/Kitsch" title="Kitsch">kitsch</a>", because their design aimed simply to have maximum appeal, with any difficult features removed. For Greenberg, modernism thus formed a reaction against the development of such examples of modern consumer culture as commercial <a href="/wiki/Popular_music" title="Popular music">popular music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">Hollywood</a>, and advertising. Greenberg associated this with the revolutionary rejection of capitalism. Some modernists saw themselves as part of a revolutionary culture that included political revolution. In Russia after the 1917 <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Revolution</a>, there was indeed initially a burgeoning of avant-garde cultural activity, which included <a href="/wiki/Russian_Futurism" title="Russian Futurism">Russian Futurism</a>. However, others rejected conventional politics as well as artistic conventions, believing that a revolution of <a href="/wiki/Political_consciousness" title="Political consciousness">political consciousness</a> had greater importance than a change in political structures. But many modernists saw themselves as apolitical. Others, such as <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a>, rejected mass popular culture from a conservative position. Some even argue that Modernism in literature and art functioned to sustain an <a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">elite</a> culture that excluded the majority of the population.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-98">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealism</a>, which originated in the early 1920s, came to be regarded by the public as the most extreme form of modernism, or "the avant-garde of modernism".<a href="#cite_note-DebordSurrealismModernism-99">[93]</a> The word "surrealist" was coined by <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Apollinaire" title="Guillaume Apollinaire">Guillaume Apollinaire</a> and first appeared in the preface to his play <a href="/wiki/The_Breasts_of_Tiresias" title="The Breasts of Tiresias">Les Mamelles de Tirésias</a>, which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917. Major surrealists include <a href="/wiki/Paul_%C3%89luard" title="Paul Éluard">Paul Éluard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Desnos" title="Robert Desnos">Robert Desnos</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Diary_of_a_Genius-100">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Max_Ernst" title="Max Ernst">Max Ernst</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Arp" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Arp">Hans Arp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Artaud" title="Antonin Artaud">Antonin Artaud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Queneau" title="Raymond Queneau">Raymond Queneau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joan_Mir%C3%B3" title="Joan Miró">Joan Miró</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp" title="Marcel Duchamp">Marcel Duchamp</a>.<a href="#cite_note-grove-101">[95]</a> By 1930, modernism had won a place in the political and artistic establishment, although by this time modernism itself had changed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modernism_continues:_1930–1945">Modernism continues: 1930–1945</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Modernism continues: 1930–1945">edit</a>]</div> Modernism continued to evolve during the 1930s. Between 1930 and 1932 composer <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg" title="Arnold Schoenberg">Arnold Schoenberg</a> worked on <a href="/wiki/Moses_und_Aron" title="Moses und Aron">Moses und Aron</a>, one of the first operas to make use of the twelve-tone technique,<a href="#cite_note-102">[96]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a> painted in 1937 <a href="/wiki/Guernica_(Picasso)" title="Guernica (Picasso)">Guernica</a>, his cubist condemnation of <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>, while in 1939 <a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a> pushed the boundaries of the modern novel further with <a href="/wiki/Finnegans_Wake" title="Finnegans Wake">Finnegans Wake</a>. Also by 1930 modernism began to influence mainstream culture, so that, for example, <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a> magazine began publishing work, influenced by modernism, by young writers and humorists like <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Parker" title="Dorothy Parker">Dorothy Parker</a>,<a href="#cite_note-103">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Benchley" title="Robert Benchley">Robert Benchley</a>, <a href="/wiki/E._B._White" title="E. B. White">E. B. White</a>, <a href="/wiki/S._J._Perelman" title="S. J. Perelman">S. J. Perelman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_Thurber" title="James Thurber">James Thurber</a>, amongst others.<a href="#cite_note-104">[98]</a> Perelman is highly regarded for his humorous short stories that he published in magazines in the 1930s and 1940s, most often in The New Yorker, which are considered to be the first examples of <a href="/wiki/Surrealist_humor" class="mw-redirect" title="Surrealist humor">surrealist humor</a> in America.<a href="#cite_note-105">[99]</a> Modern ideas in art also began to appear more frequently in commercials and logos, an early example of which, from 1916, is the famous <a href="/wiki/London_Underground" title="London Underground">London Underground</a> logo designed by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Johnston" title="Edward Johnston">Edward Johnston</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[100]</a> One of the most visible changes of this period was the adoption of new technologies into the daily lives of ordinary people in Western Europe and North America. Electricity, the telephone, the radio, the automobile—and the need to work with them, repair them and live with them—created social change. The kind of disruptive moment that only a few knew in the 1880s became a common occurrence. For example, the speed of communication reserved for the stock brokers of 1890 became part of family life, at least in middle class North America. Associated with urbanization and changing social mores also came smaller families and changed relationships between parents and their children. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Underground.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Underground.svg/200px-Underground.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Underground.svg/300px-Underground.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Underground.svg/400px-Underground.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="416" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/London_Underground" title="London Underground">London Underground</a> logo designed by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Johnston" title="Edward Johnston">Edward Johnston</a>. This is the modern version (with minor modifications) of one that was first used in 1916.</figcaption></figure> Another strong influence at this time was <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>. After the generally primitivistic/irrationalism aspect of pre-World War I modernism (which for many modernists precluded any attachment to merely political solutions) and the <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">neoclassicism</a> of the 1920s (as represented most famously by <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky" title="Igor Stravinsky">Igor Stravinsky</a>—which rejected popular solutions to modern problems), the rise of <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, and the march to war helped to radicalize a generation. <a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Bertolt Brecht</a>, <a href="/wiki/W._H._Auden" title="W. H. Auden">W. H. Auden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Breton" title="André Breton">André Breton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Aragon" title="Louis Aragon">Louis Aragon</a>, and the philosophers <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Antonio Gramsci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Walter Benjamin</a> are perhaps the most famous exemplars of this modernist form of Marxism. There were, however, also modernists explicitly of 'the right', including <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Dal%C3%AD" title="Salvador Dalí">Salvador Dalí</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wyndham_Lewis" title="Wyndham Lewis">Wyndham Lewis</a>, T. S. Eliot, <a href="/wiki/Ezra_Pound" title="Ezra Pound">Ezra Pound</a>, the Dutch author <a href="/wiki/Menno_ter_Braak" title="Menno ter Braak">Menno ter Braak</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-107">[101]</a> Significant modernist literary works continued to be created in the 1920s and 1930s, including further novels by <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Proust" title="Marcel Proust">Marcel Proust</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" title="Virginia Woolf">Virginia Woolf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Musil" title="Robert Musil">Robert Musil</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Richardson" title="Dorothy Richardson">Dorothy Richardson</a>. The American modernist dramatist <a href="/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill" title="Eugene O'Neill">Eugene O'Neill</a>'s career began in 1914, but his major works appeared in the 1920s, 1930s and early 1940s. Two other significant modernist dramatists writing in the 1920s and 1930s were <a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Bertolt Brecht</a> and <a href="/wiki/Federico_Garc%C3%ADa_Lorca" title="Federico García Lorca">Federico García Lorca</a>. <a href="/wiki/D._H._Lawrence" title="D. H. Lawrence">D. H. Lawrence</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Lady_Chatterley%27s_Lover" title="Lady Chatterley's Lover">Lady Chatterley's Lover</a> was privately published in 1928, while another important landmark for the history of the modern novel came with the publication of <a href="/wiki/William_Faulkner" title="William Faulkner">William Faulkner</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Sound_and_the_Fury" title="The Sound and the Fury">The Sound and the Fury</a> in 1929. In the 1930s, in addition to further major works by Faulkner, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a> published his first major work, the novel <a href="/wiki/Murphy_(novel)" title="Murphy (novel)">Murphy</a> (1938). Then in 1939 James Joyce's <a href="/wiki/Finnegans_Wake" title="Finnegans Wake">Finnegans Wake</a> appeared. This is written in a largely <a href="/wiki/Idioglossia" title="Idioglossia">idiosyncratic language</a>, consisting of a mixture of standard English <a href="/wiki/Lexical_item" title="Lexical item">lexical items</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Multilingual" class="mw-redirect" title="Multilingual">multilingual</a> <a href="/wiki/Pun" title="Pun">puns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portmanteau" class="mw-redirect" title="Portmanteau">portmanteau</a> words, which attempts to recreate the experience of sleep and dreams.<a href="#cite_note-108">[102]</a> In poetry T. S. Eliot, <a href="/wiki/E._E._Cummings" title="E. E. Cummings">E. E. Cummings</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Stevens" title="Wallace Stevens">Wallace Stevens</a> were writing from the 1920s until the 1950s. While <a href="/wiki/Modernist_poetry_in_English" title="Modernist poetry in English">modernist poetry in English</a> is often viewed as an American phenomenon, with leading exponents including Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, <a href="/wiki/Marianne_Moore" title="Marianne Moore">Marianne Moore</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Carlos_Williams" title="William Carlos Williams">William Carlos Williams</a>, <a href="/wiki/H.D." title="H.D.">H.D.</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Louis_Zukofsky" title="Louis Zukofsky">Louis Zukofsky</a>, there were important British modernist poets, including <a href="/wiki/David_Jones_(artist-poet)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Jones (artist-poet)">David Jones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hugh_MacDiarmid" title="Hugh MacDiarmid">Hugh MacDiarmid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basil_Bunting" title="Basil Bunting">Basil Bunting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/W._H._Auden" title="W. H. Auden">W. H. Auden</a>. European modernist poets include <a href="/wiki/Federico_Garc%C3%ADa_Lorca" title="Federico García Lorca">Federico García Lorca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anna_Akhmatova" title="Anna Akhmatova">Anna Akhmatova</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_Cavafy" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine Cavafy">Constantine Cavafy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Val%C3%A9ry" title="Paul Valéry">Paul Valéry</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Joyce_oconnell_dublin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Joyce_oconnell_dublin.jpg/120px-Joyce_oconnell_dublin.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Joyce_oconnell_dublin.jpg/180px-Joyce_oconnell_dublin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Joyce_oconnell_dublin.jpg/240px-Joyce_oconnell_dublin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="654" data-file-height="1842" /></a><figcaption>James Joyce statue on <a href="/wiki/North_Earl_Street" title="North Earl Street">North Earl Street</a>, Dublin, by Marjorie FitzGibbon</figcaption></figure> The modernist movement continued during this period in <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Soviet Russia</a>. In 1930 composer <a href="/wiki/Dimitri_Shostakovich" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimitri Shostakovich">Dimitri Shostakovich</a>'s (1906–1975) opera <a href="/wiki/The_Nose_(opera)" title="The Nose (opera)">The Nose</a> was premiered, in which he uses a <a href="/wiki/Musical_montage" class="mw-redirect" title="Musical montage">montage</a> of different styles, including <a href="/wiki/Folk_music" title="Folk music">folk music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Popular_song" class="mw-redirect" title="Popular song">popular song</a> and atonality. Among his influences was <a href="/wiki/Alban_Berg" title="Alban Berg">Alban Berg</a>'s (1885–1935) opera <a href="/wiki/Wozzeck" title="Wozzeck">Wozzeck</a> (1925), which "had made a tremendous impression on Shostakovich when it was staged in Leningrad."<a href="#cite_note-109">[103]</a> However, from 1932 <a href="/wiki/Socialist_realism" title="Socialist realism">socialist realism</a> began to oust modernism in the Soviet Union,<a href="#cite_note-Sergei_V._Ivanov_pp._28-110">[104]</a> and in 1936 Shostakovich was attacked and forced to withdraw his 4th Symphony.<a href="#cite_note-111">[105]</a> Alban Berg wrote another significant, though incomplete, modernist opera, <a href="/wiki/Lulu_(opera)" title="Lulu (opera)">Lulu</a>, which premiered in 1937. Berg's <a href="/wiki/Violin_Concerto_(Berg)" title="Violin Concerto (Berg)">Violin Concerto</a> was first performed in 1935. Like Shostakovich, other composers faced difficulties in this period. In Germany <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg" title="Arnold Schoenberg">Arnold Schoenberg</a> (1874–1951) was forced to flee to the U.S. when Hitler came to power in 1933, because of his modernist atonal style as well as his Jewish ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Music_Online-112">[106]</a> His major works from this period are a <a href="/wiki/Violin_Concerto_(Schoenberg)" title="Violin Concerto (Schoenberg)">Violin Concerto</a>, Op. 36 (1934/36), and a <a href="/wiki/Piano_Concerto_(Schoenberg)" title="Piano Concerto (Schoenberg)">Piano Concerto</a>, Op. 42 (1942). Schoenberg also wrote tonal music in this period with the Suite for Strings in G major (1935) and the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_Symphony_No._2_(Schoenberg)" title="Chamber Symphony No. 2 (Schoenberg)">Chamber Symphony No. 2</a> in E♭ minor, Op. 38 (begun in 1906, completed in 1939).<a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Music_Online-112">[106]</a> During this time Hungarian modernist <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bart%C3%B3k" title="Béla Bartók">Béla Bartók</a> (1881–1945) produced a number of major works, including <a href="/wiki/Music_for_Strings,_Percussion_and_Celesta" title="Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta">Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta</a> (1936) and the <a href="/wiki/Divertimento_for_String_Orchestra_(Bart%C3%B3k)" title="Divertimento for String Orchestra (Bartók)">Divertimento for String Orchestra</a> (1939), <a href="/wiki/String_Quartet_No._5_(Bart%C3%B3k)" title="String Quartet No. 5 (Bartók)">String Quartet No. 5</a> (1934), and <a href="/wiki/String_Quartet_No._6_(Bart%C3%B3k)" title="String Quartet No. 6 (Bartók)">No. 6</a> (his last, 1939). But he too left for the US in 1940, because of the rise of <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> in Hungary.<a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Music_Online-112">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky" title="Igor Stravinsky">Igor Stravinsky</a> (1882–1971) continued writing in his <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_style" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoclassical style">neoclassical style</a> during the 1930s and 1940s, writing works like the <a href="/wiki/Symphony_of_Psalms" title="Symphony of Psalms">Symphony of Psalms</a> (1930), <a href="/wiki/Symphony_in_C_(Stravinsky)" title="Symphony in C (Stravinsky)">Symphony in C</a> (1940), and <a href="/wiki/Symphony_in_Three_Movements_(Stravinsky)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symphony in Three Movements (Stravinsky)">Symphony in Three Movements</a> (1945). He also emigrated to the US because of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. <a href="/wiki/Olivier_Messiaen" title="Olivier Messiaen">Olivier Messiaen</a> (1908–1992), however, served in the French army during the war and was imprisoned at <a href="/wiki/Stalag_VIII-A" title="Stalag VIII-A">Stalag VIII-A</a> by the Germans, where he composed his famous <a href="/wiki/Quatuor_pour_la_fin_du_temps" title="Quatuor pour la fin du temps">Quatuor pour la fin du temps</a> ("Quartet for the End of Time"). The quartet was first performed in January 1941 to an audience of prisoners and prison guards.<a href="#cite_note-113">[107]</a> In painting, during the 1920s and 1930s and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, modernism was defined by Surrealism, late Cubism, <a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_Stijl" title="De Stijl">De Stijl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada</a>, German Expressionism, and modernist and masterful color painters like <a href="/wiki/Henri_Matisse" title="Henri Matisse">Henri Matisse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bonnard" title="Pierre Bonnard">Pierre Bonnard</a> as well as the abstractions of artists like <a href="/wiki/Piet_Mondrian" title="Piet Mondrian">Piet Mondrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky" title="Wassily Kandinsky">Wassily Kandinsky</a> which characterized the European art scene. In Germany, <a href="/wiki/Max_Beckmann" title="Max Beckmann">Max Beckmann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Dix" title="Otto Dix">Otto Dix</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Grosz" title="George Grosz">George Grosz</a> and others politicized their paintings, foreshadowing the coming of World War II, while in America, modernism is seen in the form of <a href="/wiki/American_Scene_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="American Scene painting">American Scene painting</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Social_realism" title="Social realism">social realism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(art)" title="Regionalism (art)">Regionalism</a> movements that contained both political and social commentary dominated the art world. Artists like <a href="/wiki/Ben_Shahn" title="Ben Shahn">Ben Shahn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hart_Benton_(painter)" title="Thomas Hart Benton (painter)">Thomas Hart Benton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grant_Wood" title="Grant Wood">Grant Wood</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Tooker" title="George Tooker">George Tooker</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Steuart_Curry" title="John Steuart Curry">John Steuart Curry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Marsh_(artist)" title="Reginald Marsh (artist)">Reginald Marsh</a>, and others became prominent. Modernism is defined in Latin America by painters <a href="/wiki/Joaqu%C3%ADn_Torres-Garc%C3%ADa" title="Joaquín Torres-García">Joaquín Torres-García</a> from Uruguay and <a href="/wiki/Rufino_Tamayo" title="Rufino Tamayo">Rufino Tamayo</a> from Mexico, while the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_muralism" title="Mexican muralism">muralist movement</a> with <a href="/wiki/Diego_Rivera" title="Diego Rivera">Diego Rivera</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Siqueiros" class="mw-redirect" title="David Siqueiros">David Siqueiros</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Clemente_Orozco" title="José Clemente Orozco">José Clemente Orozco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Nel_G%C3%B3mez" title="Pedro Nel Gómez">Pedro Nel Gómez</a> and <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Mart%C3%ADnez_Delgado" title="Santiago Martínez Delgado">Santiago Martínez Delgado</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolist</a> paintings by <a href="/wiki/Frida_Kahlo" title="Frida Kahlo">Frida Kahlo</a>, began a renaissance of the arts for the region, characterized by a freer use of color and an emphasis on political messages. Diego Rivera is perhaps best known by the public world for his 1933 mural, <a href="/wiki/Man_at_the_Crossroads" title="Man at the Crossroads">Man at the Crossroads</a>, in the lobby of the RCA Building at <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Center" title="Rockefeller Center">Rockefeller Center</a>. When his patron <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Rockefeller" title="Nelson Rockefeller">Nelson Rockefeller</a> discovered that the mural included a portrait of <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> and other communist imagery, he fired Rivera, and the unfinished work was eventually destroyed by Rockefeller's staff. <a href="/wiki/Frida_Kahlo" title="Frida Kahlo">Frida Kahlo</a>'s works are often characterized by their stark portrayals of pain. Kahlo was deeply influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, which is apparent in her paintings' bright colors and dramatic symbolism. Christian and Jewish themes are often depicted in her work as well; she combined elements of the classic religious Mexican tradition, which were often bloody and violent. Frida Kahlo's Symbolist works relate strongly to surrealism and to the <a href="/wiki/Magic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Magic realism">magic realism</a> movement in literature. Political activism was an important piece of David Siqueiros' life, and frequently inspired him to set aside his artistic career. His art was deeply rooted in the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a>. The period from the 1920s to the 1950s is known as the Mexican Renaissance, and Siqueiros was active in the attempt to create an art that was at once Mexican and universal. The young <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Pollock" title="Jackson Pollock">Jackson Pollock</a> attended the workshop and helped build <a href="/wiki/Float_(parade)" title="Float (parade)">floats</a> for the parade. During the 1930s, radical <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">leftist politics</a> characterized many of the artists connected to surrealism, including <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[108]</a> On 26 April 1937, during the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Basque_Country_(autonomous_community)" title="Basque Country (autonomous community)">Basque</a> town of <a href="/wiki/Gernika" class="mw-redirect" title="Gernika">Gernika</a> was <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Guernica" title="Bombing of Guernica">bombed</a> by Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe. The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a> to overthrow the Basque government and the Spanish Republican government. Pablo Picasso painted his mural-sized <a href="/wiki/Guernica_(Picasso)" title="Guernica (Picasso)">Guernica</a> to commemorate the horrors of the bombing. During the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> of the 1930s and through the years of World War II, American art was characterized by social realism and <a href="/wiki/American_Scene_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="American Scene painting">American Scene painting</a>, in the work of <a href="/wiki/Grant_Wood" title="Grant Wood">Grant Wood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Hopper" title="Edward Hopper">Edward Hopper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ben_Shahn" title="Ben Shahn">Ben Shahn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hart_Benton_(painter)" title="Thomas Hart Benton (painter)">Thomas Hart Benton</a>, and several others. <a href="/wiki/Nighthawks_(painting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nighthawks (painting)">Nighthawks</a> (1942) is a painting by Edward Hopper that portrays people sitting in a downtown diner late at night. It is not only Hopper's most famous painting, but one of the most recognizable in American art. The scene was inspired by a diner in <a href="/wiki/Greenwich_Village" title="Greenwich Village">Greenwich Village</a>. Hopper began painting it immediately after the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a>. After this event there was a large feeling of gloominess over the country, a feeling that is portrayed in the painting. The urban street is empty outside the diner, and inside none of the three patrons is apparently looking or talking to the others but instead is lost in their own thoughts. This portrayal of modern urban life as empty or lonely is a common theme throughout Hopper's work. <a href="/wiki/American_Gothic" title="American Gothic">American Gothic</a> is a painting by <a href="/wiki/Grant_Wood" title="Grant Wood">Grant Wood</a> from 1930 portraying a <a href="/wiki/Pitchfork" title="Pitchfork">pitchfork</a>-holding farmer and a younger woman in front of a house of <a href="/wiki/Carpenter_Gothic" title="Carpenter Gothic">Carpenter Gothic</a> style, it is one of the most familiar images in 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_the_United_States" title="Visual art of the United States">American art</a>. Art critics had favorable opinions about the painting; like <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Stein" title="Gertrude Stein">Gertrude Stein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Morley" title="Christopher Morley">Christopher Morley</a>, they assumed the painting was meant to be a satire of rural small-town life. It was thus seen as part of the trend towards increasingly critical depictions of rural America, along the lines of <a href="/wiki/Sherwood_Anderson" title="Sherwood Anderson">Sherwood Anderson</a>'s 1919 <a href="/wiki/Winesburg,_Ohio" title="Winesburg, Ohio">Winesburg, Ohio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Lewis" title="Sinclair Lewis">Sinclair Lewis</a>'s 1920 <a href="/wiki/Main_Street_(novel)" title="Main Street (novel)">Main Street</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Van_Vechten" title="Carl Van Vechten">Carl Van Vechten</a>'s The Tattooed Countess in literature.<a href="#cite_note-slate-115">[109]</a> However, with the onset of the Great Depression, the painting came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pioneer spirit. The situation for artists in Europe during the 1930s deteriorated rapidly as the Nazis' power in Germany and across Eastern Europe increased. <a href="/wiki/Degenerate_art" title="Degenerate art">Degenerate art</a> was a term adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> regime in Germany for virtually all modern art. Such art was banned because it was un-German or <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Bolshevism" title="Jewish Bolshevism">Jewish Bolshevist</a> in nature, and those identified as degenerate artists were subjected to sanctions. These included being dismissed from teaching positions, being forbidden to exhibit or to sell their art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art entirely. <a href="/wiki/Degenerate_Art_Exhibition" class="mw-redirect" title="Degenerate Art Exhibition">Degenerate Art</a> was also the title of an exhibition, mounted by the Nazis in <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a> in 1937. The climate became so hostile for artists and art associated with modernism and <a href="/wiki/Abstract_art" title="Abstract art">abstraction</a> that many left for the Americas. German artist <a href="/wiki/Max_Beckmann" title="Max Beckmann">Max Beckmann</a> and scores of others fled Europe for New York. In New York City a new generation of young and exciting modernist painters led by <a href="/wiki/Arshile_Gorky" title="Arshile Gorky">Arshile Gorky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Kooning" title="Willem de Kooning">Willem de Kooning</a>, and others were just beginning to come of age. Arshile Gorky's portrait of someone who might be Willem de Kooning is an example of the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Abstract_Expressionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract Expressionism">Abstract Expressionism</a> from the context of figure painting, Cubism and Surrealism. Along with his friends de Kooning and <a href="/wiki/John_D._Graham" title="John D. Graham">John D. Graham</a>, Gorky created bio morphically shaped and abstracted figurative compositions that by the 1940s evolved into totally abstract paintings. Gorky's work seems to be a careful analysis of memory, emotion and shape, using line and color to express feeling and nature. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attacks_on_early_modernism">Attacks on early modernism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Attacks on early modernism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franz_Marc-The_fate_of_the_animals-1913.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Franz_Marc-The_fate_of_the_animals-1913.jpg/250px-Franz_Marc-The_fate_of_the_animals-1913.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Franz_Marc-The_fate_of_the_animals-1913.jpg/375px-Franz_Marc-The_fate_of_the_animals-1913.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Franz_Marc-The_fate_of_the_animals-1913.jpg/500px-Franz_Marc-The_fate_of_the_animals-1913.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="838" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Franz_Marc" title="Franz Marc">Franz Marc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fate_of_the_Animals" title="Fate of the Animals">The fate of the animals</a>, 1913, oil on canvas. The work was displayed at the exhibition of <a href="/wiki/Degenerate_art" title="Degenerate art">"Entartete Kunst"</a> ("degenerate art") in <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>, 1937.</figcaption></figure> Modernism's stress on <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_expression" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of expression">freedom of expression</a>, experimentation, <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radicalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Primitivism" title="Primitivism">primitivism</a> disregards conventional expectations. In many art forms this often meant startling and alienating audiences with bizarre and unpredictable effects, as in the strange and disturbing combinations of motifs in Surrealism or the use of extreme <a href="/wiki/Consonance_and_dissonance" title="Consonance and dissonance">dissonance</a> and atonality in modernist music. In literature this often involved the rejection of intelligible plots or characterization in novels, or the creation of poetry that defied clear interpretation. Within the <a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, the specter of <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> was at play in anxieties over modernism and the notion that doctrine develops and changes over time.<a href="#cite_note-Lamport_Gordon_Marty_2017_p._525-116">[110]</a> From 1932, <a href="/wiki/Socialist_realism" title="Socialist realism">socialist realism</a> began to oust modernism in the Soviet Union,<a href="#cite_note-Sergei_V._Ivanov_pp._28-110">[104]</a> where it had previously endorsed Russian Futurism and <a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(art)" title="Constructivism (art)">Constructivism</a>, primarily under the homegrown philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Suprematism" title="Suprematism">Suprematism</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazi</a> government of Germany deemed modernism <a href="/wiki/Narcissism" title="Narcissism">narcissistic</a> and nonsensical, as well as "Jewish" (see <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a>) and "Negro".<a href="#cite_note-117">[111]</a> The Nazis exhibited modernist paintings alongside works by the <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mentally ill</a> in an exhibition entitled "<a href="/wiki/Degenerate_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Degenerate Art">Degenerate Art</a>". Accusations of "formalism" could lead to the end of a career, or worse. For this reason, many modernists of the post-war generation felt that they were the most important bulwark against totalitarianism, the "<a href="/wiki/Sentinel_species" title="Sentinel species">canary in the coal mine</a>", whose repression by a government or other group with supposed authority represented a warning that individual liberties were being threatened. Louis A. Sass compared madness, specifically <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, and modernism in a less fascist manner by noting their shared disjunctive narratives, surreal images, and incoherence.<a href="#cite_note-118">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_1945">After 1945</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: After 1945">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Late_modernism" title="Late modernism">Late modernism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abstract_Expressionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract Expressionism">Abstract Expressionism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Museum_Reina_Sof%C3%ADa_Madrid_Spain_Espana_this_is_a_front_photo_close_up_at_the_Queen_Sofia_Museum_in_2011_month_of_June.