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} .entry-content a { -webkit-box-shadow: 0 1px; box-shadow: 0 1px; text-decoration: none; } .entry-content a:hover, .entry-content a:active, .entry-content a:focus { -webkit-box-shadow: 0 1px; box-shadow: 0 1px; } .no-dec-link { text-decoration: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; -webkit-box-shadow: none !important; } </style> <style id="egf-frontend-styles" type="text/css"> p {} h1 {} h2 {} h3 {} h4 {} h5 {} h6 {} </style> <meta property="og:title" content="Biomedical Beat Blog"/><meta property="og:type" content="article"/><meta property="og:url" content="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov"/><meta property="og:site_name" content="NIGMS Biomedical Beat Blog"/><meta property="og:image" content="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/biobeat_share.jpg"/><meta name="twitter:image" content="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/biobeat_share.jpg"/><meta name="twitter:card" value="summary_large_image" /><meta name="twitter:site" value="@NIGMS" /></head> <body class="home blog wp-custom-logo wp-embed-responsive group-blog hfeed has-header-image has-sidebar colors-light"> <div id="page" class="site"> <a class="skip-link screen-reader-text" href="#content">Skip to content</a> <header id="masthead" class="site-header" role="banner"> <div class="custom-header"> <div class="custom-header-media"> <div id="wp-custom-header" class="wp-custom-header"><img src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Biobeat-header-1.jpg" width="2000" height="1200" alt="" srcset="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Biobeat-header-1.jpg 2000w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Biobeat-header-1-150x90.jpg 150w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Biobeat-header-1-300x180.jpg 300w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Biobeat-header-1-1024x614.jpg 1024w" sizes="100vw" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" /></div> </div> <div class="site-branding"> <div class="wrap"> <a href="https://nigms.nih.gov/"><img id="nigms-logo" alt="National Institute of General Medical Sciences." src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/cropped-NIGMS-Logo-White@4x-1.png"></a> <div class="site-branding-text"> <h1 class="site-title"><a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/" rel="home">Biomedical Beat Blog – National Institute of General Medical Sciences</a></h1> <p class="site-description">Follow the process of discovery</p> </div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="site-content-contain"> <div id="header-widget-area" class="wrap hs-widget-area widget-area" role="complementary"> <div class="hs-widget"><h2 class="hs-title">Search this blog</h2> <form role="search" method="get" class="search-form" action="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/"> <label for="search-form-1"> <span class="screen-reader-text">Search for:</span> </label> <input type="search" id="search-form-1" class="search-field" placeholder="Search …" value="" name="s" /> <button type="submit" class="search-submit"><svg class="icon icon-search" aria-labelledby="title-2" role="img"><title id="title-2">Search Icon</title> <use href="#icon-search" xlink:href="#icon-search"></use> </svg><span class="screen-reader-text">Search</span></button> </form> </div> </div> <div id="content" class="site-content"> <div class="wrap"> <header class="page-header"> <h2 class="page-title">Posts</h2> </header> <div id="primary" class="content-area"> <main id="main" class="site-main"> <article id="post-14043" class="post-14043 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-cells tag-cells tag-common-questions tag-stem-cells"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"><span class="screen-reader-text">Posted on</span> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/what-are-stem-cells/" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date published updated" datetime="2024-11-27T09:51:35-05:00">November 27, 2024</time></a></div><h3 class="entry-title"><a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/what-are-stem-cells/" rel="bookmark">What Are Stem Cells?</a></h3><div class="entry-meta"> by <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/author/kimberly-rousseau/" title="Posts by Kimberly Smith" class="author url fn" rel="author">Kimberly Smith</a></div><div style="font-size:0.8em; font-style:italic; color: #595959;">0 comments</div> </header> <div class="post-thumbnail"> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/what-are-stem-cells/"> <img width="850" height="425" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.27.2024-featured.png" class="attachment-twentyseventeen-featured-image size-twentyseventeen-featured-image wp-post-image" alt="" decoding="async" srcset="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.27.2024-featured.png 850w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.27.2024-featured-500x250.png 500w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.27.2024-featured-300x150.png 300w" sizes="(max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px" /> </a> </div> <div class="entry-content"> <p><a data-featherlight="glossary" href="#74">Stem cells</a> are a special type of <a data-featherlight="glossary" href="#104">cell</a> that is uniquely able to replicate many times and to develop into many different cell types. Stem cells live in <a data-featherlight="glossary" href="#85">tissues</a> and <a data-featherlight="glossary" href="#27">organs</a> throughout the body—including the liver, muscles, and skin—at all stages of life.