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cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> Cupronickel or copper–nickel (CuNi) is an <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> with <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>, usually along with small quantities of other <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> added for strength, such as <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a>. The copper content typically varies from 60 to 90 percent. (<a href="/wiki/Monel" title="Monel">Monel</a> is a nickel–copper alloy that contains a minimum of 52 percent nickel.) <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Two_stacks_of_half_dollars,_one_silver,_one_clad_-_effects_of_the_Coinage_Act_1965.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Two_stacks_of_half_dollars%2C_one_silver%2C_one_clad_-_effects_of_the_Coinage_Act_1965.jpg/220px-Two_stacks_of_half_dollars%2C_one_silver%2C_one_clad_-_effects_of_the_Coinage_Act_1965.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Two_stacks_of_half_dollars%2C_one_silver%2C_one_clad_-_effects_of_the_Coinage_Act_1965.jpg/330px-Two_stacks_of_half_dollars%2C_one_silver%2C_one_clad_-_effects_of_the_Coinage_Act_1965.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Two_stacks_of_half_dollars%2C_one_silver%2C_one_clad_-_effects_of_the_Coinage_Act_1965.jpg/440px-Two_stacks_of_half_dollars%2C_one_silver%2C_one_clad_-_effects_of_the_Coinage_Act_1965.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2503" data-file-height="1697"></a><figcaption>Two stacks of <a href="/wiki/Half_dollar_(United_States_coin)" title="Half dollar (United States coin)">Half dollars</a>. The coins in the stack on the right are composed of copper with cupronickel <a href="/wiki/Cladding_(metalworking)" title="Cladding (metalworking)">cladding</a>, and can be distinguished from the <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> half dollars on the left by their visible <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> cores.</figcaption></figure> Despite its high copper content, cupronickel is silver in colour. Cupronickel is highly resistant to corrosion by <a href="/wiki/Saline_water" title="Saline water">salt water</a>, and is therefore used for piping, heat exchangers and condensers in <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> systems, as well as for marine hardware. It is sometimes used for the <a href="/wiki/Propeller" title="Propeller">propellers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crankshaft" title="Crankshaft">propeller shafts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">hulls</a> of high-quality <a href="/wiki/Boat" title="Boat">boats</a>. Other uses include military equipment and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">chemical industry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical_industry" title="Petrochemical industry">petrochemical industry</a>, and electrical industries.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> In decorative use, a cupronickel alloy called <a href="/wiki/Nickel_silver" title="Nickel silver">nickel silver</a> is common, although it contains additional zinc but no silver. Another common 20th-century use of cupronickel was silver-coloured <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coins</a>. For this use, the typical alloy has 3:1 copper to nickel ratio, with very small amounts of manganese. In the past, true <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> coins were <a href="/wiki/Debasement" title="Debasement">debased</a> with cupronickel, such as coins of the <a href="/wiki/Coins_of_the_pound_sterling" title="Coins of the pound sterling">pound sterling</a> from 1947 onward having their content replaced. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Name">1 Name</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Applications">2 Applications</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Marine_engineering">2.1 Marine engineering</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Coinage">2.2 Coinage</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Decorative_housewares">2.3 Decorative housewares</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Other_usage">2.4 Other usage</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Physical_and_mechanical_properties">3 Physical and mechanical properties</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Fabrication">4 Fabrication</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Standards">5 Standards</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#History">6 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Chinese_history">6.1 Chinese history</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Greco-Bactrian_coinage">6.2 Greco-Bactrian coinage</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Judeo-Christian_history">6.3 Judeo-Christian history</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#See_also">7 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#References">8 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Bibliography">8.1 Bibliography</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#External_links">9 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> Cupronickel, as the German kupfernickel, originally referred to the mineral form of <a href="/wiki/Nickel_arsenide" title="Nickel arsenide">nickel arsenide</a>; natural deposits had superficial similarities to <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> ores, and local folklore blamed the <a href="/wiki/Sprite_(folklore)" title="Sprite (folklore)">sprite</a> Nickel (compare <a href="/wiki/Old_Nick" class="mw-disambig" title="Old Nick">Old Nick</a>) for the absence of usable copper and health issues from <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> exposure. It was from a sample of this kupfernickel that Baron <a href="/wiki/Axel_Fredrik_Cronstedt" title="Axel Fredrik Cronstedt">Axel Fredrik Cronstedt</a> first isolated elemental <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> in 1751, naming the new metal for the sprite. The mineral was given its modern names, <a href="/wiki/Nickeline" title="Nickeline">nickeline</a> and niccolite, by the mid-19th century. Aside from cupronickel and copper–nickel, several other terms have been used to describe the material: the tradenames Alpaka or Alpacca, Argentan Minargent, the registered <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> term cuivre blanc, Chinese silver, and the romanized <a href="/wiki/Cantonese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantonese language">Cantonese</a> term Paktong, 白銅 (the French and Cantonese terms both meaning "white copper"). Cupronickel alloys containing zinc are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Nickel_silver" title="Nickel silver">nickel silver</a>, also sometimes hotel silver, German silver, plata alemana (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> for "German silver").<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Applications" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marine_engineering">Marine engineering</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Marine engineering" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Cupronickel alloys are used for marine applications<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> due to their resistance to seawater <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a>, good fabricability, and their effectiveness in lowering <a href="/wiki/Macrofouling" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrofouling">macrofouling</a> levels. Alloys ranging in composition from 90% Cu–10% Ni to 70% Cu–30% Ni are commonly specified in <a href="/wiki/Copper_in_heat_exchangers" title="Copper in heat exchangers">heat exchanger</a> or condenser tubes in a wide variety of marine applications.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Important marine applications for cupronickel include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a> and repair: <a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">hulls</a> of boats and ships, seawater cooling, bilge and ballast, sanitary, fire fighting, inert gas, hydraulic and pneumatic chiller systems.