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id="toc-What_is_law?-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legal_Pluralism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_Pluralism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Legal Pluralism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_Pluralism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Processual_paradigm:_order_and_conflict" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processual_paradigm:_order_and_conflict"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Processual paradigm: order and conflict</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Processual_paradigm:_order_and_conflict-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Case_study_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case_study_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Case study approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case_study_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_as_a_system_of_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_as_a_system_of_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Law as a system of knowledge</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_as_a_system_of_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Issues_of_terminology_and_ethnology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Issues_of_terminology_and_ethnology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Issues of terminology and ethnology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Issues_of_terminology_and_ethnology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Processes_and_methodologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Processes_and_methodologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Processes and methodologies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Processes_and_methodologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_questions_in_legal_anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_questions_in_legal_anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Key questions in legal anthropology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Key_questions_in_legal_anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further information</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div 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</div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Legal anthropology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCquqi_antropologiya" title="Hüquqi antropologiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hüquqi antropologiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Юридическа антропология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Юридическа антропология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologie_pr%C3%A1va" title="Antropologie práva – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Antropologie práva" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechtsanthropologie" title="Rechtsanthropologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rechtsanthropologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropolog%C3%ADa_jur%C3%ADdica" title="Antropología jurídica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Antropología jurídica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologie_juridique" title="Anthropologie juridique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Anthropologie juridique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%95%EC%9D%B8%EB%A5%98%ED%95%99" title="법인류학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="법인류학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologi_hukum" title="Antropologi hukum – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Antropologi hukum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia_giuridica" title="Antropologia giuridica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Antropologia giuridica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia_prawa" title="Antropologia prawa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Antropologia prawa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antropologia_do_direito" title="Antropologia do direito – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Antropologia do direito" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Антропология права – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Антропология права" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Антропологія права – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Антропологія права" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;"><i>Part of <a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">a series</a> on</i></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a> and<br /><a class="mw-selflink selflink">legal anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Status and rank</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascribed_status" title="Ascribed status">Ascribed status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achieved_status" title="Achieved status">Achieved status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">Social status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_grade" title="Age grade">Age grade</a>/<a href="/wiki/Age_set" title="Age set">Age set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leveling_mechanism" title="Leveling mechanism">Leveling mechanism</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_man_(anthropology)" title="Big man (anthropology)">Big man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Matriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_(administrative_title)" title="Elder (administrative title)">Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantribal_sodalities" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantribal sodalities">Pantribal sodalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_chief" title="Tribal chief">Chief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramount_chief" title="Paramount chief">Paramount chief</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Polities</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Band_society" title="Band society">Band society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segmentary_lineage" title="Segmentary lineage">Segmentary lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">Tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiefdom" title="Chiefdom">Chiefdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petty_kingdom" title="Petty kingdom">Petty kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_society" title="House society">House society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnic group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_state" title="Theatre state">Theatre state</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Law and custom</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customary law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_culture" title="Legal culture">Legal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_warfare" title="Ritual warfare">Ritual warfare</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Case studies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Acephelous</dt> <dd></dd> <dd>Societies without hierarchical leaders</dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/African_Political_Systems" title="African Political Systems">African Political Systems</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moka_exchange" title="Moka exchange">Papuan Big man system</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_Not_Being_Governed" title="The Art of Not Being Governed">The Art of Not Being Governed</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt>State</dt> <dd></dd> <dd>Non-western state systems</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negara:_The_Theatre_State_in_Nineteenth-Century_Bali" title="Negara: The Theatre State in Nineteenth-Century Bali">Negara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_(Southeast_Asian_political_model)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandala (Southeast Asian political model)">Mandala</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Technology,_Tradition,_and_the_State_in_Africa" title="Technology, Tradition, and the State in Africa">Technology, Tradition,<br /> and the State in Africa</a></i></li></ul> <dl><dt>Legal systems</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kapu_(Hawaiian_culture)" title="Kapu (Hawaiian culture)">Kapu</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Colonialism and resistance</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Europe_and_the_People_Without_History" title="Europe and the People Without History">Europe and the People <br />Without History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult" title="Cargo cult">Cargo cult</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/E._Adamson_Hoebel" title="E. Adamson Hoebel">E. Adamson Hoebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Balandier" title="Georges Balandier">Georges Balandier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F._G._Bailey" title="F. G. Bailey">F. G. Bailey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Barth" title="Fredrik Barth">Fredrik Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Boissevain" title="Jeremy Boissevain">Jeremy Boissevain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Carneiro" title="Robert L. Carneiro">Robert L. Carneiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_J._M._Claessen" title="Henri J. M. Claessen">Henri J. M. Claessen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Comaroff" title="Jean Comaroff">Jean Comaroff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Comaroff" title="John Comaroff">John Comaroff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Clastres" title="Pierre Clastres">Pierre Clastres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._E._Evans-Pritchard" title="E. E. Evans-Pritchard">E. E. Evans-Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Fikentscher" title="Wolfgang Fikentscher">Wolfgang Fikentscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meyer_Fortes" title="Meyer Fortes">Meyer Fortes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_Fried" title="Morton Fried">Morton Fried</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numa_Denis_Fustel_de_Coulanges" title="Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges">Numa Denis Fustel de Coulanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Gellner" title="Ernest Gellner">Ernest Gellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">David Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesley_Gill" title="Lesley Gill">Lesley Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulf_Hannerz" title="Ulf Hannerz">Ulf Hannerz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Blom_Hansen" title="Thomas Blom Hansen">Thomas Blom Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_C._Lewellen" title="Ted C. Lewellen">Ted C. Lewellen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Leach" title="Edmund Leach">Edmund Leach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Linton" title="Ralph Linton">Ralph Linton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Mertz" title="Elizabeth Mertz">Elizabeth Mertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Mintz" title="Sidney Mintz">Sidney Mintz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sally_Falk_Moore" title="Sally Falk Moore">Sally Falk Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Needham" title="Rodney Needham">Rodney Needham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Scott" title="James C. Scott">James C. Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elman_Service" title="Elman Service">Elman Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aidan_Southall" title="Aidan Southall">Aidan Southall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Spencer" title="Jonathan Spencer">Jonathan Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bjorn_Thomassen" class="mw-redirect" title="Bjorn Thomassen">Bjorn Thomassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_R._White" title="Douglas R. White">Douglas R. White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Wolf" title="Eric Wolf">Eric Wolf</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumscription_theory" title="Circumscription theory">Circumscription theory</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Legal anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left%E2%80%93right_paradigm" title="Left–right paradigm">Left–right paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_formation" title="State formation">State formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy in anthropology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Network_Analysis_and_Ethnographic_Problems" title="Network Analysis and Ethnographic Problems">Network Analysis and Ethnographic Problems</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Journals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Political_and_Legal_Anthropology_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Political and Legal Anthropology Review">Political and Legal Anthropology Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Legal_Anthropology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Legal Anthropology (page does not exist)">Journal of Legal Anthropology</a></i></li> <li><i>Journal of Law and Society</i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology" title="Category:Anthropology">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;"><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Queue.