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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Critiques of traditional economics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Critiques_of_traditional_economics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Critiques of traditional economics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Critiques_of_traditional_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Normativity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Normativity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Normativity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Normativity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Free trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exclusion_of_non-market_activity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exclusion_of_non-market_activity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Exclusion of non-market activity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exclusion_of_non-market_activity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Omission_of_power_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Omission_of_power_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Omission of power relations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Omission_of_power_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Omission_of_gender_and_race" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Omission_of_gender_and_race"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Omission of gender and race</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Omission_of_gender_and_race-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exaggeration_of_gender_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exaggeration_of_gender_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Exaggeration of gender differences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exaggeration_of_gender_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Homo_economicus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homo_economicus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span><i>Homo economicus</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homo_economicus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limited_methodology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limited_methodology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Limited methodology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limited_methodology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_pedagogy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_pedagogy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Economic pedagogy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_pedagogy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_2000s_financial_crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_2000s_financial_crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>The 2000s financial crisis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_2000s_financial_crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_areas_of_inquiry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_areas_of_inquiry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Major areas of inquiry</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Major_areas_of_inquiry-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Major areas of inquiry subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Major_areas_of_inquiry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economic_epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Economic epistemology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Economic history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Engendering_macroeconomic_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Engendering_macroeconomic_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Engendering macroeconomic theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Engendering_macroeconomic_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gender_disaggregation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_disaggregation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Gender disaggregation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_disaggregation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gendered_macroeconomic_variables" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gendered_macroeconomic_variables"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Gendered macroeconomic variables</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gendered_macroeconomic_variables-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Two-sector_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two-sector_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Two-sector system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two-sector_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Well-being" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Well-being"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Well-being</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Well-being-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_capabilities_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_capabilities_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Human capabilities approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_capabilities_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Household_bargaining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Household_bargaining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Household bargaining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Household_bargaining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Care_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Care_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Care economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Care_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unpaid_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unpaid_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Unpaid work</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unpaid_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-System_of_National_Accounts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#System_of_National_Accounts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.1</span> <span>System of National Accounts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-System_of_National_Accounts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement_of_unpaid_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement_of_unpaid_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.2</span> <span>Measurement of unpaid work</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measurement_of_unpaid_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Accuracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accuracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.2.1</span> <span>Accuracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accuracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.2.2</span> <span>Comparability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Complexity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complexity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.2.3</span> <span>Complexity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complexity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Valuation_of_time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Valuation_of_time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.3</span> <span>Valuation of time</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Valuation_of_time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Difficulty_establishing_monetary_levels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difficulty_establishing_monetary_levels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.3.1</span> <span>Difficulty establishing monetary levels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difficulty_establishing_monetary_levels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms_of_opportunity_cost" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms_of_opportunity_cost"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.3.2</span> <span>Criticisms of opportunity cost</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticisms_of_opportunity_cost-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Difficulties_with_replacement_cost" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difficulties_with_replacement_cost"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.3.3</span> <span>Difficulties with replacement cost</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difficulties_with_replacement_cost-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Difficulties_with_input-output_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difficulties_with_input-output_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.3.4</span> <span>Difficulties with input-output methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difficulties_with_input-output_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Findings_and_economic_effects_of_unpaid_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Findings_and_economic_effects_of_unpaid_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7.4</span> <span>Findings and economic effects of unpaid work</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Findings_and_economic_effects_of_unpaid_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_formal_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_formal_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>The formal economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_formal_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Globalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Globalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Globalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Globalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degrowth_and_Ecological_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degrowth_and_Ecological_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Degrowth and Ecological economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degrowth_and_Ecological_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methodology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methodology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Methodology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methodology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interdisciplinary_data_collection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interdisciplinary_data_collection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Interdisciplinary data collection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interdisciplinary_data_collection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethical_judgment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethical_judgment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Ethical judgment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethical_judgment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Country_case_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Country_case_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Country case studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Country_case_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_measures_of_success" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_measures_of_success"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Alternative measures of success</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_measures_of_success-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_Development_Index_(HDI)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_Development_Index_(HDI)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Human Development Index (HDI)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_Development_Index_(HDI)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender-related_Development_Index_(GDI)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender-related_Development_Index_(GDI)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.2</span> <span>Gender-related Development Index (GDI)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender-related_Development_Index_(GDI)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_Institutions_and_Gender_Index_(SIGI)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_Institutions_and_Gender_Index_(SIGI)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.3</span> <span>Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_Institutions_and_Gender_Index_(SIGI)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Organizations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Organizations-sublist" class="cdx-button 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id="toc-Feminist_Economics_journal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Graduate_programs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Graduate_programs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Graduate programs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Graduate_programs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_iqtisadiyyat" title="Feminist iqtisadiyyat – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Feminist iqtisadiyyat" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Феминистка икономика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Феминистка икономика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia_feminista" title="Economia feminista – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Economia feminista" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feministick%C3%A1_ekonomie" title="Feministická ekonomie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Feministická ekonomie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ADa_feminista" title="Economía feminista – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Economía feminista" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomia_feminista" title="Ekonomia feminista – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ekonomia feminista" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D9%81%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="اقتصاد فمینیستی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اقتصاد فمینیستی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89conomie_f%C3%A9ministe" title="Économie féministe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Économie féministe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econom%C3%ADa_feminista" title="Economía feminista – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Economía feminista" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%AC%EC%84%B1%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98_%EA%B2%BD%EC%A0%9C%ED%95%99" title="여성주의 경제학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="여성주의 경제학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekonomi_feminis" title="Ekonomi feminis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ekonomi feminis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A7%E3%83%9F%E3%83%8B%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E7%B5%8C%E6%B8%88%E5%AD%A6" title="フェミニスト経済学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="フェミニスト経済学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feministisk_%C3%B8konomi" title="Feministisk økonomi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Feministisk økonomi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نسوانی معاشیات – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نسوانی معاشیات" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%90%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="فیمینېستي اقتصاد – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فیمینېستي اقتصاد" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economia_feminista" title="Economia feminista – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Economia feminista" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economie_feminist%C4%83" title="Economie feministă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Economie feministă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feministi%C4%8Dka_ekonomija" title="Feministička ekonomija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Feministička ekonomija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feministisk_ekonomi" title="Feministisk ekonomi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Feministisk ekonomi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பெண்ணியப் பொருளாதாரம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பெண்ணியப் பொருளாதாரம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Феміністична економіка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Феміністична економіка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نسوانی معاشیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نسوانی معاشیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinh_t%E1%BA%BF_h%E1%BB%8Dc_n%E1%BB%AF_quy%E1%BB%81n" title="Kinh tế học nữ quyền – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Kinh tế học nữ quyền" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A5%B3%E6%80%A7%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%AD%A6" title="女性主义经济学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="女性主义经济学" data-language-autonym="中文" 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id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Gender-aware branch of economics</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the discipline. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Feminist_Economics_(journal)" title="Feminist Economics (journal)"><i>Feminist Economics</i> (journal)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ms._magazine_Cover_-_Spring_1972.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Ms._magazine_Cover_-_Spring_1972.jpg/220px-Ms._magazine_Cover_-_Spring_1972.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Ms._magazine_Cover_-_Spring_1972.jpg/330px-Ms._magazine_Cover_-_Spring_1972.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Ms._magazine_Cover_-_Spring_1972.jpg/440px-Ms._magazine_Cover_-_Spring_1972.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1746" data-file-height="2305" /></a><figcaption>The first issue of <i><a href="/wiki/Ms._magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ms. magazine">Ms. magazine</a></i> examined feminist economics in a piece by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jane_O%27Reilly&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jane O'Reilly (page does not exist)">Jane O'Reilly</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Feminism" title="Category:Feminism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Venus_symbol_(heavy_pink).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg/80px-Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg/120px-Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg/160px-Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">History of feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of women in the United Kingdom">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Canada" title="History of women in Canada">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Germany" title="History of women in Germany">German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;;padding-top:0.2em;"> Waves</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First-wave_feminism" title="First-wave feminism">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-wave_feminism" title="Third-wave feminism">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-wave_feminism" title="Fourth-wave feminism">Fourth</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Timelines</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage" title="Timeline of women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_first_women%27s_suffrage_in_majority-Muslim_countries" title="Timeline of first women's suffrage in majority-Muslim countries">Muslim countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Timeline of women's suffrage in the United States">US</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_legal_rights_(other_than_voting)" title="Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)">Other women's rights</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a> by country</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Austria" title="Women's suffrage in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Australia" title="Women's suffrage in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Canada" title="Women's suffrage in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Colombia" title="Women's suffrage in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_India" title="Women's suffrage in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Japan" title="Women's suffrage in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Kuwait" title="Women's suffrage in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Liechtenstein" title="Women's suffrage in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_New_Zealand" title="Women's suffrage in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li>Spain <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_Spanish_Second_Republic_period" title="Women's suffrage in the Spanish Second Republic period">Second Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Francoist_Spain_and_the_democratic_transition" title="Women's suffrage in Francoist Spain and the democratic transition">Francoist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Switzerland" title="Women's suffrage in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Women's suffrage in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Wales" title="Women's suffrage in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_states_of_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in states of the United States">states</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality#Feminist_thought" title="Intersectionality">Intersectional variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_feminism" title="Fat feminism">Fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism#Lesbian_of_color_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_lesbianism" title="Radical lesbianism">Radical lesbianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_separatism#Lesbian_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sex-positive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfeminism" title="Transfeminism">Transfeminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postgenderism" title="Postgenderism">Postgenderism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarian_ecofeminism" title="Vegetarian ecofeminism">Vegetarian ecofeminism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;;padding-top:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Socialist_feminism" title="Socialist feminism">Socialist</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcha-feminism" title="Anarcha-feminism">Anarchist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queer_anarchism" title="Queer anarchism">Queer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jineology" title="Jineology">Jineology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_feminism" title="Marxist feminism">Marxist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality#Marxist_feminist_critical_theory" title="Intersectionality">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standpoint_feminism" title="Standpoint feminism">Standpoint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialist_feminism" title="Materialist feminism">Materialist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism#Materialist_Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_feminism" title="Postcolonial feminism">Postcolonial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_feminism" title="Global feminism">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_feminism" title="Transnational feminism">Transnational</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenofeminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenofeminism">Xenofeminism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;;padding-top:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multicultural</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africana_womanism" title="Africana womanism">Africana womanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_feminism" title="Black feminism">Black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hip_hop_feminism" title="Hip hop feminism">Hip hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism#Black_lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratchet_feminism" title="Ratchet feminism">Ratchet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicana_feminism" title="Chicana feminism">Chicana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism#Chicana_lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_feminism" title="Indigenous feminism">Indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_feminism" title="Native American feminism">Native American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiracial_feminist_theory" title="Multiracial feminist theory">Multiracial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_feminism" title="Romani feminism">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanism" title="Womanism">Womanism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Other variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_feminism" title="Anti-abortion feminism">Anti-abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femonationalism" title="Femonationalism">Femonationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_feminism" title="Maternal feminism">Maternal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postfeminism" title="Postfeminism">Postfeminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neofeminism" title="Neofeminism">Neofeminism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary_feminism" title="Reactionary feminism">Reactionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_feminism" title="State feminism">State</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carceral_feminism" title="Carceral feminism">Carceral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_feminism" title="Imperial feminism">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_feminism" title="Embedded feminism">Embedded</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-critical_feminism" title="Gender-critical feminism"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Gender-critical</span> or <span class="nowrap">trans-exclusionary</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_feminism" title="Victim feminism">Victim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_feminism" title="White feminism">White</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Religious variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheist_feminism" title="Atheist feminism">Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_feminism" title="Buddhist feminism">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_feminism" title="Christian feminism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mormon_feminism" title="Mormon feminism">Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_feminism" title="New feminism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_feminist_theology" title="Asian feminist theology">Asian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Neopagan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dianic_Wicca" title="Dianic Wicca">Dianic Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaiming_(Neopaganism)" title="Reclaiming (Neopaganism)">Reclaiming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism#Spiritual_Ecofeminism/Cultural_Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_India#Hindu_community" title="Feminism in India">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_feminism" title="Orthodox Jewish feminism">Orthodox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_feminism" title="Sikh feminism">Sikh</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_movements_and_ideologies" title="Feminist movements and ideologies">Movements and ideologies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4B_movement" title="4B movement">4B movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantifa" title="Fantifa">Anti-fascist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-pornography_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-pornography feminism">Anti-pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberfeminism" title="Cyberfeminism">Cyberfeminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_HCI" title="Feminist HCI">HCI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Networked_feminism" title="Networked feminism">Networked</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenic_feminism" title="Eugenic feminism">Eugenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_feminism" title="Individualist