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Museum_Reina_Sof%C3%ADa_Madrid_Spain_Espana_this_is_a_front_photo_close_up_at_the_Queen_Sofia_Museum_in_2011_month_of_June.jpg/170px-Museum_Reina_Sof%C3%ADa_Madrid_Spain_Espana_this_is_a_front_photo_close_up_at_the_Queen_Sofia_Museum_in_2011_month_of_June.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Museum_Reina_Sof%C3%ADa_Madrid_Spain_Espana_this_is_a_front_photo_close_up_at_the_Queen_Sofia_Museum_in_2011_month_of_June.jpg/255px-Museum_Reina_Sof%C3%ADa_Madrid_Spain_Espana_this_is_a_front_photo_close_up_at_the_Queen_Sofia_Museum_in_2011_month_of_June.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Museum_Reina_Sof%C3%ADa_Madrid_Spain_Espana_this_is_a_front_photo_close_up_at_the_Queen_Sofia_Museum_in_2011_month_of_June.jpg/340px-Museum_Reina_Sof%C3%ADa_Madrid_Spain_Espana_this_is_a_front_photo_close_up_at_the_Queen_Sofia_Museum_in_2011_month_of_June.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Museo_Nacional_Centro_de_Arte_Reina_Sof%C3%ADa" title="Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía">Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía</a> (MNCARS) is Spain's national museum of 20th-century art, located in <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>. The photo shows the old building with the addition of one of the contemporary glass towers to the exterior by <a href="/wiki/Ian_Ritchie_Architects" title="Ian Ritchie Architects">Ian Ritchie Architects</a> with a closeup of the modern art tower.</figcaption></figure> While The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature states that modernism ended by c. 1939<a href="#cite_note-British_Literature'_2006-119">[113]</a> with regard to British and American literature, "When (if) modernism petered out and postmodernism began has been contested almost as hotly as when the transition from Victorianism to modernism occurred."<a href="#cite_note-120">[114]</a> Clement Greenberg sees modernism ending in the 1930s, with the exception of the visual and performing arts,<a href="#cite_note-Greenberg-49">[45]</a> but with regard to music, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Griffiths_(writer)" title="Paul Griffiths (writer)">Paul Griffiths</a> notes that, while modernism "seemed to be a spent force" by the late 1920s, after World War II, "a new generation of composers—<a href="/wiki/Pierre_Boulez" title="Pierre Boulez">Boulez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Barraqu%C3%A9" title="Jean Barraqué">Barraqué</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milton_Babbitt" title="Milton Babbitt">Babbitt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Nono" title="Luigi Nono">Nono</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karlheinz_Stockhausen" title="Karlheinz Stockhausen">Stockhausen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iannis_Xenakis" title="Iannis Xenakis">Xenakis</a>" revived modernism".<a href="#cite_note-121">[115]</a> In fact, many literary modernists lived into the 1950s and 1960s, though generally they were no longer producing major works. The term "<a href="/wiki/Late_modernism" title="Late modernism">late modernism</a>" is also sometimes applied to modernist works published after 1930.<a href="#cite_note-122">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[117]</a> Among the modernists (or late modernists) still publishing after 1945 were <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Stevens" title="Wallace Stevens">Wallace Stevens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Benn" title="Gottfried Benn">Gottfried Benn</a>, <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anna_Akhmatova" title="Anna Akhmatova">Anna Akhmatova</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Faulkner" title="William Faulkner">William Faulkner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Richardson" title="Dorothy Richardson">Dorothy Richardson</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Cowper_Powys" title="John Cowper Powys">John Cowper Powys</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ezra_Pound" title="Ezra Pound">Ezra Pound</a>. <a href="/wiki/Basil_Bunting" title="Basil Bunting">Basil Bunting</a>, born in 1901, published his most important modernist poem, <a href="/wiki/Briggflatts" title="Briggflatts">Briggflatts</a> in 1965. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Broch" title="Hermann Broch">Hermann Broch</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_Virgil" title="The Death of Virgil">The Death of Virgil</a> was published in 1945 and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mann" title="Thomas Mann">Thomas Mann</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Doctor_Faustus_(novel)" title="Doctor Faustus (novel)">Doctor Faustus</a> in 1947. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a>, who died in 1989, has been described as a "later modernist".<a href="#cite_note-124">[118]</a> Beckett is a writer with roots in the Expressionist tradition of modernism, who produced works from the 1930s until the 1980s, including <a href="/wiki/Molloy_(novel)" title="Molloy (novel)">Molloy</a> (1951), <a href="/wiki/Waiting_for_Godot" title="Waiting for Godot">Waiting for Godot</a> (1953), <a href="/wiki/Happy_Days_(play)" title="Happy Days (play)">Happy Days</a> (1961), and <a href="/wiki/Rockaby" title="Rockaby">Rockaby</a> (1981). The terms "<a href="/wiki/Minimalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimalist">minimalist</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Post-modernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-modernist">post-modernist</a>" have also been applied to his later works.<a href="#cite_note-125">[119]</a> The poets <a href="/wiki/Charles_Olson" title="Charles Olson">Charles Olson</a> (1910–1970) and <a href="/wiki/J._H._Prynne" title="J. H. Prynne">J. H. Prynne</a> (born 1936) are among the writers in the second half of the 20th century who have been described as late modernists.<a href="#cite_note-126">[120]</a> More recently, the term "late modernism" has been redefined by at least one critic and used to refer to works written after 1945, rather than 1930. With this usage goes the idea that the ideology of modernism was significantly re-shaped by the events of World War II, especially <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> and the dropping of the atom bomb.<a href="#cite_note-127">[121]</a> The post-war period left the capitals of Europe in upheaval, with an urgency to economically and physically rebuild and to politically regroup. In Paris (the former center of European culture and the former capital of the art world), the climate for art was a disaster. Important collectors, dealers, and modernist artists, writers, and poets fled Europe for New York and America. The <a href="/wiki/Surrealists" class="mw-redirect" title="Surrealists">surrealists</a> and modern artists from every cultural center of Europe had fled the onslaught of the Nazis for safe haven in the United States. Many of those who did not flee perished. A few artists, notably <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Matisse" title="Henri Matisse">Henri Matisse</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bonnard" title="Pierre Bonnard">Pierre Bonnard</a>, remained in France and survived. The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American Abstract Expressionism, a modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Surrealism, <a href="/wiki/Joan_Mir%C3%B3" title="Joan Miró">Joan Miró</a>, Cubism, <a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">Fauvism</a>, and early modernism via great teachers in America like <a href="/wiki/Hans_Hofmann" title="Hans Hofmann">Hans Hofmann</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_D._Graham" title="John D. Graham">John D. Graham</a>. American artists benefited from the presence of <a href="/wiki/Piet_Mondrian" title="Piet Mondrian">Piet Mondrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fernand_L%C3%A9ger" title="Fernand Léger">Fernand Léger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Ernst" title="Max Ernst">Max Ernst</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Breton" title="André Breton">André Breton</a> group, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Matisse" title="Pierre Matisse">Pierre Matisse</a>'s gallery, and <a href="/wiki/Peggy_Guggenheim" title="Peggy Guggenheim">Peggy Guggenheim</a>'s gallery <a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_This_Century" class="mw-redirect" title="The Art of This Century">The Art of This Century</a>, as well as other factors. Paris, moreover, recaptured much of its luster in the 1950s and 1960s as the center of a machine art florescence, with both of the leading machine art sculptors <a href="/wiki/Jean_Tinguely" title="Jean Tinguely">Jean Tinguely</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Sch%C3%B6ffer" title="Nicolas Schöffer">Nicolas Schöffer</a> having moved there to launch their careers—and which florescence, in light of the technocentric character of modern life, may well have a particularly long-lasting influence.<a href="#cite_note-128">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theatre_of_the_Absurd">Theatre of the Absurd</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Theatre of the Absurd">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:En_attendant_Godot,_Festival_d%27Avignon,_1978.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/En_attendant_Godot%2C_Festival_d%27Avignon%2C_1978.jpeg/220px-En_attendant_Godot%2C_Festival_d%27Avignon%2C_1978.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/En_attendant_Godot%2C_Festival_d%27Avignon%2C_1978.jpeg/330px-En_attendant_Godot%2C_Festival_d%27Avignon%2C_1978.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/En_attendant_Godot%2C_Festival_d%27Avignon%2C_1978.jpeg/440px-En_attendant_Godot%2C_Festival_d%27Avignon%2C_1978.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="4461" data-file-height="3290" /></a><figcaption>Samuel Beckett's <a href="/wiki/En_attendant_Godot" class="mw-redirect" title="En attendant Godot">En attendant Godot</a>, (Waiting for Godot) Festival d'Avignon, 1978</figcaption></figure> The term "<a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Absurd" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre of the Absurd">Theatre of the Absurd</a>" is applied to plays, written primarily by Europeans, that express the belief that human existence has no meaning or purpose and therefore all communication breaks down. Logical construction and argument gives way to irrational and illogical speech and to its ultimate conclusion, silence.<a href="#cite_note-129">[123]</a> While there are significant precursors, including <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Jarry" title="Alfred Jarry">Alfred Jarry</a> (1873–1907), the Theatre of the Absurd is generally seen as beginning in the 1950s with the plays of <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a>. Critic <a href="/wiki/Martin_Esslin" title="Martin Esslin">Martin Esslin</a> coined the term in his 1960 essay "Theatre of the Absurd". He related these plays based on a broad theme of the absurd, similar to the way <a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Albert Camus</a> uses the term in his 1942 essay, <a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_Sisyphus" title="The Myth of Sisyphus">The Myth of Sisyphus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[124]</a> The Absurd in these plays takes the form of man's reaction to a world apparently without meaning, and/or man as a puppet controlled or menaced by invisible outside forces. Though the term is applied to a wide range of plays, some characteristics coincide in many of the plays: broad comedy, often similar to <a href="/wiki/Vaudeville" title="Vaudeville">vaudeville</a>, mixed with horrific or tragic images; characters caught in hopeless situations forced to do repetitive or meaningless actions; dialogue full of clichés, wordplay, and nonsense; plots that are cyclical or absurdly expansive; either a parody or dismissal of realism and the concept of the "<a href="/wiki/Well-made_play" title="Well-made play">well-made play</a>". Playwrights commonly associated with the Theatre of the Absurd include <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Samuel Beckett</a> (1906–1989), <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Ionesco" title="Eugène Ionesco">Eugène Ionesco</a> (1909–1994), <a href="/wiki/Jean_Genet" title="Jean Genet">Jean Genet</a> (1910–1986), <a href="/wiki/Harold_Pinter" title="Harold Pinter">Harold Pinter</a> (1930–2008), <a href="/wiki/Tom_Stoppard" title="Tom Stoppard">Tom Stoppard</a> (born 1937), <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vvedensky_(poet)" title="Alexander Vvedensky (poet)">Alexander Vvedensky</a> (1904–1941), <a href="/wiki/Daniil_Kharms" title="Daniil Kharms">Daniil Kharms</a> (1905–1942), <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_D%C3%BCrrenmatt" title="Friedrich Dürrenmatt">Friedrich Dürrenmatt</a> (1921–1990), <a href="/wiki/Alejandro_Jodorowsky" title="Alejandro Jodorowsky">Alejandro Jodorowsky</a> (born 1929), <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Arrabal" title="Fernando Arrabal">Fernando Arrabal</a> (born 1932), <a href="/wiki/V%C3%A1clav_Havel" title="Václav Havel">Václav Havel</a> (1936–2011) and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Albee" title="Edward Albee">Edward Albee</a> (1928–2016). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pollock_and_abstract_influences">Pollock and abstract influences</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Pollock and abstract influences">edit</a>]</div> During the late 1940s, <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Pollock" title="Jackson Pollock">Jackson Pollock</a>'s radical approach to painting revolutionized the potential for all <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art" title="Contemporary art">contemporary art</a> that followed him. To some extent, Pollock realized that the journey toward making a work of art was as important as the work of art itself. Like <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>'s innovative reinventions of painting and sculpture in the early 20th century via Cubism and constructed sculpture, Pollock redefined the way art is made. His move away from easel painting and conventionality was a liberating signal to the artists of his era and to all who came after. Artists realized that Jackson Pollock's process—placing unstretched raw <a href="/wiki/Canvas" title="Canvas">canvas</a> on the floor where it could be attacked from all four sides using artistic and industrial materials; dripping and throwing linear skeins of paint; drawing, staining, and brushing; using imagery and non-imagery—essentially blasted art-making beyond any prior boundary. Abstract Expressionism generally expanded and developed the definitions and possibilities available to artists for the creation of new works of art. The other Abstract Expressionists followed Pollock's breakthrough with new breakthroughs of their own. In a sense the innovations of Jackson Pollock, <a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Kooning" title="Willem de Kooning">Willem de Kooning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Kline" title="Franz Kline">Franz Kline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Rothko" title="Mark Rothko">Mark Rothko</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Guston" title="Philip Guston">Philip Guston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Hofmann" title="Hans Hofmann">Hans Hofmann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clyfford_Still" title="Clyfford Still">Clyfford Still</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barnett_Newman" title="Barnett Newman">Barnett Newman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ad_Reinhardt" title="Ad Reinhardt">Ad Reinhardt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Motherwell" title="Robert Motherwell">Robert Motherwell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Voulkos" title="Peter Voulkos">Peter Voulkos</a> and others opened the floodgates to the diversity and scope of all the art that followed them. Re-readings into abstract art by art historians such as <a href="/wiki/Linda_Nochlin" title="Linda Nochlin">Linda Nochlin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-131">[125]</a> <a href="/wiki/Griselda_Pollock" title="Griselda Pollock">Griselda Pollock</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[126]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catherine_de_Zegher" title="Catherine de Zegher">Catherine de Zegher</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[127]</a> critically show, however, that pioneering women artists who produced major innovations in modern art had been ignored by official accounts of its history. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_figures_from_British_art">International figures from British art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: International figures from British art">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moore" title="Henry Moore">Henry Moore</a> (1898–1986) emerged after World War II as Britain's leading sculptor. He was best known for his semi-<a href="/wiki/Abstract_art" title="Abstract art">abstract</a> monumental bronze sculptures which are located around the world as public works of art. His forms are usually abstractions of the human figure, typically depicting mother-and-child or reclining figures, usually suggestive of the female body, apart from a phase in the 1950s when he sculpted family groups. His forms are generally pierced or contain hollow spaces. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moore_Gro%C3%9Fe_liegende_Frauenfigur_1957_Z%C3%BCrich.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Moore_Gro%C3%9Fe_liegende_Frauenfigur_1957_Z%C3%BCrich.jpg/220px-Moore_Gro%C3%9Fe_liegende_Frauenfigur_1957_Z%C3%BCrich.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Moore_Gro%C3%9Fe_liegende_Frauenfigur_1957_Z%C3%BCrich.jpg/330px-Moore_Gro%C3%9Fe_liegende_Frauenfigur_1957_Z%C3%BCrich.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Moore_Gro%C3%9Fe_liegende_Frauenfigur_1957_Z%C3%BCrich.jpg/440px-Moore_Gro%C3%9Fe_liegende_Frauenfigur_1957_Z%C3%BCrich.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2964" data-file-height="2034" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_Moore" title="Henry Moore">Henry Moore</a>, <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_Reclining_Figure_1957%E2%80%9358#Working_model" title="UNESCO Reclining Figure 1957–58">Reclining Figure</a> (1957). In front of the <a href="/wiki/Kunsthaus_Z%C3%BCrich" title="Kunsthaus Zürich">Kunsthaus Zürich</a>, Switzerland.</figcaption></figure> In the 1950s, Moore began to receive increasingly significant commissions, including a reclining figure for the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> building in Paris in 1958.<a href="#cite_note-134">[128]</a> With many more public works of art, the scale of Moore's sculptures grew significantly. The last three decades of Moore's life continued in a similar vein, with several major retrospectives taking place around the world, notably a prominent exhibition in the summer of 1972 in the grounds of the <a href="/wiki/Belvedere_(fort)" title="Belvedere (fort)">Forte di Belvedere</a> overlooking <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>. By the end of the 1970s, there were some 40 exhibitions a year featuring his work. On the campus of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a> in December 1967, 25 years to the minute after the team of physicists led by <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> achieved the first controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, Moore's <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Energy_(sculpture)" title="Nuclear Energy (sculpture)">Nuclear Energy</a> was unveiled.<a href="#cite_note-135">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[130]</a> Also in Chicago, Moore commemorated science with a large bronze sundial, locally named <a href="/wiki/Man_Enters_the_Cosmos" title="Man Enters the Cosmos">Man Enters the Cosmos</a> (1980), which was commissioned to recognize the <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a> program.<a href="#cite_note-137">[131]</a> The "London School" of figurative painters, including <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon_(artist)" title="Francis Bacon (artist)">Francis Bacon</a> (1909–1992), <a href="/wiki/Lucian_Freud" title="Lucian Freud">Lucian Freud</a> (1922–2011), <a href="/wiki/Frank_Auerbach" title="Frank Auerbach">Frank Auerbach</a> (born 1931), <a href="/wiki/Leon_Kossoff" title="Leon Kossoff">Leon Kossoff</a> (born 1926), and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Andrews_(artist)" title="Michael Andrews (artist)">Michael Andrews</a> (1928–1995), have received widespread international recognition.<a href="#cite_note-138">[132]</a> Francis Bacon was an Irish-born British figurative painter known for his bold, graphic and emotionally raw imagery.<a href="#cite_note-139">[133]</a> His painterly but abstracted figures typically appear isolated in glass or steel geometrical cages set against flat, nondescript backgrounds. Bacon began painting during his early 20s but worked only sporadically until his mid-30s. His breakthrough came with the 1944 <a href="/wiki/Triptych" title="Triptych">triptych</a> <a href="/wiki/Three_Studies_for_Figures_at_the_Base_of_a_Crucifixion" title="Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion">Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion</a> which sealed his reputation as a uniquely bleak chronicler of the human condition.<a href="#cite_note-140">[134]</a> His output can be crudely described as consisting of sequences or variations on a single motif; beginning with the 1940s male heads isolated in rooms, the early 1950s screaming popes, and mid to late 1950s animals and lone figures suspended in geometric structures. These were followed by his early 1960s modern variations of the crucifixion in the triptych format. From the mid-1960s to early 1970s, Bacon mainly produced strikingly compassionate portraits of friends. Following the suicide of his lover George Dyer in 1971, his art became more personal, inward-looking, and preoccupied with themes and motifs of death. During his lifetime, Bacon was equally reviled and acclaimed.<a href="#cite_note-141">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lucian_Freud" title="Lucian Freud">Lucian Freud</a> was a German-born British painter, known chiefly for his thickly <a href="/wiki/Impasto" title="Impasto">impastoed</a> portrait and figure paintings, who was widely considered the pre-eminent British artist of his time.<a href="#cite_note-Grimes-142">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[139]</a> His works are noted for their psychological penetration, and for their often discomforting examination of the relationship between artist and model.<a href="#cite_note-146">[140]</a> According to William Grimes of <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, "Lucien Freud and his contemporaries transformed figure painting in the 20th century. In paintings like Girl with a White Dog (1951–1952),<a href="#cite_note-147">[141]</a> Freud put the pictorial language of traditional European painting in the service of an anti-romantic, confrontational style of portraiture that stripped bare the sitter's social facade. Ordinary people—many of them his friends—stared wide-eyed from the canvas, vulnerable to the artist's ruthless inspection."<a href="#cite_note-Grimes-142">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_Abstract_Expressionism">After Abstract Expressionism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: After Abstract Expressionism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Post-painterly_abstraction" title="Post-painterly abstraction">Post-painterly abstraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Color_field" title="Color field">Color field</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyrical_abstraction" title="Lyrical abstraction">Lyrical abstraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arte_Povera" title="Arte Povera">Arte Povera</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Process_art" title="Process art">Process art</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Abstract_art" title="Abstract art">abstract painting</a> during the 1950s and 1960s, several new directions like <a href="/wiki/Hard-edge_painting" title="Hard-edge painting">hard-edge painting</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Geometric_abstraction" title="Geometric abstraction">geometric abstraction</a> began to appear in artist studios and in radical avant-garde circles as a reaction against the subjectivism of Abstract Expressionism. <a href="/wiki/Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Clement Greenberg</a> became the voice of <a href="/wiki/Post-painterly_abstraction" title="Post-painterly abstraction">post-painterly abstraction</a> when he curated an influential exhibition of new painting that toured important art museums throughout the United States in 1964. <a href="/wiki/Color_field" title="Color field">Color field</a> painting, hard-edge painting, and <a href="/wiki/Lyrical_abstraction" title="Lyrical abstraction">lyrical abstraction</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[142]</a> emerged as radical new directions. By the late 1960s however, <a href="/wiki/Postminimalism" title="Postminimalism">postminimalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Process_art" title="Process art">process art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arte_Povera" title="Arte Povera">Arte Povera</a><a href="#cite_note-Shakers,_New_York_2007-149">[143]</a> also emerged as revolutionary concepts and movements that encompassed both painting and sculpture, via lyrical abstraction and the post-minimalist movement, and in early <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_art" title="Conceptual art">conceptual art</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shakers,_New_York_2007-149">[143]</a> Process art, as inspired by Pollock enabled artists to experiment with and make use of a diverse encyclopaedia of style, content, material, placement, sense of time, aplastic, and real space. <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Graves" title="Nancy Graves">Nancy Graves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Davis" title="Ronald Davis">Ronald Davis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howard_Hodgkin" title="Howard Hodgkin">Howard Hodgkin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larry_Poons" title="Larry Poons">Larry Poons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jannis_Kounellis" title="Jannis Kounellis">Jannis Kounellis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brice_Marden" title="Brice Marden">Brice Marden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colin_McCahon" title="Colin McCahon">Colin McCahon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Nauman" title="Bruce Nauman">Bruce Nauman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Tuttle" title="Richard Tuttle">Richard Tuttle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Saret" title="Alan Saret">Alan Saret</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Darby_Bannard" title="Walter Darby Bannard">Walter Darby Bannard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lynda_Benglis" title="Lynda Benglis">Lynda Benglis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dan_Christensen" title="Dan Christensen">Dan Christensen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larry_Zox" title="Larry Zox">Larry Zox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Landfield" title="Ronnie Landfield">Ronnie Landfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eva_Hesse" title="Eva Hesse">Eva Hesse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keith_Sonnier" title="Keith Sonnier">Keith Sonnier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Serra" title="Richard Serra">Richard Serra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pat_Lipsky" title="Pat Lipsky">Pat Lipsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sam_Gilliam" title="Sam Gilliam">Sam Gilliam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mario_Merz" title="Mario Merz">Mario Merz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Reginato" title="Peter Reginato">Peter Reginato</a> were some of the younger artists who emerged during the era of late modernism that spawned the heyday of the art of the late 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-150">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pop_art">Pop art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Pop art">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barcelona_(3392396182).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Barcelona_%283392396182%29.jpg/170px-Barcelona_%283392396182%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Barcelona_%283392396182%29.jpg/255px-Barcelona_%283392396182%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Barcelona_%283392396182%29.jpg/340px-Barcelona_%283392396182%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roy_Lichtenstein" title="Roy Lichtenstein">Roy Lichtenstein</a>'s sculpture <a href="/wiki/El_Cap_de_Barcelona" title="El Cap de Barcelona">El Cap de Barcelona</a> recreates the appearance of <a href="/wiki/Ben_Day_dots" class="mw-redirect" title="Ben Day dots">Ben Day dots</a>.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Modernism" title="Special:EditPage/Modernism">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (March 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pop_art" title="Pop art">Pop art</a></div> In 1962, the <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Janis" title="Sidney Janis">Sidney Janis</a> Gallery mounted The New Realists, the first major <a href="/wiki/Pop_art" title="Pop art">pop art</a> group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City.<a href="#cite_note-151">[145]</a> Janis mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery. The show had a great impact on the <a href="/wiki/New_York_School_(art)" title="New York School (art)">New York School</a> as well as the greater worldwide art scene. Earlier in England in 1958 the term "Pop Art" was used by <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Alloway" title="Lawrence Alloway">Lawrence Alloway</a> to describe paintings associated with the <a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">consumerism</a> of the post World War II era.<a href="#cite_note-152">[146]</a> This movement rejected Abstract Expressionism and its focus on the <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermeneutic">hermeneutic</a> and psychological interior in favor of art that depicted material consumer culture, advertising, and the iconography of the mass production age.<a href="#cite_note-153">[147]</a> The early works of <a href="/wiki/David_Hockney" title="David Hockney">David Hockney</a> and the works of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hamilton_(artist)" title="Richard Hamilton (artist)">Richard Hamilton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eduardo_Paolozzi" title="Eduardo Paolozzi">Eduardo Paolozzi</a> (who created the ground-breaking <a href="/wiki/I_was_a_Rich_Man%27s_Plaything" class="mw-redirect" title="I was a Rich Man's Plaything">I was a Rich Man's Plaything</a>, 1947<a href="#cite_note-:0-154">[148]</a>) are considered seminal examples in the movement.<a href="#cite_note-155">[149]</a> Meanwhile, in the downtown scene in New York's <a href="/wiki/East_Village,_Manhattan" title="East Village, Manhattan">East Village</a> 10th Street galleries, artists were formulating an American version of pop art. <a href="/wiki/Claes_Oldenburg" title="Claes Oldenburg">Claes Oldenburg</a> had his storefront, and the <a href="/wiki/Green_Gallery" title="Green Gallery">Green Gallery</a> on 57th Street began to show the works of <a href="/wiki/Tom_Wesselmann" title="Tom Wesselmann">Tom Wesselmann</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Rosenquist" title="James Rosenquist">James Rosenquist</a>. Later <a href="/wiki/Leo_Castelli" title="Leo Castelli">Leo Castelli</a> exhibited the works of other American artists, including those of <a href="/wiki/Andy_Warhol" title="Andy Warhol">Andy Warhol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roy_Lichtenstein" title="Roy Lichtenstein">Roy Lichtenstein</a> for most of their careers.<a href="#cite_note-156">[150]</a> There is a connection between the radical works of <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp" title="Marcel Duchamp">Marcel Duchamp</a> and <a href="/wiki/Man_Ray" title="Man Ray">Man Ray</a>, the rebellious <a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dadaists</a> with a sense of humor, and pop artists like <a href="/wiki/Claes_Oldenburg" title="Claes Oldenburg">Claes Oldenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andy_Warhol" title="Andy Warhol">Andy Warhol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roy_Lichtenstein" title="Roy Lichtenstein">Roy Lichtenstein</a>, whose paintings reproduce the look of <a href="/wiki/Ben-Day_dots" class="mw-redirect" title="Ben-Day dots">Ben-Day dots</a>, a technique used in commercial reproduction.<a href="#cite_note-157">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Minimalism">Minimalism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Minimalism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IKB_191.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/IKB_191.jpg/170px-IKB_191.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/IKB_191.jpg/255px-IKB_191.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/IKB_191.jpg/340px-IKB_191.