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desalination_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Desalination plants">Desalination plants</a>: brine heaters, heat rejection and recovery, and in evaporator tubing.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore oil">Offshore oil</a> and gas platforms and processing and <a href="/wiki/FPSO" class="mw-redirect" title="FPSO">FPSO</a> vessels: systems and splash zone sheathings.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Power generation">Power generation</a>: steam turbine condensers, oil coolers, auxiliary cooling systems and high pressure pre-heaters at nuclear and fossil fuel power plants.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></li> <li>Seawater system components: condenser and heat exchanger tubes, tube sheets, piping, high pressure systems, fittings, pumps, and water boxes.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coinage">Coinage</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Coinage" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:5CHFr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/5CHFr.jpg/150px-5CHFr.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 150px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/5CHFr.jpg/150px-5CHFr.jpg" data-width="150" data-height="150" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/5CHFr.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Five Swiss francs</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ILO_5_rs_commemorative_coin_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/ILO_5_rs_commemorative_coin_India.jpg/150px-ILO_5_rs_commemorative_coin_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="143" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1776" data-file-height="1692"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 143px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/ILO_5_rs_commemorative_coin_India.jpg/150px-ILO_5_rs_commemorative_coin_India.jpg" data-width="150" data-height="143" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/ILO_5_rs_commemorative_coin_India.jpg/225px-ILO_5_rs_commemorative_coin_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/ILO_5_rs_commemorative_coin_India.jpg/300px-ILO_5_rs_commemorative_coin_India.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Five Indian rupees, commemorating <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">ILO</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indonesia1971rp25obv.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Indonesia1971rp25obv.jpg/150px-Indonesia1971rp25obv.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1940" data-file-height="1896"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 147px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Indonesia1971rp25obv.jpg/150px-Indonesia1971rp25obv.jpg" data-width="150" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Indonesia1971rp25obv.jpg/225px-Indonesia1971rp25obv.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Indonesia1971rp25obv.jpg/300px-Indonesia1971rp25obv.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_25-rupiah_coin" title="Indonesian 25-rupiah coin">Twenty five Indonesian rupiah</a></figcaption></figure> The successful use of cupronickel in coinage is due to its <a href="/wiki/Corrosion_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Corrosion resistance">corrosion resistance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">electrical conductivity</a>, durability, <a href="/wiki/Malleability" class="mw-redirect" title="Malleability">malleability</a>, low <a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">allergy</a> risk, ease of <a href="/wiki/Stamping_(metalworking)" title="Stamping (metalworking)">stamping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_copper-alloy_touch_surfaces" title="Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces">antimicrobial properties</a> and <a href="/wiki/Recyclability" class="mw-redirect" title="Recyclability">recyclability</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In Europe, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> pioneered cupronickel-based <a href="/wiki/Billon_(alloy)" title="Billon (alloy)">billon</a> coinage in 1850, with the addition of silver and zinc, for coins of 5, 10 and 20 Rappen.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Starting in 1860/1861, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> issued 5, 10 and 20 Centimes in pure cupronickel (75% copper, 25% nickel, without additional silver and zinc),<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> issued 5 and 10 Pfennig in the same 75:25 ratio from 1873/1874 (until 1915/1916).<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> In 1879, Switzerland, for 5 and 10 Rappen coins, also adopted that cheaper 75:25 copper to nickel ratio<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> then being used in Belgium, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and Germany. From 1947 to 2012, all "silver" <a href="/wiki/Coins_of_the_pound_sterling" title="Coins of the pound sterling">coinage in the UK</a> was made from cupronickel (but from 2012 onwards the two smallest UK cupronickel denominations were replaced with lower-cost nickel-plated steel coins). Moreover, when <a href="/wiki/Silver_prices" class="mw-redirect" title="Silver prices">silver prices</a> rose in the 1960s/1970s also some other European countries replaced remaining silver denominations by cupronickel, e.g. the 1/2 to (pictured) 5 <a href="/wiki/Swiss_franc" title="Swiss franc">Swiss franc</a> coins starting 1968<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> and German 5 <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Mark" title="Deutsche Mark">Deutsche Mark</a> 1975–2001. Since 1999, cupronickel is also used for the inner segment of the <a href="/wiki/1_euro_coin" title="1 euro coin">1 euro coin</a> and the outer segment of the <a href="/wiki/2_euro_coin" title="2 euro coin">2 euro coin</a>. In part due to silver hoarding in the Civil War, the United States Mint first used cupronickel for circulating coinage in <a href="/wiki/Three-cent_piece_(United_States_coin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-cent piece (United States coin)">three-cent</a> pieces starting in 1865, and then for <a href="/wiki/Nickel_(United_States_coin)" title="Nickel (United States coin)">five-cent</a> pieces starting in 1866. Prior to these dates, both denominations had been made only in silver in the United States. Cupronickel is the <a href="/wiki/Cladding_(metalworking)" title="Cladding (metalworking)">cladding</a> on either side of United States <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_half_dollar" title="Kennedy half dollar">half-dollars</a> (50¢) since 1971, and all <a href="/wiki/Quarter_(United_States_coin)" title="Quarter (United States coin)">quarters</a> (25¢) and <a href="/wiki/Dime_(United_States_coin)" title="Dime (United States coin)">dimes</a> (10¢) made after 1964. Currently, some circulating coins, such as the United States <a href="/wiki/Nickel_(United_States_coin)" title="Nickel (United States coin)">Jefferson nickel</a> (5¢),<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_franc" title="Swiss franc">Swiss franc</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korean</a> 500 and 100 <a href="/wiki/South_Korean_won" title="South Korean won">won</a> are made of solid cupronickel (75:25 ratio).<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decorative_housewares">Decorative housewares</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Decorative housewares" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nickel_silver" title="Nickel silver">Nickel silver</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Nickel_silver" title="Nickel silver">Nickel silver</a> cupronickels are used extensively as a substitute for silver in tableware and other decorative housewares. Nickel silver is also used as a base for <a href="/wiki/Silver_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Silver plate">silver plating</a>, where the product is known as electro-plated nickel silver, or EPNS.