</p> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/what-are-stem-cells/#more-14043" class="more-link">Continue reading<span class="screen-reader-text"> “What Are Stem Cells?”</span></a> </div> </article> <article id="post-14019" class="post-14019 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-being-a-scientist category-chemistry-biochemistry-and-pharmacology category-injury-and-illness tag-infectious-diseases tag-microbes tag-profiles"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"><span class="screen-reader-text">Posted on</span> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/haley-bridgewater-taking-the-sting-out-of-vaccines/" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date published updated" datetime="2024-11-20T10:06:45-05:00">November 20, 2024</time></a></div><h3 class="entry-title"><a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/haley-bridgewater-taking-the-sting-out-of-vaccines/" rel="bookmark">Haley Bridgewater: Taking the Sting Out of Vaccines</a></h3><div class="entry-meta"> by <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/author/kimberly-rousseau/" title="Posts by Kimberly Smith" class="author url fn" rel="author">Kimberly Smith</a></div><div style="font-size:0.8em; font-style:italic; color: #595959;">0 comments</div> </header> <div class="post-thumbnail"> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/haley-bridgewater-taking-the-sting-out-of-vaccines/"> <img width="1068" height="534" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.20.2024-featured.png" class="attachment-twentyseventeen-featured-image size-twentyseventeen-featured-image wp-post-image" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.20.2024-featured.png 1068w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.20.2024-featured-500x250.png 500w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.20.2024-featured-1024x512.png 1024w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.20.2024-featured-300x150.png 300w" sizes="(max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px" /> </a> </div> <div class="entry-content"> <p>Haley Bridgewater, a graduate student at Boise State University in Idaho, is sure she wants to continue studying infectious diseases after she graduates with her Ph.D., but she’s finding it difficult to choose a specific topic within that branch of biomedical science. “My problem is that I like them all. The more I look into specific research topics to narrow down my options, the longer my list of potential topics grows,” she says.</p> <div class="wp-block-image biobeat-img"> <figure class="alignright size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="549" height="732" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.20.2024-1.jpg" alt="A portrait image of Haley Bridgewater standing on a bridge over a river." class="wp-image-14024" style="width:225px" srcset="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.20.2024-1.jpg 549w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.20.2024-1-375x500.jpg 375w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.20.2024-1-225x300.jpg 225w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 549px) 100vw, 549px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Haley Bridgewater in front of the Boise River on Boise State University campus. Credit: Elise Overgaard, Ph.D., Boise State University.</figcaption></figure></div> <p>Haley’s early introduction to science wasn’t related to the biological sciences at all. She grew up in Los Alamos, New Mexico, where her dad studied <a href="#25" data-featherlight="glossary">nuclear</a> <a href="#154" data-featherlight="glossary">chemistry</a>. Discussions about chemistry, physics, and rockets surrounded her, and she would often stare up at the night sky to catch a glimpse of a meteor shower or the International Space Station passing by. But she was even more curious about what was <em>below</em> her feet: What makes an insect different from a rock? What does the <a href="#223" data-featherlight="glossary">microscopic</a> world look like? She received a microscope one year for her birthday and carried it with her everywhere so she could try to answer these questions. </p> <p><strong>Global Experiences</strong></p> <p>Haley took an advanced biology class in high school, where she learned not only about the living world, but also the many exciting scientific careers