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1496" data-file-height="1927" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yves_Klein" title="Yves Klein">Yves Klein</a>, IKB 191, 1962</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Minimalism" title="Minimalism">Minimalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minimal_music" title="Minimal music">Minimal music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postminimalism" title="Postminimalism">Postminimalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">20th-century Western painting</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Minimalism" title="Minimalism">Minimalism</a> describes movements in various forms of art and design, especially visual art and <a href="/wiki/Minimal_music" title="Minimal music">music</a>, wherein artists intend to expose the essence or identity of a subject through eliminating all nonessential forms, features, or concepts. Minimalism is any design or style wherein the simplest and fewest elements are used to create the maximum effect. As a specific movement in the arts, it is identified with developments in post–World War II Western art, most strongly with American visual arts in the 1960s and early 1970s. Prominent artists associated with this movement include <a href="/wiki/Donald_Judd" title="Donald Judd">Donald Judd</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_McCracken_(artist)" title="John McCracken (artist)">John McCracken</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agnes_Martin" title="Agnes Martin">Agnes Martin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dan_Flavin" title="Dan Flavin">Dan Flavin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(artist)" title="Robert Morris (artist)">Robert Morris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Bladen" title="Ronald Bladen">Ronald Bladen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anne_Truitt" title="Anne Truitt">Anne Truitt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Stella" title="Frank Stella">Frank Stella</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[152]</a> It derives from the reductive aspects of modernism and is often interpreted as a reaction against Abstract Expressionism and a bridge to <a href="/wiki/Postminimalism" title="Postminimalism">Post minimal</a> art practices. By the early 1960s, minimalism emerged as an abstract movement in art (with roots in the <a href="/wiki/Geometric_abstraction" title="Geometric abstraction">geometric abstraction</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kazimir_Malevich" title="Kazimir Malevich">Kazimir Malevich</a>,<a href="#cite_note-159">[153]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Piet_Mondrian" title="Piet Mondrian">Piet Mondrian</a>) that rejected the idea of relational and subjective painting, the complexity of Abstract Expressionist surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena of <a href="/wiki/Action_painting" title="Action painting">action painting</a>. Minimalism argued that extreme simplicity could capture all of the sublime representation needed in art. Minimalism is variously construed either as a precursor to postmodernism, or as a postmodern movement itself. In the latter perspective, early Minimalism yielded advanced modernist works, but the movement partially abandoned this direction when some artists like <a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(artist)" title="Robert Morris (artist)">Robert Morris</a> changed direction in favor of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-form_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-form movement">anti-form movement</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hal_Foster_(art_critic)" title="Hal Foster (art critic)">Hal Foster</a>, in his essay The Crux of Minimalism,<a href="#cite_note-Hal_Foster_1996,_pp44-53-160">[154]</a> examines the extent to which Donald Judd and Robert Morris both acknowledge and exceed Greenbergian modernism in their published definitions of minimalism.<a href="#cite_note-Hal_Foster_1996,_pp44-53-160">[154]</a> He argues that minimalism is not a "dead end" of modernism, but a "paradigm shift toward postmodern practices that continue to be elaborated today."<a href="#cite_note-Hal_Foster_1996,_pp44-53-160">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Minimal_music">Minimal music</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Minimal music">edit</a>]</div> The terms have expanded to encompass a movement in music that features such repetition and iteration as those of the compositions of <a href="/wiki/La_Monte_Young" title="La Monte Young">La Monte Young</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terry_Riley" title="Terry Riley">Terry Riley</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steve_Reich" title="Steve Reich">Steve Reich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Glass" title="Philip Glass">Philip Glass</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(composer)" title="John Adams (composer)">John Adams</a>. Minimalist compositions are sometimes known as <a href="/wiki/Systems_music" title="Systems music">systems music</a>. The term 'minimal music' is generally used to describe a style of music that developed in America in the late 1960s and 1970s; and that was initially connected with the composers.<a href="#cite_note-161">[155]</a> The minimalism movement originally involved some composers, and other lesser known pioneers included <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Oliveros" title="Pauline Oliveros">Pauline Oliveros</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phill_Niblock" title="Phill Niblock">Phill Niblock</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Maxfield" title="Richard Maxfield">Richard Maxfield</a>. In Europe, the music of <a href="/wiki/Louis_Andriessen" title="Louis Andriessen">Louis Andriessen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karel_Goeyvaerts" title="Karel Goeyvaerts">Karel Goeyvaerts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Nyman" title="Michael Nyman">Michael Nyman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howard_Skempton" title="Howard Skempton">Howard Skempton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eliane_Radigue" class="mw-redirect" title="Eliane Radigue">Eliane Radigue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gavin_Bryars" title="Gavin Bryars">Gavin Bryars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steve_Martland" title="Steve Martland">Steve Martland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henryk_G%C3%B3recki" title="Henryk Górecki">Henryk Górecki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arvo_P%C3%A4rt" title="Arvo Pärt">Arvo Pärt</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Tavener" title="John Tavener">John Tavener</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Postminimalism">Postminimalism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Postminimalism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.png/220px-Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.png/330px-Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.png/440px-Spiral-jetty-from-rozel-point.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Smithson's <a href="/wiki/Spiral_Jetty" title="Spiral Jetty">Spiral Jetty</a> from atop Rozel Point, Utah, US, in mid-April 2005. Created in 1970, it still exists although it has often been submerged by the fluctuating lake level. It consists of some 65,00 <a href="/wiki/Ton" title="Ton">tons</a> of <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>, earth and salt.</figcaption></figure> In the late 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Pincus-Witten" title="Robert Pincus-Witten">Robert Pincus-Witten</a><a href="#cite_note-Shakers,_New_York_2007-149">[143]</a> coined the term "<a href="/wiki/Postminimalism" title="Postminimalism">postminimalism</a>" to describe minimalist-derived art which had content and contextual overtones that minimalism rejected. The term was applied by Pincus-Witten to the work of <a href="/wiki/Eva_Hesse" title="Eva Hesse">Eva Hesse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Keith_Sonnier" title="Keith Sonnier">Keith Sonnier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Serra" title="Richard Serra">Richard Serra</a> and new work by former minimalists <a href="/wiki/Robert_Smithson" title="Robert Smithson">Robert Smithson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(artist)" title="Robert Morris (artist)">Robert Morris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sol_LeWitt" title="Sol LeWitt">Sol LeWitt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barry_Le_Va" title="Barry Le Va">Barry Le Va</a>, and others. Other minimalists, including <a href="/wiki/Donald_Judd" title="Donald Judd">Donald Judd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dan_Flavin" title="Dan Flavin">Dan Flavin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Andre" title="Carl Andre">Carl Andre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agnes_Martin" title="Agnes Martin">Agnes Martin</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_McCracken_(artist)" title="John McCracken (artist)">John McCracken</a> and others, continued to produce late modernist paintings and sculpture for the remainder of their careers. Since then, many artists have embraced minimal or post-minimal styles, and the label "postmodern" has been attached to them. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Collage,_assemblage,_installations">Collage, assemblage, installations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Collage, assemblage, installations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Collage" title="Collage">Collage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assemblage_(art)" title="Assemblage (art)">Assemblage (art)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Installation_art" title="Installation art">Installation art</a></div> Related to Abstract Expressionism was the emergence of combining manufactured items with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting and sculpture. The work of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Rauschenberg" title="Robert Rauschenberg">Robert Rauschenberg</a> exemplifies this trend. His "combines" of the 1950s were forerunners of <a href="/wiki/Pop_art" title="Pop art">pop art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Installation_art" title="Installation art">installation art</a>, and used assemblages of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photographs. Rauschenberg, <a href="/wiki/Jasper_Johns" title="Jasper Johns">Jasper Johns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larry_Rivers" title="Larry Rivers">Larry Rivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Chamberlain_(sculptor)" title="John Chamberlain (sculptor)">John Chamberlain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claes_Oldenburg" title="Claes Oldenburg">Claes Oldenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Segal_(artist)" title="George Segal (artist)">George Segal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Dine" title="Jim Dine">Jim Dine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Kienholz" title="Edward Kienholz">Edward Kienholz</a> were among important pioneers of both abstraction and pop art. Creating new conventions of art-making, they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion in their works of unlikely materials. Another pioneer of collage was <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Cornell" title="Joseph Cornell">Joseph Cornell</a>, whose more intimately scaled works were seen as radical because of both his personal iconography and his use of <a href="/wiki/Found_object" title="Found object">found objects</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neo-Dada">Neo-Dada</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Neo-Dada">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neo-Dada" title="Neo-Dada">Neo-Dada</a></div> In 1917, <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp" title="Marcel Duchamp">Marcel Duchamp</a> submitted a <a href="/wiki/Urinal" title="Urinal">urinal</a> as a sculpture for the inaugural exhibition of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Independent_Artists" title="Society of Independent Artists">Society of Independent Artists</a>, which was to be staged at the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Central_Palace" title="Grand Central Palace">Grand Central Palace</a> in New York.<a href="#cite_note-162">[156]</a> He professed his intent that people look at the urinal as if it were a work of art because he said it was a work of art. This urinal, named <a href="/wiki/Fountain_(Duchamp)" title="Fountain (Duchamp)">Fountain</a> was signed with the pseudonym "R. Mutt". It is also an example of what Duchamp would later call "<a href="/wiki/Readymades_of_Marcel_Duchamp" title="Readymades of Marcel Duchamp">readymades</a>". This and Duchamp's other works are generally labelled as Dada. Duchamp can be seen as a precursor to conceptual art, other famous examples being <a href="/wiki/John_Cage" title="John Cage">John Cage</a>'s <a href="/wiki/4%E2%80%B233%E2%80%B3" title="4′33″">4′33″</a>, which is four minutes and thirty three seconds of silence, and Rauschenberg's <a href="/wiki/Erased_de_Kooning_Drawing" title="Erased de Kooning Drawing">Erased de Kooning Drawing</a>. Many conceptual works take the position that art is the result of the viewer viewing an object or act as art, not of the intrinsic qualities of the work itself. In choosing "an ordinary article of life" and creating "a new thought for that object", Duchamp invited onlookers to view Fountain as a sculpture.<a href="#cite_note-163">[157]</a> Marcel Duchamp famously gave up "art" in favor of <a href="/wiki/Chess" title="Chess">chess</a>. Avant-garde composer <a href="/wiki/David_Tudor" title="David Tudor">David Tudor</a> created a piece, Reunion (1968), written jointly with Lowell Cross, that features a chess game in which each move triggers a lighting effect or projection. Duchamp and Cage played the game at the work's premier.<a href="#cite_note-164">[158]</a> <a href="/wiki/Steven_Best" title="Steven Best">Steven Best</a> and <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Kellner" title="Douglas Kellner">Douglas Kellner</a> identify Rauschenberg and <a href="/wiki/Jasper_Johns" title="Jasper Johns">Jasper Johns</a> as part of the transitional phase, influenced by Duchamp, between modernism and postmodernism. Both used images of ordinary objects, or the objects themselves, in their work, while retaining the abstraction and painterly gestures of high modernism.<a href="#cite_note-165">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Performance_and_happenings">Performance and happenings</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Performance and happenings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Performance_art" title="Performance art">Performance art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Happening" title="Happening">Happening</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fluxus" title="Fluxus">Fluxus</a></div> During the late 1950s and 1960s artists with a wide range of interests began to push the boundaries of contemporary art. <a href="/wiki/Yves_Klein" title="Yves Klein">Yves Klein</a> in France, <a href="/wiki/Carolee_Schneemann" title="Carolee Schneemann">Carolee Schneemann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yayoi_Kusama" title="Yayoi Kusama">Yayoi Kusama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Moorman" title="Charlotte Moorman">Charlotte Moorman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yoko_Ono" title="Yoko Ono">Yoko Ono</a> in New York City, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Beuys" title="Joseph Beuys">Joseph Beuys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolf_Vostell" title="Wolf Vostell">Wolf Vostell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nam_June_Paik" title="Nam June Paik">Nam June Paik</a> in Germany were pioneers of performance-based works of art. Groups like <a href="/wiki/The_Living_Theatre" title="The Living Theatre">The Living Theatre</a> with <a href="/wiki/Julian_Beck" title="Julian Beck">Julian Beck</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judith_Malina" title="Judith Malina">Judith Malina</a> collaborated with sculptors and painters to create environments, radically changing the relationship between audience and performer, especially in their piece Paradise Now. The <a href="/wiki/Judson_Dance_Theater" title="Judson Dance Theater">Judson Dance Theater</a>, located at the <a href="/wiki/Judson_Memorial_Church" title="Judson Memorial Church">Judson Memorial Church</a>, New York; and the Judson dancers, notably <a href="/wiki/Yvonne_Rainer" title="Yvonne Rainer">Yvonne Rainer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trisha_Brown" title="Trisha Brown">Trisha Brown</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elaine_Summers" title="Elaine Summers">Elaine Summers</a>, Sally Gross, Simonne Forti, <a href="/wiki/Deborah_Hay" title="Deborah Hay">Deborah Hay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucinda_Childs" title="Lucinda Childs">Lucinda Childs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steve_Paxton" title="Steve Paxton">Steve Paxton</a> and others; collaborated with artists <a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(artist)" title="Robert Morris (artist)">Robert Morris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Whitman" title="Robert Whitman">Robert Whitman</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Cage" title="John Cage">John Cage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Rauschenberg" title="Robert Rauschenberg">Robert Rauschenberg</a>, and engineers like <a href="/wiki/Billy_Kl%C3%BCver" title="Billy Klüver">Billy Klüver</a>. <a href="/wiki/Park_Place_Gallery" title="Park Place Gallery">Park Place Gallery</a> was a center for musical performances by electronic composers <a href="/wiki/Steve_Reich" title="Steve Reich">Steve Reich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Glass" title="Philip Glass">Philip Glass</a>, and other notable performance artists, including <a href="/wiki/Joan_Jonas" title="Joan Jonas">Joan Jonas</a>. These performances were intended as works of a new art form combining sculpture, dance, and music or sound, often with audience participation. They were characterized by the reductive philosophies of Minimalism and the spontaneous improvisation and expressivity of Abstract Expressionism. Images of Schneemann's performances of pieces meant to create shock within the audience are occasionally used to illustrate these kinds of art, and she is often photographed while performing her piece Interior Scroll. However, according to modernist philosophy surrounding performance art, it is cross-purposes to publish images of her performing this piece, for performance artists reject publication entirely: the performance itself is the medium. Thus, other media cannot illustrate performance art; performance is momentary, evanescent, and personal, not for capturing; representations of performance art in other media, whether by image, video, narrative or, otherwise, select certain points of view in space or time or otherwise involve the inherent limitations of each medium. The artists deny that recordings illustrate the medium of performance as art. During the same period, various avant-garde artists created <a href="/wiki/Happening" title="Happening">Happenings</a>, mysterious and often spontaneous and unscripted gatherings of artists and their friends and relatives in various specified locations, often incorporating exercises in absurdity, physicality, costuming, spontaneous nudity, and various random or seemingly disconnected acts. Notable creators of happenings included <a href="/wiki/Allan_Kaprow" title="Allan Kaprow">Allan Kaprow</a>—who first used the term in 1958,<a href="#cite_note-Allan_Kaprow|Chronology-166">[160]</a> <a href="/wiki/Claes_Oldenburg" title="Claes Oldenburg">Claes Oldenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Dine" title="Jim Dine">Jim Dine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Grooms" title="Red Grooms">Red Grooms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Whitman" title="Robert Whitman">Robert Whitman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intermedia,_multi-media">Intermedia, multi-media</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Intermedia, multi-media">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intermedia" title="Intermedia">Intermedia</a></div> Another trend in art which has been associated with the term postmodern is the use of a number of different media together. <a href="/wiki/Intermedia" title="Intermedia">Intermedia</a> is a term coined by <a href="/wiki/Dick_Higgins" title="Dick Higgins">Dick Higgins</a> and meant to convey new art forms along the lines of <a href="/wiki/Fluxus" title="Fluxus">Fluxus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Concrete_poetry" title="Concrete poetry">concrete poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Found_objects" class="mw-redirect" title="Found objects">found objects</a>, performance art, and <a href="/wiki/Computer_art" title="Computer art">computer art</a>. Higgins was the publisher of the <a href="/wiki/Something_Else_Press" title="Something Else Press">Something Else Press</a>, a concrete poet married to artist <a href="/wiki/Alison_Knowles" title="Alison Knowles">Alison Knowles</a> and an admirer of <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp" title="Marcel Duchamp">Marcel Duchamp</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ihab_Hassan" title="Ihab Hassan">Ihab Hassan</a> includes "Intermedia, the fusion of forms, the confusion of realms," in his list of the characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_art" title="Postmodern art">postmodern art</a>.<a href="#cite_note-168">[162]</a> One of the most common forms of "multi-media art" is the use of video-tape and CRT monitors, termed <a href="/wiki/Video_art" title="Video art">video art</a>. While the theory of combining multiple arts into one art is quite old, and has been revived periodically, the postmodern manifestation is often in combination with performance art, where the dramatic subtext is removed, and what is left is the specific statements of the artist in question or the conceptual statement of their action. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fluxus">Fluxus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Fluxus">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fluxus" title="Fluxus">Fluxus</a></div> Fluxus was named and loosely organized in 1962 by <a href="/wiki/George_Maciunas" title="George Maciunas">George Maciunas</a> (1931–1978), a Lithuanian-born American artist. Fluxus traces its beginnings to <a href="/wiki/John_Cage" title="John Cage">John Cage</a>'s 1957 to 1959 Experimental Composition classes at <a href="/wiki/The_New_School_for_Social_Research" title="The New School for Social Research">The New School for Social Research</a> in New York City. Many of his students were artists working in other media with little or no background in music. Cage's students included Fluxus founding members <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Mac_Low" title="Jackson Mac Low">Jackson Mac Low</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al_Hansen" title="Al Hansen">Al Hansen</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Brecht" title="George Brecht">George Brecht</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dick_Higgins" title="Dick Higgins">Dick Higgins</a>. Fluxus encouraged a do-it-yourself aesthetic and valued simplicity over complexity. Like <a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada</a> before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an <a href="/wiki/Anti-art" title="Anti-art">anti-art</a> sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. Fluxus artists preferred to work with whatever materials were at hand, and either created their own work or collaborated in the creation process with their colleagues. <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Huyssen" title="Andreas Huyssen">Andreas Huyssen</a> criticizes attempts to claim Fluxus for postmodernism as "either the master-code of postmodernism or the ultimately unrepresentable art movement—as it were, postmodernism's sublime."<a href="#cite_note-Huyssen-169">[163]</a> Instead he sees Fluxus as a major <a href="/wiki/Neo-Dada" title="Neo-Dada">Neo-Dadaist</a> phenomenon within the avant-garde tradition. It did not represent a major advance in the development of artistic strategies, though it did express a rebellion against "the administered culture of the 1950s, in which a moderate, domesticated modernism served as ideological prop to the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Huyssen-169">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avant-garde_popular_music">Avant-garde popular music</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Avant-garde popular music">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Avant-garde_music" title="Avant-garde music">Avant-garde music</a></div> Modernism had an uneasy relationship with popular forms of music (both in form and aesthetic) while rejecting popular culture.<a href="#cite_note-170">[164]</a> Despite this, Stravinsky used jazz idioms on his pieces like "Ragtime" from his 1918 theatrical work <a href="/wiki/Histoire_du_Soldat" class="mw-redirect" title="Histoire du Soldat">Histoire du Soldat</a> and 1945's <a href="/wiki/Ebony_Concerto_(Stravinsky)" title="Ebony Concerto (Stravinsky)">Ebony Concerto</a>.<a href="#cite_note-171">[165]</a> In the 1960s, as popular music began to gain cultural importance and question its status as commercial entertainment, musicians began to look to the <a href="/wiki/Post-war" title="Post-war">post-war</a> avant-garde for inspiration.<a href="#cite_note-bloomsbury-172">[166]</a> In 1959, music producer <a href="/wiki/Joe_Meek" title="Joe Meek">Joe Meek</a> recorded <a href="/wiki/I_Hear_a_New_World" title="I Hear a New World">I Hear a New World</a> (1960), which <a href="/wiki/Tiny_Mix_Tapes" title="Tiny Mix Tapes">Tiny Mix Tapes</a>' Jonathan Patrick calls a "seminal moment in both <a href="/wiki/Electronic_music" title="Electronic music">electronic music</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avant-pop" title="Avant-pop">avant-pop</a> history [...] a collection of dreamy pop vignettes, adorned with <a href="/wiki/Dub_music" title="Dub music">dubby</a> echoes and tape-warped sonic tendrils" which would be largely ignored at the time.<a href="#cite_note-tmtpat2013-173">[167]</a> Other early Avant-pop productions included <a href="/wiki/The_Beatles" title="The Beatles">the Beatles</a>'s 1966 song "<a href="/wiki/Tomorrow_Never_Knows" title="Tomorrow Never Knows">Tomorrow Never Knows</a>", which incorporated techniques from <a href="/wiki/Musique_concr%C3%A8te" title="Musique concrète">musique concrète</a>, avant-garde composition, <a href="/wiki/Indian_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian music">Indian music</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electroacoustics_(acoustical_engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroacoustics (acoustical engineering)">electro-acoustic</a> sound manipulation into a 3-minute pop format, and <a href="/wiki/The_Velvet_Underground" title="The Velvet Underground">the Velvet Underground</a>'s integration of <a href="/wiki/La_Monte_Young" title="La Monte Young">La Monte Young</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Minimalist_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimalist music">minimalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drone_music" title="Drone music">drone music</a> ideas, <a href="/wiki/Beat_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Beat poetry">beat poetry</a>, and 1960s pop art.<a href="#cite_note-bloomsbury-172">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_period">Late period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Late period">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Late_modernism" title="Late modernism">Late modernism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thedeluge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Thedeluge.jpg/220px-Thedeluge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Thedeluge.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="290" data-file-height="264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Landfield" title="Ronnie Landfield">Ronnie Landfield</a>, The Deluge, 1999, acrylic on canvas, 270 by 300 cm (9 by 10 ft)</figcaption></figure> The continuation of Abstract Expressionism, <a href="/wiki/Color_field_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Color field painting">color field painting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyrical_abstraction" title="Lyrical abstraction">lyrical abstraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geometric_abstraction" title="Geometric abstraction">geometric abstraction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minimalism" title="Minimalism">minimalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abstract_illusionism" title="Abstract illusionism">abstract illusionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Process_art" title="Process art">process art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pop_art" title="Pop art">pop art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postminimalism" title="Postminimalism">postminimalism</a>, and other late 20th-century modernist movements in both painting and sculpture continued through the first decade of the 21st century and constitute radical new directions in those mediums.<a href="#cite_note-174">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[170]</a> At the turn of the 21st century, well-established artists such as <a href="/wiki/Sir_Anthony_Caro" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Anthony Caro">Sir Anthony Caro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucian_Freud" title="Lucian Freud">Lucian Freud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cy_Twombly" title="Cy Twombly">Cy Twombly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Rauschenberg" title="Robert Rauschenberg">Robert Rauschenberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jasper_Johns" title="Jasper Johns">Jasper Johns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agnes_Martin" title="Agnes Martin">Agnes Martin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al_Held" title="Al Held">Al Held</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ellsworth_Kelly" title="Ellsworth Kelly">Ellsworth Kelly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Helen_Frankenthaler" title="Helen Frankenthaler">Helen Frankenthaler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frank_Stella" title="Frank Stella">Frank Stella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Noland" title="Kenneth Noland">Kenneth Noland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jules_Olitski" title="Jules Olitski">Jules Olitski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claes_Oldenburg" title="Claes Oldenburg">Claes Oldenburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jim_Dine" title="Jim Dine">Jim Dine</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Rosenquist" title="James Rosenquist">James Rosenquist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alex_Katz" title="Alex Katz">Alex Katz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Pearlstein" title="Philip Pearlstein">Philip Pearlstein</a>, and younger artists including <a href="/wiki/Brice_Marden" title="Brice Marden">Brice Marden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Close" title="Chuck Close">Chuck Close</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sam_Gilliam" title="Sam Gilliam">Sam Gilliam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Witkin" title="Isaac Witkin">Isaac Witkin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sean_Scully" title="Sean Scully">Sean Scully</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mahirwan_Mamtani" title="Mahirwan Mamtani">Mahirwan Mamtani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Nechvatal" title="Joseph Nechvatal">Joseph Nechvatal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Murray_(artist)" title="Elizabeth Murray (artist)">Elizabeth Murray</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larry_Poons" title="Larry Poons">Larry Poons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Serra" title="Richard Serra">Richard Serra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Darby_Bannard" title="Walter Darby Bannard">Walter Darby Bannard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larry_Zox" title="Larry Zox">Larry Zox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Landfield" title="Ronnie Landfield">Ronnie Landfield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Davis" title="Ronald Davis">Ronald Davis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dan_Christensen" title="Dan Christensen">Dan Christensen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pat_Lipsky" title="Pat Lipsky">Pat Lipsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joel_Shapiro" title="Joel Shapiro">Joel Shapiro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tom_Otterness" title="Tom Otterness">Tom Otterness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joan_Snyder" title="Joan Snyder">Joan Snyder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ross_Bleckner" title="Ross Bleckner">Ross Bleckner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archie_Rand" title="Archie Rand">Archie Rand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Susan_Crile" title="Susan Crile">Susan Crile</a>, and others continued to produce vital and influential paintings and sculpture. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_architecture">Modern architecture</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Modern architecture">edit</a>]</div> Many skyscrapers in Hong Kong and <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a> have been inspired by <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a> and modernist architecture, and his style is still used as influence for buildings worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-177">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modernism_in_Asia">Modernism in Asia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Modernism in Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Santiniketan:_The_Making_of_a_Contextual_Modernism" title="Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism">Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hanshinkan_Modernism" title="Hanshinkan Modernism">Hanshinkan Modernism</a></div> The terms "modernism" and "modernist", according to scholar William J. Tyler, "have only recently become part of the standard discourse in English on modern Japanese literature and doubts concerning their authenticity vis-à-vis Western European modernism remain". Tyler finds this odd, given "the decidedly modern prose" of such "well-known Japanese writers as <a href="/wiki/Kawabata_Yasunari" class="mw-redirect" title="Kawabata Yasunari">Kawabata Yasunari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nagai_Kafu" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagai Kafu">Nagai Kafu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jun%27ichir%C5%8D_Tanizaki" title="Jun'ichirō Tanizaki">Jun'ichirō Tanizaki</a>". However, "scholars in the visual and fine arts, architecture, and poetry readily embraced "modanizumu" as a key concept for describing and analysing Japanese culture in the 1920s and 1930s".<a href="#cite_note-178">[172]</a> In 1924, various young Japanese writers, including Kawabata and <a href="/wiki/Riichi_Yokomitsu" title="Riichi Yokomitsu">Riichi Yokomitsu</a> started a literary journal Bungei Jidai ("The Artistic Age"). This journal was "part of an '<a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake" title="Art for art's sake">art for art's sake</a>' movement, influenced by European Cubism, Expressionism, Dada, and other modernist styles".