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_usage">Other usage</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Other usage" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> A <a href="/wiki/Thermocouple" title="Thermocouple">thermocouple</a> junction is formed from a pair of thermocouple conductors such as iron-<a href="/wiki/Constantan" title="Constantan">constantan</a>, copper-constantan or nickel-chromium/nickel-aluminium. The junction may be protected within a sheath of copper, cupronickel or stainless steel.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Cupronickel is used in <a href="/wiki/Cryogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic">cryogenic</a> applications. It retains high ductility and thermal conductivity at very low temperatures. Where other metals like steel or aluminum would shatter and become thermally inert, cupronickel's unusual thermal and mechanical performance at these low temperatures facilitate a number of niche uses. Machinery that must perform many duty cycles at continuously low-temperatures and heat exchangers at cryogenic plants are the main industrial destinations of cupronickel in cryogenic applications.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Niche applications also exist, for example the alloy's high thermal conductivity at low temperatures has made cupronickel ubiquitous in <a href="/wiki/Freeze_brand" title="Freeze brand">freeze branding</a> operations.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a> Beginning around the turn of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Bullet" title="Bullet">bullet</a> jackets were commonly made from this material. It was soon replaced with <a href="/wiki/Gilding_metal" title="Gilding metal">gilding metal</a> to reduce metal fouling in the <a href="/wiki/Gauge_(bore_diameter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauge (bore diameter)">bore</a>. Currently, cupronickel and <a href="/wiki/Nickel_silver" title="Nickel silver">nickel silver</a> remain the basic material for silver-plated cutlery. It is commonly used for mechanical and electrical equipment, medical equipment, zippers, jewelry items, and both for strings for instruments in the violin family, and for guitar frets. <a href="/wiki/Fender_Musical_Instruments" class="mw-redirect" title="Fender Musical Instruments">Fender Musical Instruments</a> used "CuNiFe" magnets in their "Wide Range <a href="/wiki/Humbucker" title="Humbucker">Humbucker</a>" pickup for various <a href="/wiki/Telecaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecaster">Telecaster</a> and <a href="/wiki/Starcaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Starcaster">Starcaster</a> <a href="/wiki/Guitars" class="mw-redirect" title="Guitars">guitars</a> during the 1970s.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] For high-quality <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_lock" class="mw-redirect" title="Cylinder lock">cylinder locks</a> and locking systems, cylinder cores are made from wear-resistant cupronickel. Cupronickel has been used as an alternative to traditional steel <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_brake" title="Hydraulic brake">hydraulic brake</a> lines (the pipes containing the <a href="/wiki/Brake_fluid" title="Brake fluid">brake fluid</a>), as it does not rust. Since cupronickel is much softer than steel, it bends and <a href="/wiki/Flare_fitting" title="Flare fitting">flares</a> more easily, and the same property allows it to form a better seal with hydraulic components. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Physical_and_mechanical_properties">Physical and mechanical properties</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Physical and mechanical properties" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> Cupronickel lacks a copper color due to nickel's high electronegativity, which causes a loss of one electron in copper's d-shell (leaving 9 electrons in the d-shell versus pure copper's typical 10 electrons). Important properties of cupronickel alloys include <a href="/wiki/Corrosion_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Corrosion resistance">corrosion resistance</a>, inherent resistance to <a href="/wiki/Macrofouling" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrofouling">macrofouling</a>, good <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a>, excellent <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductility</a> when <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(metallurgy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Annealing (metallurgy)">annealed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">expansion</a> characteristics amenable for <a href="/wiki/Copper_in_heat_exchangers" title="Copper in heat exchangers">heat exchangers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Condenser_(heat_transfer)" title="Condenser (heat transfer)">condensers</a>, good thermal conductivity and ductility at <a href="/wiki/Cryogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic">cryogenic</a> temperatures and beneficial <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_copper-alloy_touch_surfaces" title="Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces">antimicrobial touch surface</a> properties.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Properties of some Cu–Ni alloys<a href="#cite_note-cu1-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-ni1-30">[30]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Alloy UNS No.</th> <th>Common name</th> <th>European spec</th> <th>Ni<a href="#cite_note-vary-31">[31]</a></th> <th>Fe<a href="#cite_note-vary-31">[31]</a></th> <th>Mn<a href="#cite_note-vary-31">[31]</a></th> <th>Cu </th> <th>Density g/cm3 </th> <th>Melting point deg C </th> <th>Spec heat J/(kg·K) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">Thermal conductivity</a> W/(m·K) </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">TEC</a> μm/(m·K) </th> <th>Electrical resistivity μOhm·cm </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Elastic_modulus" title="Elastic modulus">Elastic modulus</a> GPa </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Yield_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Yield strength">Yield strength</a> MPa </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">Tensile strength</a> MPa </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Linear_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear expansion">Linear expansion</a> 106/deg K </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Modulus_rigidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Modulus rigidity">Modulus rigidity</a> GPa </th></tr> <tr> <td>C70600 </td> <td>90–10 </td> <td>Cu90Ni10 </td> <td>9–11 </td> <td>1–1.8 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>Balance </td> <td>8.9 </td> <td>1100-1145 </td> <td>377 </td> <td>40 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>19 </td> <td>135 </td> <td>105 </td> <td>275 </td> <td>17 </td> <td>50 </td></tr> <tr> <td>C71500 </td> <td>70–30 </td> <td>Cu70Ni30 </td> <td>29–33 </td> <td>0.4–1.0 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>Balance </td> <td>8.95 </td> <td>1170-1240 </td> <td>377 </td> <td>29 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>34 </td> <td>152 </td> <td>125 </td> <td>360 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>56 </td></tr> <tr> <td>C71640 </td> <td>66–30–2–2 </td> <td>Cu66Ni30Fe2Mn2 </td> <td>29–32 </td> <td>1.7–2.3 </td> <td>1.5–2.5 </td> <td>Balance </td> <td>8.86 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>25 </td> <td>15.5 </td> <td>50 </td> <td>156 </td> <td>170 </td> <td>435 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> Subtle differences in <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> resistance and strength determine which alloy is selected. Descending the table, the maximum allowable flow rate in piping increases, as does the tensile strength. In seawater, the alloys have excellent corrosion