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/100px-Queue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/150px-Queue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/200px-Queue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:none;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anthropology" title="Outline of anthropology">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">History</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_archaeology" title="Aviation archaeology">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anthropology" title="Molecular anthropology">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology"> Neurological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_art" title="Anthropology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology" title="Cognitive anthropology">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology"><span class="wrap">Political economy</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_food" title="Anthropology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_institutions" title="Anthropology of institutions">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_media" title="Anthropology of media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_anthropology" title="Public anthropology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Symbolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal anthropology">Transpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_anthropology" title="Urban anthropology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Visual</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_anthropology" title="Semiotic anthropology">Semiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology#Methods" title="Cultural anthropology">Research framework</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">Anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyber-ethnography" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber-ethnography">cyber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_cross-cultural_sample" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard cross-cultural sample">Cross-cultural comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">Reflexivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick_description" title="Thick description">Thick description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_anthropology" title="Development anthropology">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">sociocultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship and descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Meme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_theories_of_value" title="Anthropological theories of value">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(anthropology)" title="Cultural materialism (anthropology)">Cultural materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Diffusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_particularism" title="Historical particularism">Historical particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boasian_anthropology" title="Boasian anthropology">Boasian anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Interpretive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_studies" title="Performance studies">Performance studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_theory" title="Practice theory">Practice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_anthropology" title="Structural anthropology">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropologists_by_nationality" title="Category:Anthropologists by nationality">Anthropologists by nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_anthropology" title="List of years in anthropology">Anthropology by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_anthropology" title="Bibliography of anthropology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anthropology_journals" title="List of anthropology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">List of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology_organizations" title="Category:Anthropology organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology" title="Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology" title="Template talk:Anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Legal anthropology</b>, also known as the <b>anthropology of laws</b>, is a sub-discipline of <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> that uses an interdisciplinary approach to "the cross-cultural study of social ordering".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The questions that Legal Anthropologists seek to answer concern how is <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> present in cultures? How does it manifest? How may anthropologists contribute to understandings of law? </p><p>Earlier legal anthropological research focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation. <a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a>'s 1926 work, <i>Crime and Custom in Savage Society</i>, explored law, order, crime, and punishment among the <a href="/wiki/Trobriand_Islanders" class="mw-redirect" title="Trobriand Islanders">Trobriand Islanders</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English lawyer Sir <a href="/wiki/Henry_Maine" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Maine">Henry Maine</a> is often credited with founding the study of Legal Anthropology through his book <i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Law" title="Ancient Law">Ancient Law</a></i> (1861). An ethno-centric evolutionary perspective was pre-eminent in early Anthropological discourse on law, evident through terms applied such as ‘pre-law’ or ‘proto-law’ in describing indigenous cultures. However, though Maine’s evolutionary framework has been largely rejected within the discipline, the questions he raised have shaped the subsequent discourse of the study. Moreover, the 1926 publication of <i>Crime and Custom in Savage Society</i> by <a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Malinowski</a> based upon his time with the Trobriand Islanders, further helped establish the discipline of legal anthropology. Through emphasizing the order present in acephelous societies, Malinowski proposed the cross-cultural examining of law through its established functions as opposed to a discrete entity. This has led to multiple researchers and ethnographies examining such aspects as order, dispute, conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation, in addition (and often antagonistically) to law-centred studies, with small-societal studies leading to insightful self-reflections and better understanding of the founding concept of law. </p><p>Contemporary research in legal anthropology has sought to apply its framework to issues at the intersections of law and culture, including <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">legal pluralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and political uprisings. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="What_is_law?"><span id="What_is_law.3F"></span>What is law?</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_anthropology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: What is law?"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></div> <p>Legal Anthropology provides a definition of law which differs from that found within modern legal systems. Hoebel (1954) offered the following definition of law: <i>"A social norm is legal if its neglect or infraction is regularly met, in threat or in fact, by the application of physical force by an individual or group possessing the socially recognized privilege of so acting."</i> </p><p>Maine argued that human societies passing through three basic stages of legal development, from a group presided over by a senior agnate, through stages of territorial development and culminating in an elite forming normative laws of society, stating that <i>"what the juristical oligarchy now claims is to monopolize the knowledge of the laws, to have the exclusive possession of the principles by which quarrels are decided."</i> </p><p>This <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary approach">evolutionary approach</a>, as has been stated, was subsequently replaced within the anthropological discourse by the need to examine the manifestations of law's societal function. As according to <a href="/wiki/Hoebel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoebel">Hoebel</a>, law has four functions: </p><p>1) to identify socially acceptable lines of behaviour for inclusion in the culture. 2) To allocate authority and who may legitimately apply force. 3) To settle trouble cases. 4) To redefine relationships as the concepts of life change. </p><p>Legal theorist <a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">H. L. A. Hart</a>, however, stated that law is a body of rules, and is a union of two sets of rules: </p> <ol><li>rules on conduct ("primary rules") <sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>rules about recognizing, changing, applying, and adjudicating on rules on conduct ("secondary rules") <sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Within modern English Theory, law is a discrete and specialized topic. Predominantly positivist in character, it is closely linked to notions of a rule-making body, the judiciary and enforcement agencies. The centralized state organisation and isolates are essentials to the attributes of rules, courts and sanctions. To learn more on this view, see Hobbes. 1651 Leviathan, part 2, chapter 26 or Salmond, J. 1902 Jurisprudence. </p><p>However, this view of law is not applicable everywhere. There are many acephalous societies around the world where the above control mechanisms are absent. There are no conceptualized and isolated set of normative rules – these are instead embodied in everyday life. Even when there may be a discrete set of legal norms, these are not treated similarly to the English Legal System's unequivocal power and unchallenged pre-eminence. Shamans, fighting and supernatural means are all mechanisms of superimposing rules within other societies. For example, within <a href="/wiki/Knud_Rasmussen" title="Knud Rasmussen">Rasmussen</a>’s work of Across Arctic America (1927) he recounts <a href="/wiki/Eskimo" title="Eskimo">Eskimo</a> nith<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Template:Typo_help_inline" title="Template:Typo help inline"><span title="similar to ninth (September 2020)">check spelling</span></a></i>]</sup>-songs being used as a public reprimand by expressing the wrongdoing of someone guilty. </p><p>Thus, instead of focusing upon the explicit manifestations of law, legal anthropologists have taken to examining the functions of law and how it is expressed. A view expressed by Leopold Pospisil<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and encapsulated by Bronislaw Malinowski: </p><p><i>"In such primitive communities I personally believe that law ought to be defined by function and not by form, that is we ought to see what are the arrangements, the sociological realities, the cultural mechanisms which act for the enforcement of law."</i><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, law has been studied in ways that may be categorized by as: 1) prescriptive rules 2) observable regularities 3) Instances of dispute. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_Pluralism">Legal Pluralism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_anthropology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Legal Pluralism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></div> <p>Legal scholars noted that many social structures had their own rules and processes that were similar to law, which were referred to as legal orders. The viewpoint that law should be studied together with these legal orders or cannot be seen as fundamentally distinct or separate from them has been referred to as legal pluralism. Some scholars have argued that law is distinct from other law like processes, for example because of its relationship with the state.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 38">: 38 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Processual_paradigm:_order_and_conflict">Processual paradigm: order and conflict</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_anthropology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Processual paradigm: order and conflict"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Order and regulatory behaviour are required if social life is to be maintained. The scale and shade of this behaviour depends on the values and beliefs held by a society deriving from implicit understandings of the norm developed through socialization. There are socially constructed norms with varying degrees of explicitness and levels of order. Conflict may not be interpreted as an extreme pathological event but as a regulatory acting force. </p><p>This processual understanding of conflict and dispute became apparent and subsequently heavily theorized upon by the anthropological discipline within the latter half of the nineteenth century as a gateway to the law and order of a society. Disputes have come to be recognised as necessary and constructive over pathological whilst the stated rules of law only explain some aspects of control and compliance. The context and interactions of a dispute are more informative about a culture than the rules. </p><p>Classic studies deriving theories of order from disputes include Evans-Pritchard work Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande which focused upon functional disputes surrounding sorcery and witchcraft practices, or Comaroff and Roberts (1981) work among the Tswana which examine the hierarchy of disputes, the patterns of contact and the effect norms affect the course of dispute as norms important to dispute are rarely <i>“especially organised for jural purpose.”