<a href="#cite_note-179">[173]</a> Japanese modernist architect <a href="/wiki/Kenz%C5%8D_Tange" title="Kenzō Tange">Kenzō Tange</a> (1913–2005) was one of the most significant architects of the 20th century, combining traditional Japanese styles with modernism, and designing major buildings on five continents. Tange was also an influential patron of the <a href="/wiki/Metabolism_(architecture)" title="Metabolism (architecture)">Metabolist movement</a>. He said: "It was, I believe, around 1959 or at the beginning of the sixties that I began to think about what I was later to call <a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(architecture)" title="Structuralism (architecture)">structuralism</a>",<a href="#cite_note-180">[174]</a> He was influenced from an early age by the Swiss modernist, <a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a>, Tange gained international recognition in 1949 when he won the competition for the design of <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima_Peace_Memorial_Park" title="Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park">Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park</a>.<a href="#cite_note-181">[175]</a> In China, the "<a href="/wiki/New_Sensationists" title="New Sensationists">New Sensationists</a>" (新感觉派, Xīn Gǎnjué Pài) were a group of writers based in Shanghai who in the 1930s and 1940s, were influenced, to varying degrees, by Western and Japanese modernism. They wrote fiction that was more concerned with the unconscious and with aesthetics than with politics or social problems. Among these writers were <a href="/wiki/Mu_Shiying" title="Mu Shiying">Mu Shiying</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shi_Zhecun" title="Shi Zhecun">Shi Zhecun</a>.<a href="#cite_note-182">[176]</a> In India, the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Artists%27_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Progressive Artists' Group">Progressive Artists' Group</a> was a group of modern artists, mainly based in <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a>, India formed in 1947. Though it lacked any particular style, it synthesized <a href="/wiki/Indian_art" title="Indian art">Indian art</a> with European and North America influences from the first half of the 20th century, including Post-Impressionism, Cubism and Expressionism.<a href="#cite_note-183">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modernism_in_Africa">Modernism in Africa</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Modernism in Africa">edit</a>]</div> Peter Kalliney suggests that "Modernist concepts, especially aesthetic autonomy, were fundamental to the literature of <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a> in anglophone Africa."<a href="#cite_note-184">[178]</a> In his opinion, <a href="/wiki/Rajat_Neogy" title="Rajat Neogy">Rajat Neogy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Okigbo" title="Christopher Okigbo">Christopher Okigbo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wole_Soyinka" title="Wole Soyinka">Wole Soyinka</a>, were among the writers who "repurposed modernist versions of aesthetic autonomy to declare their freedom from colonial bondage, from systems of racial discrimination, and even from the new postcolonial state".<a href="#cite_note-185">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_with_postmodernism">Relationship with postmodernism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Relationship with postmodernism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Thomson._Strip_Club.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Charles_Thomson._Strip_Club.jpg/150px-Charles_Thomson._Strip_Club.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Charles_Thomson._Strip_Club.jpg/225px-Charles_Thomson._Strip_Club.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Charles_Thomson._Strip_Club.jpg/300px-Charles_Thomson._Strip_Club.jpg 2x" data-file-width="307" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Strip Club, an early <a href="/wiki/Stuckist" class="mw-redirect" title="Stuckist">Stuckist</a> work by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson_(artist)" title="Charles Thomson (artist)">Charles Thompson</a>, who would later co-found the <a href="/wiki/Remodernist" class="mw-redirect" title="Remodernist">remodernist</a> movement against postmodern art</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/New_Sincerity" class="mw-redirect" title="New Sincerity">New Sincerity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Post-postmodernism" title="Post-postmodernism">Post-postmodernism</a></div> By the early 1980s, the postmodern movement in art and architecture began to establish its position through various <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/conceptual" class="extiw" title="wikt:conceptual">conceptual</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intermedia" title="Intermedia">intermedia</a> formats. Postmodernism in music and literature began to take hold earlier. In music, postmodernism is described in one reference work as a "term introduced in the 1970s",<a href="#cite_note-186">[180]</a> while in British literature, The Oxford Encyclopaedia of British Literature sees modernism "ceding its predominance to postmodernism" as early as 1939.<a href="#cite_note-British_Literature'_2006-119">[113]</a> However, dates are highly debatable, especially as, according to <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Huyssen" title="Andreas Huyssen">Andreas Huyssen</a>: "one critic's postmodernism is another critic's modernism."<a href="#cite_note-Macmillan-187">[181]</a> This includes those who are critical of the division between the two, see them as two aspects of the same movement, and believe that late modernism continues.<a href="#cite_note-Macmillan-187">[181]</a> Modernism is an all-encompassing label for a wide variety of cultural movements. Postmodernism is essentially a centralized movement that named itself, based on socio-political theory, although the term is now used in a wider sense to refer to activities from the 20th century onwards which exhibit awareness of and reinterpret the modern.<a href="#cite_note-188">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[184]</a> Postmodern theory asserts that the attempt to canonize modernism "after the fact" is doomed to unresolvable contradictions.<a href="#cite_note-191">[185]</a> And since the crux of postmodernism critiques any claim to a single discernible truth, postmodernism and modernism conflict on the existence of truth. Where modernists approach the issue of 'truth' with different theories (correspondence, coherence, pragmatist, semantic, etc.), postmodernists approach the issue of truth negatively by disproving the very existence of an accessible truth.<a href="#cite_note-192">[186]</a> In a narrower sense, what was modernist was not necessarily also postmodernist. Those elements of modernism which accentuated the benefits of rationality and socio-technological progress were only modernist.<a href="#cite_note-193">[187]</a> Modernist reactions against postmodernism include <a href="/wiki/Remodernism" title="Remodernism">remodernism</a>, which rejects the cynicism and deconstruction of postmodern art in favor of reviving early modernist aesthetic currents.<a href="#cite_note-medina-194">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-packer-195">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_of_late_modernity">Criticism of late modernity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Criticism of late modernity">edit</a>]</div> Although artistic modernism tended to reject capitalist values such as consumerism, 20th century civil society embraced global mass production and the proliferation of cheap and accessible commodities. This period of social development is known as "late or high modernity" and originates in advanced in Western societies. The German sociologist Jürgen Habermas, in <a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Communicative_Action" title="The Theory of Communicative Action">The Theory of Communicative Action</a> (1981), developed the first substantive critique of the culture of late modernity. Another important early critique of late modernity is the American sociologist George Ritzer's <a href="/wiki/The_McDonaldization_of_Society" title="The McDonaldization of Society">The McDonaldization of Society</a> (1993). Ritzer describes how late modernity became saturated with fast food consumer culture. Other authors have demonstrated how modernist devices appeared in popular cinema, and later on in music videos. Modernist design has entered the mainstream of popular culture, as simplified and stylized forms became popular, often associated with dreams of a <a href="/wiki/Space_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Space age">space age</a> high-tech future.<a href="#cite_note-196">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[191]</a> In 2008, Janet Bennett published Modernity and Its Critics through The Oxford Handbook of Political Theory.<a href="#cite_note-198">[192]</a> Merging of consumer and high -end versions of modernist culture led to a radical transformation of the meaning of "modernism". First, it implied that a movement based on the rejection of tradition had become a tradition of its own. Second, it demonstrated that the distinction between elite modernist and mass consumerist culture had lost its precision. Modernism had become so institutionalized that it was now "post avant-garde", indicating that it had lost its power as a revolutionary movement. Many have interpreted this transformation as the beginning of the phase that became known as postmodernism. For others, such as art critic <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hughes_(critic)" title="Robert Hughes (critic)">Robert Hughes</a>, postmodernism represents an extension of modernism. "Anti-Modern" or "Counter-Modern" movements seek to emphasize <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holism</a>, connection and <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a> as remedies or antidotes to modernism. Such movements see modernism as <a href="/wiki/Reductionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Reductionist">reductionist</a>, and therefore subject to an inability to see systemic and <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergent</a> effects. Some traditionalist artists like <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stoddart" title="Alexander Stoddart">Alexander Stoddart</a> reject modernism generally as the product of "an epoch of false money allied with false culture".<a href="#cite_note-199">[193]</a> In some fields, the effects of modernism have remained stronger and more persistent than in others. Visual art has made the most complete break with its past. Most major capital cities have museums devoted to modern art as distinct from post-<a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> art (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1400 to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1900). Examples include the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="Museum of Modern Art">Museum of Modern Art</a> in New York, the <a href="/wiki/Tate_Modern" title="Tate Modern">Tate Modern</a> in London, and the <a href="/wiki/Centre_Pompidou" title="Centre Pompidou">Centre Pompidou</a> in Paris. These galleries make no distinction between modernist and postmodernist phases, seeing both as developments within modern art. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_classical_music" title="20th-century classical music">20th-century classical music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-modernization" title="Anti-modernization">Anti-modernization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_modernism" title="Australian modernism">Australian modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_classical_music" title="Contemporary classical music">Contemporary classical music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_French_literature" title="Contemporary French literature">Contemporary French literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_literature" title="Contemporary literature">Contemporary literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eccentrism" title="Eccentrism">Eccentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_film" title="Experimental film">Experimental film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_literature" title="Experimental literature">Experimental literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_music" title="Experimental music">Experimental music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_theatre" title="History of theatre">History of theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_music#20th_and_21st_century" title="History of music">History of classical music traditions § 20th century music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Islamic modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modernist_writers" title="List of modernist writers">List of modernist writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modernist_women_writers" title="List of modernist women writers">List of modernist women writers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_modernism" title="Literary modernism">Literary modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Art_Week" title="Modern Art Week">Modern Art Week</a> in Brazil</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism in the Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_(music)" title="Modernism (music)">Modernism (music)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernismo" title="Modernismo">Modernismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernist_film" title="Modernist film">Modernist film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Impressionism" title="Neo-Impressionism">Neo-Impressionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Impressionism" title="Post-Impressionism">Post-Impressionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_avant-garde" title="Russian avant-garde">Russian avant-garde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sexology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy_and_visual_arts" title="Theosophy and visual arts">Theosophy and visual arts</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Footnotes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Eco90-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eco90_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eco90_7-1">b</a> Each of the types of repetition that we have examined is not limited to the mass media but belongs by right to the entire history of artistic creativity; <a href="/wiki/Plagiarism" title="Plagiarism">plagiarism</a>, quotation, parody, the ironic retake are typical of the entire artistic-literary tradition. Much art has been and is repetitive. The concept of absolute originality is a contemporary one, born with Romanticism; classical art was in vast measure serial, and the "modern" avant-garde (at the beginning of this the 20th century) challenged the Romantic idea of "creation from nothingness," with its techniques of <a href="/wiki/Collage" title="Collage">collage</a>, mustachios on the <a href="/wiki/Mona_Lisa" title="Mona Lisa">Mona Lisa</a>, art about art, and so on.<a href="#cite_note-Eco_1990_p._95-6">[6]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Steiner98p489-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Steiner98p489_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Steiner98p489_8-1">b</a> The modernist movement which dominated art, music, letters during the first half of the century was, at critical points, a strategy of conservation, of custodianship. Stravinsky's genius developed through phases of recapitulation. He took from <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_de_Machaut" title="Guillaume de Machaut">Machaut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Gesualdo" title="Carlo Gesualdo">Gesualdo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claudio_Monteverdi" title="Claudio Monteverdi">Monteverdi</a>. He mimed <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky" title="Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky">Tchaikovsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Gounod" title="Charles Gounod">Gounod</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a> piano sonatas, the symphonies of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Haydn</a>, the operas of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Pergolesi" title="Giovanni Battista Pergolesi">Pergolesi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Glinka" title="Mikhail Glinka">Glinka</a>. He incorporated <a href="/wiki/Claude_Debussy" title="Claude Debussy">Debussy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anton_Webern" title="Anton Webern">Webern</a> into his own idiom. In each instance, the listener was meant to recognize the source, to grasp the intent of a transformation that left salient aspects of the original intact. The history of Picasso is marked by retrospection. The explicit variations on classical pastoral themes, the citations from and pastiches of <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Goya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez" title="Diego Velázquez">Velázquez</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Manet" title="Édouard Manet">Manet</a>, are external products of a constant revision, a 'seeing again' in the light of technical and cultural shifts. Had we only Picasso's sculptures, graphics, and paintings, we could reconstruct a fair portion of the development of the arts from the <a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan</a> to <a href="/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne" title="Paul Cézanne">Cézanne</a>. In 20th-century literature, the elements of reprise have been obsessive, and they have organized precisely those texts which at first seemed most revolutionary. <a href="/wiki/The_Waste_Land" title="The Waste Land">The Waste Land</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_(novel)" title="Ulysses (novel)">Ulysses</a>, Pound's <a href="/wiki/The_Cantos" title="The Cantos">Cantos</a> are deliberate assemblages, in-gatherings of a cultural past felt to be in danger of dissolution. The long sequence of imitations, translations, masked quotations, and explicit historical paintings in <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lowell" title="Robert Lowell">Robert Lowell</a>'s History has carried the same technique into the 1970s. [...] In modernism, collage has been the representative device. The new, even at its most scandalous, has been set against an informing background and framework of tradition. Stravinsky, Picasso, Braque, <a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">Eliot</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">Joyce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ezra_Pound" title="Ezra Pound">Pound</a>—the 'makers of the new'—have been neo-classics, often as observant of <a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">canonic</a> precedent as their 17th-century forebears.<a href="#cite_note-63">[59]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> In the twentieth century, the social processes that brought this maelstrom into being, and kept it in a state of perpetual becoming, came to be called 'modernization'. These world-historical processes have nourished an amazing variety of visions and ideas that aim to make men and women the subjects as well as the objects of modernization, to give them the power to change the world that is changing them, to make their way through the maelstrom and make it their own. Over the past century, these visions and values have been loosely grouped under 'modernism'.<a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barth79Replenishment-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Barth79Replenishment_34-0">^</a> The ground motive of modernism, Graff asserts, was criticism of the 19th-century bourgeois social order and its world view. Its artistic strategy was the self-conscious overturning of the conventions of bourgeois realism ... the antirationalist, antirealist, antibourgeois program of modernism ... the modernists, carrying the torch of Romanticism, taught us that linearity, rationality, consciousness, cause and effect, naïve illusionism, transparent language, innocent anecdote, and middle-class moral conventions are not the whole story.<a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Note the parallel French movement Fauvism and the English <a href="/wiki/Vorticism" title="Vorticism">Vorticism</a>: "The Fauvist movement has been compared to <a href="/wiki/German_expressionist_cinema" title="German expressionist cinema">German Expressionism</a>, both projecting brilliant colors and spontaneous brushwork, and indebted to the same late 19th-century sources, especially <a href="/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh" title="Vincent van Gogh">Van Gogh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grace_1989_26-76">[72]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <a href="/wiki/May_Sinclair" title="May Sinclair">May Sinclair</a> first applied the term "stream of consciousness" in a literary context, in 1918 in her discussion of Richardson's stylistic innovations in a review of Leutnant Gustl and <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage_(novel_sequence)" title="Pilgrimage (novel sequence)">Pilgrimage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[90]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theartnewspaper.com/keywords/modernism">"Modernism"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240517121706/https://www.theartnewspaper.com/keywords/modernism">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2024. Retrieved 17 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Modernism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theartnewspaper.com%2Fkeywords%2Fmodernism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> 'Modernism (art)', Britannica online </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> 'Social structure, Britannica online </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://today.usc.edu/impact-of-world-war-i-shaping-the-modern-world/">"How did WWI reshape the modern world?"</a>. USC Today. 9 November 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240504220902/https://today.usc.edu/impact-of-world-war-i-shaping-the-modern-world/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 May 2024. Retrieved 4 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USC+Today&rft.atitle=How+did+WWI+reshape+the+modern+world%3F&rft.date=2018-11-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftoday.usc.edu%2Fimpact-of-world-war-i-shaping-the-modern-world%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.utoledo.edu/library/canaday/guidepages/Modernism2.html#:~:text=Modernism%20is%20a%20period%20in,verse%20from%20the%2019th%20century.">"What is Modernism?"</a>. www.utoledo.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240505054722/https://www.utoledo.edu/library/canaday/guidepages/Modernism2.html#:~:text=Modernism%20is%20a%20period%20in,verse%20from%20the%2019th%20century.">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2024. Retrieved 5 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.utoledo.edu&rft.atitle=What+is+Modernism%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.utoledo.edu%2Flibrary%2Fcanaday%2Fguidepages%2FModernism2.html%23%3A~%3Atext%3DModernism%2520is%2520a%2520period%2520in%2Cverse%2520from%2520the%252019th%2520century.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eco_1990_p._95-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eco_1990_p._95_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eco_1990_p._95_6-1">b</a> Eco (1990) p. 95 </li> <li id="cite_note-Childs2000p17-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Childs2000p17_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Childs2000p17_9-1">b</a> Childs, Peter <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x_WXXDeXqm4C&pg=PA17&lpg=PA17&dq">Modernism</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] (Routledge, 2000). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-19647-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-19647-7">0-415-19647-7</a>. p. 17. Accessed on 8 February 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardnerde_la_CroixTanseyKirkpatrick1991" class="citation book cs1">Gardner, Helen; de la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard G.; Kirkpatrick, Diane (1991). Gardner's Art through the Ages. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. p. 953. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-503770-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-15-503770-6"><bdi>0-15-503770-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gardner%27s+Art+through+the+Ages&rft.place=San+Diego%2C+CA&rft.pages=953&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+Jovanovich&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-15-503770-6&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft.au=de+la+Croix%2C+Horst&rft.au=Tansey%2C+Richard+G.&rft.au=Kirkpatrick%2C+Diane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Morris Dickstein, "An Outsider to His Own Life", Books, The New York Times, August 3, 1997; Anthony Mellors, Late Modernist Poetics: From Pound to Prynne. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160504031759/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/postmodernism">"Postmodernism: definition of postmodernism"</a>. Oxford dictionary (American English) (US). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/postmodernism">the original</a> on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2018 – via oxforddictionaries.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Postmodernism%3A+definition+of+postmodernism&rft.btitle=Oxford+dictionary+%28American+English%29+%28US%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fus%2Fdefinition%2Famerican_english%2Fpostmodernism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Ruth Reichl, Cook's November 1989; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=postmodernism">American Heritage Dictionary's definition of "Postmodern"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180615004714/https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=postmodernism">Archived</a> 15 June 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMura2012" class="citation journal cs1">Mura, Andrea (2012). "The Symbolic Function of Transmodernity". <a href="/w/index.php?title=Language_and_Psychoanalysis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Language and Psychoanalysis (page does not exist)">Language and Psychoanalysis</a>. 1 (1): 68–87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7565%2Flandp.2012.0005">10.7565/landp.2012.0005</a> (inactive 1 November 2024).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Psychoanalysis&rft.atitle=The+Symbolic+Function+of+Transmodernity&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=68-87&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7565%2Flandp.2012.0005&rft.aulast=Mura&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.trendir.com/modernist-architecture/">"Modernist architecture: 30 stunning examples"</a>. Trendir. 2 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Trendir&rft.atitle=Modernist+architecture%3A+30+stunning+examples&rft.date=2016-09-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.trendir.com%2Fmodernist-architecture%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Everdell-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Everdell_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Everdell_16-1">b</a> Everdell, William, <a href="/wiki/The_First_Moderns" title="The First Moderns">The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origins of Twentieth Century Thought</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>, 1997, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-22480-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-22480-5">0-226-22480-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Berman 1988, p 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBar-On2007" class="citation book cs1">Bar-On, Tamir (1 January 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OcaHOPaa0iMC">Where have all the fascists gone?</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ashgate_Publishing" title="Ashgate Publishing">Ashgate Publishing</a>, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780754671541" title="Special:BookSources/9780754671541"><bdi>9780754671541</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Where+have+all+the+fascists+gone%3F&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2007-01-01&rft.isbn=9780754671541&rft.aulast=Bar-On&rft.aufirst=Tamir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOcaHOPaa0iMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> James Longenbach, for instance, quotes these words and says, 'What line could feel more central to our received notions of modernism?' in his chapter, 'Modern Poetry' in David Holdeman and Ben Levitas, W.B. Yeats in Context, (Cambridge: CUP, 2010), p.327. Longenbach quotes Cynthia Ozik, who said, 'That [i.e. this line], we used to think, was the whole of Modernism.... Now we know better, and also in a way worse. Yeats hardly foresaw how our dissolutions would surpass his own'. See Cynthia Ozick, 'The Muse, Postmodernism and Homeless', New York Times Book Review, 18 January 1987. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> According to the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, Lyotard claims that 'Modern art is emblematic of a sublime sensibility, that is, a sensibility that there is something non-presentable demanding to be put into sensible form and yet overwhelms all attempts to do so'. See section 2 ('The Postmodern Condition') of the article on 'Postmodernism' at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/postmodernism/#5">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/postmodernism/#5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> See section 5 ('Deconstruction') in 'Postmodernism', Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/postmodernism/#5">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/postmodernism/#5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Hume says, 'For my part, when I enter most intimately into what I call myself, I always stumble on some particular perception or other, of heat or cold, light or shade, love or hatred, pain or pleasure. I never can catch myself at any time without a perception'. See <a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a>, Book I.iv, section 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Daphne Erdinast- Vulcan explores Conrad's relation to Modernism, Romanticism and metaphysics in Joseph Conrad and the Modern Temper, Oxford: OUP, 1991. David Lynn describes Nick Carraway as "A synthesis of disparate impulses whose roots lie in nineteenth-century Romanticism and Realism[.] Nick's heroism is borne out in his assuming responsibility for Gatsby and in the act of narration." See 'Within and Without: Nick Carraway', in: The Hero's Tale, chapter 4, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1989. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> The painting is in the Peggy Guggenheim Collection. See: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.guggenheim-venice.it/en/art/works/the-poet/">https://www.guggenheim-venice.it/en/art/works/the-poet/</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Schlegel, as an early German romantic, declared, "Only when striving toward truth and knowledge can a spirit be called a philosophical spirit". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aesthetics-19th-romantic/">See '19th Century Romantic Aesthetics' in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. The idea of romanticism as an internalised quest is a commonplace. Harold Bloom, for instance, has written extensively on Romanticism as 'The Internalisation of Quest-Romance' in Romanticism and Consciousness, New York: Norton, 1970, pp.3–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> I.A. Richards, The Philosophy of Rhetoric, (Oxford University Press: New York and London, 1936). Technically, Richards applies the terms 'vehicle' and 'tenor' to metaphor rather than symbol. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> S.T. Coleridge, 'Frost at Midnight', <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43986/frost-at-midnight">https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43986/frost-at-midnight</a>. On Coleridge, see Nicholas Reid, Coleridge, Form and Symbol (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006), pp.1–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Quoted by Nicholas Halmi in The Genealogy of the Romantic Symbol (Oxford: OUP, 2007), p.1. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Arthur Symons introduced the mystical aspect of Symbolism in his 1899 book, <a href="/wiki/The_Symbolist_Movement_in_Literature" title="The Symbolist Movement in Literature">The Symbolist Movement in Literature</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://archive.org/details/symbolistmovemen00symouoft">https://archive.org/details/symbolistmovemen00symouoft</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="/wiki/T.S._Eliot" class="mw-redirect" title="T.S. Eliot">T.S. Eliot</a>, 'The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock', <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poetrymagazine/poems/44212/the-love-song-of-j-alfred-prufrock">https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poetrymagazine/poems/44212/the-love-song-of-j-alfred-prufrock</a>. Seamus Perry notes 'The play between the belated romanticism of an evening 'spread out against the sky' and the incongruous modernity of 'a patient etherised upon a table' in 'A close reading of The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock', on the British Library's website, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.bl.uk/20th-century-literature/articles/a-close-reading-of-the-love-song-of-j-alfred-prufrock">https://www.bl.uk/20th-century-literature/articles/a-close-reading-of-the-love-song-of-j-alfred-prufrock</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230807052739/https://www.bl.uk/20th-century-literature/articles/a-close-reading-of-the-love-song-of-j-alfred-prufrock">Archived</a> 7 August 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Stephen Oliver, Cranial Bunker (Canberra: Greywacke Press, 2023), p.27. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Barth (1979) quotation </li> <li id="cite_note-Graff73-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Graff73_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraff1973" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Graff" title="Gerald Graff">Graff, Gerald</a> (Winter 1973). "The myth of the postmodernist breakthrough". <a href="/wiki/TriQuarterly" title="TriQuarterly">TriQuarterly</a>. Vol. 26. pp. 383–417.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TriQuarterly&rft.atitle=The+myth+of+the+postmodernist+breakthrough&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=383-417&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Graff&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Graff75-36"><a href="#cite_ref-Graff75_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraff1975" class="citation magazine cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Graff" title="Gerald Graff">Graff, Gerald</a> (Spring 1975). "Babbitt at the abyss: The social context of postmodern American fiction". <a href="/wiki/TriQuarterly" title="TriQuarterly">TriQuarterly</a>. Vol. 33. pp. 307–337.