rates which remain low as long as the maximum design flow <a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">velocity</a> is not exceeded. This velocity depends on geometry and pipe diameter. They have high resistance to <a href="/wiki/Crevice_corrosion" title="Crevice corrosion">crevice corrosion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stress_corrosion_cracking" title="Stress corrosion cracking">stress corrosion cracking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_embrittlement" title="Hydrogen embrittlement">hydrogen embrittlement</a> that can be troublesome to other alloy systems. Copper–nickels naturally form a thin protective surface layer over the first several weeks of exposure to seawater and this provides its ongoing resistance. Additionally, they have a high inherent <a href="/wiki/Biofouling" title="Biofouling">biofouling</a> resistance to attachment by macrofoulers (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Seagrasses" class="mw-redirect" title="Seagrasses">seagrasses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molluscs" class="mw-redirect" title="Molluscs">molluscs</a>) living in the seawater. To use this property to its full potential, the alloy needs to be free of the effects of, or insulated from, any form of <a href="/wiki/Cathodic_protection" title="Cathodic protection">cathodic protection</a>. However, Cu–Ni alloys can show high corrosion rates in polluted or stagnant seawater when <a href="/wiki/Sulfides" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfides">sulfides</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> are present. It is important, therefore, to avoid exposure to such conditions, particularly during commissioning and refit while the surface films are maturing. <a href="/wiki/Ferrous_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferrous sulfate">Ferrous sulfate</a> <a href="/wiki/Dosing" title="Dosing">dosing</a> to sea water systems can provide improved resistance. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crack_in_CuNi_metal_due_to_silver_brazing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Crack_in_CuNi_metal_due_to_silver_brazing.jpg/220px-Crack_in_CuNi_metal_due_to_silver_brazing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1691" data-file-height="987"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 128px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Crack_in_CuNi_metal_due_to_silver_brazing.jpg/220px-Crack_in_CuNi_metal_due_to_silver_brazing.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="128" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Crack_in_CuNi_metal_due_to_silver_brazing.jpg/330px-Crack_in_CuNi_metal_due_to_silver_brazing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Crack_in_CuNi_metal_due_to_silver_brazing.jpg/440px-Crack_in_CuNi_metal_due_to_silver_brazing.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Crack in 90–10 Cu–Ni metal plate due to stresses during silver brazing</figcaption></figure> As copper and nickel alloy with each other easily and have simple structures, the alloys are ductile and readily fabricated. Strength and hardness for each individual alloy is increased by <a href="/wiki/Cold_working" title="Cold working">cold working</a>; they are not hardened by <a href="/wiki/Heat_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat treatment">heat treatment</a>. Joining of 90–10 (C70600) and 70–30 (C71500) is possible by both <a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">welding</a> or <a href="/wiki/Brazing" title="Brazing">brazing</a>. They are both weldable by the majority of techniques, although autogenous (welding without weld consumables) or <a href="/wiki/Oxyacetylene" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxyacetylene">oxyacetylene</a> methods are not recommended. The 70–30 rather than 90–10 weld consumables are normally preferred for both alloys and no after-welding heat treatment is required. They can also be welded directly to steel, providing a 65% nickel–copper weld consumable is used to avoid iron dilution effects. The C71640 alloy tends to be used as seamless tubing and expanded rather than welded into the tube plate. Brazing requires appropriate silver-base brazing alloys. However, great care must be taken to ensure that there are no stresses in the Cu–Ni being silver brazed, since any stress can cause intergranular penetration of the brazing material, and severe stress cracking (see image). Thus, full annealing of any potential mechanical stress is necessary. Applications for Cu–Ni alloys have withstood the test of time, as they are still widely used and range from seawater system piping, condensers and <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchangers" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat exchangers">heat exchangers</a> in naval vessels, commercial shipping, multiple-stage flash desalination and power stations. They have also been used as <a href="/wiki/Splash_zone" title="Splash zone">splash zone</a> cladding on <a href="/wiki/Offshore_construction" title="Offshore construction">offshore structures</a> and protective cladding on boat hulls, as well as for solid hulls themselves. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Fabrication">Fabrication</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fabrication" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> Due to its <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductility</a>, cupronickel alloys can be readily fabricated in a wide variety of product forms<a href="#cite_note-corg2-32">[32]</a> and fittings. Cupronickel tubing can be readily expanded into <a href="/wiki/Surface_condenser" title="Surface condenser">tube sheets</a> for the manufacturing of shell and tube <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchangers" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat exchangers">heat exchangers</a>. Details of fabrication procedures, including general handling, cutting and machining, forming, heat treatment, preparing for welding, weld preparations, tack welding, welding consumables, welding processes, painting, mechanical properties of welds, and tube and pipe bending are available.<a href="#cite_note-corg1-33">[33]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Standards">Standards</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Standards" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <a href="/wiki/ASTM" class="mw-redirect" title="ASTM">ASTM</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_Committee_for_Standardization" title="European Committee for Standardization">EN</a>, and <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a> standards exist for ordering wrought and cast forms of cupronickel.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thermocouple" title="Thermocouple">Thermocouples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">resistors</a> whose resistance is stable across changes in temperature contain alloy <a href="/wiki/Constantan" title="Constantan">constantan</a>, which consists of 55% copper and 45% nickel.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_history">Chinese history</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Chinese history" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Cupronickel alloys were known as "white copper" to the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> since about the third century BC. Some weapons made during the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> were made with Cu-Ni alloys.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The theory of Chinese origins of <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactrian</a> cupronickel was suggested in 1868 by Flight, who found that the coins considered the oldest cupronickel coins yet discovered were of a very similar alloy to Chinese paktong.