</i> <sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other examples include: </p><p><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Leach" title="Edmund Leach">Leach</a>, 1954. Political Systems of Highland Burma. <a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Barth" title="Fredrik Barth">Barth</a>, 1959. Political Leadership among Swat Pathans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Case_study_approach">Case study approach</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_anthropology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Case study approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Within the history of Legal Anthropology there have been various methods of data gathering adopted; ranging from literature review of traveller/missionary accounts, consulting informants and lengthy participant observation. </p><p>Furthermore, when evaluating any research it is appropriate to have a robust methodology capable of scientifically analysing the topic at hand. </p><p>The broad method of study by legal anthropologists prevails upon the Case Study Approach first developed by Llewellyn and Hoebel in The Cheyenne Way (1941) not as <i>“a philosophy but a technology.”</i> <sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This methodology is applied to situations of cross-cultural conflict and the correlating resolution, which can have sets of legal notions and jural regularities extracted from them. <sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This method may be safe-guarded against accusations of imposing western ideological structures as it is often an emic sentiment: for example, </p><p><i>“The Tiv drove me to the case method…what they were interested in. They put a lot of time and effort into cases.”</i> <sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Law_as_a_system_of_knowledge">Law as a system of knowledge</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_anthropology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Law as a system of knowledge"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scholars of the <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">sociology of knowledge</a> note that social and power relations can both be created by the <a href="/wiki/Definition_of_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Definition of knowledge">definition of knowledge</a>, and influence how knowledge is created. </p><p>Scholars have argued that law provides a set of categories and relations through which to see the social world.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 54">: 54 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 8">: 8 </span></sup> Individuals themselves (rather than legal professionals) will try to frame their problems in legalistic terms to resolve them.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 130">: 130 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Boaventura_de_Sousa_Santos" title="Boaventura de Sousa Santos">Boaventura de Sousa Santos</a> argues that these legal categories can distort reality, Yngvesson argues that the definitions themselves can create power imbalances.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 64">: 64 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues_of_terminology_and_ethnology">Issues of terminology and ethnology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_anthropology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Issues of terminology and ethnology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Regarding law, in Anthropology's characteristically self-conscious manner, the comparative analysis inherent to Legal Anthropology has been speculated upon and most famously debated by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Bohannan" title="Paul Bohannan">Paul Bohannan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Max_Gluckman" title="Max Gluckman">Max Gluckman</a>. The discourse highlights one of the primary differences between British and American Anthropology regarding fieldwork approaches and concerns the imposition of Western terminology as ethnological categories of differing societies.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each author's uses the Case Study Approach, however, the data's presentation in terms of achieving comparativeness is a point of contention between them. </p><p>Paul Bohannan promotes the use of native terminology presented with ethnographic meaning as opposed to any Universal categories, which act as barriers to understanding the true nature of a culture's legal system. </p><p>Advocating that it is better to appreciate native terms in their own medium, Bohannan critiques Gluckman's work for its inherent <a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">bias</a>. </p><p>Gluckman has argued that Bohannan's excessive use of native terminology creates barriers when attempting to achieve comparative analysis. He in turn has suggested that in order to further the cross-cultural comparative study of law, we should use English terms and concepts of law which will aid in the refinement of dispute facts and interrelations. <sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, all native terms should be described and translated into an Anglo-American conceptual equivalent for the purpose of comparison. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Processes_and_methodologies">Processes and methodologies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_anthropology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Processes and methodologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As disputes and order began to be recognised as categories worthy of study, interest in the inherent aspects of conflicts emerged within legal anthropology. The processes and actors involved within the events became an object of study for ethnographers as they embraced conflict as a data-rich source. </p><p>One example of such an interest is expressed by <a href="/wiki/Philip_Gulliver" title="Philip Gulliver">Philip Gulliver</a>, 1963, <i>Social Control in an African Society</i> in which the intimate relations between disputes are postulated as being important. He examines the patterns of alliance between actors of a dispute and the strategies that develop as a result, the roles of mediators and the typologies for intervention. Another is Sara Ross, whose work <i>Law and Intangible Cultural Heritage in the City</i> focuses the rubric of legal anthropology specifically onto the urban context through an "urban legal anthropology", that includes the use of <a href="/wiki/Virtual_ethnography" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual ethnography">virtual ethnography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Institutional_ethnography" title="Institutional ethnography">institutional ethnography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">participant observation</a> in urban public and private spaces.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_questions_in_legal_anthropology">Key questions in legal anthropology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_anthropology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Key questions in legal anthropology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b>Issues of Legal Pluralism</b>.</li></ul> <p>See <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://puvodni.mzm.cz/Anthropologie/downloads/articles/2002/Lyon_2002_p59-71.pdf">Lyon, 2002</a> Local arbitration and conflict deferment in Punjab, Pakistan</i> or <i>Engel, D. 1980. Legal pluralism in an American community: perspectives on a civil trial court.</i> </p> <ul><li><b>The legitimacy of Universal Human Rights</b>.</li></ul> <p>Political anthropologists have had much to say about the UDHR (Universal Declaration of Human Rights). Original critiques, most notably by the AAA (American Anthropological Association), argued that cultural ideas of rights and entitlement differ between societies. They warned that any attempt to endorse one set of values above all others amounted to a new western imperialism, and would be counter to ideas of cultural relativism. Most anthropologists now agree that universal human rights have a useful place in today's world. Zechenter (1997) argues there are practices, such as Indian 'sati' (the burning of a widow on her husband's funeral pyre) that can be said to be wrong, despite justifications of tradition. This is because such practices are about much more than a culturally established world view, and frequently develop or revive as a result of socio-economic conditions and the balance of power within a community. As culture is not bounded and unchanging, there are multiple discourses and moral viewpoints within any community and among the various actors in such events (Merry 2003). Cultural relativists risk supporting the most powerfully asserted position at the expense of those who are subjugated under it. </p><p>More recent contributions to the question of universal human rights include analysis of their use in practice, and how global discourses are translated into local contexts (Merry 2003). Anthropologists such as Merry (2006) note how the legal framework of the UNDHR is not static but is actively used by communities around the globe to construct meaning. As much as the document is a product of western Enlightenment thinking, communities have the capacity to shape its meaning to suit their own agendas, incorporating its principles in ways that empower them to tackle their own local and national discontents. </p><p>Female genital cutting (FGC), also known as female circumcision or female genital mutilation remains a hotly debated, controversial issue contested particularly among legal anthropologists and human rights activists. Through her ethnography (1989) on the practice of pharaonic circumcision among the Hofriyat of Sudan (1989) Boddy maintains that understanding local cultural norms is of crucial importance when considering intervention to prevent the practice. Human rights activists attempting to eradicate FGC using the legal framework of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR) as their justification, run the risk of imposing a set of ideological principles, alien to the culture attempting to be helped, potentially facing hostile reactions. Moreover, the UNDHR as a legal document, is contested by some as being restrictive in its prescription of what is and is not deemed a violation of a human right (Ross 2003) and overlooks local customary justifications which operate outside of an international legalistic framework (Ross 2003). Increasingly (FGC) is becoming a global issue due to increased mobility. What was once deemed a largely African practice has seen a steady increase in European countries such as Britain. Although made illegal in 1985 there have as yet been no convictions and girls as old as nine continue to have the procedure. Legislation has now also been passed in Sweden, the United States and France where there have been convictions. Black, J. A. and Debelle, G. D. (1995) "Female Genital Mutilation in Britain" <i>British Medical Journal</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_information">Further information</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_anthropology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further information"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a number of useful introductions to the field of legal anthropology,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sally_Falk_Moore" title="Sally Falk Moore">Sally Falk Moore</a>, a leading legal anthropologist, held both a law degree and a PhD in anthropology. An increasing number of legal anthropologists hold both <a href="/wiki/Juris_doctor" class="mw-redirect" title="Juris doctor">JDs</a> and advanced degrees in anthropology, and some teach in <a href="/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">law schools</a> while maintaining scholarly connections within the field of legal anthropology; examples include Rebecca French, John Conley, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Mertz" title="Elizabeth Mertz">Elizabeth Mertz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Annelise_Riles" title="Annelise Riles">Annelise Riles</a>. Such combined expertise has also been turned to more <a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">applied anthropological</a> pursuits such as tribal advocacy and <a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">forensic ethnography</a> by practitioners. There is a growing interest in the intersection of legal and <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">linguistic