available, such as becoming a researcher. She moved to Tacoma, Washington, and earned a bachelor’s degree from Pacific Lutheran University (PLU), where she majored in biology and global religion. </p> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/haley-bridgewater-taking-the-sting-out-of-vaccines/#more-14019" class="more-link">Continue reading<span class="screen-reader-text"> “Haley Bridgewater: Taking the Sting Out of Vaccines”</span></a> </div> </article> <article id="post-13988" class="post-13988 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-cells category-molecular-structures tag-common-questions"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"><span class="screen-reader-text">Posted on</span> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/how-do-cells-recycle-and-take-out-the-trash/" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date published updated" datetime="2024-11-13T10:08:34-05:00">November 13, 2024</time></a></div><h3 class="entry-title"><a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/how-do-cells-recycle-and-take-out-the-trash/" rel="bookmark">How Do Cells Recycle and Take Out the Trash?</a></h3><div class="entry-meta"> by <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/author/rachel-crowley/" title="Posts by Rachel Crowley" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rachel Crowley</a></div><div style="font-size:0.8em; font-style:italic; color: #595959;">0 comments</div> </header> <div class="post-thumbnail"> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/how-do-cells-recycle-and-take-out-the-trash/"> <img width="861" height="430" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.13.2024-featured.png" class="attachment-twentyseventeen-featured-image size-twentyseventeen-featured-image wp-post-image" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.13.2024-featured.png 861w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.13.2024-featured-500x250.png 500w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/BioBeat-11.13.2024-featured-300x150.png 300w" sizes="(max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px" /> </a> </div> <div class="entry-content"> <p><a href="#104" data-featherlight="glossary">Cells</a> rely on garbage and recycling systems to keep their interiors neat and tidy. If it weren’t for these systems, cells could look like microscopic junkyards—and worse, they might not function properly. So constant cleaning is a crucial biological process, and if it goes wrong, accumulated trash can cause serious problems. </p> <p><strong>Proteasomes: Cellular Garbage Disposals</strong></p> <p>One of the cell’s trash processors is called the <a href="#47" data-featherlight="glossary">proteasome</a>. It breaks down proteins, the building blocks and mini-machines that make up many cell parts. The barrel-shaped proteasome disassembles damaged or unwanted <a href="#49" data-featherlight="glossary">proteins</a>, breaking them into bits that the cell can reuse to make new proteins. In this way, the proteasome is just as much a recycling plant as it is a garbage disposal. </p> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/how-do-cells-recycle-and-take-out-the-trash/#more-13988" class="more-link">Continue reading<span class="screen-reader-text"> “How Do Cells Recycle and Take Out the Trash?”</span></a> </div> </article> <article id="post-13974" class="post-13974 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-being-a-scientist category-chemistry-biochemistry-and-pharmacology category-molecular-structures tag-cryo-electron-microscopy tag-profiles"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"><span class="screen-reader-text">Posted on</span> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/investigating-the-inner-workings-of-ion-channels-with-sudha-chakrapani/" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date published updated" datetime="2024-11-06T10:20:21-05:00">November 6, 2024</time></a></div><h3 class="entry-title"><a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/investigating-the-inner-workings-of-ion-channels-with-sudha-chakrapani/" rel="bookmark">Investigating the Inner Workings of Ion Channels With Sudha Chakrapani</a></h3><div class="entry-meta"> by <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/author/kimberly-rousseau/" title="Posts by Kimberly Smith" class="author url fn" rel="author">Kimberly Smith</a></div><div style="font-size:0.8em; font-style:italic; color: #595959;">0 comments</div> </header> <div class="post-thumbnail"> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/investigating-the-inner-workings-of-ion-channels-with-sudha-chakrapani/"> <img width="953" height="477" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-11.6.2024-featured.png" class="attachment-twentyseventeen-featured-image size-twentyseventeen-featured-image wp-post-image" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-11.6.2024-featured.png 953w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-11.6.2024-featured-500x250.png 500w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-11.6.2024-featured-300x150.png 300w" sizes="(max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px" /> </a> </div> <div class="entry-content"> <div class="wp-block-image biobeat-img img-after-heading-space"> <figure class="alignright size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="175" height="219" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-11.6.2024-1.jpg" alt="A headshot of Dr. Chakrapani." class="wp-image-13979" style="width:200px"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Credit: Courtesy of Dr. Sudha Chakrapani.