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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tidal_flooding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Tidal flooding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tidal_flooding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tsunami_waves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tsunami_waves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Tsunami waves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tsunami_waves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Impacts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impacts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span 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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Coastal flooding</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Lili2002coastalflooding.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="225" /></a><figcaption>Coastal flooding during <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Lili" title="Hurricane Lili">Hurricane Lili</a> in 2002 on <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Highway_1" title="Louisiana Highway 1">Louisiana Highway 1</a> (United States)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Coastal flooding</b> occurs when dry and low-lying land is submerged (<a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">flooded</a>) by <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ramsay_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ramsay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The range of a coastal <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">flooding</a> is a result of the elevation of floodwater that penetrates the inland which is controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a> of the coastal land exposed to flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-ramsay_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ramsay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDoornkamp1998_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoornkamp1998-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The seawater can flood the land via several different paths: direct flooding, overtopping or breaching of a barrier.<sup id="cite_ref-NatureComms_20210618_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NatureComms_20210618-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coastal flooding is largely a natural event. Due to the <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> and an increase in <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">extreme weather</a> events) and an increase in the population living in coastal areas, the damage caused by coastal flood events has intensified and more people are being affected.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Coastal_plain" title="Coastal plain">Coastal areas</a> are sometimes flooded by unusually high tides, such as <a href="/wiki/Spring_tide" class="mw-redirect" title="Spring tide">spring tides</a>, especially when compounded by high winds and <a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm surges</a>. This was the cause of the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea_flood_of_1953" title="North Sea flood of 1953">North Sea flood of 1953</a> which flooded large swathes of the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and the East coast of <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>. </p><p>When humans modify the coastal environment this can make coastal flooding worse.<sup id="cite_ref-ramsay_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ramsay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nicholls_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholls-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-griffis_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffis-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dawson_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dawson-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extraction of water from groundwater reservoirs in the coastal zone can instigate <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> of the land, thus increasing the risk of flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-nicholls_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholls-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Engineered protection structures along the coast, such as <a href="/wiki/Sea_walls" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea walls">sea walls</a>, alter the natural processes of the beach. This can lead to <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> on adjacent stretches of the coast which also increases the risk of flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-ramsay_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ramsay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dawson_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dawson-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pope_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pope-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reduction and control of coastal flooding is carried out using structural methods to hold back or redirect flood waters. Non-structural methods include coastal management, behavioral and institutional response to adapt to the processes. Natural defenses include physical features like <a href="/wiki/Gravel_bars" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravel bars">gravel bars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sand_dune" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand dune">sand dune</a> systems, but also <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Salt_marshes" class="mw-redirect" title="Salt marshes">salt marshes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangrove</a> forests which have a buffering function. <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wetlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetlands">wetlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">seagrass meadows</a> are often considered to provide significant protection against storm waves, tsunamis, and shoreline <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> through their ability to attenuate wave energy.<sup id="cite_ref-griffis_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffis-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-alongi_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alongi-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To protect the coastal zone from flooding, the natural defenses should, therefore, be protected and maintained in for example <a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine Protected Areas</a> (MPAs).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1950-_High_tide_flooding,_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_(U.S.).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/1950-_High_tide_flooding%2C_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_%28U.S.%29.svg/220px-1950-_High_tide_flooding%2C_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_%28U.S.%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/1950-_High_tide_flooding%2C_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_%28U.S.%29.svg/330px-1950-_High_tide_flooding%2C_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_%28U.S.%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/1950-_High_tide_flooding%2C_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_%28U.S.