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TriQuarterly&rft.atitle=Babbitt+at+the+abyss%3A+The+social+context+of+postmodern+American+fiction&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=33&rft.pages=307-337&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Graff&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610274/J-M-W-Turner">"J.M.W. Turner"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 May 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100130101931/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610274/J-M-W-Turner">Archived</a> from the original on 30 January 2010. Retrieved 23 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=J.M.W.+Turner&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2023-05-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F610274%2FJ-M-W-Turner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJosipovici1994" class="citation book cs1">Josipovici, Gabriel (1994). "Chapter 7: Modernism and Romanticism". The world and the book: a study of modern fiction (3rd ed.). Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-60901-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-60901-9"><bdi>978-0-333-60901-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7%3A+Modernism+and+Romanticism&rft.btitle=The+world+and+the+book%3A+a+study+of+modern+fiction&rft.place=Houndmills%2C+Basingstoke%2C+Hampshire&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-333-60901-9&rft.aulast=Josipovici&rft.aufirst=Gabriel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> The painting is in the Peggy Guggenheim Collection. See: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.guggenheim-venice.it/en/art/works/the-poet/">https://www.guggenheim-venice.it/en/art/works/the-poet/</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230805145510/https://www.guggenheim-venice.it/en/art/works/the-poet/">Archived</a> 5 August 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Schlegel, as an early German romantic, declared, "Only when striving toward truth and knowledge can a spirit be called a philosophical spirit". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aesthetics-19th-romantic/">See '19th Century Romantic Aesthetics' in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. The idea of Romanticism as an internalized quest is commonplace. Harold Bloom, for instance, has written extensively on Romanticism as 'The Internalisation of Quest-Romance' in Romanticism and Consciousness, New York: Norton, 1970, pp.3–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHylton2007" class="citation book cs1">Hylton, Stuart (2007). The Grand Experiment: The birth of the Railway Age, 1820–1845. 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The Leningrad School, pp. 28–29. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-901724-21-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-901724-21-7">978-5-901724-21-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Michael Steinberg, The Symphony: A Listener's Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 541–545. </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_Music_Online-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Music_Online_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Music_Online_112-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Music_Online_112-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/">"Oxford Music"</a>. Oxford Music Online. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230722092211/https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2023. Retrieved 10 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Music+Online&rft.atitle=Oxford+Music&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmusiconline.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Rebecca Rischin. For the End of Time: The Story of the Messiaen Quartet. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Lewis, Helena. Dada Turns Red. 1990. University of Edinburgh Press. A history of the uneasy relations between surrealists and Communists from the 1920s through the 1950s. </li> <li id="cite_note-slate-115"><a href="#cite_ref-slate_115-0">^</a> Fineman, Mia, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/id/2120494/">The Most Famous Farm Couple in the World: Why American Gothic still fascinates.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110907021557/http://www.slate.com/id/2120494">Archived</a> 7 September 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slate_(magazine)" title="Slate (magazine)">Slate</a>, 8 June 2005 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lamport_Gordon_Marty_2017_p._525-116"><a href="#cite_ref-Lamport_Gordon_Marty_2017_p._525_116-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLamportGordonMarty2017" class="citation book cs1">Lamport, M.A.; Gordon, B.; Marty, M.E. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih8wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA525">Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation</a>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 525. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-7159-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-7159-3"><bdi>978-1-4422-7159-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230511220140/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih8wDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA525">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2023. Retrieved 11 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Martin+Luther+and+the+Reformation&rft.pages=525&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-7159-3&rft.aulast=Lamport&rft.aufirst=M.A.&rft.au=Gordon%2C+B.&rft.au=Marty%2C+M.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIh8wDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA525&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Kühnel, Anita. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.moma.org/collection/details.php?theme_id=10077">"Entartete Kunst", from Grove Art Online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150509014614/http://www.moma.org/collection/details.php?theme_id=10077">Archived</a> 9 May 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, MoMA website. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Sass, Louis A. (1992). Madness and Modernism: Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and Thought. New York: Basic Books. Cited in Bauer, Amy (2004), "Cognition, Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music", in The Pleasure of Modernist Music. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58046-143-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-58046-143-3">1-58046-143-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-British_Literature'_2006-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-British_Literature'_2006_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-British_Literature'_2006_119-1">b</a> J. H. Dettmar, "Modernism", in The Oxford Encyclopedia of British Literature, ed. David Scott Kastan. Oxford University Press, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> "Modernism", in The Oxford Companion to English Literature, ed. Dinah Birch. Oxford University Press Inc. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Late Modernist Poetics: From Pound to Prynne by Anthony Mellors; see also Prynne's publisher, Bloodaxe Books. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Anthony Mellors, Late Modernist Poetics: From Pound to Prynne </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBessette2018" class="citation journal cs1">Bessette, Juliette (23 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Farts7010004">"The Machine as Art (in the 20th Century): An Introduction"</a>. 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New Haven: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. 2005. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/artcollection/DetailAction.do?&idOeuvre=1547&nouvelleLangue=en">Moore, Henry</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190616062744/http://www.unesco.org/artcollection/DetailAction.do?&idOeuvre=1547&nouvelleLangue=en">Archived</a> 16 June 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>. Retrieved on 16 August 2008. </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIllinois_Sesquicentennial_Commission1969" class="citation book cs1">Illinois Sesquicentennial Commission (1969) [2 December 1967]. "Nuclear Energy sculpture". Illinois; Guide & Gazetteer. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia" title="University of Virginia">University of Virginia</a>; Rand-McNally. p. 199.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nuclear+Energy+sculpture&rft.btitle=Illinois%3B+Guide+%26+Gazetteer&rft.pages=199&rft.pub=University+of+Virginia%3B+Rand-McNally&rft.date=1969&rft.au=Illinois+Sesquicentennial+Commission&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Jane Beckett and Fiona Russell. Henry Moore: Space, Sculpture, Politics. 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The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151017072356/http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/b/francis_bacon/index.html?inline=nyt-per">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 26 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Francis+Bacon&rft.date=2015-12-03&rft.au=Ken+Johnson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftopics.nytimes.com%2Ftop%2Freference%2Ftimestopics%2Fpeople%2Fb%2Ffrancis_bacon%2Findex.html%3Finline%3Dnyt-per&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a>, "Obituary", 29 April 1992. </li> <li id="cite_note-Grimes-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grimes_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grimes_142-1">b</a> William Grimes. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/22/arts/lucian-freud-adept-portraiture-artist-dies-at-88.html">"Lucian Freud, Figurative Painter Who Redefined Portraiture, Is Dead at 88"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170330012226/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/22/arts/lucian-freud-adept-portraiture-artist-dies-at-88.html">Archived</a> 30 March 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. 21 July 2011 </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Rimanelli, David (January 2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140610054047/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-2553396771.html">"Damien Hirst"</a>, Artforum: "With the recent death of Lucían Freud, some might argue that Hirst is now the greatest living British artist." Retrieved 28 October 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Also see Kennedy, Maev (21 December 2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2001/dec/21/arts.monarchy1">"Palace unveils Freud's gift to Queen"</a>, The Guardian, who calls Freud "the artist regarded as the greatest living British painter". Retrieved 28 October 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Darwent, Charles (28 November 1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/the-1990s-in-review-visual-arts--who-wants-to-be-a-yba-they-do-1129125.html">"The 1990s in Review: Visual Arts"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150925010655/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/the-1990s-in-review-visual-arts--who-wants-to-be-a-yba-they-do-1129125.html">Archived</a> 25 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Independent, says "Freud becomes the greatest living British artist after his Whitechapel show [of 1993]". Retrieved 28 October 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/14/arts/design/14freu.html">"Lucian Freud Stripped Bare"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. 14 December 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090417044203/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/14/arts/design/14freu.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 April 2009. 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NPR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210903134148/https://www.npr.org/sections/deceptivecadence/2013/05/26/186486269/why-jazz-musicians-love-the-rite-of-spring">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2021. 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Bloomsbury Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World Vol. XI: Genres: Europe. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Academic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloomsbury Academic">Bloomsbury Academic</a>. pp. 36–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5040%2F9781501326110-0111">10.5040/9781501326110-0111</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781501326103" title="Special:BookSources/9781501326103"><bdi>9781501326103</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Avant-pop&rft.btitle=Bloomsbury+Encyclopedia+of+Popular+Music+of+the+World+Vol.+XI%3A+Genres%3A+Europe&rft.pages=36-38&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5040%2F9781501326110-0111&rft.isbn=9781501326103&rft.aulast=Albiez&rft.aufirst=Sean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tmtpat2013-173"><a href="#cite_ref-tmtpat2013_173-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrick2013" class="citation web cs1">Patrick, Jonathan (8 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tinymixtapes.com/news/joe-meeks-pop-masterpiece-i-hear-a-new-world-gets-the-chance-to-haunt-a-whole-new-generation-of">"Joe Meek's pop masterpiece I Hear a New World gets the chance to haunt a whole new generation of audiophile geeks"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tiny_Mix_Tapes" title="Tiny Mix Tapes">Tiny Mix Tapes</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161202035754/http://www.tinymixtapes.com/news/joe-meeks-pop-masterpiece-i-hear-a-new-world-gets-the-chance-to-haunt-a-whole-new-generation-of">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2016. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/postmodernism?view=uk">the original</a> on 26 September 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionaries+%E2%80%93+Dictionary%2C+Thesaurus%2C+%26+Grammar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.askoxford.com%2Fconcise_oed%2Fpostmodernism%3Fview%3Duk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/postmodernism">"Postmodern – Definition of Postmodern by Merriam-Webster"</a>. 14 June 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171203162247/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/postmodernism">Archived</a> from the original on 3 December 2017. Retrieved 2 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Postmodern+%E2%80%93+Definition+of+Postmodern+by+Merriam-Webster&rft.date=2023-06-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fpostmodernism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> Ruth Reichl, Cook's November 1989; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/61/26/P0472600.html">American Heritage Dictionary's definition of the Postmodern</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081209075319/http://www.bartleby.com/61/26/P0472600.html">Archived</a> 9 December 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/irvinem/theory/pomo.html">"The Po-Mo Page: Postmodern to Post-postmodern"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100726122523/http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/irvinem/theory/pomo.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2010. Retrieved 2 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Po-Mo+Page%3A+Postmodern+to+Post-postmodern&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww9.georgetown.edu%2Ffaculty%2Firvinem%2Ftheory%2Fpomo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMclntyre2018" class="citation book cs1">Mclntyre, Lee (2018). Post-truth. The MIT Press essential knowledge series. Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England: The MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53504-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53504-5"><bdi>978-0-262-53504-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Post-truth&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts+London%2C+England&rft.series=The+MIT+Press+essential+knowledge+series&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-262-53504-5&rft.aulast=Mclntyre&rft.aufirst=Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> Wagner, British, Irish and American Literature, Trier 2002, pp. 210–12 </li> <li id="cite_note-medina-194"><a href="#cite_ref-medina_194-0">^</a> Medina, Valerie J. (2002)<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dailylobo.com/media/storage/paper344/news/2002/01/17/Culture/Modern.Art.Surges.Ahead-165440.shtml?norewrite200604290131&sourcedomain=www.dailylobo.com">"Modern art surges ahead:¡Magnifico! features new artistic expression"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220603165002/https://www.dailylobo.com/media/storage/paper344/news/2002/01/17/Culture/Modern.Art.Surges.Ahead-165440.shtml?norewrite200604290131&sourcedomain=www.dailylobo.com">Archived</a> 3 June 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Daily Lobo, 17 January 2002. Accessed 29 April 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-packer-195"><a href="#cite_ref-packer_195-0">^</a> Packer, William. "Childish artists coming unstuck", p.13, and "Young pretenders of art have much to learn", p. 20, <a href="/wiki/Financial_Times" title="Financial Times">Financial Times</a>, March 13, 2001. The text from different editions is the same: "Childish and his co-founder, Charles Thomson, ushered in remodernism, 'a period of art ... to reclaim the vision and spiritual values of the early modernists and replace the ennui of post-modernism'." </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2011/07/14/137763046/out-of-this-world-designs-of-the-space-age">"Out Of This World: Designs Of The Space Age"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210921192139/https://www.npr.org/2011/07/14/137763046/out-of-this-world-designs-of-the-space-age">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Out+Of+This+World%3A+Designs+Of+The+Space+Age&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2011%2F07%2F14%2F137763046%2Fout-of-this-world-designs-of-the-space-age&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNovak" class="citation magazine cs1">Novak, Matt. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/googie-architecture-of-the-space-age-122837470/">"Googie: Architecture of the Space Age"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Smithsonian Magazine">Smithsonian Magazine</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210919113726/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/googie-architecture-of-the-space-age-122837470/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 September 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian+Magazine&rft.atitle=Googie%3A+Architecture+of+the+Space+Age&rft.aulast=Novak&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fhistory%2Fgoogie-architecture-of-the-space-age-122837470%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199548439.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199548439-e-11">"Jane Bennet book Retrieved 19 January 2021"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210127213337/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199548439.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199548439-e-11">Archived</a> from the original on 27 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jane+Bennet+book+Retrieved+19+January+2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199548439.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780199548439-e-11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJack2009" class="citation news cs1">Jack, Ian (6 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/jun/06/alexander-stoddart-interview">"Set in Stone"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170414000135/https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2009/jun/06/alexander-stoddart-interview">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Set+in+Stone&rft.date=2009-06-06&rft.aulast=Jack&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fartanddesign%2F2009%2Fjun%2F06%2Falexander-stoddart-interview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Barth" title="John Barth">John Barth</a> (1979) <a href="/wiki/The_Literature_of_Replenishment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Literature of Replenishment">The Literature of Replenishment</a>, later republished in The Friday Book (1984).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco, Umberto</a> (1990) Interpreting Serials in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/limitsofinterpre00ecourich">The limits of interpretation</a>, pp. 83–100, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Innovation+%26+repetition%3A+between+modern+%26+postmodern+aesthetics.-a0138814075">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721201226/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Innovation+%26+repetition%3A+between+modern+%26+postmodern+aesthetics.-a0138814075">Archived</a> 21 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Everdell" title="William Everdell">Everdell, William R.</a> (1997) <a href="/wiki/The_First_Moderns" title="The First Moderns">The First Moderns: Profiles in the Origins of Twentieth Century Thought</a> (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).</li> <li>Orton, Fred and Pollock, Griselda (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mxENAQAAIAAJ">Avant-Gardes and Partisans Reviewed</a>, Manchester University.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Steiner" title="George Steiner">Steiner, George</a> (1998) <a href="/wiki/After_Babel" title="After Babel">After Babel</a>, ch.6 Topologies of culture, 3rd revised edition</li> <li>Art Berman (1994) Preface to Modernism, University of Illinois Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Archambeau_(poet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Archambeau (poet)">Robert Archambeau</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://actionyes.org/issue8/archambeau/archambeau1.html">"The Avant-Garde in Babel. Two or Three Notes on Four or Five Words", Action-Yes vol. 1, issue 8 Autumn 2008.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191220083600/http://actionyes.org/issue8/archambeau/archambeau1.html">Archived</a> 20 December 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Armstrong, Carol and de Zegher, Catherine (eds.), Women Artists as the Millennium, Cambridge, MA: October Books, <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01226-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01226-3">978-0-262-01226-3</a>.</li> <li>Aspray, William & <a href="/wiki/Philip_Kitcher" title="Philip Kitcher">Philip Kitcher</a>, eds., History and Philosophy of Modern Mathematics, Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science vol. XI, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Per_B%C3%A4ckstr%C3%B6m" title="Per Bäckström">Bäckström, Per</a> (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://septentrio.uit.no/index.php/nordlit/issue/view/168">Centre-Periphery. The Avant-Garde and the Other</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190704132727/https://septentrio.uit.no/index.php/nordlit/issue/view/168">Archived</a> 4 July 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Nordlit. University of Tromsø, no. 21, 2007.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Per_B%C3%A4ckstr%C3%B6m" title="Per Bäckström">Bäckström, Per</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://actionyes.org/issue7/backstrom/backstrom1.html">"One Earth, Four or Five Words. The Peripheral Concept of 'Avant-Garde'"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191220084239/http://actionyes.org/issue7/backstrom/backstrom1.html">Archived</a> 20 December 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Action-Yes vol. 1, issue 12 Winter 2010</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Per_B%C3%A4ckstr%C3%B6m" title="Per Bäckström">Bäckström, Per</a> & Bodil Børset (eds.), Norsk avantgarde (Norwegian Avant-Garde), Oslo: Novus, 2011.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Per_B%C3%A4ckstr%C3%B6m" title="Per Bäckström">Bäckström, Per</a> & Benedikt Hjartarson (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/title/27431?lang=en">Decentring the Avant-Garde</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200826085944/https://brill.com/view/title/27431?lang=en">Archived</a> 26 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi, Avantgarde Critical Studies, 2014.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Per_B%C3%A4ckstr%C3%B6m" title="Per Bäckström">Bäckström, Per</a> and Benedikt Hjartarson. "Rethinking the Topography of the International Avant-Garde", in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/title/27431?lang=en">Decentring the Avant-Garde</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200826085944/https://brill.com/view/title/27431?lang=en">Archived</a> 26 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Per Bäckström & Benedikt Hjartarson (eds.), Amsterdam & New York: Rodopi, Avantgarde Critical Studies, 2014.</li> <li>Baker, Houston A. Jr., Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance, Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>, 1987</li> <li>Berman, Marshall, All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity. Second ed. London: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin</a>, 1982. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-010962-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-010962-5">0-14-010962-5</a>.</li> <li>Bradbury, Malcolm, & James McFarlane (eds.), Modernism: A Guide to European Literature 1890–1930 (<a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin</a> "Penguin Literary Criticism" series, 1978, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-013832-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-013832-3">0-14-013832-3</a>).</li> <li>Brush, Stephen G., The History of Modern Science: A Guide to the Second Scientific Revolution, 1800–1950, Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1988</li> <li>Centre Georges Pompidou, Face a l'Histoire, 1933–1996. Flammarion, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-85850-898-4" title="Special:BookSources/2-85850-898-4">2-85850-898-4</a>.</li> <li>Crouch, Christopher, Modernism in art design and architecture, New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000</li> <li>Eysteinsson, Astradur, The Concept of Modernism, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.juliafriedman.net">Friedman, Julia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220319081630/http://www.juliafriedman.net/">Archived</a> 19 March 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Beyond Symbolism and Surrealism: Alexei Remizov's Synthetic Art, Northwestern University Press, 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8101-2617-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8101-2617-6">0-8101-2617-6</a> (Trade Cloth)</li> <li>Frascina, Francis, and Charles Harrison (eds.). Modern Art and Modernism: A Critical Anthology. Published in association with <a href="/wiki/The_Open_University" class="mw-redirect" title="The Open University">The Open University</a>. London: Harper and Row, Ltd. Reprinted, London: Paul Chapman Publishing, Ltd., 1982.</li> <li>Gates, Henry Louis. The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., 2004.</li> <li>Hughes, Robert, The Shock of the New: Art and the Century of Change (Gardners Books, 1991, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-27582-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-27582-3">0-500-27582-3</a>).</li> <li>Kenner, Hugh, The Pound Era (1971), Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1973</li> <li>Kern, Stephen, The Culture of Time and Space, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983</li> <li>Klein, Jürgen, On Modernism, Berlin, Bruxelles, Lausanne, New York Oxford: Peter Lang, 2022 ISBN 978-3-631-87869-9.</li> <li>Kolocotroni, Vassiliki et al., ed.,Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents (Edinburgh: <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_University_Press" title="Edinburgh University Press">Edinburgh University Press</a>, 1998).</li> <li>Levenson, Michael, (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Modernism (Cambridge University Press, "Cambridge Companions to Literature" series, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-49866-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-49866-X">0-521-49866-X</a>).</li> <li>Lewis, Pericles. The Cambridge Introduction to Modernism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).</li> <li>Nicholls, Peter, Modernisms: A Literary Guide (Hampshire and London: Macmillan, 1995).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Pevsner" title="Nikolaus Pevsner">Pevsner, Nikolaus</a>, Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius (New Haven, CT: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-10571-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-10571-1">0-300-10571-1</a>).</li> <li>The Sources of Modern Architecture and Design (<a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>, "<a href="/wiki/World_of_Art" title="World of Art">World of Art</a>" series, 1985, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-20072-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-20072-6">0-500-20072-6</a>).</li> <li>Pollock, Griselda, Generations and Geographies in the Visual Arts. (Routledge, London, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-14128-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-14128-1">0-415-14128-1</a>).</li> <li>Pollock, Griselda, and Florence, Penny, Looking Back to the Future: Essays by Griselda Pollock from the 1990s. (New York: G&B New Arts Press, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-5701-132-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-5701-132-8">90-5701-132-8</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPotter2009" class="citation journal cs1">Potter, Rachael (January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/modernism-modernity/v016/16.1.potter.html">"Obscene Modernism and the Trade in Salacious Books"</a>. Modernism/Modernity. 16 (1). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1071-6068">1071-6068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modernism%2FModernity&rft.atitle=Obscene+Modernism+and+the+Trade+in+Salacious+Books&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2009-01&rft.issn=1071-6068&rft.aulast=Potter&rft.aufirst=Rachael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fjournals%2Fmodernism-modernity%2Fv016%2F16.1.potter.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Sass, Louis A. (1992). Madness and Modernism: Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature, and Thought. New York: Basic Books. Cited in Bauer, Amy (2004). "Cognition, Constraints, and Conceptual Blends in Modernist Music", in The Pleasure of Modernist Music. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58046-143-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-58046-143-3">1-58046-143-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schorske" class="mw-redirect" title="Carl Schorske">Schorske, Carl</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fin-de-Si%C3%A8cle_Vienna:_Politics_and_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture">Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture</a>. Vintage, 1980. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-74478-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-74478-0">978-0-394-74478-0</a>.</li> <li>Schwartz, Sanford, The Matrix of Modernism: Pound, Eliot, and Early Twentieth Century Thought, Princeton, NJ: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>, 1985</li> <li>Tyler, William J., ed. Modanizumu: Modernist Fiction from Japan, 1913–1938. University of Hawai'i Press, 2008.</li> <li>Van Loo, Sofie (ed.), Gorge(l). <a href="/wiki/Royal_Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Antwerp" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp">Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp</a>, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-76979-35-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-76979-35-9">978-90-76979-35-9</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WOb26cxGBfMC&pg=PA16">Weir, David, Decadence and the Making of Modernism, 1995</a>, University of Massachusetts Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87023-992-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87023-992-2">978-0-87023-992-2</a>.</li> <li>Weston, Richard, Modernism (Phaidon Press, 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7148-4099-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7148-4099-8">0-7148-4099-8</a>).</li> <li>de Zegher, Catherine, Inside the Visible. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Modernism&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/modernism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/modernism">modernism</a> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Modernism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Modernism">Modernism</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Modernism" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Modernism">Modernism</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/J._G._Ballard" title="J. G. Ballard">Ballard, J. G.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arts.guardian.co.uk/features/story/0,,1734913,00.html">on Modernism.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080517064119/http://arts.guardian.co.uk/features/story/0,,1734913,00.html">Archived</a> 17 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Denzer, Anthony S., PhD, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mastersofmodernism.com/?page=Modernism">Masters of Modernism.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110113033026/http://www.mastersofmodernism.com/?page=Modernism">Archived</a> 13 January 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._O._Hopp%C3%A9" title="E. O. Hoppé">Hoppé, E. O.</a>, photographer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070312190121/http://www.eohoppe.com/portraits/literary_artists.html">Edwardian Modernists.