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href="https://www.eeworldonline.com/author/prggroup/" class="entry-author-link" rel="author"><span class="entry-author-name">WTWH Editor</span></a></span> </p></header><div class="entry-content"><div class="addtoany_share_save_container addtoany_content addtoany_content_top"><div class="a2a_kit a2a_kit_size_16 addtoany_list" data-a2a-url="https://www.eeworldonline.com/what-information-does-an-eye-diagram-depict/" data-a2a-title="What information does an eye diagram depict?"><a class="a2a_button_facebook" href="https://www.addtoany.com/add_to/facebook?linkurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eeworldonline.com%2Fwhat-information-does-an-eye-diagram-depict%2F&linkname=What%20information%20does%20an%20eye%20diagram%20depict%3F" title="Facebook" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank"></a><a class="a2a_button_x" href="https://www.addtoany.com/add_to/x?linkurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eeworldonline.com%2Fwhat-information-does-an-eye-diagram-depict%2F&linkname=What%20information%20does%20an%20eye%20diagram%20depict%3F" title="X" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank"></a><a class="a2a_button_linkedin" href="https://www.addtoany.com/add_to/linkedin?linkurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eeworldonline.com%2Fwhat-information-does-an-eye-diagram-depict%2F&linkname=What%20information%20does%20an%20eye%20diagram%20depict%3F" title="LinkedIn" rel="nofollow noopener" target="_blank"></a><a class="a2a_dd addtoany_share_save addtoany_share" href="https://www.addtoany.com/share"></a></div></div><p>An eye diagram is a powerful visualization tool in digital communications and high-speed electronics to assess signal quality and channel performance.</p> <p>This FAQ will briefly explain an eye diagram and the overall and specific metrics engineers should know to understand an eye diagram.</p> <p>During a digital bitstream, many signals superposition over each other with multiple transitions, leading to an eye diagram. This diagram includes logic levels, such as the high and low voltage levels represented as digital “1” and digital “0,” and signal crossings where the signals transition between logic levels.</p> <p>Different modulation schemes, such as the Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) and Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) formats, can form an eye diagram. The NRZ refers to two different levels with transitions between them, while the PAM refers to multiple distinct levels, with the number of eyes corresponding to the modulation order.</p> <p><strong>Figure 1</strong> illustrates an NRZ and a PAM format, with a <a href="https://www.eeworldonline.com/how-pam4-moves-bits-through-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">PAM4</a> of “4” representing the modulation order. PAM has the advantages of NRZ: higher bandwidth efficiency, increased data rates, reduced channel loss, and lower system cost.</p> <figure id="attachment_19251" class="wp-caption aligncenter" style="width: 712px;" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-19251"><a href="https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-1.jpg"><img decoding="async" class="size-full wp-image-19251" src="https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-1.jpg" sizes="(max-width: 712px) 100vw, 712px" srcset="https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-1.jpg 712w, https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-1-300x75.jpg 300w" alt="" width="712" height="179" /></a><figcaption id="caption-attachment-19251" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 1. An illustration of a PAM4 and an NRZ eye diagram. (Image: <a href="https://www.qsfptek.com/network-glossary/pam4.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">QSFPTEK</a>)</figcaption></figure> <h3>What are the overall quality metrics that can help analyze an eye diagram?</h3> <p>Two quality metrics give us first-hand information about an eye diagram: the eye opening and the eye mask. The eye opening is a clear area in the center of the diagram, with a larger opening indicating better signal quality and maintaining signal integrity. The eye mask is a defined region within the eye opening that the signal should not violate and is used for compliance testing. <strong>Figure 2</strong> shows an opening and what an eye mask looks like.</p> <figure id="attachment_19250" class="wp-caption aligncenter" style="width: 1860px;" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-19250"><a href="https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-2.jpg"><img decoding="async" class="size-full wp-image-19250" src="https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-2.jpg" sizes="(max-width: 1860px) 100vw, 1860px" srcset="https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-2.jpg 1860w, https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-2-300x174.jpg 300w, https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-2-1024x595.jpg 1024w, https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-2-768x446.jpg 768w, https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-2-1536x892.jpg 1536w" alt="" width="1860" height="1080" /></a><figcaption id="caption-attachment-19250" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 2. The eye-opening is the area between the high and low signals, and the eye mask is within the eye-opening. (Image: <a href="https://www.ansata.net/?attachment_id=28570" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ANSATA</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The metrics used to measure the quality of an eye diagram can be classified into timing and amplitude types. The timing metrics include jitter and duty cycle distortion. Jitter refers to variations in the timing of signal transitions, and duty cycle distortion refers to the asymmetry in the time spent at the high and low levels of the signals with respect to the crossing points. <strong>Figure 3</strong> shows the metrics jitter and duty cycle distortion.</p> <figure id="attachment_19249" class="wp-caption aligncenter" style="width: 451px;" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-19249"><a href="https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-3.