<a href="#cite_note-Joseph_Needham_1974-36">[36]</a> The author-scholar, Ho Wei, precisely described the process of making cupronickel in about 1095 AD. The paktong alloy was described as being made by adding small pills of naturally occurring yunnan ore to a bath of molten copper. When a crust of <a href="/wiki/Slag" title="Slag">slag</a> formed, <a href="/wiki/Saltpeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltpeter">saltpeter</a> was added, the alloy was stirred and the <a href="/wiki/Ingot" title="Ingot">ingot</a> was immediately <a href="/wiki/Casting" title="Casting">cast</a>. Zinc is mentioned as an ingredient but there are no details about when it was added. The ore used is noted as solely available from <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>, according to the story: <blockquote> "San Mao Chun were at Tanyang during a famine year when many people died, so taking certain chemicals, Ying projected them onto silver, turning it into gold, and he also transmuted iron into silver – thus enabling the lives of many to be saved [through purchasing grain through this fake silver and gold] Thereafter all those who prepared chemical powders by heating and transmuting copper by projection called their methods "Tanyang techniques".<a href="#cite_note-Joseph_Needham_1974-36">[36]</a> </blockquote> The late Ming and Qing literature have very little information about paktong. However, it is first mentioned specifically by name in the Thien Kung Khai Wu of circa 1637: <blockquote> "When lu kan shih (zinc carbonate, <a href="/wiki/Calamine" title="Calamine">calamine</a>) or wo chhein (zinc metal) is mixed and combined with chih thung (copper), one gets 'yellow bronze' (ordinary brass). When phi shang and other arsenic substances are heated with it, one gets 'white bronze' or white copper: pai thong. When <a href="/wiki/Alum" title="Alum">alum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niter" title="Niter">niter</a> and other chemicals are mixed together one gets ching thung: green bronze."<a href="#cite_note-Joseph_Needham_1974-36">[36]</a> </blockquote> Ko Hung stated in 300 AD: "The Tanyang copper was created by throwing a mercuric elixir into Tanyang copper and heated- gold will be formed." However, the Pha Phu Tsu and the Shen I Ching describing a statue in the Western provinces as being of silver, tin, lead and Tanyang copper – which looked like gold, and could be forged for plating and inlaying vessels and swords.<a href="#cite_note-Joseph_Needham_1974-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a> et al. argue that cupronickel was at least known as a unique alloy by the Chinese during the reign of Liu An in 120 BC in Yunnan. Moreover, the Yunnanese State of Tien was founded in 334 BC as a colony of the Chu. Most likely, modern paktong was unknown to Chinese of the day – but the naturally occurring Yunnan ore cupronickel alloy was likely a valuable internal trade commodity.<a href="#cite_note-Joseph_Needham_1974-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greco-Bactrian_coinage">Greco-Bactrian coinage</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Greco-Bactrian coinage" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Euthydemos_II_cupro-nickel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Euthydemos_II_cupro-nickel.jpg/275px-Euthydemos_II_cupro-nickel.jpg" decoding="async" width="275" height="135" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="393"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 275px;height: 135px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Euthydemos_II_cupro-nickel.jpg/275px-Euthydemos_II_cupro-nickel.jpg" data-width="275" data-height="135" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Euthydemos_II_cupro-nickel.jpg/413px-Euthydemos_II_cupro-nickel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Euthydemos_II_cupro-nickel.jpg/550px-Euthydemos_II_cupro-nickel.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A Cupro-nickel coin of king <a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_II" title="Euthydemus II">Euthydemus II</a>, c. 185–180 BC. Notice the coin looks more corroded than the usual silver coins.</figcaption></figure> In 1868, W. Flight discovered a <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian</a> coin comprising 20% nickel that dated from 180 to 170 BCE with the bust of <a href="/wiki/Euthydemus_II" title="Euthydemus II">Euthydemus II</a> on the obverse. Coins of a similar alloy with busts of his younger brothers, <a href="/wiki/Pantaleon" title="Pantaleon">Pantaleon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agathocles_of_Bactria" title="Agathocles of Bactria">Agathocles</a>, were minted around 170 BCE. The composition of the coins was later verified using the traditional wet method and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry.<a href="#cite_note-Joseph_Needham_1974-36">[36]</a> Cunningham in 1873 proposed the "Bactrian nickel theory," which suggested that the coins must have been the result of overland trade from China through India to Greece. Cunningham's theory was supported by scholars such as W. W. Tarn, Sir John Marshall, and J. Newton Friend, but was criticized by E. R. Caley and S. van R. Cammann.<a href="#cite_note-Joseph_Needham_1974-36">[36]</a> In 1973, Cheng and Schwitter in their new analyses suggested that the Bactrian alloys (copper, lead, iron, nickel and cobalt) were closely similar to the Chinese paktong, and of nine known Asian nickel deposits, only those in China could provide the identical chemical compositions.<a href="#cite_note-Joseph_Needham_1974-36">[36]</a> Cammann criticized Cheng and Schwitter's paper, arguing that the decline of cupronickel currency should not have coincided with the opening of the Silk Road. If the Bactrian nickel theory were true, according to Cammann, the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> would have increased the supply of cupronickel. However, the end of Greco-Bactrian cupronickel currency could be attributed to other factors such as the end of the <a href="/wiki/Euthydemid_dynasty" title="Euthydemid dynasty">House of Euthydemus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Joseph_Needham_1974-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Judeo-Christian_history">Judeo-Christian history</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Judeo-Christian history" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The alloy seems to have been rediscovered by the West during <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a> experiments. Notably, <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Libavius" title="Andreas Libavius">Andreas Libavius</a>, in his Alchemia of 1597, mentions a surface-whitened copper aes album by mercury or silver. But in De Natura Metallorum in Singalarum Part 1, published in 1599, the same term was applied to "tin" from the East Indies (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>) and given the Spanish name, tintinaso.<a href="#cite_note-Joseph_Needham_1974-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Watson_(bishop_of_Llandaff)" title="Richard Watson (bishop of Llandaff)">Richard Watson</a> of Cambridge appears to be the first to discover that cupronickel was an alloy of three metals. In attempting to rediscover the secret of white-copper, Watson critiqued <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Du_Halde" title="Jean-Baptiste Du Halde">Jean-Baptiste Du Halde</a>'s History of China (1688) as confusing the term paktong'., He noted the Chinese of his day did not form it as an alloy but rather <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelted</a> readily available unprocessed ore: <blockquote> "...appeared from a vast series of experiments made at Peking- that it occurred naturally as an ore mined at the region, the most extraordinary copper is pe-tong or white copper: it is white when dug out of the mine and even more white within than without. It appears, by a vast number of experiments made at Peking, that its colour is owing to no mixture; on the contrary, all mixtures diminish its beauty, for, when it is rightly managed it looks exactly like silver and were there not a necessity of mixing a little tutenag or such metal to soften it, it would be so much more the extraordinary as this sort of copper is found nowhere but in China and that only in the Province of Yunnan". Notwithstanding what is here said, of the colour of the copper being owing to no mixture, it is certain the Chinese white copper as brought to us, is a mixt [sic: mixed] metal; so that the ore from which it was extracted must consist of various metallic substances; and from such ore that the natural <a href="/wiki/Orichalcum" title="Orichalcum">orichalcum</a> if it ever existed, was made."