</figcaption></figure></div> <p>“Curiosity was a central theme in my learning process,” says <a href="https://case.edu/medicine/pharmacology/people/sudha-chakrapani">Sudha Chakrapani, Ph.D.<span class="exit-disclaimer"></span></a>, a professor and chair of the department of <a href="#37" data-featherlight="glossary">pharmacology</a> at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio. As a high schooler in India, she especially enjoyed her science classes because they fostered her curiosity and allowed her to ask more questions than other subjects did. She was curious about how to use science to solve the challenges she and her community faced, like access to safe drinking water. Seawater surrounded them, so could they find a way to convert it into drinking water?</p> <p>As part of India’s annual National Teachers’ Day celebration, high school seniors take on the role of educators and teach their younger peers for the day. Dr. Chakrapani loved the experience, and it solidified what she already knew: She wanted to go to college to be a science teacher. After earning her bachelor’s degree, she entered back-to-back master’s programs in <a href="#86" data-featherlight="glossary">biochemistry</a> and <a href="#224" data-featherlight="glossary">biomedical engineering</a>, where she had the opportunity to do hands-on research.</p> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/11/investigating-the-inner-workings-of-ion-channels-with-sudha-chakrapani/#more-13974" class="more-link">Continue reading<span class="screen-reader-text"> “Investigating the Inner Workings of Ion Channels With Sudha Chakrapani”</span></a> </div> </article> <article id="post-13964" class="post-13964 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-genes category-injury-and-illness category-tools-and-techniques tag-cool-images tag-cool-videos tag-diseases tag-research-organisms"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"><span class="screen-reader-text">Posted on</span> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/slideshow-creepy-crawlies/" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date published updated" datetime="2024-10-30T10:28:57-04:00">October 30, 2024</time></a></div><h3 class="entry-title"><a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/slideshow-creepy-crawlies/" rel="bookmark">Slideshow: Creepy Crawlies</a></h3><div class="entry-meta"> by <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/author/heather-hayes/" title="Posts by Heather Hayes" class="author url fn" rel="author">Heather Hayes</a></div><div style="font-size:0.8em; font-style:italic; color: #595959;">1 comment</div> </header> <div class="post-thumbnail"> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/slideshow-creepy-crawlies/"> <img width="1077" height="539" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.30.2024-featured.png" class="attachment-twentyseventeen-featured-image size-twentyseventeen-featured-image wp-post-image" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.30.2024-featured.png 1077w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.30.2024-featured-500x250.png 500w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.30.2024-featured-1024x512.png 1024w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.30.2024-featured-300x150.png 300w" sizes="(max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px" /> </a> </div> <div class="entry-content"> <p>This time of year, many creepy crawlies take center stage to frighten people of all ages. To celebrate Halloween, we’ve conjured up a slideshow of fascinating but spooky species that NIGMS-funded scientists study. Some of these creatures drink blood like vampires, while others—frogs, worms, flies, and salamanders—are perfect cauldron ingredients for a witch’s brew. Check out the slideshow—if you dare! </p> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/slideshow-creepy-crawlies/#more-13964" class="more-link">Continue reading<span class="screen-reader-text"> “Slideshow: Creepy Crawlies”</span></a> </div> </article> <article id="post-13907" class="post-13907 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-chemistry-biochemistry-and-pharmacology tag-by-the-numbers"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"><span class="screen-reader-text">Posted on</span> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/chemistry-by-the-numbers/" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date