anthropology</a>. </p><p>If looking for anthropology departments with faculty specializing in legal anthropology in North America, try the following schools and professors: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Laura_Nader" title="Laura Nader">Laura Nader</a>), <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Irvine" title="University of California, Irvine">University of California, Irvine</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Susan_Bibler_Coutin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Susan Bibler Coutin (page does not exist)">Susan Bibler Coutin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bill_Maurer" title="Bill Maurer">Bill Maurer</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Justin_B._Richland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Justin B. Richland (page does not exist)">Justin B. Richland</a>), <a href="/wiki/Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke University</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_M._O%27Barr&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William M. O'Barr (page does not exist)">William M. O'Barr</a>), <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Rosen_(anthropologist)" title="Lawrence Rosen (anthropologist)">Lawrence Rosen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carol_J._Greenhouse" title="Carol J. Greenhouse">Carol J. Greenhouse</a>), <a href="/wiki/University_at_Buffalo,_The_State_University_of_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="University at Buffalo, The State University of New York">State University of New York at Buffalo</a> (Rebecca French), <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a> (Sally Engle Merry), <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jean_Comaroff" title="Jean Comaroff">Jean Comaroff</a> ), and <a href="/wiki/George_Mason_University" title="George Mason University">George Mason University</a> (<a href="/wiki/Susan_Hirsch" title="Susan Hirsch">Susan Hirsch</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Europe, the following scholars and schools will be good resources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.soas.ac.uk/staff/staff86662.php">Vanja Hamzić</a> (SOAS University of London), Jane Cowan (University of Sussex), Ann Griffiths and Toby Kelly (University of Edinburgh), Sari Wastell (Goldsmiths, University of London), Harri Englund and Yael Navaro (University of Cambridge), and Richard Rottenburg (Martin-Luther Universität). </p><p>The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://politicalandlegalanthro.org/">Association for Political and Legal Anthropology</a> (APLA), a section of the <a href="/wiki/American_Anthropological_Association" title="American Anthropological Association">American Anthropological Association</a>, is the primary professional association in the U.S. for legal anthropologists and also has many overseas members. It publishes <i>PoLAR: Political and Legal Anthropology Review</i>, the leading U.S. journal in the field of legal anthropology, which is accessible via <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://polarjournal.org/">http://polarjournal.org/</a> or <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1555-2934">http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1555-2934</a> </p><p>'Allegra: a Virtual Laboratory of Legal Anthropology' is an online experiment by a new generation of legal anthropologists designated to facilitate scholarly collaboration and awareness of the sub-discipline. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_anthropology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Society_Association" title="Law and Society Association">Law and Society Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_legal_realism" title="New legal realism">New legal realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_anthropology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGreenhouse,_Carol_J.1986" class="citation book cs1">Greenhouse, Carol J. (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/prayingforjustic0000gree"><i>Praying for Justice: Faith, Order, and Community in an American Town</i></a></span>. Ithaca: Cornell UP. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/prayingforjustic0000gree/page/28">28</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801419713" title="Special:BookSources/9780801419713"><bdi>9780801419713</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Praying+for+Justice%3A+Faith%2C+Order%2C+and+Community+in+an+American+Town&rft.place=Ithaca&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Cornell+UP&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9780801419713&rft.au=Greenhouse%2C+Carol+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fprayingforjustic0000gree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegal+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Malinowski, Bronislaw 1985[1926] Crime and Custom in Savage Society. Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman & Allanheld.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowen2012" class="citation book cs1">Bowen, John R. (2012). <i>A New Anthropology of Islam</i>. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+New+Anthropology+of+Islam&rft.place=Cambridge+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Bowen&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegal+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHent_de_Vries_and_Lawrence_E._Sullivan2006" class="citation book cs1">Hent de Vries and Lawrence E. Sullivan, ed. (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/politicaltheolog00hent"><i>Political theologies: public religions in a post-secular world</i></a></span>. New York: Fordham University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+theologies%3A+public+religions+in+a+post-secular+world&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpoliticaltheolog00hent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegal+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. L. A. Hart, "Law as the Union of Primary and Secondary Rules," The Concept of Law.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. L. A. Hart, "Law as the Union of Primary and Secondary Rules," The Concept of Law.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPospisil,_Leopold1974" class="citation book cs1">Pospisil, Leopold (1974). <i>The Anthropology of Laws: A Comparative Theory</i>. p. 196.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anthropology+of+Laws%3A+A+Comparative+Theory&rft.pages=196&rft.date=1974&rft.au=Pospisil%2C+Leopold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegal+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(1934: Introduction to Hogbin, Law and Order in Polynesia).