%29.svg/440px-1950-_High_tide_flooding%2C_by_year_-_NOAA_tide_gauges_%28U.S.%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption>High tide flooding, also called <a href="/wiki/Tidal_flooding" title="Tidal flooding">tidal flooding</a>, is one of the causes for coastal flooding. It has become much more common in the past seven decades.<sup id="cite_ref-N0AA_HighTideFlooding_201802_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-N0AA_HighTideFlooding_201802-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> can flood the land via several different paths: </p> <ul><li>Direct flooding — where the sea height exceeds the elevation of the land, often where waves have not built up a natural barrier such as a dune</li> <li>Overtopping of a barrier — the barrier may be natural or human-engineered and overtopping occurs due to swelling conditions during storms or high tides often on open stretches of the coast.<sup id="cite_ref-NatureComms_20210618_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NatureComms_20210618-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The height of the waves exceeds the height of the barrier and <a href="/wiki/Water_Flows_(album)" class="mw-redirect" title="Water Flows (album)">water flows</a> over the top of the barrier to flood the land behind it. Overtopping can result in high <a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">velocity</a> flows that can erode significant amounts of the land surface which can undermine defense structures.<sup id="cite_ref-gallien_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gallien-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Breaching of a barrier — again the barrier may be natural (sand dune) or human-engineered (sea wall), and breaching occurs on open coasts exposed to large waves. Breaching occurs when the barrier is broken down or destroyed by waves allowing the seawater to extend inland and flood the areas</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Coastal flooding can result from a variety of different causes including <a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm surges</a> created by storms like <a href="/wiki/Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane">hurricanes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclones</a>, rising sea levels due to climate change and <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunamis</a>.</p><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hurricane_Carol_Storm_Surge_in_color_1954.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Hurricane_Carol_Storm_Surge_in_color_1954.jpg/345px-Hurricane_Carol_Storm_Surge_in_color_1954.jpg" decoding="async" width="345" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Hurricane_Carol_Storm_Surge_in_color_1954.jpg/518px-Hurricane_Carol_Storm_Surge_in_color_1954.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Hurricane_Carol_Storm_Surge_in_color_1954.jpg/690px-Hurricane_Carol_Storm_Surge_in_color_1954.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="1196" /></a><figcaption>Storm surge from <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Carol" title="Hurricane Carol">Hurricane Carol</a> in 1954</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Storms_and_storm_surges">Storms and storm surges</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Storms and storm surges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Storms" class="mw-redirect" title="Storms">Storms</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Hurricanes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricanes">hurricanes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical cyclones">tropical cyclones</a>, can cause flooding through <a href="/wiki/Storm_surges" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm surges">storm surges</a> which are waves significantly larger than normal.<sup id="cite_ref-ramsay_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ramsay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-kurian_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kurian-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a storm event coincides with the <a href="/wiki/High_astronomical_tide" class="mw-redirect" title="High astronomical tide">high astronomical tide</a>, extensive flooding can occur.<sup id="cite_ref-benavente_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-benavente-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Storm surges involve three processes: </p> <ol><li>wind setup</li> <li>barometric setup</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">wave setup</a></li></ol> <p>Wind blowing in an onshore direction (from the sea towards the land) can cause the water to 'pile-up' against the coast; this is known as wind setup. Low <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">atmospheric pressure</a> is associated with storm systems and this tends to increase the surface sea level; this is a barometric setup. Finally increased <a href="/wiki/Wave_breaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave breaking">wave breaking</a> height results in a higher water level in the <a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">surf zone</a>, which is <a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">wave setup</a>. These three processes interact to create waves that can overtop natural and engineered coastal protection structures thus penetrating seawater further inland than normal.<sup id="cite_ref-benavente_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-benavente-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-link_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-link-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sea_level_rise">Sea level rise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sea level rise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea_level_rise&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>Between 1901 and 2018, the average <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a> rose by 15–25 cm (6–10 in), with an increase of 2.3 mm (0.091 in) per year since the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1216">: 1216 </span></sup> This was faster than the sea level had ever risen over at least the past 3,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1216">: 1216 </span></sup> The rate accelerated to 4.62 mm (0.182 in)/yr for the decade 2013–2022.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_WMO_20230421_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_WMO_20230421-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> due to human activities is the main cause.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5, 8">: 5, 8 </span></sup> Between 1993 and 2018, melting <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheets" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice sheets">ice sheets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> accounted for 44% of <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a>, with another 42% resulting from <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a> of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_WCRP2018_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_WCRP2018-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1576">: 1576 </span></sup> </p> Sea level rise lags behind changes in the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s temperature by many decades, and sea level rise will therefore continue to accelerate between now and 2050 in response to warming that has already happened.