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class=" wp-image-19249" src="https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-3.png" sizes="auto, (max-width: 451px) 100vw, 451px" srcset="https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-3.png 975w, https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-3-300x181.png 300w, https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-3-768x462.png 768w" alt="" width="451" height="272" /></a><figcaption id="caption-attachment-19249" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 3. Jitters can be observed as variations in the cross-over timings and duty cycle distortions as asymmetric high and low signal levels. (Image: <a href="https://resources.system-analysis.cadence.com/blog/how-to-read-an-eye-diagram" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Cadence Design Systems</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Amplitude metrics include noise and intersymbol interference (ISI). <a href="https://www.eeworldonline.com/the-difference-between-noise-and-jitter/">Noise</a> refers to random variations in signal amplitude, visible as the vertical thickness of the signal traces. ISI is caused by previous bits leading to eye closure. Noise and jitter might look similar, but an FAQ focuses on their differences.</p> <h3>How do specific metrics aid in measuring the signal quality using an eye diagram?</h3> <p>Physical impairments originating from imperfect devices can commonly be found as a clipping effect, pattern effect, overshoot, eye-skew effect, insufficient extinction ratio (ER), and mismatching power, depicted in <strong>Figure 4</strong>. Let’s briefly discuss these phenomena, why they occur, and the consequences.</p> <figure id="attachment_19248" class="wp-caption aligncenter" style="width: 757px;" aria-describedby="caption-attachment-19248"><a href="https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-4.png"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="size-full wp-image-19248" src="https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-4.png" sizes="auto, (max-width: 757px) 100vw, 757px" srcset="https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-4.png 757w, https://www.testandmeasurementtips.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Figure-4-300x153.png 300w" alt="" width="757" height="386" /></a><figcaption id="caption-attachment-19248" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 4. The six commonly caused device imperfection-induced impairments in an eye diagram are (a) clipping effect, (b) pattern effect, (c) overshoot, (d) eye-skew effect, (e) insufficient extinction ratio, and (f) mismatched power. (Image: <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8871178" target="_blank" rel="noopener">IEEE Photonics Journal</a>)</figcaption></figure> <h3>Clipping effect</h3> <p>Clipping manifests as narrowing the vertical and horizontal openings in an eye diagram. The eye becomes less open, indicating less margin for noise and jitter, caused primarily by a bias in voltage. The voltage bias, in turn, prevents the device from operating in a linear region, leading to distorted waveforms.</p> <h3>Pattern effect</h3> <p>A pattern effect occurs when the tail end of a previous bit overlaps with the current bit, causing interference. This effect is critical in high-speed digital communication systems, where it is more likely to occur and degrade overall system performance.</p> <h3>Overshoot</h3> <p>Overshoot occurs when the signal amplitude temporarily exceeds its intended final value during transitions. In an eye diagram, this phenomenon is observed at the rising or falling edges of the signal waveform due to high-speed transitions and impedance mismatch.</p> <h3>Eye-skew effect</h3> <p>Skew is the timing offset between a received signal and its reference clock caused by differences in the length of signal paths in propagation delay among multiple channels.</p> <p>Insufficient ER occurs when the difference between the optical power levels of the on-state (logical 1) and the off-state (logical 0) is too small. This leads to increased bit error rates and degraded system performance. The primary source of this phenomenon is non-ideal signal shapes due to bandwidth and component limitations.</p> <h3>Mismatched power</h3> <p>The effect of mismatched power is seen as noise and closely resembles how insufficient ER leads to signal distortion. This phenomenon is attributed to transmitter aging, as reaching the rated output power is challenging, especially in laser applications.</p> <p>These six specific metrics provide extensive information about the system’s performance and identify areas that deserve attention.</p> <h3>Summary</h3> <p>By analyzing the various metrics of an eye diagram, engineers can quickly assess signal quality and identify potential issues. This helps them make informed decisions about system design and optimization. The PAM format is gaining popularity because of its higher bandwidth efficiency, but the key metrics for studying the quality of signals on eye diagrams remain the same.</p> <h3>References</h3> <p><a href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20190025712/downloads/20190025712.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Optical software-defined radio transmitter extinction ratio enhancement with differential pulse carving</a>, NASA<br /> <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8871178" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Comprehensive Eye Diagram Analysis: A Transfer Learning Approach</a>, IEEE Photonics Journal<br /> <a href="https://www.hwe.design/design-fundamentals/ee-basics/signal-integrity-and-power-integrity/signal-integrity" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Hardware and Systems Engineering Design – Signal Integrity</a>, HWE Tech & Consulting, LLC.<br /> <a href="https://edgeoptic.com/kb_article/pam4-vs-nrz/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">PAM4 vs NRZ: What You Need to Know</a>, Edge Optical Solutions<br /> <a href="https://resources.system-analysis.cadence.com/blog/how-to-read-an-eye-diagram" target="_blank" rel="noopener">How to Read an Eye Diagram</a>, Cadence Design Systems<br /> <a href="https://resources.altium.com/p/what-eye-diagram" target="_blank" rel="noopener">What is an Eye Diagram?</a>, Altium</p> <div class="bawmrp"> <h3>You may also like:</h3> <ul> <li style="float:left;width:120px;height:auto;overflow:hidden;list-style:none;border-right: 1px solid #ccc;text-align:center;padding:0px 5px;" class="bawmrp_manual"><a href="https://www.eeworldonline.com/what-is-orthogonal-part-4-eye-diagrams-faq/"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" src="https://www.eeworldonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/orthogonal-part-4-featured-150x150.png" class="attachment-100x100 size-100x100 wp-post-image" alt="" /><br />What is “orthogonal”? 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