feminism">Individualist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lipstick_feminism" title="Lipstick feminism">Lipstick</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lipstick_feminism#Stiletto_feminism" title="Lipstick feminism">Stiletto</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Difference_feminism" title="Difference feminism">Difference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_feminism" title="Equality feminism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_feminism" title="Social feminism">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labor_feminism" title="Labor feminism">Labor</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian feminism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structural_feminism" title="Post-structural feminism">Post-structural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_feminism" title="Postmodern feminism">Postmodern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_feminism" title="Radical feminism">Radical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_feminism" title="Cultural feminism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_lesbianism" title="Political lesbianism">Political lesbianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technofeminism" title="Technofeminism">Technofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_liberation_movement" title="Women's liberation movement">Women's liberation</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinaturalism_(politics)" title="Antinaturalism (politics)">Antinaturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice_feminism" title="Choice feminism">Choice feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_labor" title="Cognitive labor">Cognitive labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_literature" title="Feminist literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_children%27s_literature" title="Feminist children's literature">Children's literature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_effects_on_society" title="Feminist effects on society">Effects on society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_equality" title="Feminism and equality">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_education" title="Female education">Female education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femonationalism" title="Femonationalism">Femonationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_culture" title="Feminism in culture">Feminism in culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_movement" title="Feminist movement">Feminist movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">African-American women's suffrage movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_movement" title="Feminist art movement">Art movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_activism_in_hip_hop" title="Feminist activism in hip hop">In hip hop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_striptease" title="Feminist views on striptease">Feminist stripper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Formal equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_quota" title="Gender quota">Gender quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girl_power" title="Girl power">Girl power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor_killing" title="Honor killing">Honor killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_womanhood" title="Ideal womanhood">Ideal womanhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_labor" title="Invisible labor">Invisible labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_sexism" title="Internalized sexism">Internalized sexism</a></li> <li>International <a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_the_Girl_Child" title="International Day of the Girl Child">Girl's Day</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Women%27s_Day" title="International Women's Day">Women's Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_language_reform" title="Feminist language reform">Language reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_capitalism" title="Feminist capitalism">Feminist capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Likeability_trap" title="Likeability trap">Likeability trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">Male privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchal_religion" title="Matriarchal religion">Matriarchal religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_media" title="Feminism and media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men_in_feminism" title="Men in feminism">Men in feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Trans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_the_Oedipus_complex" title="Feminist views on the Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifeminism" title="Antifeminism">Opposition to feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-feminism" title="Pro-feminism">Pro-feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protofeminism" title="Protofeminism">Protofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purplewashing" title="Purplewashing">Purplewashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_racism" title="Feminism and racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_justice" title="Reproductive justice">Reproductive justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_workers%27_rights" title="Sex workers' rights">Sex workers' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_objectification" title="Sexual objectification">Sexual objectification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_equality" title="Substantive equality">Substantive equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_masculinity" title="Toxic masculinity">Toxic masculinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_oppression" title="Triple oppression">Triple oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_women" title="War on women">War on women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">Women's empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women-only_space" title="Women-only space">Women-only space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health"><span class="wrap">Women's health</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">Women's rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_workforce" title="Women in the workforce">Women in the workforce</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Outlooks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicycling_and_feminism" title="Bicycling and feminism">Bicycling and feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_marriage" title="Criticism of marriage">Criticism of marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_BDSM" title="Feminist views on BDSM">Views on BDSM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_pornography" title="Feminist views on pornography">Views on pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_the_sex_industry" title="Feminist views on the sex industry">Views on prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_sexuality" title="Feminist views on sexuality">Views on sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_sexuality" title="Feminist views on sexuality">Views on sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_transgender_topics" title="Feminist views on transgender topics">Views on transgender topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCUM_Manifesto" title="SCUM Manifesto">SCUM Manifesto</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">Theory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_mainstreaming" title="Gender mainstreaming">Gender mainstreaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynocentrism" title="Gynocentrism">Gynocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyriarchy" title="Kyriarchy">Kyriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_gaze" title="Male gaze">Male gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Matriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_studies" title="Women's studies">Women's studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_studies" title="Men's studies">Men's studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89criture_f%C3%A9minine" title="Écriture féminine">Écriture féminine</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Areas of study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_modern_architecture" title="Feminism and modern architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art" title="Feminist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_criticism" title="Feminist art criticism">Art criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism" title="Feminist literary criticism">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_film_theory" title="Feminist film theory">Film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_science_fiction" title="Feminist science fiction">Science fiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_biology" title="Feminist biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory_in_composition_studies" title="Feminist theory in composition studies">Composition studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Criminology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pathways_perspective" title="Feminist pathways perspective">Pathways perspective</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_post-structuralist_discourse_analysis" title="Feminist post-structuralist discourse analysis">FDPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">International relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_constructivism" title="Feminist constructivism">Constructivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pedagogy" title="Feminist pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_empiricism" title="Feminist empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_justice_ethics" title="Feminist justice ethics">Justice ethics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_existentialism" title="Feminist existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science" title="Feminist philosophy of science">science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_ecology" title="Feminist political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Political theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pornography" title="Feminist pornography">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_therapy" title="Feminist therapy">Therapy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_revisionist_mythology" title="Feminist revisionist mythology">Revisionist mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sex_wars" title="Feminist sex wars">Sex wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sexology" title="Feminist sexology">Sexology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">Technoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">womanist theology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By continent/country</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_feminism" title="African feminism">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Egypt" title="Feminism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Senegal" title="Feminism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_South_Africa" title="Feminism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Australia" title="Feminism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Bangladesh" title="Feminism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Canada" title="Feminism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_China" title="Feminism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Denmark" title="Women in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a 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title="Feminism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Italy" title="Feminism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Japan" title="Feminism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Latin_America" title="Feminism in Latin America">Latin America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Argentina" title="Feminism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Brazil" title="Feminism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Chile" title="Feminism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Haiti" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Mexico" title="Feminism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Women in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Lebanon" title="Women in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Malaysia" title="Feminism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Nepal" title="Feminism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Feminism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_New_Zealand" title="Feminism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Norway" title="Feminism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Pakistan" title="Feminism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Poland" title="Feminism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Russia" title="Feminism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Feminism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_South_Korea" title="Feminism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Sweden" title="Feminism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Taiwan" title="Feminism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Thailand" title="Feminism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Vietnam" title="Women in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Ukraine" title="Women in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Feminism in the United 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-spacing:0.2em 0;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.1em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Critique_of_political_economy" title="Category:Critique of political economy">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#228B22;padding-bottom:0;font-size:175%;font-weight:normal;color:white;"><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Critique of political economy</span></a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">Capitalist mode of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_(Marxism)" title="Commodity (Marxism)">Commodity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_labour_and_concrete_labour" title="Abstract labour and concrete labour">Concrete and abstract labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dismal_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Dismal Science">Dismal Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">Exploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illth" title="Illth">Illth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socially_necessary_labour_time" title="Socially necessary labour time">Socially necessary labour time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_criticism" title="Value criticism">Value criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value-form" title="Value-form">Value-form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sign_(semiotics)" title="Sign (semiotics)">Sign</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;;font-style:italic;"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/August_Strindberg%27s_Little_Catechism_for_the_Underclass" title="August Strindberg's Little Catechism for the Underclass">August Strindberg's Little Catechism for the Underclass</a></li></ul> <div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/A_Contribution_to_the_Critique_of_Political_Economy" title="A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy">A Contribution to the<br />Critique of Political Economy</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Economic_Reason" title="Critique of Economic Reason">Critique of Economic Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard#The_object_value_system" title="Jean Baudrillard">For a Critique of the Political Economy of the Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grundrisse" title="Grundrisse">Grundrisse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_Times_(novel)" title="Hard Times (novel)">Hard Times (novel)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outlines_of_a_Critique_of_Political_Economy" title="Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy">Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvodaya" title="Sarvodaya">Sarvodaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Accursed_Share" title="The Accursed Share">The Accursed Share</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Mirror_of_Production" title="The Mirror of Production">The Mirror of Production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unto_This_Last" title="Unto This Last">Unto This Last</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Have_Never_Been_Modern" title="We Have Never Been Modern">We Have Never Been Modern</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">18th–19th-century people</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/August_Strindberg" title="August Strindberg">August Strindberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Lafargue" title="Paul Lafargue">Paul Lafargue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">John Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Jonas_Love_Almqvist" title="Carl Jonas Love Almqvist">Carl Jonas Love Almqvist</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">20th–21st-century people</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Balibar" title="Étienne Balibar">Étienne Balibar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Bataille" title="Georges Bataille">Georges Bataille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Guy Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">David Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Fisher" title="Mark Fisher">Mark Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gorz" title="André Gorz">André Gorz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Bruno Latour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kurz" title="Robert Kurz">Robert Kurz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claus_Peter_Ortlieb" title="Claus Peter Ortlieb">Claus Peter Ortlieb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moishe_Postone" title="Moishe Postone">Moishe Postone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katrine_Mar%C3%A7al" title="Katrine Marçal">Katrine Marçal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._K._Hunt" title="E. K. Hunt">E. K. Hunt</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assume_a_can_opener" title="Assume a can opener">Assume a can opener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Feminist economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthodox economics">Orthodox economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathiness" title="Mathiness">Mathiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomics">Socioeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_bias" title="Status quo bias">Status quo bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stylized_fact" title="Stylized fact">Stylized fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-autistic_economics" title="Post-autistic economics">Post-autistic economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-use_research" title="Time-use research">Time-use research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_fundamentalism" title="Market fundamentalism">Market fundamentalism</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Critique_of_political_economy_sidebar" title="Template:Critique of political economy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Critique_of_political_economy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Critique of political economy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Critique_of_political_economy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Critique of political economy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Feminist economics</b> is the critical study of <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a> and economies, with a focus on gender-aware and inclusive economic inquiry and policy analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-IAFFE_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IAFFE-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist economic researchers include academics, activists, policy theorists, and practitioners.<sup id="cite_ref-IAFFE_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IAFFE-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much feminist economic research focuses on topics that have been neglected in the field, such as <a href="/wiki/Care_work" title="Care work">care work</a>, intimate partner violence, or on economic theories which could be improved through better incorporation of gendered effects and interactions, such as between paid and unpaid sectors of economies.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other feminist scholars have engaged in new forms of <a href="/wiki/Data_collection" title="Data collection">data collection</a> and measurement such as the <a href="/wiki/Gender_Empowerment_Measure" title="Gender Empowerment Measure">Gender Empowerment Measure</a> (GEM), and more gender-aware theories such as the <a href="/wiki/Capabilities_approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Capabilities approach">capabilities approach</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-intro_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist economics is oriented towards the goal of "enhancing the well-being of children, women, and men in local, national, and transnational communities."<sup id="cite_ref-IAFFE_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IAFFE-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Feminist economists call attention to the <a href="/wiki/Social_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social construction">social constructions</a> of traditional economics, questioning the extent to which it is <a href="/wiki/Positive_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive economics">positive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">objective</a>, and showing how its models and methods are biased by an exclusive attention to <a href="/wiki/Masculine" class="mw-redirect" title="Masculine">masculine</a>-associated topics and a one-sided favoring of masculine-associated assumptions and methods.<sup id="cite_ref-beyond_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beyond-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nelson1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nelson1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While economics traditionally focused on markets and masculine-associated ideas of autonomy, abstraction and logic, feminist economists call for a fuller exploration of economic life, including such "culturally <a href="/wiki/Feminine" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminine">feminine</a>" topics such as <a href="/wiki/Family_economics" title="Family economics">family economics</a>, and examining the importance of connections, concreteness, and emotion in explaining economic phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-beyond_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beyond-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many scholars including <a href="/wiki/Ester_Boserup" title="Ester Boserup">Ester Boserup</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marianne_Ferber" title="Marianne Ferber">Marianne Ferber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drucilla_K._Barker" title="Drucilla K. Barker">Drucilla K. Barker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julie_A._Nelson" title="Julie A. Nelson">Julie A. Nelson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Waring" title="Marilyn Waring">Marilyn Waring</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Folbre" title="Nancy Folbre">Nancy Folbre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diane_Elson" title="Diane Elson">Diane Elson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Bergmann" title="Barbara Bergmann">Barbara Bergmann</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ailsa_McKay" title="Ailsa McKay">Ailsa McKay</a> have contributed to feminist economics. Waring's 1988 book <i><a href="/wiki/If_Women_Counted" title="If Women Counted">If Women Counted</a></i> is often regarded as the "founding document" of the discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nelson2014_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nelson2014-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1990s feminist economics had become sufficiently recognised as an established subfield within economics to generate book and article publication opportunities for its practitioners.<sup id="cite_ref-peterson_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peterson-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_and_history">Origins and history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins and history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early on, <a href="/wiki/Feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist">feminist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethicist">ethicists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economists" class="mw-redirect" title="Economists">economists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Political scientists">political scientists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Systems_scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Systems scientists">systems scientists</a> argued that <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_work" title="Women's work">women's traditional work</a> (e.g. child-raising, caring for sick elders) and occupations (e.g. nursing, teaching) are systematically undervalued with respect to that of men. For example, <a href="/wiki/Jane_Jacobs" title="Jane Jacobs">Jane Jacobs</a>' thesis of the "<a href="/wiki/Guardian_Ethic" class="mw-redirect" title="Guardian Ethic">Guardian Ethic</a>" and its contrast to the "<a href="/wiki/Trader_Ethic" class="mw-redirect" title="Trader Ethic">Trader Ethic</a>" sought to explain the undervaluing of guardianship activity, including the child-protecting, nurturing, and healing tasks that were traditionally assigned to women. </p><p>Written in 1969 and later published in the <i>Houseworker's Handbook</i>, Betsy Warrior's <i>Housework: Slavery or a Labor of Love and The Source of Leisure Time</i><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> presents a cogent argument that the production and reproduction of domestic labor performed by women constitutes the foundation of all economic transactions and survival; although, unremunerated and not included in the GDP.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Warrior: "Economics, as it's presented today, lacks any basis in reality as it leaves out the very foundation of economic life. That foundation is built on women's labor; first her reproductive labor which produces every new laborer (and the first commodity, which is mother's milk and which sustains every new consumer/laborer); secondly, women's labor entails environmentally necessary cleaning, cooking to make raw materials consumable, negotiating to maintain social stability and nurturing, which prepares for market and maintains each laborer. This constitutes women's continuing industry enabling laborers to occupy every position in the work force. Without this fundamental labor and commodity there would be no economic activity nor we would have survived to continue to evolve."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warrior also notes that the unacknowledged income of men from illegal activities like arms, drugs and human trafficking, political graft, religious emoluments and various other undisclosed activities provide a rich revenue stream to men, which further invalidates GDP figures.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even in underground economies where women predominate numerically, like trafficking in humans, prostitution and domestic servitude, only a tiny fraction of the pimp's revenue filters down to the women and children he deploys. Usually the amount spent on them is merely for the maintenance of their lives and, in the case of those prostituted, some money may be spent on clothing and such accouterments as will make them more salable to the pimp's clients. For instance, focusing on just the US, according to a government sponsored report by the Urban Institute in 2014, "A street prostitute in Dallas may make as little as $5 per sex act. But pimps can take in $33,000 a week in Atlanta, where the sex business brings in an estimated $290 million per year."<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warrior believes that only an inclusive, facts-based economic analysis will provide a reliable bases for future planning for environmental and reproductive/population needs. </p><p>In 1970, <a href="/wiki/Ester_Boserup" title="Ester Boserup">Ester Boserup</a> published <i>Woman's Role in Economic Development</i> and provided the first systematic examination of the gendered effects of agricultural transformation, <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a> and other structural changes.