<a href="#cite_note-Joseph_Needham_1974-36">[36]</a> </blockquote> During the peak European importation of Chinese white-copper from 1750 to 1800, increased attention was made to its discovering its constituents. Peat and Cookson found that "the darkest proved to contain 7.7% nickel and the lightest said to be indistinguishable from silver with a characteristic bell-like resonance when struck and considerable resistance to corrosion, 11.1%". Another trial by <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Fyfe_(chemist)" title="Andrew Fyfe (chemist)">Andrew Fyfe</a> estimated the nickel content at 31.6%. Guesswork ended when <a href="/wiki/James_Dinwiddie_(astronomer)" title="James Dinwiddie (astronomer)">James Dinwiddie</a> of the Macartney Embassy brought back in 1793, at considerable personal risk (smuggling of paktong ore was a capital crime by the Chinese Emperor), some of the ore from which paktong was made.<a href="#cite_note-Mcneil_I_Staff_pp98-37">[37]</a> Cupronickel became widely understood, as published by E. Thomason, in 1823, in a submission, later rejected for not being new knowledge, to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Arts" title="Royal Society of Arts">Royal Society of Arts</a>. Efforts in Europe to exactly duplicate the Chinese paktong failed due to a general lack of requisite complex cobalt–nickel–arsenic naturally occurring ore. However, the <a href="/wiki/Schneeberg,_Saxony" title="Schneeberg, Saxony">Schneeberg</a> district of <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, where the famous <a href="/wiki/Blaufarbenwerke" class="mw-redirect" title="Blaufarbenwerke">Blaufarbenwerke</a> made <a href="/wiki/Cobalt_blue" title="Cobalt blue">cobalt blue</a> and other pigments, solely held the requisite complex cobalt–nickel–arsenic ores in Europe. At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussian</a> Verein zur Beförderung des Gewerbefleißes (Society for the Improvement of Business Diligence/Industriousness) offered a prize for the mastery of the process. Unsurprisingly, Dr E.A. Geitner and J.R. von Gersdoff of Schneeberg won the prize and launched their "<a href="/wiki/German_silver" class="mw-redirect" title="German silver">German silver</a>" brand under the trade names <a href="/wiki/Argentan" title="Argentan">Argentan</a> and Neusilber (new silver).<a href="#cite_note-Mcneil_I_Staff_pp98-37">[37]</a> In 1829, Percival Norton Johnston persuaded Dr. Geitner to establish a <a href="/wiki/Foundry" title="Foundry">foundry</a> in Bow Common behind Regents' Park Canal in London, and obtained ingots of nickel-silver with the composition 18% Ni, 55% Cu and 27% Zn.<a href="#cite_note-Mcneil_I_Staff_pp98-37">[37]</a> Between 1829 and 1833, Percival Norton Johnson was the first person to refine cupronickel on the British Isles. He became a wealthy man, producing in excess of 16.5 tonnes per year. The alloy was mainly made into <a href="/wiki/Cutlery" title="Cutlery">cutlery</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a> firm William Hutton and sold under the trade-name "Argentine". Johnsons' most serious competitors, Charles Askin and Brok Evans, under the brilliant chemist Dr. EW Benson, devised greatly improved methods of cobalt and nickel suspension and marketed their own brand of nickel-silver, called "<a href="/w/index.php?title=British_Plate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="British Plate (page does not exist)">British Plate</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Mcneil_I_Staff_pp98-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Fairfield_Thompson" title="John Fairfield Thompson">John Fairfield Thompson</a> writes that the 3:1 copper-nickel alloy was developed for coinage by Belgium in 1860.<a href="#cite_note-thompson60-38">[38]</a> In 1866, the <a href="/wiki/US_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="US Congress">US Congress</a> passed a law authorizing the creation of a 3-cent coin consisting of 75% copper and 25% nickel, and the <a href="/wiki/Nickel_(United_States_coin)" title="Nickel (United States coin)">nickel</a>, as it became known, was created.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYates1977297%E2%80%93298-39">[39]</a><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C3%A8ce_de_5_francs_Semeuse_(1960)#La_Cinq_francs_Semeuse_en_nickel" class="extiw" title="fr:Pièce de 5 francs Semeuse (1960)">France</a> and Greece are notable for their adoption of this technology in the 20th century. After the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">unification of Germany</a> cupronickel coinage was introduced by the <a href="/wiki/German_Coinage_Act" title="German Coinage Act">German Coinage Act</a>, and sudden demand of nickel for tens of millions of 5<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> and 10<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pfennig" title="Pfennig">pfennig</a> coins minted in 1873-1876 caused such a shock on the previously tranquil market that price more than tripled, leading to a significant expansion of supply.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> By 1902 the alloy was used in the UK for bullet jackets.<a href="#cite_note-espa1-43">[43]</a> By the 1920s, a 70–30 copper–nickel grade was developed for <a href="/w/index.php?title=Naval_condensers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naval condensers (page does not exist)">naval condensers</a>. Soon afterwards, a 2% manganese and 2% iron alloy now known as alloy C71640 was introduced for a UK power station which needed better erosion resistance because the levels of entrained sand in the seawater. A 90–10 alloy first became available in the 1950s, initially for seawater piping, and is now the more widely used alloy for this purpose.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brass" title="Brass">Brass</a> (copper alloyed with <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">Bronze</a> (copper alloyed with <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_alloys_in_aquaculture" title="Copper alloys in aquaculture">Copper alloys in aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeze_brand" title="Freeze brand">Freeze branding</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Sakiewicz P.,Nowosielski R., Babilas R. Production aspects of inhomogeneous hot deformation in as-cast CuNi25 alloy, Indian Journal of Engineering & Materials Sciences, Vol. 22, August 2015, pp. 389-398 </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Deutsches Kupfer-Institut (Hrsg.): Kupfer-Nickel-Zink-Legierungen. Berlin 1980. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Marine Applications for Copper-Nickel Alloys <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/#non_marine">http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/#non_marine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Kobelco: Copper alloy tubes for heat-exchanger; Shinko Metal Products, Japan; <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.shinkometal.co.jp/catalog/copperalloy-en-sc.pdf">http://www.shinkometal.co.jp/catalog/copperalloy-en-sc.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029202052/http://www.shinkometal.co.jp/catalog/copperalloy-en-sc.