published updated" datetime="2024-10-23T09:56:20-04:00">October 23, 2024</time></a></div><h3 class="entry-title"><a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/chemistry-by-the-numbers/" rel="bookmark">Chemistry by the Numbers</a></h3><div class="entry-meta"> by <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/author/rachel-crowley/" title="Posts by Rachel Crowley" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rachel Crowley</a></div><div style="font-size:0.8em; font-style:italic; color: #595959;">0 comments</div> </header> <div class="post-thumbnail"> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/chemistry-by-the-numbers/"> <img width="889" height="445" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.23.2024-featured.png" class="attachment-twentyseventeen-featured-image size-twentyseventeen-featured-image wp-post-image" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.23.2024-featured.png 889w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.23.2024-featured-500x250.png 500w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.23.2024-featured-300x150.png 300w" sizes="(max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px" /> </a> </div> <div class="entry-content"> <p>Numbers are everywhere in <a href="#154" data-featherlight="glossary">chemistry</a>. You can’t balance equations, determine limiting reactants, or calculate percent yields without them. So, let’s dive into some of the significant figures in chemistry!</p> <p><strong>3</strong></p> <div class="wp-block-image biobeat-img"> <figure class="alignright size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="424" height="456" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.23.2024-2-1.jpg" alt="An atom shown as three red and four blue spheres clustered in the center, with three gray spheres each on a gray orbit encircling the cluster." class="wp-image-13931" style="width:225px" srcset="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.23.2024-2-1.jpg 424w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.23.2024-2-1-279x300.jpg 279w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 424px) 100vw, 424px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A lithium atom with three protons (red) and four neutrons (blue) in the nucleus and three gray electrons orbiting around them. Credit: <a href="https://www.istockphoto.com/photo/model-of-a-lithium-atom-gm103993818-12713654">iStock<span class="exit-disclaimer"></span></a>.</figcaption></figure></div> <p>That’s the number of different types of particles—<a href="#261" data-featherlight="glossary">protons</a>, neutrons, and <a href="#113" data-featherlight="glossary">electrons</a>—that make up <a href="#73" data-featherlight="glossary">atoms</a>, the basic unit of all matter. Protons are positively charged, neutrons are neutral, and electrons are negatively charged. The number of protons in an atom determines what <a href="#115" data-featherlight="glossary">element</a> it is, and atoms usually have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms can have different numbers of neutrons, though, and atoms with the same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons are called <a href="#158" data-featherlight="glossary">isotopes</a>. Protons and neutrons make up the core—or <a href="#25" data-featherlight="glossary">nucleus</a>—of an atom, and electrons orbit around them.</p> <p><strong>4.9 Million</strong></p> <p>That’s how many miles per hour the electron in one hydrogen atom in a molecule of water is moving. At that rate, the electron could make it from New York City to Los Angeles in about 2 seconds!</p> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/chemistry-by-the-numbers/#more-13907" class="more-link">Continue reading<span class="screen-reader-text"> “Chemistry by the Numbers”</span></a> </div> </article> <article id="post-13889" class="post-13889 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-being-a-scientist category-stem-education tag-career-miniseries tag-training"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"><span class="screen-reader-text">Posted on</span> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/advice-to-future-scientists/" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date published" datetime="2024-10-21T09:59:27-04:00">October 21, 2024</time><time class="updated" datetime="2024-11-18T10:16:27-05:00">November 18, 2024</time></a></div><h3 class="entry-title"><a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/advice-to-future-scientists/" rel="bookmark">Advice to Future Scientists</a></h3><div class="entry-meta"> by <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/author/kimberly-rousseau/" title="Posts by Kimberly Smith" class="author url fn" rel="author">Kimberly Smith</a></div><div style="font-size:0.8em; font-style:italic; color: #595959;">2 comments</div> </header> <div class="post-thumbnail"> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/advice-to-future-scientists/"> <img