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This evidence illuminated the negative outcomes that these changes had for women. This work, among others, laid the basis for the broad claim that "women and men weather the storm of macroeconomic shocks, neoliberal policies, and the forces of globalization in different ways."<sup id="cite_ref-berik_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berik-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, measures such as <a href="/wiki/Employment_equity" class="mw-redirect" title="Employment equity">employment equity</a> were implemented in <a href="/wiki/Developed_nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed nation">developed nations</a> in the 1970s to 1990s, but these were not entirely successful in removing wage gaps even in nations with strong equity traditions. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MarilynWaring2012.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/MarilynWaring2012.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="273" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Waring" title="Marilyn Waring">Marilyn Waring</a>, author of <i><a href="/wiki/If_Women_Counted" title="If Women Counted">If Women Counted</a></i> (1988)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1988, <a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Waring" title="Marilyn Waring">Marilyn Waring</a> published <i><a href="/wiki/If_Women_Counted" title="If Women Counted">If Women Counted: A New Feminist Economics</a></i>, a groundbreaking and systematic critique of the system of <a href="/wiki/National_accounts" title="National accounts">national accounts</a>, the international standard of measuring economic growth, and the ways in which women's unpaid work as well as the value of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a> have been excluded from what counts as productive in the economy. In the foreword to the 2014 anthology <i><a href="/wiki/If_Women_Counted#Counting_on_Marilyn_Waring:_New_Advances_in_Feminist_Economics" title="If Women Counted">Counting on Marilyn Waring</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Julie_A._Nelson" title="Julie A. Nelson">Julie A. Nelson</a> wrote: </p> <dl><dd>"Marilyn Waring's work woke people up. She showed exactly how the unpaid work traditionally done by women has been made invisible within national accounting systems, and the damage this causes. Her book ... encouraged and influenced a wide range of work on ways, both numerical and otherwise, of valuing, preserving, and rewarding the work of care that sustains our lives. By pointing to a similar neglect of the natural environment, she also issued a wake-up call to issues of ecological sustainability that have only grown more pressing over time. In recent decades, the field of feminist economics has broadened and widened to encompass these topics and more."<sup id="cite_ref-Nelson2014_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nelson2014-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Supported by formation of the Committee on the Status of Women in the Economics Profession (CSWEP) in 1972, gender-based critiques of traditional economics appeared in the 1970s and 80s. The subsequent emergence of <a href="/wiki/Development_Alternatives_with_Women_for_a_New_Era" title="Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era">Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era</a> (DAWN) and the 1992 founding of the <a href="#Heading_International_Association_for_Feminist_Economics">International Association for Feminist Economics (IAFFE)</a> along with its journal <i><a href="/wiki/Feminist_Economics_(journal)" title="Feminist Economics (journal)">Feminist Economics</a></i> in 1994<sup id="cite_ref-intro_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-beyond_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beyond-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> encouraged the rapid growth of feminist economics. </p><p>As in other disciplines, the initial emphasis of feminist economists was to critique the established theory, methodology, and policy approaches. The critique began in <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a> of the household and <a href="/wiki/Labor_markets" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor markets">labor markets</a> and spread to <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a>, ultimately extending to all areas of traditional economic analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-peterson_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peterson-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist economists pushed for and produced gender aware theory and analysis, broadened the focus on economics and sought pluralism of methodology and research methods. </p><p>Feminist economics shares many of its perspectives with <a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">ecological economics</a> and the more applied field of <a href="/wiki/Green_economy" title="Green economy">green economy</a>, including the focus on <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>, justice and care values.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critiques_of_traditional_economics">Critiques of traditional economics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Critiques of traditional economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although there is no definitive list of the principles of feminist economics, feminist economists offer a variety of critiques of standard approaches in economics.<sup id="cite_ref-web_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-web-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, prominent feminist economist <a href="/wiki/Paula_England" title="Paula England">Paula England</a> provided one of the earliest feminist critiques of traditional economics as she challenged the claims that: </p> <ul><li>That interpersonal <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">utility</a> comparisons are impossible;</li> <li>That tastes are <a href="/wiki/Exogenous_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Exogenous variable">exogenous</a> and unchanging;</li> <li>That actors are selfish; and</li> <li>That household heads act altruistically.<sup id="cite_ref-separative_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-separative-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>This list is not exhaustive but does represent some of the central feminist economic critiques of traditional economics, out of the wide variety of such viewpoints and critiques. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Normativity">Normativity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Normativity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many feminists call attention to value judgments in economic analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-nelson1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nelson1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idea is contrary to the typical conception of economics as a <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positive science</a> held by many practitioners. For example, Geoff Schneider and <a href="/wiki/Jean_Shackelford" title="Jean Shackelford">Jean Shackelford</a> suggest that, as in other sciences,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "the issues that economists choose to study, the kinds of questions they ask, and the type of analysis undertaken all are a product of a belief system which is influenced by numerous factors, some of them ideological in character."<sup id="cite_ref-web_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-web-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, Diana Strassmann comments, "All economic <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a> are based on an underlying story forming the basis of the definition. In this way, narrative constructions necessarily underlie all definitions of variables and statistics. Therefore, economic research cannot escape being inherently qualitative, regardless of how it is labeled."<sup id="cite_ref-strassmann_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strassmann-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist economists call attention to the <a href="/wiki/Value_judgement" class="mw-redirect" title="Value judgement">value judgements</a> in all aspects economics and criticize its depiction of an objective science. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_trade">Free trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Free trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A central principle of mainstream economics is that <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a> can make everyone better off through <a href="/wiki/Comparative_advantage" title="Comparative advantage">comparative advantage</a> and efficiency gains from specialization and greater efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-manikiw_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manikiw-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-elson_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elson-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many feminist economists question this claim. <a href="/wiki/Diane_Elson" title="Diane Elson">Diane Elson</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Caren_Grown&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caren Grown (page does not exist)">Caren Grown</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nilufer_Cagatay" title="Nilufer Cagatay">Nilufer Cagatay</a> explore the role that gender inequalities play in international trade and how such trade reshapes gender inequality itself. They and other feminist economists explore whose interests specific trade practices serve. </p><p>For example, they may highlight that in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, specialization in the cultivation of a single <a href="/wiki/Cash_crop" title="Cash crop">cash crop</a> for export in many countries made those countries extremely vulnerable to price fluctuations, weather patterns, and pests.<sup id="cite_ref-web_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-web-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist economists may also consider the specific gendered effects of trade-decisions. For instance, "in countries such as <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, men generally controlled the earnings from cash crops while women were still expected to provide food and clothing for the household, their traditional role in the African family, along with labor to produce cash crops. Thus women suffered significantly from the transition away from subsistence food production towards specialization and trade."<sup id="cite_ref-web_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-web-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, since women often lack economic power as business owners, they are more likely to be hired as cheap labor, often involving them in exploitative situations.<sup id="cite_ref-elson_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elson-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These examples highlight feminist economic theory's critique of the traditional economic theory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exclusion_of_non-market_activity">Exclusion of non-market activity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Exclusion of non-market activity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Feminist economics call attention to the importance of non-market activities, such as <a href="/wiki/Childcare" class="mw-redirect" title="Childcare">childcare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Domestic_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic work">domestic work</a>, to economic development.<sup id="cite_ref-Power,_Marilyn_2011_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Power,_Marilyn_2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-razavi_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-razavi-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This stands in sharp contrast to <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical economics</a> where those forms of labor are unaccounted for as "non-economic" phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-nelson1_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nelson1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Including such labor in economic accounts removes substantial gender bias because women disproportionately perform those tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When that labor is unaccounted for in economic models, much work done by women is ignored, literally devaluing their effort. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trabajadora_dom%C3%A9stico.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Trabajadora_dom%C3%A9stico.JPG/220px-Trabajadora_dom%C3%A9stico.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Trabajadora_dom%C3%A9stico.JPG/330px-Trabajadora_dom%C3%A9stico.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Trabajadora_dom%C3%A9stico.JPG/440px-Trabajadora_dom%C3%A9stico.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>A Colombian domestic worker. Neighborhood friends and family sharing household and childcare responsibilities is an example of non-market activity performed outside of the traditional <a href="/wiki/Labor_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor market">labor market</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>More specifically, for example, <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Folbre" title="Nancy Folbre">Nancy Folbre</a> examines the role of <a href="/wiki/Children" class="mw-redirect" title="Children">children</a> as <a href="/wiki/Public_goods" class="mw-redirect" title="Public goods">public goods</a> and how the non-market labor of parents contributes to the development of <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Public_service" title="Public service">public service</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, children are <a href="/wiki/Positive_externality" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive externality">positive externality</a> which is under-invested according to traditional analysis. Folbre indicates that this oversight partially results from failing to properly examine non-market activities. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Waring" title="Marilyn Waring">Marilyn Waring</a> described how the exclusion of non-market activities in the <a href="/wiki/National_accounts" title="National accounts">national accounting systems</a> relied on the deliberate choice and the design of the international standard of national accounts that explicitly excluded non-market activities. In some countries, such as <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>, which had included unpaid household work in the GDP in the first half of the 20th century, it was left out in 1950 for reasons of compatibility with the new international standard.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ailsa_McKay" title="Ailsa McKay">Ailsa McKay</a> argues for a <a href="/wiki/Basic_income" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic income">basic income</a> as "a tool for promoting gender-neutral social citizenship rights" partially to address these concerns.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Omission_of_power_relations">Omission of power relations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Omission of power relations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Feminist economics often assert that power relations exist within the economy, and therefore, must be assessed in economic models in ways that they previously have been overlooked.<sup id="cite_ref-Power,_Marilyn_2011_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Power,_Marilyn_2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in "neoclassical texts, the sale of labor is viewed as a mutually beneficial exchange that benefits both parties. No mention is made of the power inequities in the exchange which tend to give the employer power over the employee."<sup id="cite_ref-web_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-web-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These power relations often favor men and there is "never any mention made of the particular difficulties that confront females in the <a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality#In_the_workplace" title="Gender inequality">workplace</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-web_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-web-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, "Understanding power and <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">patriarchy</a> helps us to analyze how men-dominated economic institutions function and why females are often at a disadvantage in the workplace."<sup id="cite_ref-web_17-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-web-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist economists often extend these criticisms to many aspects of the social world, arguing that power relations are an endemic and important feature of society. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Omission_of_gender_and_race">Omission of gender and race</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Omission of gender and race"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Feminist economics argue that <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a> and <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_humans)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of humans)">race</a> must be considered in economic analysis. <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a> argues that "the systematically inferior position of women inside and outside the household in many societies points to the necessity of treating gender as a force of its own in development analysis."<sup id="cite_ref-sen_gender_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sen_gender-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He goes on to say that experiences of men and women, even within the same household, are often so different that examining economics without gender can be misleading. </p><p>Economic models can often be improved by explicitly considering gender, race, class, and <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Julie Matthaie describes their importance: "Not only did gender and racial-ethnic differences and inequality precede <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>, they have been built into it in key ways. In other words, every aspect of our capitalist economy is gendered and racialized; a theory and practice that ignores this is inherently flawed."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist economist Eiman Zein-Elabdin says racial and gender differences should be examined since both have traditionally been ignored and thus are equally described as "feminist difference."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The July 2002 issue of the <i><a href="/wiki/Feminist_Economics_(journal)" title="Feminist Economics (journal)">Feminist Economics</a></i> journal was dedicated to issues of "gender, color, caste and class."<sup id="cite_ref-Power,_Marilyn_2011_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Power,_Marilyn_2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exaggeration_of_gender_differences">Exaggeration of gender differences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Exaggeration of gender differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In other cases gender differences have been exaggerated, potentially encouraging unjustified stereotyping. In recent works<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Julie_A._Nelson" title="Julie A. Nelson">Julie A. Nelson</a> has shown how the idea that "women are more risk averse than men," a now-popular assertion from behavioral economics, actually rests on extremely thin empirical evidence. Conducting meta-analyses of recent studies, she demonstrates that, while statistically significant differences in measures of mean risk aversion are sometimes found, the substantive size of these group-level differences tend to be small (on the order of a fraction of a standard deviation), and many other studies fail to find a statistically significant difference at all. Yet the studies that fail to find "difference" are less likely to be published or highlighted. </p><p>In addition, claims that men and women have "different" preferences (such as for risk, competition, or altruism) often tend to be misinterpreted as categorical, that is, as applying to all women and all men, as individuals. In fact, small differences in average behavior, such as are found in some studies, are generally accompanied by large overlaps in men's and women's distributions. That is, both men and women can generally be found in the most risk-averse (or competitive or altruistic) groups, as well as in the least. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homo_economicus"><i>Homo economicus</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Homo economicus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical economic</a> model of a person is called <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_economicus" title="Homo economicus">Homo economicus</a></i>, describing a person who "interacts in society without being influenced by society," because "his mode of interaction is through an ideal <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">market</a>," in which prices are the only necessary considerations.<sup id="cite_ref-nelson1_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nelson1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this view, people are considered rational actors who engage in <a href="/wiki/Marginal_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal analysis">marginal analysis</a> to make many or all of their decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-web_17-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-web-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist economists argue that people are more complex than such models, and call for "a more holistic vision of an economic actor, which includes group interactions and actions motivated by factors other than greed."<sup id="cite_ref-web_17-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-web-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist economics holds that such a reformation provides a better description of the actual experiences of both men and women in the market, arguing that mainstream economics overemphasizes the role of individualism, competition and selfishness of all actors. Instead, feminist economists like <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Folbre" title="Nancy Folbre">Nancy Folbre</a> show that cooperation also plays a role in the economy. </p><p>Feminist economists also point out that <a href="/wiki/Agency_(sociology)" title="Agency (sociology)">agency</a> is not available to everyone, such as children, the sick, and the frail elderly. Responsibilities for their care can compromise the agency of caregivers as well. This is a critical departure from the <i>homo economicus</i> model.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moreover, feminist economists critique the focus of neoclassical economics on monetary rewards. <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Folbre" title="Nancy Folbre">Nancy Folbre</a> notes, "legal rules and cultural norms can affect market outcomes in ways distinctly disadvantageous to women." This includes <a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">occupational segregation</a> resulting in unequal pay for women. Feminist research in these areas contradicts the neoclassical description of <a href="/wiki/Labor_markets" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor markets">labor markets</a> in which <a href="/wiki/Job_(role)" class="mw-redirect" title="Job (role)">occupations</a> are chosen freely by individuals acting alone and out of their own free will.<sup id="cite_ref-web_17-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-web-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist economics also includes study of <a href="/wiki/Norm_(social)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norm (social)">norms</a> relevant to economics, challenging the traditional view that material incentives will reliably provide the goods we want and need (consumer sovereignty), which does not hold true for many people. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Institutional_economics" title="Institutional economics">Institutional economics</a> is one means by which feminist economists improve upon the <i>homo economicus</i> model. This theory examines the role of institutions and evolutionary social processes in shaping economic behavior, emphasizing "the complexity of human motives and the importance of culture and relations of power." This provides a more holistic view of the economic actor than <i>homo economicus.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Power,_Marilyn_2011_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Power,_Marilyn_2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The work of George Akerlof and Janet Yellen on <a href="/wiki/Efficiency_wage" title="Efficiency wage">efficiency wages</a> based on notions of fairness provides an example of a feminist model of economic actors. In their work, agents are not hyperrational or isolated, but instead act in concert and with fairness, are capable of experiencing jealousy, and are interested in personal relationships. This work is based on empirical <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> and psychology, and suggests that wages can be influenced by fairness considerations rather than purely market forces.<sup id="cite_ref-nelson1_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nelson1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limited_methodology">Limited methodology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Limited methodology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Economics is often thought of as "the study of how society manages its <a href="/wiki/Scarce_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Scarce resources">scarce resources</a>" and as such is limited to mathematical inquiry.<sup id="cite_ref-nelson1_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nelson1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-manikiw_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manikiw-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditional economists often say such an approach assures objectivity and separates economics from "softer" fields such as <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>. Feminist economists, argue on the contrary that a mathematical conception of economics limited to scarce resources is a holdover from the early years of science and <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian philosophy">Cartesian philosophy</a>, and limits economic analysis. So feminist economists often call for more diverse data collection and broader economic models.<sup id="cite_ref-nelson1_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nelson1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_pedagogy">Economic pedagogy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Economic pedagogy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Feminist economists suggest that both the content and teaching style of economics courses would benefit from certain changes. Some recommend including experimental learning, laboratory sessions, individual research and more chances to "do economics."<sup id="cite_ref-nelson1_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nelson1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some want more dialogue between instructors and students. Many feminist economists are urgently interested in how course content influences the demographic composition of future economists, suggesting that the "classroom climate" affects some students' perceptions of their own ability.