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_us_nrc_2011_long_term_slr_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_us_nrc_2011_long_term_slr-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What happens after that depends on human <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>. If there are very deep cuts in emissions, sea level rise would slow between 2050 and 2100. It could then reach by 2100 slightly over 30 cm (1 ft) from now and approximately 60 cm (2 ft) from the 19th century. With high emissions it would instead accelerate further, and could rise by <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1.0 m (<span class="frac">3<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> ft) or even <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">1.6 m (<span class="frac">5<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span> ft) by 2100.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 1302">: 1302 </span></sup> In the long run, sea level rise would amount to 2–3 m (7–10 ft) over the next 2000 years if warming stays to its current 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over the pre-industrial past. It would be 19–22 metres (62–72 ft) if warming peaks at 5 °C (9.0 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_level_rise_IPCC_2021_WGI_SPM-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 21">: 21 </span></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tidal_flooding">Tidal flooding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tidal flooding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami,_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami%2C_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg/250px-October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami%2C_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami%2C_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg/375px-October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami%2C_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami%2C_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg/500px-October_17_2016_sunny_day_tidal_flooding_at_Brickell_Bay_Drive_and_12_Street_downtown_Miami%2C_4.34_MLLW_high_tide_am.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Tidal flooding on a sunny day, during the "king tides" in <a href="/wiki/Brickell" title="Brickell">Brickell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</a> in 2016</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Holland_Island_house.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Holland_Island_house.jpg/220px-Holland_Island_house.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Holland_Island_house.jpg/330px-Holland_Island_house.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Holland_Island_house.jpg/440px-Holland_Island_house.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The last remaining house on <a href="/wiki/Holland_Island" title="Holland Island">Holland Island</a> that collapsed and was torn down in the 2010s as <a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">erosion</a> and tides reached the foundation.</figcaption></figure> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Tidal_flooding" title="Tidal flooding">Tidal flooding</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tidal_flooding&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p><a href="/wiki/Tidal_flooding" title="Tidal flooding">Tidal flooding</a>, also known as sunny day flooding<sup id="cite_ref-Tidal_flooding_TRDdev_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tidal_flooding_TRDdev-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or nuisance flooding,<sup id="cite_ref-Tidal_flooding_NOAAnuisance_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tidal_flooding_NOAAnuisance-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the temporary inundation of low-lying areas, especially streets, during exceptionally <a href="/wiki/High_tide" class="mw-redirect" title="High tide">high tide</a> events, such as at <a href="/wiki/Full_moon" title="Full moon">full</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_moon" title="New moon">new moons</a>. The highest tides of the year may be known as the <a href="/wiki/King_tide" title="King tide">king tide</a>, with the month varying by location. These kinds of floods tend not to be a high risk to property or human safety, but further stress coastal infrastructure in low lying areas.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> This kind of flooding is becoming more common in cities and other human-occupied coastal areas as <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> associated with <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> and other human-related environmental impacts such as <a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">coastal erosion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Land_subsidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Land subsidence">land subsidence</a> increase the <a href="/wiki/Climate_vulnerability" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate vulnerability">vulnerability of infrastructure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geographies faced with these issues can utilize <a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">coastal management</a> practices to mitigate the effects in some areas, but increasingly these kinds of floods may develop into coastal flooding that requires <a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">managed retreat</a> or other more extensive <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">climate change adaptation</a> practices are needed for vulnerable areas.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tsunami_waves">Tsunami waves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tsunami waves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coastal areas can be significantly flooded as the result of <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> waves<sup id="cite_ref-cochard_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cochard-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which propagate through the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a> as the result of the displacement of a significant body of water through <a href="/wiki/Earthquakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthquakes">earthquakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landslides" class="mw-redirect" title="Landslides">landslides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_eruptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic eruptions">volcanic eruptions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacier</a> calvings. There is also evidence to suggest that significant tsunami have been caused in the past by <a href="/wiki/Meteor" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteor">meteor</a> impact into the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-goff_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goff-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tsunami waves are so destructive due to the <a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">velocity</a> of the approaching waves, the height of the waves when they reach land, and the <a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">debris</a> the water entrains as it flows over land can cause further damage.