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPirie2013" class="citation book cs1">Pirie, Fernanda (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/812686211"><i>The anthropology of law</i></a>. Oxford, United Kingdom. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969684-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-969684-0"><bdi>978-0-19-969684-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/812686211">812686211</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+anthropology+of+law&rft.place=Oxford%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F812686211&rft.isbn=978-0-19-969684-0&rft.aulast=Pirie&rft.aufirst=Fernanda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F812686211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegal+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Bohannan, 1957:58).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Pospisil, 1973: 541).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Bohannan, 1965: pp. 41; Pospisil, 1973).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Bohannan, 1989: vii).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerry1990" class="citation book cs1">Merry, Sally Engle (1990-05-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AEFPURuB-GoC&dq=merry%201990%20legal%20language&pg=PA8"><i>Getting Justice and Getting Even: Legal Consciousness Among Working-Class Americans</i></a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-52069-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-52069-8"><bdi>978-0-226-52069-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Getting+Justice+and+Getting+Even%3A+Legal+Consciousness+Among+Working-Class+Americans&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1990-05-15&rft.isbn=978-0-226-52069-8&rft.aulast=Merry&rft.aufirst=Sally+Engle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAEFPURuB-GoC%26dq%3Dmerry%25201990%2520legal%2520language%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegal+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Bohannan, 1956).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Gluckman, 1965: 26).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSara_Gwendolyn_Ross2019" class="citation book cs1">Sara Gwendolyn Ross (2019). <i>Law and Intangible Cultural Heritage in the City</i>. Routledge. p. 65.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+and+Intangible+Cultural+Heritage+in+the+City&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2019&rft.au=Sara+Gwendolyn+Ross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegal+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example Moore, Sally Falk, <i>Law and Anthropology: A Reader</i>, (edited), Blackwell, 2004, pp. 20-25, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-0228-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-0228-4">1-4051-0228-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indiana.edu/~wanthro/theory_pages/LEGAL.htm">Disciplines & Subdisciplines- Legal Anthropology</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_anthropology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Boddy J. (1982). “Womb As Oasis: The Symbolic Context of Pharonic Circumcision in Rutal Northern Sudan” American Ethnologist. 9(4), pp. 682–698.</li> <li>Bohannan, P. 1957. Justice and Judgement among the Tiv.</li> <li>Comaroff and Roberts. 1977. The Invocation of Norms in Dispute Settlement: The Tswana Case. Social Anthropology and Law.</li> <li>Gulliver, P. 1963. Social Control in an African Society.</li> <li>Roberts, S. 1979. Order and Dispute: An Introduction to Legal Anthropology</li> <li>Llwellyn and Hoebel. 1941. The Cheyenne Way.</li> <li>Pospisil, L. 1974. The Anthropology of Laws: A Comparative Theory</li> <li>Hamnett, I. 1977. Social Anthropology and Law.</li> <li>MacFarlane, A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BMT7Yt_vVCI">History of Legal Anthropology: Part One</a>.</li> <li>Malinowski, B. 1926. Crime and Custom in Savage Society.</li> <li>Lyon, S. Durham University Lecture Series. Department of Anthropology: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dur.ac.uk/anthropology/research/aid/aid_members/group_profile/?mode=staff&id=742">Power and Governance</a>.</li> <li>Ross F. (2003). “Using Rights to Measure Wrongs: A Case Study of Method and Moral in the Work of the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission”. In: Wilson A., Mitchell J P. eds. Human Rights in Global Perspective. Anthropological Studies of Rights, Claims and Entitlements. London: Routledge, pp 163–182.</li> <li>Schapera, I. 1938. A Handbook of Tswana Law and Custom.</li> <li>Wesel, U. 1985. Frühformen des Rechts in vorstaatlichen Gesellschaften, Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-518-57723-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-518-57723-9">3-518-57723-9</a> (paperback) and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-518-57706-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-518-57706-9">3-518-57706-9</a> (hard cover)</li> <li>Zippelius, R. 2011. Rechtsphilosophie, §§ 5 IV 2, 8, 9 I, 12 IV, 17 II, 19 IV, 25, C.H. Beck, Munich, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-61191-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-61191-9">978-3-406-61191-9</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_anthropology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoblets2020" class="citation book cs1">Foblets, Marie-Claire, ed. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198840534.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780198840534"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Law and Anthropology</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-187622-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-187622-6"><bdi>978-0-19-187622-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Law+and+Anthropology&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-19-187622-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780198840534.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780198840534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALegal+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Legal_anthropology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://politicalandlegalanthro.org/">Association for Political and Legal Anthropology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://polarjournal.org/">PoLAR: Political and Legal Anthropology Review</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anthropologies-in-translation.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=166&Itemid=110">Journal of Legal Anthropology</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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