<sup id="cite_ref-hall_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hall-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_2000s_financial_crisis">The 2000s financial crisis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The 2000s financial crisis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Margunn_Bj%C3%B8rnholt" title="Margunn Bjørnholt">Margunn Bjørnholt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ailsa_McKay" title="Ailsa McKay">Ailsa McKay</a> argue that the <a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%9308" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial crisis of 2007–08">financial crisis of 2007–08</a> and the response to it revealed a crisis of ideas in mainstream economics and within the economics profession, and call for a reshaping of both the economy, economic theory and the economics profession. They argue that such a reshaping should include new advances within feminist economics that take as their starting point the socially responsible, sensible and accountable subject in creating an economy and economic theories that fully acknowledge care for each other as well as the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_areas_of_inquiry">Major areas of inquiry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Major areas of inquiry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_epistemology">Economic epistemology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Economic epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Feminist critiques of economics include that "economics, like any science, is <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">socially constructed</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-nelson1_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nelson1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist economists say that social constructs act to <a href="/wiki/Privilege_(social_inequality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Privilege (social inequality)">privilege</a> male-identified, <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">western</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heterosexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterosexual">heterosexual</a> interpretations of economics.<sup id="cite_ref-intro_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They generally incorporate <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">feminist theory</a> and frameworks to show how traditional economics communities signal expectations regarding appropriate participants, to the exclusion of outsiders. Such criticisms extend to the theories, methodologies and research areas of economics, in order to show that accounts of economic life are deeply influenced by biased histories, social structures, norms, cultural practices, interpersonal interactions, and politics.<sup id="cite_ref-intro_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Feminist economists often make a critical distinction that masculine bias in economics is primarily a result of <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>, not <a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">sex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nelson1_5-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nelson1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, when feminist economists highlight the biases of mainstream economics, they focus on its social beliefs about masculinity like objectivity, separation, logical consistency, individual accomplishment, mathematics, abstraction, and lack of emotion, but not on the gender of authorities and subjects. However, the over-representation of men among economists and their subjects of study is also a concern. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_history">Economic history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Economic history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_womens_earnings_as_a_percentage_of_mens_1979-2005.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/US_womens_earnings_as_a_percentage_of_mens_1979-2005.svg/220px-US_womens_earnings_as_a_percentage_of_mens_1979-2005.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/US_womens_earnings_as_a_percentage_of_mens_1979-2005.svg/330px-US_womens_earnings_as_a_percentage_of_mens_1979-2005.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/US_womens_earnings_as_a_percentage_of_mens_1979-2005.svg/440px-US_womens_earnings_as_a_percentage_of_mens_1979-2005.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Women's weekly earnings as a percentage of men's in the U.S. by age, 1979-2005</figcaption></figure> <p>Feminist economists say that <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">mainstream economics</a> has been disproportionately developed by European-descended, <a href="/wiki/Heterosexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterosexual">heterosexual</a>, middle and upper-middle-class men, and that this has led to suppression of the life experiences of the full diversity of the world's people, especially women, children and those in non-traditional families.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additionally, feminist economists claim that the historical bases of economics are inherently exclusionary to women. <a href="/wiki/Mich%C3%A8le_Pujol" title="Michèle Pujol">Michèle Pujol</a> points to five specific historical assumptions about women that arose, became embedded in the formulation of economics, and continue to be used to maintain that women are different from the masculinized norms and exclude them.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These include the ideas that: </p> <ul><li>All women are married, or if not yet, they will be and all women will have children.</li> <li>All women are economically dependent on a male relative.</li> <li>All women are (and should be) housewives due to their reproductive capacities.</li> <li>Women are unproductive in the industrial workforce.</li> <li>Women are irrational, unfit economic agents, and cannot be trusted to make the right economic decisions.</li></ul> <p>Feminist economists also examine early economic thinkers' interaction or lack of interaction with gender and women's issues, showing examples of women's historical engagement with economic thought. For example, <a href="/wiki/Edith_Kuiper" title="Edith Kuiper">Edith Kuiper</a> discusses <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith's</a> engagement with feminist discourse on the role of women in the eighteenth century <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She finds that through his writings, Smith typically supported the <i><a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">status quo</a></i> on women's issues and "lost sight of the division of labor in the family and the contribution of women's economic work." In response, she points to <a href="/wiki/Mary_Collier" title="Mary Collier">Mary Collier's</a> works such as <i>The Woman's Labour</i> (1739) to help understand Smith's contemporaneous experiences of women and fill in such gaps. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Engendering_macroeconomic_theories">Engendering macroeconomic theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Engendering macroeconomic theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OECD_gender_wage_gap_2006.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/OECD_gender_wage_gap_2006.jpeg/220px-OECD_gender_wage_gap_2006.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/OECD_gender_wage_gap_2006.jpeg/330px-OECD_gender_wage_gap_2006.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/OECD_gender_wage_gap_2006.jpeg/440px-OECD_gender_wage_gap_2006.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="526" data-file-height="528" /></a><figcaption>Percentage gap between median men's and women's wages, for full-time workers by OECD country, 2006. In the U.K., the most significant factors associated with the remaining gender pay gap are part-time work, education, the size of the firm a person is employed in, and occupational segregation. (Women are under-represented in managerial and high-paying professional occupations.)<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Central to feminist economics is an effort to alter the theoretical modeling of the economy, to reduce gender bias and inequity.<sup id="cite_ref-berik_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berik-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomic</a> inquiries focus on international capital flows, fiscal austerity, deregulation and privatization, <a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy" title="Monetary policy">monetary policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a> and more. In general, these modifications take three main forms: gender disaggregation, the addition of gender-based macroeconomic variables, and the creation of a two-sector system. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gender_disaggregation">Gender disaggregation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Gender disaggregation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This method of economic analysis seeks to overcome gender bias by showing how men and women differ in their consumption, investment or saving behavior. Gender disaggregation strategies justify the separation of macroeconomic variables by gender. Korkut Ertürk and Nilüfer Çağatay show how the feminization of labor stimulates investment, while an increase in female activity in housework raises savings.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This model highlights how gender effects macroeconomic variables and shows that economies have a higher likelihood of recovering from downturns if women participate in the labor force more, instead of devoting their time to housework.<sup id="cite_ref-berik_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berik-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gendered_macroeconomic_variables">Gendered macroeconomic variables</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Gendered macroeconomic variables"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_womens_earnings_and_employment_by_industry_2009.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/US_womens_earnings_and_employment_by_industry_2009.png/220px-US_womens_earnings_and_employment_by_industry_2009.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/US_womens_earnings_and_employment_by_industry_2009.png/330px-US_womens_earnings_and_employment_by_industry_2009.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/US_womens_earnings_and_employment_by_industry_2009.png/440px-US_womens_earnings_and_employment_by_industry_2009.png 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="579" /></a><figcaption>U.S. women's weekly earnings, employment, and percentage of men's earnings, by industry, 2009</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></div> <p>This approach demonstrates the effects of gender inequalities by enhancing macroeconomic models. Bernard Walters shows that traditional neoclassical models fail to adequately assess work related to reproduction by assuming that the population and labor are determined exogenously.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That fails to account for the fact that inputs are produced through caring labor, which is disproportionately performed by women. Stephen Knowels <i>et al.</i> use a neoclassical growth model to show that women's education has a positive <a href="/wiki/Statistically_significant" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistically significant">statistically significant</a> effect on <a href="/wiki/Labor_productivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor productivity">labor productivity</a>, more robust than that of men's education.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In both of these cases, economists highlight and address the gender biases of macroeconomic variables to show that gender plays a significant role in models' outcomes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Two-sector_system">Two-sector system</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Two-sector system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The two-sector system approach models the economy as two separate systems: one involving the standard macroeconomic variables, while the other includes gender-specific variables. <a href="/wiki/Sandy_Darity,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Sandy Darity, Jr.">William Darity</a> developed a two-sector approach for low-income, farm-based economies.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Darity shows that <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_economy" title="Subsistence economy">subsistence</a> farming depended on the labor of women, while the production of income depended on the labor of both men and women in <a href="/wiki/Cash-crop" class="mw-redirect" title="Cash-crop">cash-crop</a> activities. This model shows that when men control production and income, they seek to maximize income by persuading women to put additional effort into cash-crop production, causing increases in cash crops come at the expense of subsistence production.<sup id="cite_ref-berik_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berik-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Well-being">Well-being</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Well-being"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many feminist economists argue economics should be focused less on mechanisms (like <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">income</a>) or theories (such as <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>) and more on <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a>, a multidimensional concept including income, health, education, empowerment and social status.<sup id="cite_ref-berik_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berik-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Power,_Marilyn_2011_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Power,_Marilyn_2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They argue that economic success can not be measured only by <a href="/wiki/Good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Good (economics)">goods</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">gross domestic product</a>, but must also be measured by human well-being. Aggregate income is not sufficient to evaluate general well-being, because individual entitlements and needs must also be considered, leading feminist economists to study <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a>, longevity, access to <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, and related factors.<sup id="cite_ref-intro_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bina_Agarwal" title="Bina Agarwal">Bina Agarwal</a> and Pradeep Panda illustrate that a woman's property status (such as owning a house or land) directly and significantly reduces her chances of experiencing <a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">domestic violence</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">employment</a> makes little difference.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They argue that such <a href="/wiki/Immovable_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Immovable property">immovable property</a> increases women's <a href="/wiki/Self-esteem" title="Self-esteem">self-esteem</a>, economic security, and strengthens their fall-back positions, enhancing their options and bargaining clout. They show that property ownership is an important contributor to women's economic well-being because it reduces their susceptibility to violence. </p><p>In order to measure well-being more generally, <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sakiko_Fukuda-Parr" title="Sakiko Fukuda-Parr">Sakiko Fukuda-Parr</a>, and other feminist economists helped develop alternatives to <a href="/wiki/Gross_Domestic_Product" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross Domestic Product">Gross Domestic Product</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">Human Development Index</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other models of interest to feminist economists include the <a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_value" title="Labor theory of value">labor theory of value</a>, which was most thoroughly developed in <i>Das Kapital</i> by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>. That model considers production as a socially constructed human project and redefines wages as means to earning a living. This refocuses economic models on human innate desires and needs as opposed to monetary incentives.<sup id="cite_ref-Power,_Marilyn_2011_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Power,_Marilyn_2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human_capabilities_approach">Human capabilities approach</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Human capabilities approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Capabilities_approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Capabilities approach">Capabilities approach</a></div> <p>Economists <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a> and Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Capabilities_approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Capabilities approach">human capabilities approach</a> as an alternative way to assess economic success rooted in the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Welfare_economics" title="Welfare economics">welfare economics</a> and focused on the individual's potential to do and be what he or she may choose to value.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike traditional economic measures of success, focused on <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">utility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Income" title="Income">income</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asset" title="Asset">assets</a> or other monetary measures, the capabilities approach focuses on what individuals are able to do. This approach emphasizes processes as well as outcomes, and draws attention to cultural, social and material dynamics of well-being. <a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a>, expanded on the model with a more complete list of central capabilities including life, health, bodily integrity, thought, and more.<sup id="cite_ref-nussbaum_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nussbaum-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In recent years, the capabilities approach has influenced the creation of new models including the UN's <a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">Human Development Index</a> (HDI). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Household_bargaining">Household bargaining</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Household bargaining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Central to feminist economics is a different approach to the "family" and "household." In classical economics, those units are typically described as amicable and <a href="/wiki/Homogeneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneous">homogeneous</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Gary Becker</a> and new home economists introduced the study of "the family" to traditional economics, which usually assumes the family is a single, altruistic unit among which money is distributed equally. Others have concluded that an optimal distribution of commodities and provisions takes place within the family as a result of which they view families in the same manner as individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These models, according to feminist economists, "endorsed traditional expectations about the sexes," and applied individualistic rational-choice models to explain home behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-nelson1_5-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nelson1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist economists modify these assumptions to account for exploitative sexual and gender relations, <a href="/wiki/Single-parent_families" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-parent families">single-parent families</a>, <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_relationships" class="mw-redirect" title="Same-sex relationships">same-sex relationships</a>, familial relations with children, and the consequences of reproduction. Specifically, feminist economists move beyond unitary household models and <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a> to show the diversity of household experiences. </p><p>For example, <a href="/wiki/Bina_Agarwal" title="Bina Agarwal">Bina Agarwal</a> and others have critiqued the mainstream model and helped provide a better understanding of intra-household bargaining power.<sup id="cite_ref-agarwal_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-agarwal-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Agarwal shows that a lack of power and outside options for women hinders their ability to negotiate within their families. <a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a> shows how social norms that devalue women's unpaid work in the household often disadvantage women in <a href="/wiki/Intra-household_bargaining" title="Intra-household bargaining">intra-household bargaining</a>. These feminist economists argue that such claims have important economic outcomes which must be recognized within economic frameworks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Care_economy">Care economy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Care economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Care_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="Care Work">Care Work</a></div> <p>Feminist economists join the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">UN</a> and others in acknowledging <a href="/wiki/Care_work" title="Care work">care work</a>, as a kind of <a href="/wiki/Labor_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor (economics)">work</a> which includes all tasks involving <a href="/wiki/Caregiving" class="mw-redirect" title="Caregiving">caregiving</a>, as central to economic development and human well-being.<sup id="cite_ref-razavi_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-razavi-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist economists study both paid and unpaid care work. They argue that traditional analysis of economics often ignores the value of household unpaid work. Feminist economists have argued that unpaid <a href="/wiki/Domestic_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic work">domestic work</a> is as valuable as paid work, so measures of economic success should include unpaid work. They have shown that women are disproportionately responsible for performing such care work.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sabine O'Hara argues that care is the basis for all economic activity and <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economies</a>, concluding that "everything needs care," not only people, but animals and things. She highlights the sustaining nature of care services offered outside the formal economy.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Riane_Eisler" title="Riane Eisler">Riane Eisler</a> claims we need the economic system, to give visibility to the essential work of caring for people and caring for nature. Measuring <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a> only includes productive work and leaves out the life sustaining activities of the following three sectors: the household economy, the natural economy and the volunteer community economy. These sectors are where most of the <a href="/wiki/Care_work" title="Care work">care work</a> is done. By changing existing <a href="/wiki/Economic_indicator" title="Economic indicator">economic indicators</a> in a way that they would also measure the contributions of the three aforementioned sectors we can get a more accurate reflection of economic reality. She proposes social wealth indicators. According to her these indicators would show the enormous return on investment (ROI) in caring for people and nature. Psychological studies have shown that when people feel good, and they feel good when they feel cared for, they are more productive and more creative (example case study<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). As a result, the care economy has positive <a href="/wiki/Externalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Externalities">externalities</a> such as increasing the quality of human capital.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most nations not only fail to support the care work that is still predominantly done by women, but we live in the world with gendered system of values. Everything that is associated with women or femininity is devalued or even marginalised. We need to leave behind the gender double standard that devaluates caring. Only then we can shift from domination to partnership and create a new economic model that Eisler proposes in her book The Real Wealth of Nations: Creating a Caring Economics. Contributions of people and of nature present the real wealth of the society and our <a href="/wiki/Economic_policy" title="Economic policy">economic policies</a> and practices must support caring for both she claims. </p><p>Feminist economists have also highlighted power and inequality issues within families and households. For example, <a href="/wiki/Randy_Albelda" title="Randy Albelda">Randy Albelda</a> shows that responsibility for care work influences the time poverty experienced by single mothers in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-albelda_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-albelda-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, Sarah Gammage examines the effects of unpaid care work performed by women in <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work of the Equality Studies Department at <a href="/wiki/University_College_Dublin" title="University College Dublin">University College Dublin</a> such as that of Sara Cantillon has focused on inequalities of domestic arrangements within even affluent households. </p><p>While much care work is performed in the home, it may also be done for pay. As such, feminist economics examine its implications, including the increasing involvement of women in paid care work, the potential for exploitation, and effects on the lives of care workers.<sup id="cite_ref-razavi_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-razavi-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Systemic study of the ways women's work is measured, or not measured at all, have been undertaken by <a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Waring" title="Marilyn Waring">Marilyn Waring</a> (see <i><a href="/wiki/If_Women_Counted" title="If Women Counted">If Women Counted</a></i>) and others in the 1980s and 1990s. These studies began to justify different means of determining value — some of which influenced the theory of <a href="/wiki/Social_capital" title="Social capital">social capital</a> and <a href="/wiki/Individual_capital" title="Individual capital">individual capital</a>, that emerged in the late 1990s and, along with <a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">ecological economics</a>, influenced modern <a href="/wiki/Human_development_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Human development theory">human development theory</a>. (See also the entry on <a href="/wiki/Gender_and_social_capital" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender and social capital">Gender and Social Capital</a>.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unpaid_work">Unpaid work</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Unpaid work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Unpaid_work" title="Unpaid work">Unpaid work</a> can include <a href="/wiki/Domestic_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic work">domestic work</a>, <a href="/wiki/Care_work" title="Care work">care work</a>, subsistence work, unpaid market labor and voluntary work. There is no clear consensus on the definition of these categories. But broadly speaking, these kinds of work can be seen as contributing to the reproduction of society. </p><p>Domestic work is maintenance of the home, and is usually universally recognizable, e.g. doing the laundry. Care work is looking "after a relative or friend who needs support because of age, physical or learning disability, or illness, including mental illness;" this also includes raising children.<sup id="cite_ref-Carmichael_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carmichael-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Care work also involves "close personal or emotional interaction."<sup id="cite_ref-Folbre_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Folbre-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also included in this category is "self-care," in which leisure time and activities are included. Subsistence work is work done in order to meet basic needs, such as collecting water, but does not have market values assigned to it. Although some of these efforts "are categorized as productive activities according to the latest revision of the international <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_System_of_National_Accounts" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations System of National Accounts">System of National Accounts</a> (SNA) ... [they] are poorly measured by most surveys."<sup id="cite_ref-Folbre_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Folbre-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unpaid market work is "the direct contributions of unpaid family members to market work that officially belongs to another member of the household."<sup id="cite_ref-Philipps_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philipps-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Voluntary work is usually work done for non-household members, but in return for little to no remuneration. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="System_of_National_Accounts">System of National Accounts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: System of National Accounts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Each country measures its economic output according to the System of National Accounts (SNA), sponsored mainly by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (UN), but implemented mainly by other organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a>, the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> (IMF), the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</a> (OECD), and the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>. The SNA recognizes that unpaid work is an area of interest, but "unpaid household services are excluded from [its] production boundary."<sup id="cite_ref-UN_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UN-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Feminist economists have criticized the SNA for this exclusion, because by leaving out unpaid work, basic and necessary labor is ignored. </p><p>Even accounting measures intended to recognize gender disparities are criticized for ignoring unpaid work. Two such examples are the <a href="/wiki/Gender-related_Development_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-related Development Index">Gender-related Development Index</a> (GDI) and the <a href="/wiki/Gender_Empowerment_Measure" title="Gender Empowerment Measure">Gender Empowerment Measure</a> (GEM), neither of which include much unpaid work.<sup id="cite_ref-Beteta_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beteta-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So feminist economics calls for a more comprehensive index which includes participation in unpaid work. </p><p>In more recent years there has been increasing attention to this issue, such as recognition of unpaid work within SNA reports and a commitment by the UN to the measurement and valuation of unpaid work, emphasizing care work done by women. This goal was restated at the 1995 UN Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing.<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Measurement_of_unpaid_work">Measurement of unpaid work</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Measurement of unpaid work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The method most widely used to measure unpaid work is gathering information on <a href="/wiki/Time-use_research" title="Time-use research">time use</a>, which has "been implemented by at least 20 developing countries and more are underway" as of 2006.<sup id="cite_ref-Folbre_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Folbre-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Time use measurement involves collecting data on how much time men and women spend on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis on certain activities that fall under the categories of unpaid work. </p><p>Techniques to gather this data include surveys, in-depth interviews, diaries, and participant observation.<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mullan_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullan-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proponents of time use diaries believe that this method "generate[s] more detailed information and tend[s] to capture greater variation than predetermined questions."<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, others argue that participant observation, "where the researcher spends lengthy periods of time in households helping out and observing the labor process," generates more accurate information because the researcher can ascertain whether or not those studied are accurately reporting what activities they perform.<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Accuracy">Accuracy</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Accuracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first problem of measuring unpaid work is the issue of collecting accurate information. This is always a concern in research studies, but is particularly difficult when evaluating unpaid work. "Time-use surveys may reveal relatively little time devoted to unpaid direct care activities [because] the demands of subsistence production in those countries are great," and may not take into account multitasking — for example, a mother may collect wood fuel while a child is in the same location, so the child is in her care while she is performing other work.<sup id="cite_ref-Folbre_64-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Folbre-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Usually such indirect care should be included, as it is in many time use studies. But it is not always, and as a result some studies may undervalue the amount of certain types of unpaid work. Participant observation has been criticized for being "so time-consuming that it can only focus on small numbers of households," and thus limited in the amount of information it can be used to gather.<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>All data gathering involves difficulties with the potential inaccuracy of research subjects' reports. For instance, when "people doing domestic labor have no reason to pay close attention to the amount of time tasks take ... they [may] often underestimate time spent in familiar activities."<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Measuring time can also be problematic because "the slowest and most inefficient workers [appear to carry] the greatest workload."<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Time use in assessing childcare is criticized as "easily obscur[ing] gender differences in workload. Men and women may both put in the same amount of time being responsible for children but as participant observation studies have shown, many men are more likely to 'babysit' their children while doing something for themselves, such as watching TV. Men's standards of care may be limited to ensuring the children are not hurt. Dirty diapers may be ignored or deliberately left until the mother returns."<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A paradoxical aspect of this problem is that those most burdened may not be able to participate in the studies: "It is usually those women with the heaviest work loads who choose not to participate in these studies."<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, measurement of time causes "some of the most demanding aspects of unpaid work [to be unexplored] and the premise that time is an appropriate tool for measuring women's unpaid work goes unchallenged."<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Surveys have also been criticized for lacking "depth and complexity" as questions cannot be specifically tailored to particular circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Comparability">Comparability</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Comparability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A second problem is the difficulty of comparisons across cultures. "Comparisons across countries are currently hampered by differences in activity classification and nomenclature."<sup id="cite_ref-Folbre_64-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Folbre-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In-depth surveys may be the only way to get necessary information desired, but they make it difficult to perform cross-cultural comparisons.<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lack of adequate universal terminology in discussing unpaid work is an example. "Despite increasing recognition that domestic labor is work, existing vocabularies do not easily convey the new appreciations. People still tend to talk about work and home as if they were separate spheres. 'Working mothers' are usually assumed to be in the paid labor force, despite feminist assertions that 'every mother is a working mother.' There are no readily accepted terms to express different work activities or job titles. Housewife, home manager, homemaker are all problematic and none of them conveys the sense of a woman who juggles both domestic labor and paid employment."<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Complexity">Complexity</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Complexity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A third problem is the complexity of domestic labor and the issues of separating unpaid work categories. Time use studies now take multitasking issues into account, separating primary and secondary activities. However, not all studies do this, and even those that do may not take into account "the fact that frequently several tasks are done simultaneously, that tasks overlap, and that the boundaries between work and relationships are often unclear. How does a woman determine her primary activity when she is preparing dinner while putting the laundry away, making coffee for her spouse, having coffee and chatting with him, and attending to the children?"<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some activities may not even be considered work, such as playing with a child (this has been categorized as developmental care work) and so may not be included in a study's responses.<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As mentioned above, child supervision (indirect care work) may not be construed as an activity at all, which "suggests that activity-based surveys should be supplemented by more stylized questions regarding care responsibilities" as otherwise such activities can be undercounted.<sup id="cite_ref-Folbre_64-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Folbre-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the past, time use studies tended to measure only primary activities, and "respondents doing two or more things at once were asked to indicate which was the more important." This has been changing in more recent years.<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Valuation_of_time">Valuation of time</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Valuation of time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Feminist economists point out three main ways of determining the value of unpaid work: the <a href="/wiki/Opportunity_cost" title="Opportunity cost">opportunity cost</a> method, <a href="/wiki/Replacement_cost" class="mw-redirect" title="Replacement cost">replacement cost</a> method, and input-output cost method. The opportunity cost method "uses the wage a person would earn in the market" to see how much value their labor-time has.<sup id="cite_ref-Mullan_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullan-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method extrapolates from the opportunity cost idea in mainstream economics. </p><p>The second method of valuation uses replacement costs. In simple terms, this is done by measuring the amount of money a third-party would make for doing the same work if it was part of the market. In other words, the value of a person cleaning the house in an hour is the same as the hourly wage for a maid. Within this method there are two approaches: the first is a generalist replacement cost method, which examines if "it would be possible, for example, to take the wage of a general domestic worker who could perform a variety of tasks including childcare".<sup id="cite_ref-Mullan_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullan-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second approach is the specialist replacement cost method, which aims to "distinguish between the different household tasks and choose replacements accordingly".<sup id="cite_ref-Mullan_69-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullan-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The third method is the input-output cost method. This looks at both the costs of inputs and includes any value added by the household. "For instance, the value of time devoted to cooking a meal can be determined by asking what it could cost to purchase a similar meal (the output) in the market, then subtracting the cost of the capital goods, utilities and raw materials devoted to that meal. This remainder represents the value of the other factors of production, primarily labor."<sup id="cite_ref-Folbre_64-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Folbre-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These types of models try to value household output by determining monetary values for the inputs — in the dinner example, the ingredients and production of the meal — and compares those with market equivalents.<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Difficulty_establishing_monetary_levels">Difficulty establishing monetary levels</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Difficulty establishing monetary levels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One criticism of time valuation concerns the choice of monetary levels. How should unpaid work be valued when more than one activity is being performed or more than one output is produced? Another issue concerns differences in quality between market and household products. Some feminist economists take issue with using the market system to determine values for a variety of reasons: it may lead to the conclusion that the market provides perfect substitutes for non-market work;<sup id="cite_ref-Folbre_64-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Folbre-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the wage produced in the market for services may not accurately reflect the actual opportunity cost of time spent in household production;<sup id="cite_ref-Mullan_69-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullan-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the wages used in valuation methods come from industries where wages are already depressed because of gender inequalities, and so will not accurately value unpaid work.<sup id="cite_ref-Mullan_69-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullan-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A related argument is that the market "accepts existing sex/gender divisions of labor and pay inequalities as normal and unproblematic. With this basic assumption underlying their calculations, the valuations produced serve to reinforce gender inequalities rather than challenge women's subordination."<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Criticisms_of_opportunity_cost">Criticisms of opportunity cost</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Criticisms of opportunity cost"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Criticisms are leveled against each method of valuation. The opportunity cost method "depends on the lost earnings of the worker so that a toilet cleaned by a lawyer has much greater value than one cleaned by a janitor", which means that the value varies too drastically.<sup id="cite_ref-Luxton_68-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luxton-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are also issues with the uniformity of this method not just across multiple individuals, but also for a single person: it "may not be uniform across the entire day or across days of the week."<sup id="cite_ref-Mullan_69-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullan-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also the issue of whether any enjoyment of the activity should be deducted from the opportunity cost estimate.<sup id="cite_ref-Mullan_69-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullan-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Difficulties_with_replacement_cost">Difficulties with replacement cost</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Difficulties with replacement cost"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The replacement cost method also has its critics. What types of jobs should be used as substitutes? For example, should childcare activities "be calculated using the wages of daycare workers or child psychiatrists?"<sup id="cite_ref-Mullan_69-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullan-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This relates to the problem of depressed wages in female-dominated industries, and whether using such jobs as an equivalent leads to the undervaluing of unpaid work. Some have argued that education levels ought to be comparable, for example, "the value of time that a college-educated parent spends reading aloud to a child should be ascertained by asking how much it would cost to hire a college-educated worker to do the same, not by an average housekeeper's wage."<sup id="cite_ref-Folbre_64-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Folbre-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Difficulties_with_input-output_methods">Difficulties with input-output methods</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Difficulties with input-output methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Critiques against the input-output methods include the difficulty of identifying and measuring household outputs, and the issues of variation of households and these effects.<sup id="cite_ref-Mullan_69-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullan-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Findings_and_economic_effects_of_unpaid_work">Findings and economic effects of unpaid work</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Findings and economic effects of unpaid work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2011, a wide-ranging study was conducted to determine the amount of unpaid household work engaged in by residents of different countries. This study, incorporating the results of time-use surveys from 26 <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development">OECD</a> countries, found that, in each country, the average hours spent per day on unpaid household work was between about 2 to 4 hours per day.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As domestic work is widely seen as "women's work", the majority of it is performed by women, even for women who also participate in the labor force. One study found that, when adding the time spent on unpaid household work to the time spent engaging in paid work, married mothers accumulate 84 hours of work per week, compared to 79 hours per week for unmarried mothers, and 72 hours per week for all fathers, whether married or not.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Efforts to calculate the true economic value of unpaid work, which is not included in measures such as <a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">gross domestic product</a>, have shown that this value is enormous. In the United States, it has been estimated to be between 20 and 50%, meaning that the true value of unpaid work is trillions of dollars per year. For other countries, the percentage of GDP may be even higher, such as the United Kingdom, where is may be as high as 70%.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because this unpaid work is largely done by women and is unreported in economic indicators, it results in these contributions by women being devalued in a society. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_formal_economy">The formal economy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: The formal economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research into the causes and consequences of <a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">occupational segregation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">gender pay gap</a>, and the "<a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">glass ceiling</a>" have been a significant part of feminist economics. While conventional neoclassical economic theories of the 1960s and 1970s explained these as the result of free choices made by women and men who simply had different abilities or preferences, feminist economists pointed out the important roles played by <a href="/wiki/Stereotyping" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotyping">stereotyping</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">sexism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patriarchal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarchal">patriarchal</a> beliefs and institutions, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">sexual harassment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rationales for, and the effects of, <a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">anti-discrimination laws</a> adopted in many industrial countries beginning in the 1970s, has also been studied.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Women moved in large numbers into previous male bastions — especially professions like medicine and law — during the last decades of the 20th century. The <a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">gender pay gap</a> remains and is shrinking more slowly. Feminist economists such as Marilyn Power, Ellen Mutari and Deborah M. Figart have examined the gender pay gap and found that wage setting procedures are not primarily driven by market forces, but instead by the power of actors, cultural understandings of the value of work and what constitutes a proper living, and social gender norms.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consequently, they assert that economic models must take these typically exogenous variables into account. </p><p>While overt employment discrimination by sex remains a concern of feminist economists, in recent years more attention has been paid to discrimination against <a href="/wiki/Caregivers" class="mw-redirect" title="Caregivers">caregivers</a>—those women, and some men, who give hands-on care to children or sick or elderly friends or relatives. Because many business and government policies were designed to accommodate the "ideal worker" (that is, the traditional male worker who had no such responsibilities) rather than caregiver-workers, inefficient and inequitable treatment has resulted.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Globalization">Globalization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Globalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Feminist economists' work on <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> is diverse and multifaceted. But much of it is tied together through detailed and nuanced studies of the ways in which globalization affects women in particular and how these effects relate to <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">socially just</a> outcomes. Often country <a href="/wiki/Case_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Case studies">case studies</a> are used for these data.<sup id="cite_ref-berik_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berik-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some feminist economists focus on policies involving the development of globalization. For example, <a href="/wiki/Lourdes_Bener%C3%ADa" class="mw-redirect" title="Lourdes Benería">Lourdes Benería</a> argues that <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Global_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Global South">Global South</a> depends in large part on improved reproductive rights, gender equitable laws on ownership and inheritance, and policies that are sensitive to the proportion of women in the <a href="/wiki/Informal_economy" title="Informal economy">informal economy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gdgeaipm_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gdgeaipm-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, Nalia Kabeer discusses the impacts of a <a href="/wiki/Social_clause" title="Social clause">social clause</a> that would enforce global labor standards through international trade agreements, drawing on fieldwork from <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kabeer_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kabeer-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She argues that although these jobs may appear exploitative, for many workers in those areas they present opportunities and ways to avoid more exploitative situations in the <a href="/wiki/Informal_economy" title="Informal economy">informal economy</a>. </p><p>Alternatively, <a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Bergeron" title="Suzanne Bergeron">Suzanne Bergeron</a>, for example, raises examples of studies that illustrate the multifaceted effects of globalization on women, including Kumudhini Rosa's study of <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lankan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippine</a>, workers in <a href="/wiki/Free_trade_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Free trade zone">free trade zones</a> as an example of local resistance to globalization.<sup id="cite_ref-bergeron_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bergeron-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women there use their wages to create women's centers aimed at providing legal and medical services, libraries and <a href="/wiki/Cooperative_housing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperative housing">cooperative housing</a>, to local community members. Such efforts, Bergeron highlights, allow women the chance to take control of economic conditions, increase their sense of individualism, and alter the pace and direction of globalization itself. </p><p>In other cases, feminist economists work on removing gender biases from the theoretical bases of globalization itself. <a href="/wiki/Suzanne_Bergeron" title="Suzanne Bergeron">Suzanne Bergeron</a>, for example, focuses on the typical theories of globalization as the "rapid integration of the world into one economic space" through the flow of <a href="/wiki/Good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Good (economics)">goods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Financial_capital" title="Financial capital">capital</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money">money</a>, in order to show how they exclude some women and the disadvantaged.<sup id="cite_ref-bergeron_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bergeron-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She argues that traditional understandings of globalization over-emphasize the power of global <a href="/wiki/Capital_flows" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital flows">capital flows</a>, the uniformity of globalization experiences across all populations, and technical and abstract economic processes, and therefore depict the <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a> of globalization inappropriately. She highlights the alternative views of globalization created by feminists. First, she describes how feminists may de-emphasize the idea of the market as "a natural and unstoppable force," instead depicting the process of globalization as alterable and movable by individual economic actors including women. She also explains that the concept of globalization itself is gender biased, because its depiction as "dominant, unified, [and] intentional" is inherently masculinized and misleading. She suggests that feminists critique such narratives by showing how a "global economy" is highly complex, de-centered and unclear. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Degrowth_and_Ecological_economics">Degrowth and Ecological economics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Degrowth and Ecological economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Feminist and ecological economics so far have not engaged with one another much.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argue for the <a href="/wiki/Degrowth" title="Degrowth">degrowth</a> approach as a useful critique of the devaluation of care and nature by the "growth-based capitalist economic paradigm". They argue that the growth paradigm perpetuates existing gender and environmental injustices and seek to mitigate it with a degrowth work-sharing proposal. </p><p>Scholars in the paradigm of <a href="/wiki/Degrowth" title="Degrowth">degrowth</a> point out that the contemporary economic imaginary considers time as a scarce resource to be allocated efficiently, while in the domestic and care sector time use depends on the rhythm of life. (D’Alisa et al. 2014: Degrowth. A Vocabulary for a New Era, New York, NY: Routledge.) Joan Tronto (1993: Moral Boundaries: A Political Argument for an Ethic of Care, New York, NY: Routledge.) divides the care process in four phases: caring about, taking care of, care-giving and care-receiving. These acquire different meanings when used describing the actions of males and females. </p><p>Degrowth proposes to put care at the center of society, thus calling for a radical rethinking of human relations. It should be pointed out that degrowth is a concept that originated in the global north and is mainly directed towards a reduction of the economic (and therefore material) throughput of affluent societies. Environmental injustices linked to gender injustices are embedded in "Green Growth" due to its inability to dematerialize production processes, and these injustices are perpetuated through the Green Growth narrative and through its consequences. Ecological processes as well as caring activities are similarly, systematically devalued by the dominating industrial and economic paradigms. This can be explained by the arbitrary boundary between the monetized and the maintaining that remains largely unchallenged. Degrowth presents itself as an alternative to this dualistic view. If designed in a gender-sensitive way that recenters society around care could have the potential to alleviate environmental injustices while promoting greater gender equality. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology">Methodology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Methodology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interdisciplinary_data_collection">Interdisciplinary data collection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Interdisciplinary data collection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many feminist economists challenge the perception that only "objective" (often presumed to be <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative</a>) data are valid.<sup id="cite_ref-nelson1_5-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nelson1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, they say economists should enrich their analysis by using data sets generated from other disciplines or through increased use of qualitative methods.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, many feminist economists propose utilizing non-traditional data collection strategies such as "utilizing growth accounting frameworks, conducting <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> tests of economic theories, developing country <a href="/wiki/Case_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Case studies">case studies</a>, and pursuing research at the conceptual and empirical levels."<sup id="cite_ref-berik_15-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berik-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Interdisciplinary data collection looks at systems from a specific moral position and viewpoint instead of attempting the perspective of a neutral observer. The intention is not to create a more "subjective" methodology, but to counter biases in existing methodologies, by recognizing that all explanations for world phenomena arise from socially-influenced viewpoints. Feminist economists say too many theories claim to present universal principles but actually present a masculine viewpoint in the guise of a "<a href="/wiki/View_from_nowhere" class="mw-redirect" title="View from nowhere">view from nowhere</a>", so more varied sources of data collection are needed to mediate those issues.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethical_judgment">Ethical judgment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Ethical judgment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Feminist economists depart from traditional economics in that they say "<a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> judgments are a valid, inescapable, and in fact desirable part of economic analysis."<sup id="cite_ref-Power,_Marilyn_2011_23-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Power,_Marilyn_2011-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Lourdes Beneria argues that judgments about policies leading to greater well-being should be central to economic analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-gdgeaipm_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gdgeaipm-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Shahra_Razavi" title="Shahra Razavi">Shahra Razavi</a> says better understanding of care work "would allow us to shift our priorities from 'making money' or 'making stuff' to 'making livable lives' and 'enriching networks of care and relationship'" which should be central to economics.<sup id="cite_ref-razavi_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-razavi-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Country_case_studies">Country case studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Country case studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Often feminist economists use country-level or smaller <a href="/wiki/Case_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Case studies">case studies</a> focused on <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing</a> and often understudied countries or populations.<sup id="cite_ref-berik_15-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berik-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Michael Kevane and Leslie C. Gray examine how gendered <a href="/wiki/Social_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Social norms">social norms</a> are central to understanding agricultural activities in <a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cristina Carrasco and Arantxa Rodriquez examine the care economy in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> to suggest that women's entrance into the labor market requires more equitable caregiving responsibilities.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such studies show the importance of local social norms, government policies and cultural situations. Feminist economists see such variation as a crucial factor to be included in economics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_measures_of_success">Alternative measures of success</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Alternative measures of success"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Feminist economists call for a shift in how economic success is measured. These changes include an increased focus on a policy's ability to bring society toward social justice and improve people's lives, through specific goals including distributive fairness, equity, the universal provisioning of needs, elimination of <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, freedom from <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> and the protection of human capabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-berik_15-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berik-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-elsoncagatay_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elsoncagatay-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human_Development_Index_(HDI)"><span id="Human_Development_Index_.28HDI.29"></span>Human Development Index (HDI)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Human Development Index (HDI)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2011_UN_Human_Development_Report_Quartiles.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/2011_UN_Human_Development_Report_Quartiles.svg/400px-2011_UN_Human_Development_Report_Quartiles.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/2011_UN_Human_Development_Report_Quartiles.svg/600px-2011_UN_Human_Development_Report_Quartiles.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/2011_UN_Human_Development_Report_Quartiles.svg/800px-2011_UN_Human_Development_Report_Quartiles.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>World map by quartiles of Human Development Index in 2011 <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="width:100%;"> <tbody><tr> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#003399; color:white;"> </span> Very High (developed country)</div></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#E6EDFF; color:black;"> </span> Low (developing country)</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#3072D9; color:white;"> </span> High (developing country)</div></td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#858585; color:black;"> </span> Data unavailable</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#A8C3FF; color:black;"> </span> Medium (developing country)</div></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">Human Development Index</a></div> <p>Feminist economists often support use of the <a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Index" title="Human Development Index">Human Development Index</a> as a composite statistic in order to assess countries by their overall level of <a href="/wiki/Human_development_(humanity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Human development (humanity)">human development</a>, as opposed to other measures. The HDI takes into account a broad array of measures beyond monetary considerations including <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a>, literacy, education, and standards of living for all countries worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gender-related_Development_Index_(GDI)"><span id="Gender-related_Development_Index_.28GDI.29"></span>Gender-related Development Index (GDI)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Gender-related Development Index (GDI)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gender-related_Development_Index" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-related Development Index">Gender-related Development Index</a></div> <p>The <b>Gender-related Development Index</b> (GDI) was introduced in 1995 in the <a href="/wiki/Human_Development_Report" title="Human Development Report">Human Development Report</a> written by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Development Program">United Nations Development Program</a> in order to add a gender-sensitive dimension to the Human Development Index. The GDI takes into account not only the average or general level of well-being and wealth within a given country, but also how this wealth and well-being is distributed between different groups within society, especially between genders.<sup id="cite_ref-Gender_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gender-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, feminist economists do not universally agree on the use of the GDI and some offer improvements to it.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_Institutions_and_Gender_Index_(SIGI)"><span id="Social_Institutions_and_Gender_Index_.28SIGI.29"></span>Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) is a recently developed measure of <a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality" title="Gender inequality">gender inequality</a> calculated by analyzing social institutions, societal practices, and legal norms and how these factors largely frame gender norms within a society. By combining these sources of inequality, SIGI is able to penalize high levels of inequality in each of the applicable dimensions, allowing for only partial compensation by the gaps between the remaining dimensions and the highly inequitable one. Through its analysis of the institutional sources of gender inequality in over 100 countries, SIGI has been proven to add new insights into outcomes for women, even when other factors such as religion and region of the world are controlled for.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SIGI rankings largely mirror those of the HDI, with countries such as Portugal and Argentina leading the pack, while countries like Afghanistan and Sudan are significantly behind. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organizations">Organizations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Feminist economics continues to become more widely recognized and reputed as evidenced by the numerous organizations dedicated to it or widely influenced by its principles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_Association_for_Feminist_Economics">International Association for Feminist Economics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: International Association for Feminist Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Feminist_Economics" title="International Association for Feminist Economics">International Association for Feminist Economics</a></div> <p>Formed in 1992, the <a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Feminist_Economics" title="International Association for Feminist Economics">International Association for Feminist Economics (IAFFE)</a>, is independent of the <a href="/wiki/American_Economic_Association" title="American Economic Association">American Economic Association</a> (AEA) and seeks to challenge the masculine biases in neoclassical economics.<sup id="cite_ref-beyond2_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-beyond2-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the majority of members are economists, it is open "not only to female and male economists but to academics from other fields, as well as activists who are not academics" and currently has over 600 members in 64 countries.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although its founding members were mostly based in the US, a majority of IAFFE's current members are based outside of the US. In 1997, IAFFE gained <a href="/wiki/Non-Governmental_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Governmental Organization">Non-Governmental Organization</a> status in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feminist_Economics_journal"><i>Feminist Economics</i> journal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Feminist Economics journal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Feminist_Economics_(journal)" title="Feminist Economics (journal)">Feminist Economics (journal)</a></div> <p><i>Feminist Economics</i>, edited by <a href="/wiki/Diana_Strassmann" title="Diana Strassmann">Diana Strassmann</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rice_University" title="Rice University">Rice University</a> and Günseli Berik of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Utah" title="University of Utah">University of Utah</a>, is a peer-reviewed journal established to provide an open forum for dialogue and debate about feminist economic perspectives. The journal endorses a normative agenda to promote policies that will better the lives of the world's people, both women and men. In 1997, the journal was awarded the <a href="/wiki/The_Council_of_Editors_of_Learned_Journals" class="mw-redirect" title="The Council of Editors of Learned Journals">Council of Editors and Learned Journals (CELJ)</a> Award as Best New Journal.<sup id="cite_ref-CELJ_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CELJ-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2007 <a href="/wiki/Social_Sciences_Citation_Index" title="Social Sciences Citation Index">ISI Social Science Citation Index</a> ranked the journal <i>Feminist Economics</i> 20th out of 175 among economics journals and 2nd out of 27 among Women's Studies journals.<sup id="cite_ref-Rice_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rice-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Graduate_programs">Graduate programs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Graduate programs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A small, but growing number of graduate programs around the world offer courses and concentrations in feminist economics. (Unless otherwise noted below, these offerings are in departments of economics.) </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_University" title="American University">American University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Public_Policy_and_Administration_at_Carleton_University" title="School of Public Policy and Administration at Carleton University">School of Public Policy and Administration at Carleton University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_State_University" title="Colorado State University">Colorado State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Social_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Social Studies">Institute of Social Studies</a></li> <li>Gender Institute of the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makerere_University" title="Makerere University">Makerere University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Amherst" title="University of Massachusetts Amherst">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a></li> <li>The Masters in Applied Economics and Public Policy programs at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Massachusetts_Boston" title="University of Massachusetts Boston">University of Massachusetts Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Nebraska%E2%80%93Lincoln" title="University of Nebraska–Lincoln">University of Nebraska–Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_School_for_Social_Research" title="The New School for Social Research">The New School for Social Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Reading" title="University of Reading">University of Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_University" title="Roosevelt University">Roosevelt University</a></li> <li>Department of Women's and Gender Studies at <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University" title="Rutgers University">Rutgers University</a></li> <li>Discipline of Political Economy at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sydney" title="University of Sydney">University of Sydney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Utah" title="University of Utah">University of Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/York_University_(Toronto)" class="mw-redirect" title="York University (Toronto)">York University (Toronto)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_State_University" title="Wright State University">Wright State University</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_economics" title="Family economics">Family economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Feminism_and_society" title="Category:Feminism and society">Feminism and society</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Feminist_Economics_(journal)" title="Feminist Economics (journal)">Feminist Economics</a></i> (journal)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a>, or gender equity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_mainstreaming" title="Gender mainstreaming">Gender mainstreaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intra-household_bargaining" title="Intra-household bargaining">Intra-household bargaining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Material feminism">Material feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_use" class="mw-redirect" title="Time use">Time use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_economists" title="List of feminist economists">List of feminist economists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_Cooked_Adam_Smith%27s_Dinner%3F" title="Who Cooked Adam Smith's Dinner?">Who Cooked Adam Smith's Dinner?</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-IAFFE-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IAFFE_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IAFFE_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IAFFE_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190510115552/http://www.iaffe.org/pages/about-iaffe/miss/">"IAFFE - Mission Statement"</a>. <i>www.iaffe.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iaffe.org/pages/about-iaffe/miss/">the original</a> on 2019-05-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-08-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iaffe.org&rft.atitle=IAFFE+-+Mission+Statement&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaffe.org%2Fpages%2Fabout-iaffe%2Fmiss%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Feminist economics</i>. Benería, Lourdes., May, Ann Mari, 1956-, Strassmann, Diana Louise. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. 2011. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781843765684" title="Special:BookSources/9781843765684"><bdi>9781843765684</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/436265344">436265344</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Feminist+economics&rft.place=Cheltenham%2C+UK&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F436265344&rft.isbn=9781843765684&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-intro-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-intro_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-intro_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-intro_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-intro_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-intro_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeneríaMayStrassmann2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lourdes_Bener%C3%ADa" class="mw-redirect" title="Lourdes Benería">Benería, Lourdes</a>; May, Ann Mari; Strassmann, Diana L. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130527114151/https://www.e-elgar.co.uk/bookentry_main.lasso?id=3226">"Introduction"</a>. <i>Feminist Economics: Volume 1</i>. Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781843765684" title="Special:BookSources/9781843765684"><bdi>9781843765684</bdi></a>. 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Bradford: <a href="/wiki/Demeter_Press" title="Demeter Press">Demeter Press</a>. pp. 21–36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781927335277" title="Special:BookSources/9781927335277"><bdi>9781927335277</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Feminist+Economics+as+Vision+for+a+Sustainable+Future&rft.btitle=Counting+on+Marilyn+Waring%3A+New+Advances+in+Feminist+Economics&rft.place=Bradford&rft.pages=21-36&rft.pub=Demeter+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781927335277&rft.aulast=Aslaksen&rft.aufirst=Iulie&rft.au=Bragstad%2C+Torunn&rft.au=%C3%85s%2C+Berit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSbh8AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-web-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-web_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-web_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-web_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-web_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-web_17-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-web_17-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-web_17-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-web_17-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-web_17-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-web_17-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchneiderShackelford" class="citation web cs1">Schneider, Geoff; <a href="/wiki/Jean_Shackelford" title="Jean Shackelford">Shackelford, Jean</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120630022557/http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/gschnedr/FemPrcpls.htm">"Ten Principles of Feminist Economics: A Modestly Proposed Antidote"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-06-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ten+Principles+of+Feminist+Economics%3A+A+Modestly+Proposed+Antidote&rft.pub=Dept.+of+Economics%2C+Bucknell+University&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rft.au=Shackelford%2C+Jean&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.facstaff.bucknell.edu%2Fgschnedr%2FFemPrcpls.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-separative-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-separative_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngland1994" class="citation book cs1">England, Paula (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BFg6lK48EX0C&q=The%20Separative%20Self%3A%20Androcentric%20Bias%20in%20Neoclassical%20Assumptions&pg=PA37">"The Separative Self: Androcentric Bias in Neoclassical Assumptions"</a>. <i>Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics</i>. Chicago [u.a.]: Univ. of Chicago Press. pp. 37–43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-24201-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-24201-9"><bdi>978-0-226-24201-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Separative+Self%3A+Androcentric+Bias+in+Neoclassical+Assumptions&rft.btitle=Beyond+Economic+Man%3A+Feminist+Theory+and+Economics&rft.place=Chicago+%5Bu.a.%5D&rft.pages=37-43&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-226-24201-9&rft.aulast=England&rft.aufirst=Paula&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBFg6lK48EX0C%26q%3DThe%2520Separative%2520Self%253A%2520Androcentric%2520Bias%2520in%2520Neoclassical%2520Assumptions%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarah Franklin Annual Review of Anthropology Vol. 24 (1995), pp. 163-184 (22 pages) Published By: Annual Reviews DOI: 10.2307/2155934 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2155934">https://www.jstor.org/stable/2155934</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-strassmann-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-strassmann_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrassmann1997" class="citation journal cs1">Strassmann, Diana (20 January 1997). "Editorial: Expanding the Methodological Boundaries of Economics". <i>Feminist Economics</i>. <b>3</b> (2): vii–ix. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F135457097338771a">10.1080/135457097338771a</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminist+Economics&rft.atitle=Editorial%3A+Expanding+the+Methodological+Boundaries+of+Economics&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=vii-ix&rft.date=1997-01-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F135457097338771a&rft.aulast=Strassmann&rft.aufirst=Diana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-manikiw-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-manikiw_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-manikiw_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMankiw1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Greg_Mankiw" title="Greg Mankiw">Mankiw, N. Gregory</a> (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/principlesofmicr00greg"><i>Principles of Economics</i></a></span>. Fort Worth, TX: Dryden Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780030982385" title="Special:BookSources/9780030982385"><bdi>9780030982385</bdi></a>. <q>comparative advantage.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Economics&rft.place=Fort+Worth%2C+TX&rft.pub=Dryden+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780030982385&rft.aulast=Mankiw&rft.aufirst=N.+Gregory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprinciplesofmicr00greg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-elson-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-elson_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-elson_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsonGrown,_CarenCagatay,_Nilufer2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Diane_Elson" title="Diane Elson">Elson, Diane</a>; Grown, Caren; Cagatay, Nilufer (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SkWUSDW244gC&q=Mainstream%2C%20Heterodox%20and%20Feminist%20Trade%20Theory&pg=PA33">"Mainstream, Heterodox and Feminist Trade Theory"</a>. <i>Feminist Economics of Trade</i>. 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"From Global Economic Crisis to the 'Other Crisis'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i><a href="/wiki/Development_(journal)" title="Development (journal)">Development</a></i>. <b>52</b> (3): 323–328. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fdev.2009.33">10.1057/dev.2009.33</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:83754064">83754064</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Development&rft.atitle=From+Global+Economic+Crisis+to+the+%27Other+Crisis%27&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=323-328&rft.date=2009-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2Fdev.2009.33&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A83754064%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Razavi&rft.aufirst=Shahra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr_1995_en_chap4.pdf">"Valuing women's work"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Human Development Report 1995</i>. <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme" title="United Nations Development Programme">United Nations Development Programme</a>. 1995. pp. 87–98.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Valuing+women%27s+work&rft.btitle=Human+Development+Report+1995&rft.pages=87-98&rft.pub=United+Nations+Development+Programme&rft.date=1995&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdr.undp.org%2Fen%2Fmedia%2Fhdr_1995_en_chap4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFolbre1994" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Folbre" title="Nancy Folbre">Folbre, Nancy</a> (May 1994). 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Bradford: <a href="/wiki/Demeter_Press" title="Demeter Press">Demeter Press</a>. pp. 57–71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781927335277" title="Special:BookSources/9781927335277"><bdi>9781927335277</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+Unpaid+Household+Work%2C+Economic+Growth%2C+and+Consumption+Possibilities&rft.btitle=Counting+on+Marilyn+Waring%3A+New+Advances+in+Feminist+Economics&rft.place=Bradford&rft.pages=57-71&rft.pub=Demeter+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781927335277&rft.aulast=Aslaksen&rft.aufirst=Iulie&rft.au=Koren%2C+Charlotte&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSbh8AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKay2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ailsa_McKay" title="Ailsa McKay">McKay, Ailsa</a> (2001). 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Working Papers. 1987/18. UNU-WIDER. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wider.unu.edu/publications/working-papers/previous/en_GB/wp-18/_files/82530817554384479/default/WP18.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2017-10-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Why feminist, Marxist, and anti-racist economists should be feminist–Marxist–anti-racist economists". <i>Feminist Economics</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 22–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F738552684">10.1080/738552684</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminist+Economics&rft.atitle=Why+feminist%2C+Marxist%2C+and+anti-racist+economists+should+be+feminist%E2%80%93Marxist%E2%80%93anti-racist+economists&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=22-42&rft.date=1996-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F738552684&rft.aulast=Matthaei&rft.aufirst=Julie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZein-Elabdin2003" class="citation book cs1">Zein-Elabdin, Eiman (2003). 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London: Taylor & Francis. pp. 321–333. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28388-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-28388-5"><bdi>978-0-415-28388-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toward+a+Feminist+Philosophy+of+Economics&rft.place=London&rft.pages=321-333&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-415-28388-5&rft.aulast=Zein-Elabdin&rft.aufirst=Eiman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxXt6Ks1f0xcC%26q%3DThe%2520Difficulty%2520of%2520Feminist%2520Economics%26pg%3DPA321&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Julie_A._Nelson" title="Julie A. Nelson">Julie A. 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(February 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121003175716/http://aacu.org/psew/publications/Classroom_Climate_ChilyOne.pdf">"The Classroom Climate: A Chilly One for Women?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Project on the Status and Education of Women, Association of American Colleges. 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Bradford: <a href="/wiki/Demeter_Press" title="Demeter Press">Demeter Press</a>. pp. 7–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781927335277" title="Special:BookSources/9781927335277"><bdi>9781927335277</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Advances+in+Feminist+Economics+in+Times+of+Economic+Crisis&rft.btitle=Counting+on+Marilyn+Waring%3A+New+Advances+in+Feminist+Economics&rft.place=Bradford&rft.pages=7-20&rft.pub=Demeter+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781927335277&rft.aulast=Bj%C3%B8rnholt&rft.aufirst=Margunn&rft.au=McKay%2C+Ailsa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.margunnbjornholt.no%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F05%2FAdvances-in-Feminist-Economics-in-Times-of-Economic-Crisis.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrassmannPolanyi,_Livia1997" class="citation book cs1">Strassmann, Diana; Polanyi, Livia (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hF_Jm7bHOysC&q=The%20Economist%20as%20Storyteller%3A%20What%20the%20Texts%20Reveal&pg=PA94">"The Economist as Storyteller"</a>. <i>Out of the Margin: Feminist Perspectives on Economics</i>. 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"Valuing Parental Childcare in the United Kingdom". <i>Feminist Economics</i>. <b>16</b> (3): 113–139. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13545701.2010.504014">10.1080/13545701.2010.504014</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154612725">154612725</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminist+Economics&rft.atitle=Valuing+Parental+Childcare+in+the+United+Kingdom&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=113-139&rft.date=2010-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13545701.2010.504014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154612725%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mullan&rft.aufirst=Killian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=std/doc(2011)7&doclanguage=en">"Incorporating Estimates of Household Production of Non-Market Services Into International Comparisons of Material Well-Being"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Incorporating+Estimates+of+Household+Production+of+Non-Market+Services+Into+International+Comparisons+of+Material+Well-Being&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd.org%2Fofficialdocuments%2Fpublicdisplaydocumentpdf%2F%3Fcote%3Dstd%2Fdoc%282011%297%26doclanguage%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSirianniNegrey2000" class="citation journal cs1">Sirianni, Carmen; Negrey, Cynthia (1 January 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://elartu.tntu.edu.ua/handle/lib/39819">"Working Time as Gendered Time"</a>. <i>Feminist Economics</i>. <b>6</b>: 59–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F135457000337679">10.1080/135457000337679</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154879132">154879132</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminist+Economics&rft.atitle=Working+Time+as+Gendered+Time&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=59-76&rft.date=2000-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F135457000337679&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154879132%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sirianni&rft.aufirst=Carmen&rft.au=Negrey%2C+Cynthia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Felartu.tntu.edu.ua%2Fhandle%2Flib%2F39819&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?cote=std/doc(2011)7&doclanguage=en">"Incorporating Estimates of Household Production of Non-Market Services into International Comparisons of Material Well-Being"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Incorporating+Estimates+of+Household+Production+of+Non-Market+Services+into+International+Comparisons+of+Material+Well-Being&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd.org%2Fofficialdocuments%2Fpublicdisplaydocumentpdf%2F%3Fcote%3Dstd%2Fdoc%282011%297%26doclanguage%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergmann1974" class="citation journal cs1">Bergmann, Barbara R. (April 1974). "Occupational Segregation, Wages and Profits When Employers Discriminate by Race or Sex". <i>Eastern Economic Journal</i>. <b>1</b> (2): 103–110. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40315472">40315472</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eastern+Economic+Journal&rft.atitle=Occupational+Segregation%2C+Wages+and+Profits+When+Employers+Discriminate+by+Race+or+Sex&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=103-110&rft.date=1974-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40315472%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bergmann&rft.aufirst=Barbara+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span> See also <a href="/wiki/Male-female_income_disparity_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Male-female income disparity in the United States">male-female income disparity in the United States</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeller1982" class="citation journal cs1">Beller, Andrea H. (Summer 1982). "Occupational Segregation by Sex: Determinants and Changes". <i>The Journal of Human Resources</i>. <b>17</b> (3): 371–392. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F145586">10.2307/145586</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/145586">145586</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Human+Resources&rft.atitle=Occupational+Segregation+by+Sex%3A+Determinants+and+Changes&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=371-392&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F145586&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F145586%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Beller&rft.aufirst=Andrea+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span>; Bergmann, Barbara. <i>In Defense of Affirmative Action</i>, New York: Basic Books, 1996.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPower,_MarilynMutari,_EllenFigart,_Deborah_M.2003" class="citation book cs1">Power, Marilyn; Mutari, Ellen; Figart, Deborah M. (2003). "Beyond Markets: Wage Setting and the Methodology of Feminist Political Economy". <i>Toward a Feminist Philosophy of Economics</i>. Economics as Social Theory. Vol. 20031146. 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"UNDP's Gender-related Measures: Some Conceptual Problems and Possible Solutions". <i>Journal of Human Development</i>. <b>7</b> (2): 243–274. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14649880600768595">10.1080/14649880600768595</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15421076">15421076</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Human+Development&rft.atitle=UNDP%27s+Gender-related+Measures%3A+Some+Conceptual+Problems+and+Possible+Solutions&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=243-274&rft.date=2006-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14649880600768595&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15421076%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Klasen&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span> Available from: EconLit with Full Text, Ipswich, MA. Accessed September 26, 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlasenSchüler2011" class="citation journal cs1">Klasen, Stephan; Schüler, Dana (2011). "Reforming the gender-related development index and the gender empowerment measure: implementing some specific proposals". <i>Feminist Economics</i>. <b>17</b> (1): 1–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13545701.2010.541860">10.1080/13545701.2010.541860</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154373171">154373171</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminist+Economics&rft.atitle=Reforming+the+gender-related+development+index+and+the+gender+empowerment+measure%3A+implementing+some+specific+proposals&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-30&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13545701.2010.541860&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154373171%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Klasen&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rft.au=Sch%C3%BCler%2C+Dana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBranisaKlasenZieglerDrechsler2014" class="citation journal cs1">Branisa, Boris; Klasen, Stephan; Ziegler, Maria; Drechsler, Denis; Jütting, Johannes (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/897865">"The Institutional Basis of Gender Inequality: The Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)"</a>. <i>Feminist Economics</i>. <b>20</b> (2): 29–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13545701.2013.850523">10.1080/13545701.2013.850523</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154769451">154769451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminist+Economics&rft.atitle=The+Institutional+Basis+of+Gender+Inequality%3A+The+Social+Institutions+and+Gender+Index+%28SIGI%29&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=29-64&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13545701.2013.850523&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154769451%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Branisa&rft.aufirst=Boris&rft.au=Klasen%2C+Stephan&rft.au=Ziegler%2C+Maria&rft.au=Drechsler%2C+Denis&rft.au=J%C3%BCtting%2C+Johannes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F897865&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-beyond2-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-beyond2_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerberNelson,_Julie_A.2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marianne_Ferber" title="Marianne Ferber">Ferber, Marianne A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Julie_A._Nelson" title="Julie A. Nelson">Nelson, Julie A.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ziv8m0ihvYAC&q=Beyond%20Economic%20Man%3A%20Ten%20Years%20Later&pg=PT14">"Beyond Economic Man, Ten Years Later"</a>. <i>Feminist Economics Today: Beyond Economic Man</i>. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-24206-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-24206-4"><bdi>978-0-226-24206-4</bdi></a>. <q>In 1990 a few dissidents in the United States got together and discussed their ideas for starting an organization of their own. Taking advantage of the large attendance at a panel organized by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Diana_Strassman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diana Strassman (page does not exist)">Diana Strassman</a> entitled "Can Feminism Find a Home in Economics?" Jean Shackelford and April Aerni invited members of the audience to sign up to start a new network with an explicitly feminist slant. Two years later, this network was transformed into the International Association for Feminist Economics (IAFFE).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Beyond+Economic+Man%2C+Ten+Years+Later&rft.btitle=Feminist+Economics+Today%3A+Beyond+Economic+Man&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-24206-4&rft.aulast=Ferber&rft.aufirst=Marianne+A.&rft.au=Nelson%2C+Julie+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dziv8m0ihvYAC%26q%3DBeyond%2520Economic%2520Man%253A%2520Ten%2520Years%2520Later%26pg%3DPT14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190510115457/http://www.iaffe.org/pages/about-iaffe/history/">"History"</a>. International Association for Feminist Economics. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iaffe.org/pages/about-iaffe/history/">the original</a> on 2019-05-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-06-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History&rft.pub=International+Association+for+Feminist+Economics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaffe.org%2Fpages%2Fabout-iaffe%2Fhistory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CELJ-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CELJ_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111102232157/http://www.celj.org/best_new_journal">"Best New Journal - 1997 Winner"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Council_of_Editors_of_Learned_Journals" class="mw-redirect" title="The Council of Editors of Learned Journals">The Council of Editors and Learned Journals (CELJ)</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.celj.org/best_new_journal">the original</a> on 2 November 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Best+New+Journal+-+1997+Winner&rft.pub=The+Council+of+Editors+and+Learned+Journals+%28CELJ%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.celj.org%2Fbest_new_journal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rice-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rice_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFB.J.2007" class="citation web cs1">B.J., Almond (1 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190216045009/http://news.rice.edu/2007/02/01/feminist-economics-rises-in-journal-rankings/">"Feminist Economics rises in journal rankings"</a>. Rice University - News and Media. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.rice.edu/2007/02/01/feminist-economics-rises-in-journal-rankings/">the original</a> on 16 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Feminist+Economics+rises+in+journal+rankings&rft.pub=Rice+University+-+News+and+Media&rft.date=2007-02-01&rft.aulast=B.J.&rft.aufirst=Almond&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.rice.edu%2F2007%2F02%2F01%2Ffeminist-economics-rises-in-journal-rankings%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Books</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgarwal1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bina_Agarwal" title="Bina Agarwal">Agarwal, Bina</a> (1994). <i>A Field of One's Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42926-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-42926-9"><bdi>978-0-521-42926-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Field+of+One%27s+Own%3A+Gender+and+Land+Rights+in+South+Asia&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-42926-9&rft.aulast=Agarwal&rft.aufirst=Bina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarkerFeiner,_Susan_F.2004" class="citation book cs1">Barker, Drucilla K.; Feiner, Susan F. (2004). <i>Liberating Economics: Feminist Perspectives on Families, Work, and Globalization</i>. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Univ. of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-06843-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-06843-2"><bdi>978-0-472-06843-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liberating+Economics%3A+Feminist+Perspectives+on+Families%2C+Work%2C+and+Globalization&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+Mich.&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-472-06843-2&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=Drucilla+K.&rft.au=Feiner%2C+Susan+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuiperBarker2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edith_Kuiper" title="Edith Kuiper">Kuiper, Edith</a>; Barker, Drucilla K. (2003). <i>Toward a feminist philosophy of economics</i>. London New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415283885" title="Special:BookSources/9780415283885"><bdi>9780415283885</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toward+a+feminist+philosophy+of+economics&rft.place=London+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780415283885&rft.aulast=Kuiper&rft.aufirst=Edith&rft.au=Barker%2C+Drucilla+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenería2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lourdes_Bener%C3%ADa" class="mw-redirect" title="Lourdes Benería">Benería, Lourdes</a> (2003). <i>Gender, development, and globalization: economics as if all people mattered</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415927079" title="Special:BookSources/9780415927079"><bdi>9780415927079</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender%2C+development%2C+and+globalization%3A+economics+as+if+all+people+mattered&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780415927079&rft.aulast=Bener%C3%ADa&rft.aufirst=Lourdes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBjørnholtMcKay2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Margunn_Bj%C3%B8rnholt" title="Margunn Bjørnholt">Bjørnholt, Margunn</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ailsa_McKay" title="Ailsa McKay">McKay, Ailsa</a>, eds. (2014). <a href="/wiki/If_Women_Counted#Counting_on_Marilyn_Waring:_New_Advances_in_Feminist_Economics" title="If Women Counted"><i>Counting on Marilyn Waring: New Advances in Feminist Economics</i></a>. Demeter Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781927335277" title="Special:BookSources/9781927335277"><bdi>9781927335277</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Counting+on+Marilyn+Waring%3A+New+Advances+in+Feminist+Economics&rft.pub=Demeter+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781927335277&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span> With a foreword by <a href="/wiki/Julie_A._Nelson" title="Julie A. Nelson">Julie A. Nelson</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerberNelson1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marianne_Ferber" title="Marianne Ferber">Ferber, Marianne A.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Julie_A._Nelson" title="Julie A. Nelson">Nelson, Julie A.</a>, eds. (1993). <i>Beyond Economic Man: Feminist Theory and Economics</i>. Chicago [u.a.]: Univ. of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-24201-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-24201-9"><bdi>978-0-226-24201-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+Economic+Man%3A+Feminist+Theory+and+Economics&rft.place=Chicago+%5Bu.a.%5D&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-226-24201-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobsen2007" class="citation book cs1">Jacobsen, Joyce P. (2007). <i>The Economics of Gender</i>. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6182-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-6182-4"><bdi>978-1-4051-6182-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economics+of+Gender&rft.place=Malden%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-6182-4&rft.aulast=Jacobsen&rft.aufirst=Joyce+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julie_A._Nelson" title="Julie A. Nelson">Nelson, Julie A.</a> (1996). <i>Feminism, Objectivity and Economics</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-13337-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-13337-1"><bdi>978-0-415-13337-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Feminism%2C+Objectivity+and+Economics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-13337-1&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Julie+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersonLewis1999" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, Janice; Lewis, Margaret, eds. (1999). <i>The Elgar Companion to Feminist Economics</i>. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85898-453-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85898-453-7"><bdi>978-1-85898-453-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Elgar+Companion+to+Feminist+Economics&rft.place=Cheltenham&rft.pub=Edward+Elgar&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-85898-453-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSen1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Sen, Amartya</a> (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/developmentasfre00sena"><i>Development as Freedom</i></a></span>. Oxford Univ. Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-289330-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-289330-7"><bdi>978-0-19-289330-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Development+as+Freedom&rft.pub=Oxford+Univ.+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-289330-7&rft.aulast=Sen&rft.aufirst=Amartya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdevelopmentasfre00sena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaring1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Waring" title="Marilyn Waring">Waring, Marilyn</a> (1989). <a href="/wiki/If_Women_Counted" title="If Women Counted"><i>If Women Counted: A New Feminist Economics</i></a>. London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-49262-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-49262-8"><bdi>978-0-333-49262-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=If+Women+Counted%3A+A+New+Feminist+Economics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-333-49262-8&rft.aulast=Waring&rft.aufirst=Marilyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>Journal articles</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrascoDomínguez,_Màrius2011" class="citation journal cs1">Carrasco, Cristina; Domínguez, Màrius (October 2011). "Family Strategies for Meeting Care and Domestic Work Needs: Evidence From Spain". <i><a href="/wiki/Feminist_Economics_(journal)" title="Feminist Economics (journal)">Feminist Economics</a></i>. <b>17</b> (4): 159–188. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13545701.2011.614625">10.1080/13545701.2011.614625</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153666691">153666691</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminist+Economics&rft.atitle=Family+Strategies+for+Meeting+Care+and+Domestic+Work+Needs%3A+Evidence+From+Spain&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=159-188&rft.date=2011-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13545701.2011.614625&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153666691%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Carrasco&rft.aufirst=Cristina&rft.au=Dom%C3%ADnguez%2C+M%C3%A0rius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkins2009" class="citation journal cs1">Jenkins, Katy (2009). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"We have a lot of goodwill, but we still need to eat…": Valuing Women's Long Term Voluntarism in Community Development in Lima". <i><a href="/wiki/Voluntas_(journal)" title="Voluntas (journal)">VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations</a></i>. <b>20</b> (1): 15–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11266-008-9075-7">10.1007/s11266-008-9075-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153751895">153751895</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=VOLUNTAS%3A+International+Journal+of+Voluntary+and+Nonprofit+Organizations&rft.atitle=%22We+have+a+lot+of+goodwill%2C+but+we+still+need+to+eat%E2%80%A6%22%3A+Valuing+Women%27s+Long+Term+Voluntarism+in+Community+Development+in+Lima&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=15-34&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11266-008-9075-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153751895%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Katy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPower2004" class="citation journal cs1">Power, Marilyn (November 2004). "Social Provisioning as a Starting Point for Feminist Economics". <i><a href="/wiki/Feminist_Economics_(journal)" title="Feminist Economics (journal)">Feminist Economics</a></i>. <b>10</b> (3): 3–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F1354570042000267608">10.1080/1354570042000267608</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145130126">145130126</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminist+Economics&rft.atitle=Social+Provisioning+as+a+Starting+Point+for+Feminist+Economics&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=3-19&rft.date=2004-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F1354570042000267608&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145130126%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Power&rft.aufirst=Marilyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchüler2006" class="citation journal cs1">Schüler, Dana (July 2006). "The Uses and Misuses of the Gender-related Development Index and Gender Empowerment Measure: A Review of the Literature". <i>Journal of Human Development</i>. <b>7</b> (2): 161–181. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14649880600768496">10.1080/14649880600768496</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:347402">347402</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Human+Development&rft.atitle=The+Uses+and+Misuses+of+the+Gender-related+Development+Index+and+Gender+Empowerment+Measure%3A+A+Review+of+the+Literature&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=161-181&rft.date=2006-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14649880600768496&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A347402%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sch%C3%BCler&rft.aufirst=Dana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaff_writer2016" class="citation news cs1">Staff writer (12 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/finance-and-economics/21694529-feminist-economics-deserves-recognition-distinct-branch-discipline?fsrc=scn%2Ftw_ec%2Fa_proper_reckoning">"A proper reckoning: feminist economics deserves recognition as a distinct branch of the discipline"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=A+proper+reckoning%3A+feminist+economics+deserves+recognition+as+a+distinct+branch+of+the+discipline&rft.date=2016-03-12&rft.au=Staff+writer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Ffinance-and-economics%2F21694529-feminist-economics-deserves-recognition-distinct-branch-discipline%3Ffsrc%3Dscn%252Ftw_ec%252Fa_proper_reckoning&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarrenPascall,_GillianFox,_Elizabeth2010" class="citation journal cs1">Warren, Tracey; Pascall, Gillian; Fox, Elizabeth (July 2010). "Gender Equality in Time: Low-Paid Mothers' Paid and Unpaid Work in the UK". <i><a href="/wiki/Feminist_Economics_(journal)" title="Feminist Economics (journal)">Feminist Economics</a></i>. <b>16</b> (3): 193–219. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13545701.2010.499997">10.1080/13545701.2010.499997</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153425125">153425125</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminist+Economics&rft.atitle=Gender+Equality+in+Time%3A+Low-Paid+Mothers%27+Paid+and+Unpaid+Work+in+the+UK&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=193-219&rft.date=2010-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13545701.2010.499997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153425125%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=Tracey&rft.au=Pascall%2C+Gillian&rft.au=Fox%2C+Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+economics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_economics&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Feminist_theory" title="Template:Feminist theory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Feminist_theory" title="Template talk:Feminist theory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Feminist_theory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Feminist theory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Feminist_theory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">Feminist theory</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_modern_architecture" title="Feminism and modern architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art" title="Feminist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_criticism" title="Feminist art criticism">Art criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_film_theory" title="Feminist film theory">Film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism" title="Feminist literary criticism">Literary criticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_biology" title="Feminist biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory_in_composition_studies" title="Feminist theory in composition studies">Composition studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_digital_humanities" title="Feminist digital humanities">Digital humanities</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_post-structuralist_discourse_analysis" title="Feminist post-structuralist discourse analysis">FPDA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">International relations</a> (<a href="/wiki/Feminist_constructivism" title="Feminist constructivism">Constructivism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pedagogy" title="Feminist pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_empiricism" title="Feminist empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_existentialism" title="Feminist existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science" title="Feminist philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_ecology" title="Feminist political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Political theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_feminism" title="Postmodern feminism">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sexology" title="Feminist sexology">Sexology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">Technoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_feminist_theology" title="Asian feminist theology">Asian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/28px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/42px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/56px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Feminism" title="Portal:Feminism">Feminism portal</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemonic_masculinity" title="Hegemonic masculinity">Hegemonic masculinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women's history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_studies" title="Women's studies">Women's studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Feminist theorists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_S._Anderson" title="Elizabeth S. Anderson">Elizabeth Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Barad" title="Karen Barad">Karen Barad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendy_Brown" title="Wendy Brown">Wendy Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Bauer_(philosopher)" title="Nancy Bauer (philosopher)">Nancy Bauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimberl%C3%A9_Crenshaw" title="Kimberlé Crenshaw">Kimberlé Crenshaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Cixous" title="Hélène Cixous">Hélène Cixous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Crary" title="Alice Crary">Alice Crary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Dworkin" title="Andrea Dworkin">Andrea Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Enloe" title="Cynthia Enloe">Cynthia Enloe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Albertson_Fineman" title="Martha Albertson Fineman">Martha Fineman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Fraser" title="Nancy Fraser">Nancy Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_Greer" title="Germaine Greer">Germaine Greer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Haraway" title="Donna Haraway">Donna Haraway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Harding" title="Sandra Harding">Sandra Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Hill_Collins" title="Patricia Hill Collins">Patricia Hill Collins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_hooks" title="Bell hooks">bell hooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Luce Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Julia Kristeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharine_A._MacKinnon" title="Catharine A. MacKinnon">Catharine A. MacKinnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Plumwood" title="Val Plumwood">Val Plumwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana_E._H._Russell" title="Diana E. H. Russell">Diana E. H. Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_E._Smith" title="Dorothy E. Smith">Dorothy E. Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Waring" title="Marilyn Waring">Marilyn Waring</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women%27s_studies_journals" title="List of women's studies journals">Women's studies journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Capitalism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Capitalism" title="Template:Capitalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Capitalism" title="Template talk:Capitalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Capitalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Capitalism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Aspects and <a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">perspectives</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy_of_production" title="Anarchy of production">Anarchy of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_cycle" title="Business cycle">Business cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centralisation" title="Centralisation">Centralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deregulation" title="Deregulation">Deregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_bubble" title="Economic bubble">Economic bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Economic liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_planning" title="Economic planning">Economic planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">Entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopreneurship" title="Ecopreneurship">Ecopreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_crisis" title="Financial crisis">Financial crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_Revolution" title="Financial Revolution">Financial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_capitalist_theory" title="History of capitalist theory">History of capitalist theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_economy#Capitalism" title="Market economy">Market economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_failure" title="Market failure">Market failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchantilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Merchantilism">Merchantilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinational_corporation" title="Multinational corporation">Multinational corporation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalization" title="Nationalization">Nationalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligopoly" title="Oligopoly">Oligopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_capitalism_by_school_of_thought" title="Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought">Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">Profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_rights_(economics)" title="Property rights (economics)">Property rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">Wealth</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_model" title="Anglo-Saxon model">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarian_capitalism" title="Authoritarian capitalism">Authoritarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_capitalism" title="Corporate capitalism">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirigisme" title="Dirigisme">Dirigist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_market#General_principles" title="Free market">Free-market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Laissez-faire capitalism">Laissez-faire</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalism" title="Economic liberalism">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Market capitalism">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed capitalism">Mixed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_monopoly_capitalism" title="State monopoly capitalism">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="National capitalism">National</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-capitalism" title="Neo-capitalism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">Neoliberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordic capitalism">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">Private</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raw_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Raw capitalism">Raw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulated_market" title="Regulated market">Regulated market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capitalism" title="Regulatory capitalism">Regulatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine capitalism">Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social capitalism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_capitalism" title="State capitalism">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="State-sponsored capitalism">State-sponsored</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_capitalism" title="Welfare capitalism">Welfare</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_capitalism" title="Culture of capitalism">Cultural aspects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Friday_(shopping)" title="Black Friday (shopping)">Black Friday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralization" title="Decentralization">Decentralization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_freedom" title="Economic freedom">Economic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_mobility" title="Economic mobility">Economic mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li>Mainstream</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">Philanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_foundation" title="Private foundation">Private foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law#In_relation_to_economics" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_market_flexibility" title="Labour market flexibility">Labour market flexibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_supply" title="Labour supply">Labour supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity" title="Prosperity">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicate" title="Syndicate">Syndicate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_venture_capital" title="Social venture capital">Social venture capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_capitalism" title="Criticism of capitalism">Criticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">Anti-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_propaganda" title="Capitalist propaganda">Capitalist propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_fundamentalism" title="Market fundamentalism">Market fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antithesis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-communism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarcho-communism">Anarcho-communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">Anarcho-primitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism" title="Anarcho-syndicalism">Anarcho-syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivist_anarchism" title="Collectivist anarchism">Collectivist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-socialism" title="Eco-socialism">Eco-socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-market_socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-market socialism">Free-market socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">Individualist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_socialism" title="Libertarian socialism">Libertarian socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_anarchism" title="Market anarchism">Market anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_socialism" title="Market socialism">Market socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-capitalism" title="Post-capitalism">Post-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-scarcity_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-scarcity economy">Post-scarcity economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">Sharing economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anarchism" title="Social anarchism">Social anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalism</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Critique_of_political_economy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Critique_of_political_economy" title="Template:Critique of political economy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Critique_of_political_economy" title="Template talk:Critique of political economy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Critique_of_political_economy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Critique of political economy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Critique_of_political_economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th–19th-century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Thomas Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">John Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Lafargue" title="Paul Lafargue">Paul Lafargue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Johan_Stagnelius" title="Erik Johan Stagnelius">Erik Johan Stagnelius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th–21st-century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Guy Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gorz" title="André Gorz">André Gorz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moishe_Postone" title="Moishe Postone">Moishe Postone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Balibar" title="Étienne Balibar">Étienne Balibar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neue_Marx-Lekt%C3%BCre" title="Neue Marx-Lektüre">Neue Marx-Lektüre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Reichelt" title="Helmut Reichelt">Helmut Reichelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Backhaus" title="Hans-Georg Backhaus">Hans-Georg Backhaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Kurz_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Kurz (philosopher)">Robert Kurz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Heinrich" title="Michael Heinrich">Michael Heinrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Fisher" title="Mark Fisher">Mark Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Rosdolsky" title="Roman Rosdolsky">Roman Rosdolsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claus_Peter_Ortlieb" title="Claus Peter Ortlieb">Claus Peter Ortlieb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Bataille" title="Georges Bataille">Georges Bataille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katrine_Mar%C3%A7al" title="Katrine Marçal">Katrine Marçal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_labour_and_concrete_labour" title="Abstract labour and concrete labour">Abstract labour and concrete labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">Capitalist mode of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_(Marxism)" title="Commodity (Marxism)">Commodity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrematistics" title="Chrematistics">Chrematistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dismal_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Dismal Science">Dismal Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illth" title="Illth">Illth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_value" title="Law of value">Law of value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socially_necessary_labour_time" title="Socially necessary labour time">Socially necessary labour time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valorisation" title="Valorisation">Valorisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value-form" title="Value-form">Value-form</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Written works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unto_This_Last" title="Unto This Last">Unto This Last</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvodaya" title="Sarvodaya">Sarvodaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Right_to_Be_Lazy" title="The Right to Be Lazy">The Right to Be Lazy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grundrisse" title="Grundrisse">Grundrisse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Philosophic_Manuscripts_of_1844" title="Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844">Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Mirror_of_Production" title="The Mirror of Production">The Mirror of Production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Contribution_to_the_Critique_of_Political_Economy" title="A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy">A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outlines_of_a_Critique_of_Political_Economy" title="Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy">Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Three_Volumes_of_Karl_Marx%27s_Capital" title="An Introduction to the Three Volumes of Karl Marx's Capital">An Introduction to the Three Volumes of Karl Marx's Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Economic_Reason" title="Critique of Economic Reason">Critique of Economic Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Accursed_Share" title="The Accursed Share">The Accursed Share</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_Cooked_Adam_Smith%27s_Dinner%3F" title="Who Cooked Adam Smith's Dinner?">Who Cooked Adam Smith's Dinner?</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assume_a_can_opener" title="Assume a can opener">Assume a can opener</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">Classical economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrematistics" title="Chrematistics">Chrematistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_capitalism" title="Criticism of capitalism">Criticism of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_economics" title="Mainstream economics">Mainstream economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Globalization" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Globalization" title="Template:Globalization"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Globalization" title="Template talk:Globalization"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Globalization" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Globalization"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Globalization" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_globalization-related_journals" title="List of globalization-related journals">Journals</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_globalization" title="Outline of globalization">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alter-globalization" title="Alter-globalization">Alter-globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement" title="Anti-globalization movement">Anti-globalization movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_globalization" title="Cultural globalization">Cultural globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deglobalization" title="Deglobalization">Deglobalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_globalization" title="Democratic globalization">Democratic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_globalization" title="Economic globalization">Economic globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_globalization" title="Environmental globalization">Environmental globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizenship" title="Global citizenship">Global citizenship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_citizenship_education" title="Global citizenship education">education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_financial_system" title="Global financial system">Global financial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_governance" title="Global governance">Global governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_migration" title="International migration">Global migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_politics" title="Global politics">Global politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_workforce" title="Global workforce">Global workforce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globality" title="Globality">Globality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_globalization" title="History of globalization">History of</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_globalization" title="Archaic globalization">archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-globalization" title="Proto-globalization">early modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_globalization" title="Military globalization">Military globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_globalization" title="Political globalization">Political globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_globalization" title="Trade globalization">Trade globalization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Global</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Climate justice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_digital_divide" title="Global digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_labor_arbitrage" title="Global labor arbitrage">Labor arbitrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilingualism_and_globalization" title="Multilingualism and globalization">Multilingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_haven" title="Tax haven">Tax havens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_financial_centre" title="Offshore financial centre">Offshore financial centres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_inversion" title="Tax inversion">Tax inversions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Water crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Other</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_capital_flight" title="Human capital flight">Brain drain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_brain_drain" title="Reverse brain drain">reverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Care_drain" title="Care drain">Care drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_aid" title="Development aid">Development aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">Endangered languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">Fair trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_displacement" title="Forced displacement">Forced displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_financial_flows" title="Illicit financial flows">Illicit financial flows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_imperialism" title="Academic imperialism">academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_imperialism" title="Media imperialism">media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_imperialism" title="Scientific imperialism">scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investor-state_dispute_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Investor-state dispute settlement">Investor-state disputes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McDonaldization" title="McDonaldization">McDonaldization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_international_division_of_labour" title="New international division of labour">New international division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_divide_in_the_World" class="mw-redirect" title="North–South divide in the World">North–South divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshoring" title="Offshoring">Offshoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_to_the_bottom" title="Race to the bottom">Race to the bottom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">pollution havens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_organized_crime" title="Transnational organized crime">Transnational crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">World war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">Capital accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">Dependency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_localism" title="Fiscal localism">Fiscal localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">Modernization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_modernization" title="Ecological modernization">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_modernisation_theory" title="History of modernisation theory">history of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">Social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable<br />scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Economics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Autor" title="David Autor">David Autor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Baldwin_(economist)" title="Richard Baldwin (economist)">Richard Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravi_Batra" title="Ravi Batra">Ravi Batra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdish_Bhagwati" title="Jagdish Bhagwati">Jagdish Bhagwati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brenner" title="Robert Brenner">Robert Brenner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayati_Ghosh" title="Jayati Ghosh">Jayati Ghosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hudson_(economist)" title="Michael Hudson (economist)">Michael Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branko_Milanovi%C4%87" title="Branko Milanović">Branko Milanović</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_O%27Rourke" title="Kevin O'Rourke">Kevin O'Rourke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Thomas Piketty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dani_Rodrik" title="Dani Rodrik">Dani Rodrik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Sachs" title="Jeffrey Sachs">Jeffrey Sachs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amartya_Sen" title="Amartya Sen">Amartya Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stiglitz" title="Joseph Stiglitz">Joseph Stiglitz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Political <br />economy</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Samir Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Arrighi" title="Giovanni Arrighi">Giovanni Arrighi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Cox" title="Robert W. Cox">Robert W. Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andre_Gunder_Frank" title="Andre Gunder Frank">Andre Gunder Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Gill_(political_scientist)" title="Stephen Gill (political scientist)">Stephen Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gowan" title="Peter Gowan">Peter Gowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronen_Palan" title="Ronen Palan">Ronen Palan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Strange" title="Susan Strange">Susan Strange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Wade_(scholar)" title="Robert Wade (scholar)">Robert Wade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Politics / <br /> sociology</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arjun_Appadurai" title="Arjun Appadurai">Arjun Appadurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniele_Archibugi" title="Daniele Archibugi">Daniele Archibugi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">K. Anthony Appiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Beck" title="Ulrich Beck">Ulrich Beck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walden_Bello" title="Walden Bello">Walden Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Zygmunt Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Manuel Castells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Chase-Dunn" title="Christopher Chase-Dunn">Christopher Chase-Dunn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_W._Crosby" title="Alfred W. Crosby">Alfred Crosby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Fraser" title="Nancy Fraser">Nancy Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_George_(political_scientist)" title="Susan George (political scientist)">Susan George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Anthony Giddens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hardt" title="Michael Hardt">Michael Hardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Held" title="David Held">David Held</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Hirst" title="Paul Hirst">Paul Hirst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._H._M._Ling" title="L. H. M. Ling">L. H. M. 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