width="825" height="412" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-MM-10.21.2024-featured.png" class="attachment-twentyseventeen-featured-image size-twentyseventeen-featured-image wp-post-image" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-MM-10.21.2024-featured.png 825w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-MM-10.21.2024-featured-500x250.png 500w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-MM-10.21.2024-featured-300x150.png 300w" sizes="(max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px" /> </a> </div> <div class="entry-content"> <div style="display:flex; justify-content: center; width:94%; margin-bottom:1em;"> <div style="width:94%; display:inline-block; padding:0.3em; border:#cccccc 1px solid; background-color:#f3f3f3;">This post is part of our miniseries on becoming a scientist. Be sure to check out the <a href="/tag/career-miniseries/">other posts</a> in this series that you may have missed! </div></div> <p>We’ve interviewed many NIGMS-funded researchers over the years to learn about their career paths and passions inside and outside the laboratory. Many have shared advice for students who are interested in pursuing a career in science. We’ve compiled a handful of those nuggets of advice here and hope that they help you find inspiration to chase your career goals. Check out the links to the full <em>Biomedical Beat</em> blog posts featuring these researchers if you haven’t already.</p> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/advice-to-future-scientists/#more-13889" class="more-link">Continue reading<span class="screen-reader-text"> “Advice to Future Scientists”</span></a> </div> </article> <article id="post-13877" class="post-13877 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-chemistry-biochemistry-and-pharmacology category-tools-and-techniques tag-common-questions tag-cool-toolstechniques tag-diseases tag-gene-editing tag-nobel-prize"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"><span class="screen-reader-text">Posted on</span> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/what-is-crispr/" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date published updated" datetime="2024-10-16T09:52:54-04:00">October 16, 2024</time></a></div><h3 class="entry-title"><a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/what-is-crispr/" rel="bookmark">What Is CRISPR?</a></h3><div class="entry-meta"> by <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/author/kimberly-rousseau/" title="Posts by Kimberly Smith" class="author url fn" rel="author">Kimberly Smith</a></div><div style="font-size:0.8em; font-style:italic; color: #595959;">0 comments</div> </header> <div class="post-thumbnail"> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/what-is-crispr/"> <img width="962" height="481" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.16.2024-featured.png" class="attachment-twentyseventeen-featured-image size-twentyseventeen-featured-image wp-post-image" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.16.2024-featured.png 962w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.16.2024-featured-500x250.png 500w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.16.2024-featured-300x150.png 300w" sizes="(max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px" /> </a> </div> <div class="entry-content"> <p>It might sound like a science fiction author made up <a data-featherlight="glossary" href="#129">genetic engineering</a>, but it’s a real tool researchers use in the laboratory! A <a data-featherlight="glossary" href="#127">gene</a> is a segment of <a data-featherlight="glossary" href="#106">DNA</a> that codes for a <a data-featherlight="glossary" href="#49">protein</a>. The information within a gene directs the building of a protein, block by block, through the process of <a data-featherlight="glossary" href="#126">gene expression</a>. For a variety of reasons, including learning about certain <a data-featherlight="glossary" href="#104">cellular</a> processes, scientists use genetic engineering in the lab to manipulate a cell’s genes and the proteins they encode.</p> <div class="wp-block-image biobeat-img"> <figure class="alignright size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="689" height="583" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.16.2024-1.jpg" alt="Bacteria, shaped as a cluster of orange spheres with bumpy surfaces, on top of an uneven surface." class="wp-image-13879" style="width:225px" srcset="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.16.2024-1.jpg 689w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.16.2024-1-500x423.jpg 500w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/BioBeat-10.16.2024-1-300x254.jpg 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 689px) 100vw, 689px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Streptococcus</em> bacteria under the <a href="#223" data-featherlight="glossary">microscope</a>. Species in this genus, such as <em>Streptococcus pyogenes</em>, have a CRISPR-based defense system. Credit: NIAID/NIH.