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-10-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Copper-Nickel Alloys in Boat and Ship Hulls <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/hulls/">http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/hulls/</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Copper-Nickel Alloys in Shipbuilding and Repair <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/shipbuilding_and_repair/">http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/shipbuilding_and_repair/</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Copper-Nickel Alloys in Desalination Plants <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/desalination_plants/">http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/desalination_plants/</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Copper-Nickel Alloys in Offshore Oil and Gas Platforms and Processing <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/offshore_oil_and_gas/">http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/offshore_oil_and_gas/</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Copper-Nickel Alloys in Power Generation <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/power_generation/">http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/power_generation/</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Copper-Nickel Alloys in Seawater System Design <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/seawater_system_design/">http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/seawater_system_design/</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Copper-Nickel Alloys in Seawater System Components <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/seawater_system_components/">http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/seawater_system_components/</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/applications/coinage/">Copper-Nickel in Coinage</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.numista.com/catalogue/pieces167.html">"5 Rappen (Coat of arms)"</a>.</cite><span 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The Cutlers Tale, Arthur Price of England, Lichfield, 1997. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Robert Monro Black, The history of electric wires and cables Science Museum (Great Britain), IET, 1983, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86341-001-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-86341-001-4">0-86341-001-4</a>, p. 161 </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Cryogenic Properties of Copper-Nickel <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/properties/cryogenic/">copper.org</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Low-Temperature Properties of Copper and Copper Alloys <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/pdf/104-5-low-temperatuare.pdf">copper.org</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Mechanical Properties of Copper and Copper Alloys at Low Temperatures <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copper.org/resources/properties/144_8/">copper.org</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-27"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHadow1972" class="citation journal cs1">Hadow, Harlo H. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3799102">"Freeze-Branding: A Permanent Marking Technique for Pigmented Mammals"</a>. The Journal of Wildlife Management. 36 (2): 645–649. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3799102">10.2307/3799102</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-541X">0022-541X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3799102">3799102</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Wildlife+Management&rft.atitle=Freeze-Branding%3A+A+Permanent+Marking+Technique+for+Pigmented+Mammals&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E645-%3C%2Fspan%3E649&rft.date=1972&rft.issn=0022-541X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3799102%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3799102&rft.aulast=Hadow&rft.aufirst=Harlo+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3799102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACupronickel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Properties of Copper–Nickel Alloys <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/properties/">http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/properties/</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-cu1-29"><a href="#cite_ref-cu1_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/properties/physical">"Physical Properties of Copper-Nickel"</a>. Retrieved 19 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Physical+Properties+of+Copper-Nickel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.copper.org%2Fapplications%2Fmarine%2Fcuni%2Fproperties%2Fphysical&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACupronickel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ni1-30"><a href="#cite_ref-ni1_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nickelinstitute.org/en/nickel-applications/copper-nickel-alloys/mechanical-properties-of-copper-nickel-alloys/">"Mechanical properties of copper-nickel alloys"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Mechanical+properties+of+copper-nickel+alloys&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnickelinstitute.org%2Fen%2Fnickel-applications%2Fcopper-nickel-alloys%2Fmechanical-properties-of-copper-nickel-alloys%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACupronickel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-vary-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vary_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vary_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vary_31-2">c</a> Component values may vary in other standards. </li> <li id="cite_note-corg2-32"><a href="#cite_ref-corg2_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/forms/">"Copper-Nickel Alloy Product Forms"</a>. Copper Development Association Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Copper-Nickel+Alloy+Product+Forms&rft.pub=Copper+Development+Association+Inc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.copper.org%2Fapplications%2Fmarine%2Fcuni%2Fforms%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACupronickel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-corg1-33"><a href="#cite_ref-corg1_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/fabrication/">"Copper-Nickel Alloy Fabrication"</a>. 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Toronto: Longmans, Green & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+the+Years+to+Come%3A+A+Story+of+International+Nickel+of+Canada&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green+%26+Co&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=John+Fairfield&rft.au=Beasley%2C+Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACupronickel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYates1977297–298-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYates1977297%E2%80%93298_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFYates1977">Yates 1977</a>, pp. 297–298. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ngccoin.com/price-guide/world/germany-empire-5-pfennig-km-3-1874-common-date-cuid-1166167-duid-1313591">"Germany - Empire 5 Pfennig KM 3 Prices & Values | NGC"</a>. www.ngccoin.com. Retrieved 2024-07-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ngccoin.com&rft.atitle=Germany+-+Empire+5+Pfennig+KM+3+Prices+%26+Values+%7C+NGC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ngccoin.com%2Fprice-guide%2Fworld%2Fgermany-empire-5-pfennig-km-3-1874-common-date-cuid-1166167-duid-1313591&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACupronickel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ngccoin.com/price-guide/world/germany-empire-10-pfennig-km-4-1873-common-date-cuid-1171355-duid-1313581">"Germany - Empire 10 Pfennig KM 4 Prices & Values | NGC"</a>. www.ngccoin.com. Retrieved 2024-07-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ngccoin.com&rft.atitle=Germany+-+Empire+10+Pfennig+KM+4+Prices+%26+Values+%7C+NGC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ngccoin.com%2Fprice-guide%2Fworld%2Fgermany-empire-10-pfennig-km-4-1873-common-date-cuid-1171355-duid-1313581&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACupronickel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5K0_AQAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA98">Morgan's British Trade Journal and Export Price Current</a>. 1878. p. 98.