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rwm.macba.cat/en/specials?id_capsula=604">Malady of Writing. Modernism you can dance to</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100922154141/http://rwm.macba.cat/en/specials?id_capsula=604">Archived</a> 22 September 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> An online radio show that presents a humorous version of Modernism</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://modernism.courseresource.yale.edu/">Modernism Lab @ Yale University</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191222204929/https://modernism.courseresource.yale.edu/">Archived</a> 22 December 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/modernism_modernity/index.html">Modernism/Modernity</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100614132811/https://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/modernism_modernity/index.html">Archived</a> 14 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, official publication of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://msa.press.jhu.edu/index.html">Modernist Studies Association</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100929224245/http://msa.press.jhu.edu/index.html">Archived</a> 29 September 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www19.homepage.villanova.edu/karyn.hollis/prof_academic/Courses/2043_pop/modernism_vs_postmodernism.htm">Modernism vs. Postmodernism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200804012616/http://www19.homepage.villanova.edu/karyn.hollis/prof_academic/Courses/2043_pop/modernism_vs_postmodernism.htm">Archived</a> 4 August 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTobolczyk2021" class="citation book cs1">Tobolczyk, Marta (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridgescholars.com/resources/pdfs/978-1-5275-7039-9-sample.pdf">Contemporary architecture: the genesis and characteristics of leading trends</a> (PDF). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5275-7039-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5275-7039-9"><bdi>978-1-5275-7039-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+architecture%3A+the+genesis+and+characteristics+of+leading+trends&rft.place=Newcastle+upon+Tyne&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-5275-7039-9&rft.aulast=Tobolczyk&rft.aufirst=Marta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridgescholars.com%2Fresources%2Fpdfs%2F978-1-5275-7039-9-sample.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModernism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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title="Ashcan School">Ashcan School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(art)" title="Constructivism (art)">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressionism" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Der_Blaue_Reiter" title="Der Blaue Reiter">Der Blaue Reiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Die_Br%C3%BCcke" title="Die Brücke">Die Brücke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressionist_music" title="Expressionist music">Music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">Fauvism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)" title="Functionalism (architecture)">Functionalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">Futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagism" title="Imagism">Imagism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lettrism" title="Lettrism">Lettrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplasticism" title="Neoplasticism">Neoplasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Stijl" title="De Stijl">De Stijl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(art)" title="Orphism (art)">Orphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchromism" title="Synchromism">Synchromism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonalism" title="Tonalism">Tonalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_arts#Literary_arts" title="The arts">Literary arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literary_modernism" title="Literary modernism">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Apollinaire" title="Guillaume Apollinaire">Apollinaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Djuna_Barnes" title="Djuna Barnes">Barnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Beckett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Bely" title="Andrei Bely">Bely</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Breton" title="André Breton">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Broch" title="Hermann Broch">Broch</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bulgakov" title="Mikhail Bulgakov">Bulgakov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Chekhov" title="Anton Chekhov">Chekhov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Conrad" title="Joseph Conrad">Conrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_D%C3%B6blin" title="Alfred Döblin">Döblin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._M._Forster" title="E. M. Forster">Forster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Faulkner" title="William Faulkner">Faulkner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Flaubert" title="Gustave Flaubert">Flaubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ford_Madox_Ford" title="Ford Madox Ford">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gide" title="André Gide">Gide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knut_Hamsun" title="Knut Hamsun">Hamsun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaroslav_Ha%C5%A1ek" title="Jaroslav Hašek">Hašek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Hemingway" title="Ernest Hemingway">Hemingway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Hesse" title="Hermann Hesse">Hesse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">Joyce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Kafka" title="Franz Kafka">Kafka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler" title="Arthur Koestler">Koestler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._H._Lawrence" title="D. H. Lawrence">Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mann" title="Thomas Mann">Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katherine_Mansfield" title="Katherine Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti" title="Filippo Tommaso Marinetti">Marinetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Musil" title="Robert Musil">Musil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dos_Passos" title="John Dos Passos">Dos Passos</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Platonov" title="Andrei Platonov">Platonov</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katherine_Anne_Porter" title="Katherine Anne Porter">Porter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Proust" title="Marcel Proust">Proust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Stein" title="Gertrude Stein">Stein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo_Svevo" title="Italo Svevo">Svevo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_de_Unamuno" title="Miguel de Unamuno">Unamuno</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Woolf" title="Virginia Woolf">Woolf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modernist_poetry" title="Modernist poetry">Poetry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Akhmatova" title="Anna Akhmatova">Akhmatova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Aldington" title="Richard Aldington">Aldington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._H._Auden" title="W. H. Auden">Auden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_P._Cavafy" title="Constantine P. Cavafy">Cavafy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Cendrars" title="Blaise Cendrars">Cendrars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hart_Crane" title="Hart Crane">Crane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H.D." title="H.D.">H.D.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Desnos" title="Robert Desnos">Desnos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_%C3%89luard" title="Paul Éluard">Éluard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odysseas_Elytis" title="Odysseas Elytis">Elytis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stefan_George" title="Stefan George">George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Jacob" title="Max Jacob">Jacob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federico_Garc%C3%ADa_Lorca" title="Federico García Lorca">Lorca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Lowell" title="Amy Lowell">Lowell (Amy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Lowell" title="Robert Lowell">Lowell (Robert)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Mallarm%C3%A9" title="Stéphane Mallarmé">Mallarmé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marianne_Moore" title="Marianne Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfred_Owen" title="Wilfred Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Pessoa" title="Fernando Pessoa">Pessoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra_Pound" title="Ezra Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainer_Maria_Rilke" title="Rainer Maria Rilke">Rilke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgos_Seferis" title="Giorgos Seferis">Seferis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Stevens" title="Wallace Stevens">Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dylan_Thomas" title="Dylan Thomas">Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tristan_Tzara" title="Tristan Tzara">Tzara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Val%C3%A9ry" title="Paul Valéry">Valéry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Carlos_Williams" title="William Carlos Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._B._Yeats" title="W. B. Yeats">Yeats</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/In_Search_of_Lost_Time" title="In Search of Lost Time">In Search of Lost Time</a> (1913–1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Metamorphosis" title="The Metamorphosis">The Metamorphosis</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_(novel)" title="Ulysses (novel)">Ulysses</a> (1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Waste_Land" title="The Waste Land">The Waste Land</a> (1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Magic_Mountain" title="The Magic Mountain">The Magic Mountain</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mrs_Dalloway" title="Mrs Dalloway">Mrs Dalloway</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sun_Also_Rises" title="The Sun Also Rises">The Sun Also Rises</a> (1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Master_and_Margarita" title="The Master and Margarita">The Master and Margarita</a> (1928–1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sound_and_the_Fury" title="The Sound and the Fury">The Sound and the Fury</a> (1929)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_art" title="Modern art">Painting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Albers" title="Josef Albers">Albers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Arp" title="Jean Arp">Arp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balthus" title="Balthus">Balthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bellows" title="George Bellows">Bellows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Boccioni" title="Umberto Boccioni">Boccioni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bonnard" title="Pierre Bonnard">Bonnard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantin_Br%C3%A2ncu%C8%99i" title="Constantin Brâncuși">Brâncuși</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Braque" title="Georges Braque">Braque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Calder" title="Alexander Calder">Calder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Cassatt" title="Mary Cassatt">Cassatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne" title="Paul Cézanne">Cézanne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Chagall" title="Marc Chagall">Chagall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_de_Chirico" title="Giorgio de Chirico">Chirico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Claudel" title="Camille Claudel">Claudel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Dal%C3%AD" title="Salvador Dalí">Dalí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Degas" title="Edgar Degas">Degas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Kooning" title="Willem de Kooning">Kooning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Delaunay" title="Robert Delaunay">Delaunay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Delaunay" title="Sonia Delaunay">Delaunay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Demuth" title="Charles Demuth">Demuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Dix" title="Otto Dix">Dix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theo_van_Doesburg" title="Theo van Doesburg">Doesburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp" title="Marcel Duchamp">Duchamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoul_Dufy" title="Raoul Dufy">Dufy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Ensor" title="James Ensor">Ensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Ernst" title="Max Ernst">Ernst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gauguin" title="Paul Gauguin">Gauguin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alberto_Giacometti" title="Alberto Giacometti">Giacometti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Goncharova" title="Natalia Goncharova">Goncharova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Gris" title="Juan Gris">Gris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Grosz" title="George Grosz">Grosz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_H%C3%B6ch" title="Hannah Höch">Höch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Hopper" title="Edward Hopper">Hopper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frida_Kahlo" title="Frida Kahlo">Kahlo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky" title="Wassily Kandinsky">Kandinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ludwig_Kirchner" title="Ernst Ludwig Kirchner">Kirchner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Klee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oskar_Kokoschka" title="Oskar Kokoschka">Kokoschka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernand_L%C3%A9ger" title="Fernand Léger">Léger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Magritte" title="René Magritte">Magritte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazimir_Malevich" title="Kazimir Malevich">Malevich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Manet" title="Édouard Manet">Manet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Marc" title="Franz Marc">Marc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Matisse" title="Henri Matisse">Matisse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Metzinger" title="Jean Metzinger">Metzinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Mir%C3%B3" title="Joan Miró">Miró</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Modigliani" title="Amedeo Modigliani">Modigliani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piet_Mondrian" title="Piet Mondrian">Mondrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Monet" title="Claude Monet">Monet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Moore" title="Henry Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edvard_Munch" title="Edvard Munch">Munch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emil_Nolde" title="Emil Nolde">Nolde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_O%27Keeffe" title="Georgia O'Keeffe">O'Keeffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Picabia" title="Francis Picabia">Picabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Picasso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Pissarro" title="Camille Pissarro">Pissarro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_Ray" title="Man Ray">Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odilon_Redon" title="Odilon Redon">Redon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Auguste_Renoir" title="Pierre-Auguste Renoir">Renoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Rodin" title="Auguste Rodin">Rodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Rousseau" title="Henri Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egon_Schiele" title="Egon Schiele">Schiele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Seurat" title="Georges Seurat">Seurat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Signac" title="Paul Signac">Signac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sisley" title="Alfred Sisley">Sisley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaim_Soutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaim Soutine">Soutine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Steichen" title="Edward Steichen">Steichen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Stieglitz" title="Alfred Stieglitz">Stieglitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec" title="Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec">Toulouse-Lautrec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh" title="Vincent van Gogh">Van Gogh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Vuillard" title="Édouard Vuillard">Vuillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grant_Wood" title="Grant Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modernist_film" title="Modernist film">Film</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Akerman" title="Chantal Akerman">Akerman</a> </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Aldrich" title="Robert Aldrich">Aldrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelangelo_Antonioni" title="Michelangelo Antonioni">Antonioni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tex_Avery" title="Tex Avery">Avery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingmar_Bergman" title="Ingmar Bergman">Bergman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bresson" title="Robert Bresson">Bresson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Bu%C3%B1uel" title="Luis Buñuel">Buñuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Carn%C3%A9" title="Marcel Carné">Carné</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cassavetes" title="John Cassavetes">Cassavetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin" title="Charlie Chaplin">Chaplin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Clair" title="René Clair">Clair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Cocteau" title="Jean Cocteau">Cocteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Dassin" title="Jules Dassin">Dassin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Deren" title="Maya Deren">Deren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dovzhenko" title="Alexander Dovzhenko">Dovzhenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Theodor_Dreyer" title="Carl Theodor Dreyer">Dreyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blake_Edwards" title="Blake Edwards">Edwards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Eisenstein" title="Sergei Eisenstein">Eisenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Epstein" title="Jean Epstein">Epstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainer_Werner_Fassbinder" title="Rainer Werner Fassbinder">Fassbinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federico_Fellini" title="Federico Fellini">Fellini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_J._Flaherty" title="Robert J. Flaherty">Flaherty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ford" title="John Ford">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Fuller" title="Samuel Fuller">Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abel_Gance" title="Abel Gance">Gance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Luc_Godard" title="Jean-Luc Godard">Godard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hitchcock" title="Alfred Hitchcock">Hitchcock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hubley" title="John Hubley">Hubley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Jones" title="Chuck Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buster_Keaton" title="Buster Keaton">Keaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Kubrick" title="Stanley Kubrick">Kubrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lev_Kuleshov" title="Lev Kuleshov">Kuleshov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akira_Kurosawa" title="Akira Kurosawa">Kurosawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Lang" title="Fritz Lang">Lang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Losey" title="Joseph Losey">Losey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_Lupino" title="Ida Lupino">Lupino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Marker" title="Chris Marker">Marker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincente_Minnelli" title="Vincente Minnelli">Minnelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F._W._Murnau" title="F. W. Murnau">Murnau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasujir%C5%8D_Ozu" title="Yasujirō Ozu">Ozu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._W._Pabst" title="G. W. Pabst">Pabst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vsevolod_Pudovkin" title="Vsevolod Pudovkin">Pudovkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Ray" title="Nicholas Ray">Ray (Nicholas)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyajit_Ray" title="Satyajit Ray">Ray (Satyajit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Resnais" title="Alain Resnais">Resnais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Renoir" title="Jean Renoir">Renoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Richardson" title="Tony Richardson">Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Rossellini" title="Roberto Rossellini">Rossellini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Sirk" title="Douglas Sirk">Sirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Sj%C3%B6str%C3%B6m" title="Victor Sjöström">Sjöström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_von_Sternberg" title="Josef von Sternberg">Sternberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Tarkovsky" title="Andrei Tarkovsky">Tarkovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Tati" title="Jacques Tati">Tati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji%C5%99%C3%AD_Trnka" title="Jiří Trnka">Trnka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Truffaut" title="François Truffaut">Truffaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agn%C3%A8s_Varda" title="Agnès Varda">Varda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dziga_Vertov" title="Dziga Vertov">Vertov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Vigo" title="Jean Vigo">Vigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orson_Welles" title="Orson Welles">Welles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wiene" title="Robert Wiene">Wiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Wood" title="Ed Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_architecture" title="Modern architecture">Architecture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Breuer" title="Marcel Breuer">Breuer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Bunshaft" title="Gordon Bunshaft">Bunshaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoni_Gaud%C3%AD" title="Antoni Gaudí">Gaudí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Gropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hector_Guimard" title="Hector Guimard">Guimard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Horta" title="Victor Horta">Horta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedensreich_Hundertwasser" title="Friedensreich Hundertwasser">Hundertwasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Johnson" title="Philip Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Kahn" title="Louis Kahn">Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Loos" title="Adolf Loos">Loos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Melnikov" title="Konstantin Melnikov">Melnikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Mendelsohn" title="Erich Mendelsohn">Mendelsohn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pier_Luigi_Nervi" title="Pier Luigi Nervi">Nervi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Neutra" title="Richard Neutra">Neutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Niemeyer" title="Oscar Niemeyer">Niemeyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrit_Rietveld" title="Gerrit Rietveld">Rietveld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eero_Saarinen" title="Eero Saarinen">Saarinen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Sullivan" title="Louis Sullivan">Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Tatlin" title="Vladimir Tatlin">Tatlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" title="Ludwig Mies van der Rohe">Mies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright" title="Frank Lloyd Wright">Wright</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_Sunday_Afternoon_on_the_Island_of_La_Grande_Jatte" title="A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte">A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte</a> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mont_Sainte-Victoire_(C%C3%A9zanne)" title="Mont Sainte-Victoire (Cézanne)">Mont Sainte-Victoir</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Starry_Night" title="The Starry Night">The Starry Night</a> (1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon" title="Les Demoiselles d'Avignon">Les Demoiselles d'Avignon</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_(Matisse)" title="Dance (Matisse)">The Dance</a> (1909–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nude_Descending_a_Staircase,_No._2" title="Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2">Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Square" title="Black Square">Black Square</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Cabinet_of_Dr._Caligari" title="The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari">The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballet_M%C3%A9canique" title="Ballet Mécanique">Ballet Mécanique</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battleship_Potemkin" title="Battleship Potemkin">Battleship Potemkin</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolis_(1927_film)" title="Metropolis (1927 film)">Metropolis</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Un_Chien_Andalou" title="Un Chien Andalou">Un Chien Andalou</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villa_Savoye" title="Villa Savoye">Villa Savoye</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallingwater" title="Fallingwater">Fallingwater</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_Kane" title="Citizen Kane">Citizen Kane</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meshes_of_the_Afternoon" title="Meshes of the Afternoon">Meshes of the Afternoon</a> (1943)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">Performing arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modernism_(music)" title="Modernism (music)">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Antheil" title="George Antheil">Antheil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bart%C3%B3k" title="Béla Bartók">Bartók</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alban_Berg" title="Alban Berg">Berg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luciano_Berio" title="Luciano Berio">Berio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadia_Boulanger" title="Nadia Boulanger">Boulanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Boulez" title="Pierre Boulez">Boulez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Copland" title="Aaron Copland">Copland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Debussy" title="Claude Debussy">Debussy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Dutilleux" title="Henri Dutilleux">Dutilleux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_de_Falla" title="Manuel de Falla">Falla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_Feldman" title="Morton Feldman">Feldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_G%C3%B3recki" title="Henryk Górecki">Górecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Hindemith" title="Paul Hindemith">Hindemith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Honegger" title="Arthur Honegger">Honegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Ives" title="Charles Ives">Ives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo%C5%A1_Jan%C3%A1%C4%8Dek" title="Leoš Janáček">Janáček</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Ligeti" title="György Ligeti">Ligeti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witold_Lutos%C5%82awski" title="Witold Lutosławski">Lutosławski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darius_Milhaud" title="Darius Milhaud">Milhaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Nono" title="Luigi Nono">Nono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Partch" title="Harry Partch">Partch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Russolo" title="Luigi Russolo">Russolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Satie" title="Erik Satie">Satie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Schaeffer" title="Pierre Schaeffer">Schaeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Schoenberg" title="Arnold Schoenberg">Schoenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Scriabin" title="Alexander Scriabin">Scriabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karlheinz_Stockhausen" title="Karlheinz Stockhausen">Stockhausen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Strauss" title="Richard Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky" title="Igor Stravinsky">Stravinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karol_Szymanowski" title="Karol Szymanowski">Szymanowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgard_Var%C3%A8se" title="Edgard Varèse">Varèse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heitor_Villa-Lobos" title="Heitor Villa-Lobos">Villa-Lobos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Webern" title="Anton Webern">Webern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Weill" title="Kurt Weill">Weill</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modernist_theatre" title="Modernist theatre">Theatre</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_Anderson" title="Maxwell Anderson">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Anouilh" title="Jean Anouilh">Anouilh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonin_Artaud" title="Antonin Artaud">Artaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Beckett" title="Samuel Beckett">Beckett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Brecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton_Chekhov" title="Anton Chekhov">Chekhov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrik_Ibsen" title="Henrik Ibsen">Ibsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Jarry" title="Alfred Jarry">Jarry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Kaiser" title="Georg Kaiser">Kaiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Maeterlinck" title="Maurice Maeterlinck">Maeterlinck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Mayakovsky" title="Vladimir Mayakovsky">Mayakovsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_O%27Casey" title="Seán O'Casey">O'Casey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_O%27Neill" title="Eugene O'Neill">O'Neill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Osborne" title="John Osborne">Osborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Pirandello" title="Luigi Pirandello">Pirandello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Piscator" title="Erwin Piscator">Piscator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_Strindberg" title="August Strindberg">Strindberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Toller" title="Ernst Toller">Toller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Wedekind" title="Frank Wedekind">Wedekind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thornton_Wilder" title="Thornton Wilder">Wilder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ignacy_Witkiewicz" title="Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz">Witkiewicz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_dance" title="Modern dance">Dance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Balanchine" title="George Balanchine">Balanchine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merce_Cunningham" title="Merce Cunningham">Cunningham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Diaghilev" title="Sergei Diaghilev">Diaghilev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isadora_Duncan" title="Isadora Duncan">Duncan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Fokine" title="Michel Fokine">Fokine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loie_Fuller" title="Loie Fuller">Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Graham" title="Martha Graham">Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanya_Holm" title="Hanya Holm">Holm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Laban" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolf Laban">Laban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9onide_Massine" title="Léonide Massine">Massine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaslav_Nijinsky" title="Vaslav Nijinsky">Nijinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Shawn" title="Ted Shawn">Shawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Sokolow" title="Anna Sokolow">Sokolow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_St._Denis" title="Ruth St. Denis">St. Denis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Tamiris" title="Helen Tamiris">Tamiris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grete_Wiesenthal" title="Grete Wiesenthal">Wiesenthal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wigman" title="Mary Wigman">Wigman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Don_Juan_(Strauss)" title="Don Juan (Strauss)">Don Juan</a> (1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubu_Roi" title="Ubu Roi">Ubu Roi</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verkl%C3%A4rte_Nacht" title="Verklärte Nacht">Verklärte Nacht</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pell%C3%A9as_et_M%C3%A9lisande_(opera)" title="Pelléas et Mélisande (opera)">Pelléas et Mélisande</a> (1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salome_(opera)" title="Salome (opera)">Salome</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Firebird" title="The Firebird">The Firebird</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afternoon_of_a_Faun_(Nijinsky)" title="Afternoon of a Faun (Nijinsky)">Afternoon of a Faun</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rite_of_Spring" title="The Rite of Spring">The Rite of Spring</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fountain_(Duchamp)" title="Fountain (Duchamp)">Fountain</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Characters_in_Search_of_an_Author" title="Six Characters in Search of an Author">Six Characters in Search of an Author</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Threepenny_Opera" title="The Threepenny Opera">The Threepenny Opera</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waiting_for_Godot" title="Waiting for Godot">Waiting for Godot</a> (1953)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_modernism" title="American modernism">American modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armory_Show" title="Armory Show">Armory Show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballets_Russes" title="Ballets Russes">Ballets Russes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Group" title="Bloomsbury Group">Bloomsbury Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Hollywood_cinema" title="Classical Hollywood cinema">Classical Hollywood cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degenerate_art" title="Degenerate art">Degenerate art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecomodernism" title="Ecomodernism">Ecomodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_film" title="Experimental film">Experimental film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_noir" title="Film noir">Film noir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_dimension_in_art" title="Fourth dimension in art">Fourth dimension in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_dimension_in_literature" title="Fourth dimension in literature">Fourth dimension in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grosvenor_School_of_Modern_Art" title="Grosvenor School of Modern Art">Grosvenor School of Modern Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanshinkan_Modernism" title="Hanshinkan Modernism">Hanshinkan Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_modernism" title="High modernism">High modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">Hippie modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressionism" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impressionism_in_music" title="Impressionism in music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressionism_(literature)" title="Impressionism (literature)">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Impressionism" title="Post-Impressionism">Post-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incoherents" title="Incoherents">Incoherents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Style" title="International Style">International Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_modernism" title="Late modernism">Late modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_modernity" title="Late modernity">Late modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">List of art movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_avant-garde_artists" title="List of avant-garde artists">List of avant-garde artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modernist_poets" title="List of modernist poets">List of modernist poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximalism" title="Maximalism">Maximalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-primitivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-primitivism">Neo-primitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neo-romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hollywood" title="New Hollywood">New Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Objectivity" title="New Objectivity">New Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetic_realism" title="Poetic realism">Poetic realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_noir" title="Pulp noir">Pulp noir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary_modernism" title="Reactionary modernism">Reactionary modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamodernism" title="Metamodernism">Metamodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remodernism" title="Remodernism">Remodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Viennese_School" title="Second Viennese School">Second Viennese School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_film" title="Structural film">Structural film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_film" title="Underground film">Underground film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_auteurism" title="Vulgar auteurism">Vulgar modernism</a></li></ul> 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Premodern,_Modern_and_Contemporary_art_movements" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#EAE0C8;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_art_movements" title="Template:Western art movements"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_art_movements" title="Template talk:Western art movements"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_art_movements" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western art movements"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Premodern,_Modern_and_Contemporary_art_movements" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Premodern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modern_art" title="Modern art">Modern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art" title="Contemporary art">Contemporary</a> art movements</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#EAE0C8;"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">List of art movements</a>/<a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">periods</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#EAE0C8;;width:1%">Premodern (Western)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_art" title="Ancient art">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_treasure" title="Thracian treasure">Thracian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_art" title="Dacian art">Dacian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization#Culture" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_art" title="Aegean art">Aegean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycladic_art" title="Cycladic art">Cycladic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_art" title="Minoan art">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minyan_ware" title="Minyan ware">Minyan ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece#Art_and_pottery" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Mycenaean_pottery" title="Sub-Mycenaean pottery">Sub-Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protogeometric_style" title="Protogeometric style">Protogeometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_art" title="Geometric art">Geometric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orientalizing_period" title="Orientalizing period">Orientalizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greek_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic Greek art">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-figure_pottery" title="Black-figure pottery">Black-figure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-figure_pottery" title="Red-figure pottery">Red-figure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_style" title="Severe style">Severe style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art#Classical" title="Ancient Greek art">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerch_style" title="Kerch style">Kerch style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art#"Baroque"" title="Hellenistic art">"Baroque"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_art" title="Indo-Greek art">Indo-Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Attic" title="Neo-Attic">Neo-Attic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Scythian art">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_sculpture" title="Iberian sculpture">Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauls#Art" title="Gauls">Gaulish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_art" title="Roman Republican art">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallo-Roman art">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustan_and_Julio-Claudian_art" title="Augustan and Julio-Claudian art">Julio-Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeian_Styles" title="Pompeian Styles">Pompeian Styles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajanic_art" title="Trajanic art">Trajanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severan_art" title="Severan art">Severan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Antique_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antique art">Late antique</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art_and_architecture" title="Early Christian art and architecture">Early Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_art" title="Coptic art">Coptic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_art" title="Ethiopian art">Ethiopian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period_art" title="Migration Period art">Migration Period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_art" title="Anglo-Saxon art">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunnic_art" title="Hunnic art">Hunnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombards#Art" title="Lombards">Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_art_and_architecture" title="Visigothic art and architecture">Visigothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donor_portrait" title="Donor portrait">Donor portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picts#Art" title="Picts">Pictish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozarabic_art_and_architecture" title="Mozarabic art and architecture">Mozarabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Repoblaci%C3%B3n_art_and_architecture" title="Repoblación art and architecture">Repoblación</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_art" title="Viking art">Viking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_art_(Byzantine)" title="Macedonian art (Byzantine)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeologan_Renaissance#Art_and_architecture" title="Palaeologan Renaissance">Palaeologan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Byzantine" title="Italo-Byzantine">Italo-Byzantine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franks#Art_and_architecture" title="Franks">Frankish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merovingian_art_and_architecture" title="Merovingian art and architecture">Merovingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_art" title="Carolingian art">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Romanesque_art_and_architecture" title="Pre-Romanesque art and architecture">Pre-Romanesque</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottonian_art" title="Ottonian art">Ottonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanesque_art" title="Romanesque art">Romanesque</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosan_art" title="Mosan art">Mosan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Romanesque" title="Spanish Romanesque">Spanish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normans#Visual_arts" title="Normans">Norman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman%E2%80%93Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_culture" title="Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture">Norman-Sicilian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opus_Anglicanum" title="Opus Anglicanum">Opus Anglicanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_art_in_Milan" title="Gothic art in Milan">Gothic art in Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Gothic" title="International Gothic">International Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Gothic_art_in_Italy" title="International Gothic art in Italy">International Gothic art in Italy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucchese_school" title="Lucchese school">Lucchese school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Crusades" title="Art of the Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_school" title="Novgorod school">Novgorod school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duecento" title="Duecento">Duecento</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sienese_school" title="Sienese school">Sienese school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud%C3%A9jar_art" title="Mudéjar art">Mudéjar</a></li> <li>Medieval <a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography#Medieval_Europe" title="History of cartography">cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography#Italian_cartography_and_the_birth_of_portolan_charts" title="History of cartography">Italian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majorcan_cartographic_school" title="Majorcan cartographic school">Majorcan school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mappa_mundi" title="Mappa mundi">Mappa mundi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting" title="Italian Renaissance painting">Italian Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trecento" title="Trecento">Trecento</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Renaissance">Proto-Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florentine_painting" title="Florentine painting">Florentine school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pittura_infamante" title="Pittura infamante">Pittura infamante</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattrocento" title="Quattrocento">Quattrocento</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Ferrara" title="School of Ferrara">Ferrarese school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forlivese_school_of_art" title="Forlivese school of art">Forlivese school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_painting" title="Venetian painting">Venetian school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinquecento" title="Cinquecento">Cinquecento</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolognese_school" title="Bolognese school">Bolognese school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">Mannerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Maniera" title="Counter-Maniera">Counter-Maniera</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting" title="Early Netherlandish painting">Early Netherlandish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_landscape" title="World landscape">World landscape</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghent%E2%80%93Bruges_school" title="Ghent–Bruges school">Ghent–Bruges school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mannerism" title="Northern Mannerism">Northern Mannerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">German Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cologne_school_of_painting" title="Cologne school of painting">Cologne school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danube_school" title="Danube school">Danube school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_and_Flemish_Renaissance_painting" title="Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting">Dutch and Flemish Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antwerp_Mannerism" title="Antwerp Mannerism">Antwerp Mannerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanism_(painting)" title="Romanism (painting)">Romanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Still_life" title="Still life">Still life</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance#Visual_arts" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artists_of_the_Tudor_court" title="Artists of the Tudor court">Tudor court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_school" title="Cretan school">Cretan school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turquerie" title="Turquerie">Turquerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Fontainebleau" title="School of Fontainebleau">Fontainebleau school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_late_16th_century_in_Milan" title="Art of the late 16th century in Milan">Art of the late 16th century in Milan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroque_in_Milan" title="Baroque in Milan">Baroque in Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_Baroque_painting" title="Flemish Baroque painting">Flemish Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caravaggisti" title="Caravaggisti">Caravaggisti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Utrecht_Caravaggism" title="Utrecht Caravaggism">in Utrecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenebrism" title="Tenebrism">Tenebrism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIII_style" title="Louis XIII style">Louis XIII style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_baroque" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran baroque">Lutheran Baroque</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroganov_school" title="Stroganov school">Stroganov school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_painter" title="Animal painter">Animal painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_of_Romanists" title="Guild of Romanists">Guild of Romanists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age_painting" title="Dutch Golden Age painting">Dutch Golden Age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delft_school_(painting)" title="Delft school (painting)">Delft school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capriccio_(art)" title="Capriccio (art)">Capriccio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_school_(painting)" title="Ionian school (painting)">Heptanese school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism#In_the_fine_arts" title="Classicism">Classicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_style" title="Louis XIV style">Louis XIV style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poussinists_and_Rubenists" title="Poussinists and Rubenists">Poussinists and Rubenists</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rococo" title="Rococo">Rococo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rocaille" title="Rocaille">Rocaille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XV_style" title="Louis XV style">Louis XV style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederician_Rococo" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederician Rococo">Frederician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinoiserie" title="Chinoiserie">Chinoiserie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%AAte_galante" title="Fête galante">Fête galante</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Go%C3%BBt_grec" title="Goût grec">Goût grec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_style" title="Louis XVI style">Louis XVI style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_style" title="Adam style">Adam style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directoire_style" title="Directoire style">Directoire style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture_in_Milan" title="Neoclassical architecture in Milan">Neoclassical architecture in Milan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picturesque" title="Picturesque">Picturesque</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">Colonial art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Art of the <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora" title="African diaspora">African diaspora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">African-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_art" title="Caribbean art">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_art" title="Haitian art">Haitian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Colonial Asian art <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_in_the_Philippines" title="Arts in the Philippines">Arts in the Philippines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letras_y_figuras" title="Letras y figuras">Letras y figuras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipos_del_Pa%C3%ADs" title="Tipos del País">Tipos del País</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque#Baroque_in_the_Spanish_and_Portuguese_Colonial_Asia" title="Baroque">Colonial Asian Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Company_style" title="Company style">Company style</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_art" title="Latin American art">Latin American art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casta_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Casta painting">Casta painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indochristian_art" title="Indochristian art">Indochristian art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_school_of_religious_imagery" title="Chilote school of religious imagery">Chilote school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuzco_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuzco school">Cuzco school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quito_school" title="Quito school">Quito school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque#Baroque_in_the_Spanish_and_Portuguese_Colonial_Americas" title="Baroque">Latin American Baroque</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">Art borrowing Western elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus#Art_and_architecture" title="Al-Andalus">Moorish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaean_art" title="Manichaean art">Manichaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal art">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_art" title="Qajar art">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_handicrafts" title="Qing handicrafts">Qing handicrafts</a></li> <li>Western influence in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_art" title="Japanese art">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akita_ranga" title="Akita ranga">Akita ranga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uki-e" title="Uki-e">Uki-e</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_art#Western_art_after_1770" title="History of art">Transition to modern</a> (c. 1770 – 1862)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Visual_arts" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_painting" title="Fairy painting">Fairy painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Golden_Age" title="Danish Golden Age">Danish Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troubadour_style" title="Troubadour style">Troubadour style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazarene_movement" title="Nazarene movement">Nazarene movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purismo" title="Purismo">Purismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancients_(art_group)" title="Ancients (art group)">Shoreham Ancients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_school_of_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Düsseldorf school of painting">Düsseldorf school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood" title="Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood">Pre-Raphaelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_River_School" title="Hudson River School">Hudson River School</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luminism_(American_art_style)" title="Luminism (American art style)">American luminism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orientalism#Orientalist_art" title="Orientalism">Orientalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwich_school_of_painters" title="Norwich school of painters">Norwich school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_style" title="Empire style">Empire style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(art)" title="Historicism (art)">Historicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revivalism_(architecture)" title="Revivalism (architecture)">Revivalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biedermeier" title="Biedermeier">Biedermeier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(art_movement)" title="Realism (art movement)">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbizon_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbizon school">Barbizon school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costumbrismo" title="Costumbrismo">Costumbrismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verismo_(painting)" title="Verismo (painting)">Verismo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macchiaioli" title="Macchiaioli">Macchiaioli</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_art" title="Academic art">Academic art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Munich_school" title="Munich school">Munich school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_academic_art_of_the_19th_century" title="Greek academic art of the 19th century">in Greece</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Grec#Painting" title="Neo-Grec">Neo-Grec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etching_revival" title="Etching revival">Etching revival</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#EAE0C8;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_art" title="Modern art">Modern</a> (1863–1944)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1863–1899</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neo-romanticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism#Arts" title="Romantic nationalism">National romanticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y%C5%8Dga" title="Yōga">Yōga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihonga" title="Nihonga">Nihonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japonisme" title="Japonisme">Japonisme</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Japanese_style" title="Anglo-Japanese style">Anglo-Japanese style</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beuron_school" title="Beuron school">Beuron school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague school">Hague school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peredvizhniki" title="Peredvizhniki">Peredvizhniki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressionism" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Impressionism" title="American Impressionism">American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoosier_Group" title="Hoosier Group">Hoosier Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_school_(painting)" title="Boston school (painting)">Boston school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Impressionism" title="Amsterdam Impressionism">Amsterdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Impressionism" title="Canadian Impressionism">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Heidelberg school">Heidelberg school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Arts and Crafts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_pottery" title="Art pottery">Art pottery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonalism" title="Tonalism">Tonalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decadent_movement" title="Decadent movement">Decadent movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbolist_movement_in_Romania" title="Symbolist movement in Romania">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_symbolism#Visual_arts" title="Russian symbolism">Russian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcano_school" title="Volcano school">Volcano school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incoherents" title="Incoherents">Incoherents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Impressionism" title="Post-Impressionism">Post-Impressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Impressionism" title="Neo-Impressionism">Neo-Impressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luminism_(Impressionism)" title="Luminism (Impressionism)">Luminism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divisionism" title="Divisionism">Divisionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pointillism" title="Pointillism">Pointillism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pont-Aven_School" title="Pont-Aven School">Pont-Aven School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloisonnism" title="Cloisonnism">Cloisonnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetism" title="Synthetism">Synthetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_Nabis" class="mw-redirect" title="Les Nabis">Les Nabis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Barbizon_school" class="mw-redirect" title="American Barbizon school">American Barbizon school</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_tonalism" class="mw-redirect" title="California tonalism">California tonalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costumbrismo#Visual_costumbrismo_in_the_Americas" title="Costumbrismo">Costumbrismo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1900–1914</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau_in_Milan" title="Art Nouveau in Milan">Art Nouveau in Milan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitivism" title="Primitivism">Primitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Impressionism" title="California Impressionism">California Impressionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secession_(art)" title="Secession (art)">Secessionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Paris" title="School of Paris">School of Paris</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Munich_Secession" title="Munich Secession">Munich Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Secession" title="Vienna Secession">Vienna Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Secession" title="Berlin Secession">Berlin Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonderbund_westdeutscher_Kunstfreunde_und_K%C3%BCnstler" title="Sonderbund westdeutscher Kunstfreunde und Künstler">Sonderbund</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Impressionism" title="Pennsylvania Impressionism">Pennsylvania Impressionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir_iskusstva" title="Mir iskusstva">Mir iskusstva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_American_Painters" title="Ten American Painters">Ten American Painters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">Fauvism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressionism" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Die_Br%C3%BCcke" title="Die Brücke">Die Brücke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Der_Blaue_Reiter" title="Der Blaue Reiter">Der Blaue Reiter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noucentisme" title="Noucentisme">Noucentisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutscher_Werkbund" title="Deutscher Werkbund">Deutscher Werkbund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Realism" class="mw-redirect" title="American Realism">American Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashcan_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashcan school">Ashcan school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Cubism" title="Proto-Cubism">Proto-Cubism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(art)" title="Orphism (art)">Orphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_(painters)" title="The Eight (painters)">A Nyolcak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neue_K%C3%BCnstlervereinigung_M%C3%BCnchen" title="Neue Künstlervereinigung München">Neue Künstlervereinigung München</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">Futurism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cubo-Futurism" title="Cubo-Futurism">Cubo-Futurism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_painting" title="Metaphysical painting">Metaphysical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayonism" title="Rayonism">Rayonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivism_(art)" title="Productivism (art)">Productivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchromism" title="Synchromism">Synchromism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vorticism" title="Vorticism">Vorticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1915–1944</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sosaku-hanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Sosaku-hanga">Sosaku-hanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suprematism" title="Suprematism">Suprematism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Paris" title="School of Paris">School of Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_Cubism" title="Crystal Cubism">Crystal Cubism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(art)" title="Constructivism (art)">Constructivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_art#Constructivist_movement" title="Latin American art">Latin American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Constructivism" title="Universal Constructivism">Universal Constructivism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin-hanga" title="Shin-hanga">Shin-hanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplasticism" title="Neoplasticism">Neoplasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Stijl" title="De Stijl">De Stijl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purism" title="Purism">Purism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Return_to_order" title="Return to order">Return to order</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Novecento_Italiano" title="Novecento Italiano">Novecento Italiano</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurative_Constructivism" title="Figurative Constructivism">Figurative Constructivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stupid_(art_movement)" title="Stupid (art movement)">Stupid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cologne_Progressives" title="Cologne Progressives">Cologne Progressives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbeitsrat_f%C3%BCr_Kunst" title="Arbeitsrat für Kunst">Arbeitsrat für Kunst</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/November_Group_(German)" title="November Group (German)">November Group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_tonalism" title="Australian tonalism">Australian tonalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dresden_Secession" title="Dresden Secession">Dresden Secession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_realism" title="Social realism">Social realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)" title="Functionalism (architecture)">Functionalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_art" title="Kinetic art">Kinetic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_Antrop%C3%B3fago" title="Manifesto Antropófago">Anthropophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingei" title="Mingei">Mingei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_Seven_(artists)" title="Group of Seven (artists)">Group of Seven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Objectivity" title="New Objectivity">New Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grosvenor_School_of_Modern_Art" title="Grosvenor School of Modern Art">Grosvenor school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Sehen" title="Neues Sehen">Neues Sehen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_modern_and_contemporary_art#Surrealism_in_Iran" title="Iranian modern and contemporary art">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_art#Surrealism" title="Latin American art">Latin American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_muralism" title="Mexican muralism">Mexican muralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Fauvism" title="Neo-Fauvism">Neo-Fauvism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precisionism" title="Precisionism">Precisionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeropittura" title="Aeropittura">Aeropittura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Revolutionary_Visual_Artists" title="Association of Revolutionary Visual Artists">Asso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuola_Romana" title="Scuola Romana">Scuola Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cercle_et_Carr%C3%A9" title="Cercle et Carré">Cercle et