</figcaption></figure></div> <p>One of the most commonly used genetic engineering techniques is called <a href="#184" data-featherlight="glossary">clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)</a>, named for the odd, repeating sequences that researchers found in <a href="#79" data-featherlight="glossary">bacterial</a> DNA in 1987.</p> <p>Eventually, researchers discovered that these sequences are part of a bacterial <a href="#146" data-featherlight="glossary">immune system</a>. (Just like humans, bacteria are susceptible to <a href="#91" data-featherlight="glossary">viral</a> infections!) Some bacteria are able to insert short sequences of DNA from viruses that previously infected them into their own <a href="#131" data-featherlight="glossary">genome</a>, allowing them to “remember” and more quickly recognize that virus in the future. If the invader tries to attack again, the bacterium recognizes and kills it by chopping up the part of its DNA that matches the “memory” using a special type of protein, an <a href="#118" data-featherlight="glossary">enzyme</a> called CRISPR-Associated (Cas) protein. Our own immune systems also have the ability to remember <a href="#213" data-featherlight="glossary">pathogens</a> through our <a href="/2023/12/what-is-the-immune-system/">adaptive immune response</a>.</p> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/what-is-crispr/#more-13877" class="more-link">Continue reading<span class="screen-reader-text"> “What Is CRISPR?”</span></a> </div> </article> <article id="post-13391" class="post-13391 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-tools-and-techniques tag-common-questions"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"><span class="screen-reader-text">Posted on</span> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/how-many-ounces-are-in-a-cup-and-other-measurement-morsels/" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date published updated" datetime="2024-10-09T09:58:35-04:00">October 9, 2024</time></a></div><h3 class="entry-title"><a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/how-many-ounces-are-in-a-cup-and-other-measurement-morsels/" rel="bookmark">How Many Ounces Are in a Cup—and Other Measurement Morsels</a></h3><div class="entry-meta"> by <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/author/rachel-crowley/" title="Posts by Rachel Crowley" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rachel Crowley</a></div><div style="font-size:0.8em; font-style:italic; color: #595959;">0 comments</div> </header> <div class="post-thumbnail"> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/how-many-ounces-are-in-a-cup-and-other-measurement-morsels/"> <img width="873" height="436" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/BioBeat-measurement.png" class="attachment-twentyseventeen-featured-image size-twentyseventeen-featured-image wp-post-image" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" sizes="(max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px" /> </a> </div> <div class="entry-content"> <div class="wp-block-image biobeat-img img after-heading-space"> <figure class="alignright size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="377" height="650" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/BioBeat-measurement-1.jpg" alt="A measuring cup that amounts to 1 cup or converted measurements of 8 ounces, 16 tablespoons, or 240 milliliters. A measuring spoon set showing one spoon that amounts to 1 tablespoon or converted measurements of 1/2 ounce or 3 teaspoons." class="wp-image-13394" style="width:209px;height:auto"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Credit: NIGMS.</figcaption></figure></div> <p>Do you find yourself frustrated while baking when trying to convert between measuring units, like cups to ounces? First of all, we can help with that one: 1 cup is equal to 8 ounces (oz), 16 tablespoons (Tbsp), 48 teaspoons (tsp), or 240 milliliters (mL).</p> <p>Based on their names, you can probably guess that people began using the tools they had, like cups, teaspoons, and tablespoons, to measure ingredients in the kitchen. They eventually standardized these units of measure because not all spoons or cups were the same size. So now, instead of a recipe calling for milk that fills half a teacup or enough water to fill a coffee cup, we use the standard measuring cup, tablespoon, and teaspoon. In the research lab, scientists use scales and balances to measure solids—not cups—and a variety of tools to measure liquid, from syringes and pipettes to graduated cylinders and flasks—but never spoons!