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Morgan%27s+British+Trade+Journal+and+Export+Price+Current&rft.pages=98&rft.date=1878&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5K0_AQAAMAAJ%26pg%3DRA4-PA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACupronickel" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-espa1-43"><a href="#cite_ref-espa1_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?II=0&ND=3&adjacent=true&locale=en_EP&FT=D&date=19070919&CC=GB&NR=190627342A&KC=A">https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?II=0&ND=3&adjacent=true&locale=en_EP&FT=D&date=19070919&CC=GB&NR=190627342A&KC=A</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworldwide.espacenet.com%2FpublicationDetails%2Fbiblio%3FII%3D0%26ND%3D3%26adjacent%3Dtrue%26locale%3Den_EP%26FT%3DD%26date%3D19070919%26CC%3DGB%26NR%3D190627342A%26KC%3DA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACupronickel" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYates1977" class="citation web cs1">Yates, W. Ross (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.psu.edu/pmhb/article/viewFile/43360/43081">"Joseph Wharton's Nickel Business"</a>. journals.psu.edu. The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. Retrieved January 19, 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=journals.psu.edu&rft.atitle=Joseph+Wharton%27s+Nickel+Business&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Yates&rft.aufirst=W.+Ross&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.psu.edu%2Fpmhb%2Farticle%2FviewFile%2F43360%2F43081&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACupronickel" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/">Copper-Nickel Alloys</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/properties/DKI_booklet.html">Copper-Nickel-Alloys: Properties, Processing, Applications</a> (Source: German Copper Institute (DKI))</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.copper.org/applications/marine/cuni/properties/corrosion/corrosion_resistance_and_antifouling.html">Copper-Nickel Alloys for Seawater Corrosion Resistance and Antifouling - A State of the Art Review</a> (C.A. Powell and H.T. Michels; Corrosion 2000, NACE March 2000 (NACE))</li></ul>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=mobile&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&oldid=1273645462">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&oldid=1273645462</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Cupronickel&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 3 February 2025, at 09:31 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%84_%D9%86%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A" title="نيكل نحاسي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نيكل نحاسي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mis-nikel_x%C9%99lit%C9%99si" title="Mis-nikel xəlitəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mis-nikel xəlitəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupron%C3%ADquel" title="Cuproníquel – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cuproníquel" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%9Bdinikl" title="Mědinikl – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mědinikl" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobbernikkel" title="Kobbernikkel – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kobbernikkel" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kupfernickel" title="Kupfernickel – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kupfernickel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kupronikkel" title="Kupronikkel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kupronikkel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Χαλκονικέλιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χαλκονικέλιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupron%C3%ADquel" title="Cuproníquel – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cuproníquel" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kupronikelo" title="Kupronikelo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kupronikelo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kupronikel" title="Kupronikel – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kupronikel" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%84" title="کوپرونیکل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کوپرونیکل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupronickel" title="Cupronickel – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cupronickel" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprainicil" title="Coprainicil – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Coprainicil" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupron%C3%ADquel" title="Cuproníquel – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cuproníquel" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%B1%EB%8F%99" title="백동 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="백동" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kupronikl" title="Kupronikl – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kupronikl" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupronichel" title="Cupronichel – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cupronichel" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%9C" title="קופרניקל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קופרניקל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kupronikkel" title="Kupronikkel – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kupronikkel" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kupronikel" title="Kupronikel – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kupronikel" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BD%E9%8A%85" title="白銅 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="白銅" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koppernikkel" title="Koppernikkel – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Koppernikkel" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koparnikkel" title="Koparnikkel – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Koparnikkel" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2" title="ਕੁਪਰੋਨਿੱਕਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੁਪਰੋਨਿੱਕਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miedzionikiel" title="Miedzionikiel – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Miedzionikiel" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupron%C3%ADquel" title="Cuproníquel – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cuproníquel" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupronichel" title="Cupronichel – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cupronichel" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Медно-никелевые сплавы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Медно-никелевые сплавы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupronickel" title="Cupronickel – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cupronickel" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medinikel" title="Medinikel – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Medinikel" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikkelipronssi" title="Nikkelipronssi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nikkelipronssi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopparnickel" title="Kopparnickel – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kopparnickel" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5" title="คิวโปรนิกเกิล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="คิวโปรนิกเกิล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2" title="Мідно-нікелевий сплав – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мідно-нікелевий сплав" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%93ng_nickel" title="Đồng nickel – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đồng nickel" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BD%E9%8A%85" title="白銅 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="白銅" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%99%BD%E9%93%9C" title="白铜 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="白铜" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" 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