Carré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapists" title="Kapists">Kapists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(art)" title="Regionalism (art)">Regionalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_Scene_Painting" title="California Scene Painting">California Scene Painting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heroic_realism" title="Heroic realism">Heroic realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_realism" title="Socialist realism">Socialist realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Art in Nazi Germany">Nazi art</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streamline_Moderne" title="Streamline Moderne">Streamline Moderne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_art" title="Concrete art">Concrete art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstraction-Cr%C3%A9ation" title="Abstraction-Création">Abstraction-Création</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ten_(Expressionists)" title="The Ten (Expressionists)">The Ten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_dimension_in_art#Dimensionist_manifesto" title="Fourth dimension in art">Dimensionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Expressionism" title="Boston Expressionism">Boston Expressionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leningrad_School_of_Painting" title="Leningrad School of Painting">Leningrad school</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#EAE0C8;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art" title="Contemporary art">Contemporary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_art" title="Postmodern art">Postmodern</a> (1945–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1945–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Typographic_Style" title="International Typographic Style">International Typographic Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_expressionism" title="Abstract expressionism">Abstract expressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Color_School" title="Washington Color School">Washington Color School</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visionary_art" title="Visionary art">Visionary art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_School_of_Fantastic_Realism" title="Vienna School of Fantastic Realism">Vienna School of Fantastic Realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatialism" title="Spatialism">Spatialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_field" title="Color field">Color field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyrical_abstraction" title="Lyrical abstraction">Lyrical abstraction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tachisme" title="Tachisme">Tachisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arte_Informale" title="Arte Informale">Arte Informale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COBRA_(art_movement)" title="COBRA (art movement)">COBRA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuagisme" title="Nuagisme">Nuagisme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Ruptura" title="Generación de la Ruptura">Generación de la Ruptura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jikken_K%C5%8Db%C5%8D" title="Jikken Kōbō">Jikken Kōbō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metcalf_Chateau" title="Metcalf Chateau">Metcalf Chateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mono-ha" title="Mono-ha">Mono-ha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanyang_Style" title="Nanyang Style">Nanyang Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_painting" title="Action painting">Action painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Figurative_Expressionism" title="American Figurative Expressionism">American Figurative Expressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Figurative_Expressionism" title="New York Figurative Expressionism">in New York</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_media_art" title="New media art">New media art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_School_(art)#Visual_arts" title="New York School (art)">New York school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard-edge_painting" title="Hard-edge painting">Hard-edge painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay_Area_Figurative_Movement" title="Bay Area Figurative Movement">Bay Area Figurative Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_Plasticiens" title="Les Plasticiens">Les Plasticiens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutai_Art_Association" title="Gutai Art Association">Gutai Art Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendai_Bijutsu_Kondankai" title="Gendai Bijutsu Kondankai">Gendai Bijutsu Kondankai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pop_art" title="Pop art">Pop art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situationist_International" title="Situationist International">Situationist International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Nonconformist_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Nonconformist Art">Soviet Nonconformist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_underground" title="Ukrainian underground">Ukrainian underground</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lettrism" title="Lettrism">Lettrism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letterist_International" title="Letterist International">Letterist International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-Lettrist" title="Ultra-Lettrist">Ultra-Lettrist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Highwaymen" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida Highwaymen">Florida Highwaymen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetic_art" title="Cybernetic art">Cybernetic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipodeans" title="Antipodeans">Antipodeans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1960–1969</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Otra_Figuraci%C3%B3n" title="Otra Figuración">Otra Figuración</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nueva_Presencia" title="Nueva Presencia">Nueva Presencia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_(art)" title="Zero (art)">ZERO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happening" title="Happening">Happening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Dada" title="Neo-Dada">Neo-Dada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Dada_Organizers" title="Neo-Dada Organizers">Neo-Dada Organizers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Op_art" title="Op art">Op art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouveau_r%C3%A9alisme" title="Nouveau réalisme">Nouveau réalisme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_tendance" title="Nouvelle tendance">Nouvelle tendance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_realism" title="Capitalist realism">Capitalist realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_%26_Language" title="Art & Language">Art & Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arte_Povera" title="Arte Povera">Arte Povera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Arts_Movement" title="Black Arts Movement">Black Arts Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Caribbean_Artists_Movement" title="The Caribbean Artists Movement">The Caribbean Artists Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicano_art_movement" title="Chicano art movement">Chicano art movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_art" title="Conceptual art">Conceptual art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_art" title="Land art">Land art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_art" title="Systems art">Systems art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_art" title="Video art">Video art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimalism_(visual_arts)" title="Minimalism (visual arts)">Minimalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluxus" title="Fluxus">Fluxus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generative_art" title="Generative art">Generative art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-painterly_abstraction" title="Post-painterly abstraction">Post-painterly abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermedia" title="Intermedia">Intermedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_art" title="Psychedelic art">Psychedelic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_Art" title="Nut Art">Nut Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photorealism" title="Photorealism">Photorealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_art" title="Environmental art">Environmental art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_art" title="Performance art">Performance art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_art" title="Process art">Process art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_critique" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional critique">Institutional critique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_and_Space" title="Light and Space">Light and Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_art" title="Street art">Street art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_movement" title="Feminist art movement">Feminist art movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Feminist art movement in the United States">in the US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_modern_and_contemporary_art#Saqqakhaneh_movement" title="Iranian modern and contemporary art">Saqqakhaneh movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Stars_Art_Group" title="The Stars Art Group">The Stars Art Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropic%C3%A1lia" title="Tropicália">Tropicália</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoru_no_Kai" title="Yoru no Kai">Yoru no Kai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_art" title="Artificial intelligence art">Artificial intelligence art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1970–1999</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-conceptual_art" title="Post-conceptual art">Post-conceptual art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Installation_art" title="Installation art">Installation art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artscene" class="mw-redirect" title="Artscene">Artscene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postminimalism" title="Postminimalism">Postminimalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurance_art" title="Endurance art">Endurance art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sots_Art" title="Sots Art">Sots Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Conceptualists" title="Moscow Conceptualists">Moscow Conceptualists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_and_Decoration" title="Pattern and Decoration">Pattern and Decoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliontanism" title="Pliontanism">Pliontanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punk_visual_art" title="Punk visual art">Punk art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-expressionism" title="Neo-expressionism">Neo-expressionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transavantgarde" title="Transavantgarde">Transavantgarde</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_art#Saint_Soleil_School" title="Haitian art">Saint Soleil school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_art" title="Guerrilla art">Guerrilla art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowbrow_(art_movement)" title="Lowbrow (art movement)">Lowbrow art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telematic_art" title="Telematic art">Telematic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(art)" title="Appropriation (art)">Appropriation art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-conceptual_art" title="Neo-conceptual art">Neo-conceptual art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_European_Painting" title="New European Painting">New European Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_collaborative_painting" title="Tunisian collaborative painting">Tunisian collaborative painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_Group" title="Memphis Group">Memphis Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberdelic" title="Cyberdelic">Cyberdelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neue_Slowenische_Kunst" title="Neue Slowenische Kunst">Neue Slowenische Kunst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scratch_video" title="Scratch video">Scratch video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrofuturism" title="Retrofuturism">Retrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_British_Artists" title="Young British Artists">Young British Artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superfiction" title="Superfiction">Superfiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taring_Padi" title="Taring Padi">Taring Padi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superflat" title="Superflat">Superflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Leipzig_School" title="New Leipzig School">New Leipzig school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artist-run_initiative" class="mw-redirect" title="Artist-run initiative">Artist-run initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artivism" title="Artivism">Artivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Designers_Republic" title="The Designers Republic">The Designers Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grunge#Graphic_design" title="Grunge">Grunge design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verdadism" title="Verdadism">Verdadism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">2000– present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_pop_art" title="Amazonian pop art">Amazonian pop art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altermodern" title="Altermodern">Altermodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_for_art" title="Art for art">Art for art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_game" title="Art game">Art game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_intervention" title="Art intervention">Art intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandalism" title="Brandalism">Brandalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_African_art" title="Contemporary African art">Contemporary African art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africanfuturism" title="Africanfuturism">Africanfuturism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Indigenous_Australian_art" title="Contemporary Indigenous Australian art">Contemporary Indigenous Australian art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-fungible_token#Digital_art" title="Non-fungible token">Crypto art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_art" title="Cyborg art">Cyborg art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessivism" title="Excessivism">Excessivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictive_art" title="Fictive art">Fictive art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_design" title="Flat design">Flat design</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_Memphis" title="Corporate Memphis">Corporate Memphis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypermodernism_(art)" title="Hypermodernism (art)">Hypermodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperrealism_(visual_arts)" title="Hyperrealism (visual arts)">Hyperrealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea_art" title="Idea art">Idea art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_art" title="Internet art">Internet art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-Internet" title="Post-Internet">Post-Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPhone_art" title="IPhone art">iPhone art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch_movement" title="Kitsch movement">Kitsch movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightpainting" title="Lightpainting">Lightpainting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massurrealism" title="Massurrealism">Massurrealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_European_ink_painting" title="Modern European ink painting">Modern European ink painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-futurism" title="Neo-futurism">Neo-futurism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neomodern#Artist_group" title="Neomodern">Neomodern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neosymbolism" title="Neosymbolism">Neosymbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passionism" title="Passionism">Passionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-YBAs" title="Post-YBAs">Post-YBAs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_art" title="Relational art">Relational art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeuomorph#In_design" title="Skeuomorph">Skeuomorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software_art" title="Software art">Software art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_art" title="Sound art">Sound art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuckism" title="Stuckism">Stuckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superflat" title="Superflat">Superflat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SoFlo_Superflat" title="SoFlo Superflat">SoFlo Superflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstroke" title="Superstroke">Superstroke</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyism" title="Toyism">Toyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walking_Artists_Network" title="Walking Artists Network">Walking Artists Network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#EAE0C8;;width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_art" title="History of art">History of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_art" title="Abstract art">Abstract art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asemic_writing" title="Asemic writing">Asemic writing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-art" title="Anti-art">Anti-art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballets_Russes" title="Ballets Russes">Ballets Russes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Christian art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Catholic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">Icon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Lutheran art</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantastic_art" title="Fantastic art">Fantastic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_art" title="Folk art">Folk art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_genres" title="Hierarchy of genres">Hierarchy of genres</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genre_painting" title="Genre painting">Genre painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_painting" title="History painting">History painting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated manuscript</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illustration" title="Illustration">Illustration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactive_art" title="Interactive art">Interactive art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Jewish art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch" title="Kitsch">Kitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_painting" title="Landscape painting">Landscape painting</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_sculpture" title="Modern sculpture">Modern sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_modernism" title="Late modernism">Late modernism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_art" title="Naïve art">Naïve art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outsider_art" title="Outsider art">Outsider art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portrait" title="Portrait">Portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art#Europe" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric European art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queer_art" title="Queer art">Queer art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_art" title="Shock art">Shock art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trompe-l%27%C5%93il" title="Trompe-l'œil">Trompe-l'œil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Western painting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#EAE0C8;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Art_movements" title="Category:Art movements">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Positivism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Positivism" title="Template:Positivism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Positivism" title="Template talk:Positivism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Positivism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Perspectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankean_historical_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rankean historical positivism">Rankean historical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Machism" title="Russian Machism">Russian Machism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_dualism" title="Methodological dualism">Methodological dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a> in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a> (1830s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty principle</a> (1927)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-behavioralism" title="Post-behavioralism">Post-behavioralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_nihilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological nihilism">nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_pluralism" title="Epistemological pluralism">pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_realism" title="Epistemological realism">realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Positivist-related_debate" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Positivist-related debate</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit">Methodenstreit</a> (1890s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a> (1909–1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a> (1960s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a> (1980s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a> (1990s)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_History_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical History of Philosophy">Critical History of Philosophy</a> (1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_and_Positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealism and Positivism">Idealism and Positivism</a> (1879–1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Analysis_of_Sensations" class="mw-redirect" title="The Analysis of Sensations">The Analysis of Sensations</a> (1886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._P._Snow" title="C. P. Snow">C. P. Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_and_Human_Interests" title="Knowledge and Human Interests">Knowledge and Human Interests</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="The Poverty of Theory">The Poverty of Theory</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Scientific_Image" class="mw-redirect" title="The Scientific Image">The Scientific Image</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Rhetoric_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rhetoric of Economics">The Rhetoric of Economics</a> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pepper" title="Stephen Pepper">Stephen Pepper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">E. P. Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Concepts in contention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Category:Positivism" title="Category:Positivism">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sub-fields_of_and_approaches_to_human_geography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_geography" title="Template:Human geography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_geography" title="Template talk:Human geography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_geography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human geography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sub-fields_of_and_approaches_to_human_geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Sub-fields of and approaches to <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sub-fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Pepsi_in_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Waking up on a sidewalk in Bijapur, India"><img alt="Waking up on a sidewalk in Bijapur, India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Pepsi_in_India.jpg/110px-Pepsi_in_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Pepsi_in_India.jpg/165px-Pepsi_in_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Pepsi_in_India.jpg/220px-Pepsi_in_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="471" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_geography" title="Marxist geography">Marxist</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalism_in_geography" title="Universalism in geography">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Human_geography" title="Category:Human geography">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_geography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Human geography">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aesthetics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aesthetics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aesthetics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_aesthetics" title="Ancient aesthetics">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_aesthetic" title="African aesthetic">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_aesthetics" title="Indian aesthetics">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_aesthetic" title="Internet aesthetic">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_aesthetics" title="Japanese aesthetics">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_and_art" title="Mathematics and art">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_aesthetics" title="Medieval aesthetics">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_music" title="Aesthetics of music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_nature" title="Aesthetics of nature">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_science" title="Aesthetics of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theological_aesthetics" title="Theological aesthetics">Theology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism#Aesthetics" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(art)" title="Historicism (art)">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_aesthetics" title="Marxist aesthetics">Marxism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_Realism" title="Aesthetic Realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy_and_visual_arts" title="Theosophy and visual arts">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhinavagupta" title="Abhinavagupta">Abhinavagupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Alberti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Bal%C3%A1zs" title="Béla Balázs">Balázs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Urs_von_Balthasar" title="Hans Urs von Balthasar">Balthasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gottlieb_Baumgarten" title="Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten">Baumgarten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Bell" title="Clive Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Coleridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ananda_Coomaraswamy" title="Ananda Coomaraswamy">Coomaraswamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Danto" title="Arthur Danto">Danto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Fry" title="Roger Fry">Fry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_Greenberg" title="Clement Greenberg">Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Hanslick" title="Eduard Hanslick">Hanslick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hutcheson_(philosopher)" title="Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)">Hutcheson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Klee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanne_Langer" title="Susanne Langer">Langer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Lipps" title="Theodor Lipps">Lipps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xie" title="Liu Xie">Liu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Lyotard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega y Gasset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Orwell" title="George Orwell">Orwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Pater" title="Walter Pater">Pater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Schiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabindranath_Tagore" title="Rabindranath Tagore">Tagore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun%27ichir%C5%8D_Tanizaki" title="Jun'ichirō Tanizaki">Tanizaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Vasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Wilde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Winckelmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(art)" title="Appropriation (art)">Appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake" title="Art for art's sake">Art for art's sake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_manifesto" title="Art manifesto">Art manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artistic_merit" title="Artistic merit">Artistic merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminine_beauty_ideal" title="Feminine beauty ideal">Feminine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculine_beauty_ideal" title="Masculine beauty ideal">Masculine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camp_(style)" title="Camp (style)">Camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuteness" title="Cuteness">Cuteness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depiction" title="Depiction">Depiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">Disgust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(philosophy)" title="Ecstasy (philosophy)">Ecstasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elegance" title="Elegance">Elegance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eroticism" title="Eroticism">Eroticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fun" title="Fun">Fun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze" title="Gaze">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">Harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humour" title="Humour">Humour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_interpretation" title="Aesthetic interpretation">Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kama" title="Kama">Kama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch" title="Kitsch">Kitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_imitating_art" title="Life imitating art">Life imitating art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picturesque" title="Picturesque">Picturesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasa_(aesthetics)" title="Rasa (aesthetics)">Rasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreation" title="Recreation">Recreation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">Style</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">Sublime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste (sociology)">Taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hippias_Major" title="Hippias Major">Hippias Major</a> (c. 390 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a> (c. 335 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Literary_Mind_and_the_Carving_of_Dragons" title="The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons">The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons</a> (c. 100)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a> (c. 500)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Philosophical_Enquiry_into_the_Origin_of_Our_Ideas_of_the_Sublime_and_Beautiful" title="A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful">A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful</a> (1757)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_Aesthetics" title="Lectures on Aesthetics">Lectures on Aesthetics</a> (1835)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Critic_as_Artist" title="The Critic as Artist">The Critic as Artist</a>" (1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Praise_of_Shadows" title="In Praise of Shadows">In Praise of Shadows</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_as_Experience" title="Art as Experience">Art as Experience</a> (1934)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a>" (1935)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Avant-Garde_and_Kitsch" title="Avant-Garde and Kitsch">Avant-Garde and Kitsch</a>" (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_Essays_(Orwell)" title="Critical Essays (Orwell)">Critical Essays</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Aesthetic_Dimension" title="The Aesthetic Dimension">The Aesthetic Dimension</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Why_Beauty_Matters" title="Why Beauty Matters">Why Beauty Matters</a> (2009)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticization_of_politics" title="Aestheticization of politics">Aestheticization of politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_aesthetics" title="Applied aesthetics">Applied aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_criticism" title="Arts criticism">Arts criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_beauty" title="Mathematical beauty">Mathematical beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroesthetics" title="Neuroesthetics">Neuroesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patterns_in_nature" title="Patterns in nature">Patterns in nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Philosophy of design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Philosophy of film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Philosophy of music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_art" title="Psychology of art">Psychology of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_art" title="Theory of art">Theory of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_aesthetics_articles" title="Index of aesthetics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_aesthetics" title="Outline of aesthetics">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aesthetics" title="Category:Aesthetics">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a 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<li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q878985#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist 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