</p> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/how-many-ounces-are-in-a-cup-and-other-measurement-morsels/#more-13391" class="more-link">Continue reading<span class="screen-reader-text"> “How Many Ounces Are in a Cup—and Other Measurement Morsels”</span></a> </div> </article> <article id="post-13853" class="post-13853 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-being-a-scientist category-chemistry-biochemistry-and-pharmacology tag-profiles"> <header class="entry-header"> <div class="entry-meta"><span class="screen-reader-text">Posted on</span> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/inventing-new-ways-to-build-bonds-qa-with-elias-picazo/" rel="bookmark"><time class="entry-date published updated" datetime="2024-10-02T10:15:15-04:00">October 2, 2024</time></a></div><h3 class="entry-title"><a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/inventing-new-ways-to-build-bonds-qa-with-elias-picazo/" rel="bookmark">Inventing New Ways to Build Bonds: Q&A With Elias Picazo</a></h3><div class="entry-meta"> by <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/author/rachel-crowley/" title="Posts by Rachel Crowley" class="author url fn" rel="author">Rachel Crowley</a></div><div style="font-size:0.8em; font-style:italic; color: #595959;">1 comment</div> </header> <div class="post-thumbnail"> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/inventing-new-ways-to-build-bonds-qa-with-elias-picazo/"> <img width="896" height="448" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/BioBeat-10.2.2024-featured.png" class="attachment-twentyseventeen-featured-image size-twentyseventeen-featured-image wp-post-image" alt="" decoding="async" loading="lazy" srcset="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/BioBeat-10.2.2024-featured.png 896w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/BioBeat-10.2.2024-featured-500x250.png 500w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/BioBeat-10.2.2024-featured-300x150.png 300w" sizes="(max-width: 767px) 89vw, (max-width: 1000px) 54vw, (max-width: 1071px) 543px, 580px" /> </a> </div> <div class="entry-content"> <div class="wp-block-image biobeat-img img-after-heading-space"> <figure class="alignright size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="335" height="360" src="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/BioBeat-10.2.2024-MC1.jpg" alt=" A portrait image of Dr. Elias Picazo." class="wp-image-13860" style="width:178px;height:auto" srcset="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/BioBeat-10.2.2024-MC1.jpg 335w, https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/BioBeat-10.2.2024-MC1-279x300.jpg 279w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 335px) 100vw, 335px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Credit: Courtesy of Dr. Elias Picazo.</figcaption></figure></div> <p>“Science has always impacted me, but I didn’t realize how much until I actually became a scientist,” says <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/profile/elias-picazo/">Elias Picazo, Ph.D.<span class="exit-disclaimer"></span></a>, assistant professor of <a href="#154" data-featherlight="glossary">chemistry</a> at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles. We talked to Dr. Picazo about his path to becoming a scientist, some of the challenges he faced along the way, and his research inventing new ways to make <a href="#148" data-featherlight="glossary">chemical bonds</a>. </p> <div style="display:flex; justify-content: center; width:85%; margin-bottom:0.5em;"> <div style="width:85%; display:inline-block; padding:0.3em; border:#000000 2px double; background-color:#dcefff;"><h4 style="text-align: center;">Get to Know Dr. Picazo</h4> <ul style= "list-style-type: square; text-align: left;"> <li><strong>Books or movies?</strong> Movies </li><li><strong>Beach or mountains?</strong> Mountains</li> <li><strong>Favorite music genre?</strong> Pop</li> <li><strong>Rainy or sunny?</strong> Sunny</li> <li><strong>Salty or sweet?</strong> Sweet</li> <li><strong>Music or podcast?</strong> Podcast</li> <li><strong>Washing glassware in the lab or dishes in your kitchen?</strong> Glassware</li> <li><strong>Favorite lab tool?</strong> Magnetic stirrer</li> </ul> </div></div> <a href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/2024/10/inventing-new-ways-to-build-bonds-qa-with-elias-picazo/#more-13853" class="more-link">Continue reading<span class="screen-reader-text"> “Inventing New Ways to Build Bonds: Q&A With Elias Picazo”</span></a> </div> </article> <nav class="navigation pagination"> <h2 class="screen-reader-text">Posts pagination</h2> <div class="nav-links"><span aria-current="page" class="page-numbers current"><span class="meta-nav screen-reader-text">Page </span>1</span> <a class="page-numbers" href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/page/2/"><span class="meta-nav screen-reader-text">Page </span>2</a> <span class="page-numbers dots">…</span> <a class="page-numbers" href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/page/56/"><span class="meta-nav screen-reader-text">Page </span>56</a> <a class="next page-numbers" href="https://biobeat.nigms.nih.gov/page/2/"><span class="screen-reader-text">Next page</span><svg class="icon icon-arrow-right" aria-hidden="true" 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