<sup id="cite_ref-cochard_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cochard-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-alongi_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alongi-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Depending on the magnitude of the tsunami waves and floods, it could cause severe injuries which call for precautionary interventions that prevent overwhelming aftermaths. It was reported that more than 200,000 people were killed in the earthquake and subsequent tsunami that hit the Indian Ocean, on December 26, 2004.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not to mention, several diseases are a result of floods ranging from hypertension to chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts">Impacts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Flood#Negative_impacts" title="Flood">Flood § Negative impacts</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_and_economic_impacts">Social and economic impacts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Social and economic impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Coastal_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal zone">coastal zone</a> (the area both within 100 kilometres distance of the coast and 100 metres elevation of sea level) is home to a large and growing proportion of the global population.<sup id="cite_ref-nicholls_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholls-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dawson_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dawson-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over 50 percent of the global population and 65 percent of cities with populations over five million people are in the coastal zone.<sup id="cite_ref-hunt_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hunt-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the significant number of people at risk of coastal flooding, these coastal urban centres are producing a considerable amount of the global <a href="/wiki/Gross_Domestic_Product" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross Domestic Product">Gross Domestic Product</a> (GDP).<sup id="cite_ref-dawson_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dawson-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>People's lives, homes, businesses, and city infrastructure like roads, railways, and industrial plants are all at risk of coastal flooding with massive potential social and economic costs.<sup id="cite_ref-suarez_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-suarez-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tomita_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tomita-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nadal_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nadal-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The recent <a href="/wiki/Earthquakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthquakes">earthquakes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> in 2004 and in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> in March 2011 clearly illustrate the devastation coastal flooding can produce. Indirect economic costs can be incurred if economically important sandy <a href="/wiki/Beaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Beaches">beaches</a> are eroded resulting in a loss of <a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">tourism</a> in areas dependent on the attractiveness of those beaches.<sup id="cite_ref-snoussi_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-snoussi-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_impacts">Environmental impacts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Environmental impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coastal flooding can result in a wide variety of environmental impacts on different spatial and temporal scales. Flooding can destroy coastal habitats such as coastal <a href="/wiki/Wetlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetlands">wetlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Estuaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Estuaries">estuaries</a> and can erode dune systems.<sup id="cite_ref-gallien_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gallien-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nicholls_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholls-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-snoussi_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-snoussi-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hunt_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hunt-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These places are characterized by their high <a href="/wiki/Biological_diversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological diversity">biological diversity</a> therefore coastal flooding can cause significant <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a> and potentially species <a href="/wiki/Extinctions" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinctions">extinctions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cochard_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cochard-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to this, these coastal features are the coasts natural buffering system against storm waves; consistent coastal flooding and sea-level rise can cause this natural protection to be reduced allowing waves to penetrate greater distances inland exacerbating erosion and furthering coastal flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-nicholls_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholls-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "By 2050, “moderate” (typically damaging) flooding is expected to occur, on average, more than 10 times as often as it does today, and can be intensified by local factors."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prolonged <a href="/wiki/Inundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Inundation">inundation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> after flooding can also cause <a href="/wiki/Salination" class="mw-redirect" title="Salination">salination</a> of agriculturally productive soils thus resulting in a loss of productivity for long periods of time.<sup id="cite_ref-ramsay_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ramsay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-snoussi_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-snoussi-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Food <a href="/wiki/Crops" class="mw-redirect" title="Crops">crops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Forests">forests</a> can be completely killed off by salination of soils or wiped out by the movement of floodwaters.<sup id="cite_ref-nicholls_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholls-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coastal freshwater bodies including <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lagoons" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagoons">lagoons</a>, and coastal freshwater <a href="/wiki/Aquifers" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquifers">aquifers</a> can also be affected by <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_intrusion" title="Saltwater intrusion">saltwater intrusion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-gallien_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gallien-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nicholls_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholls-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hunt_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hunt-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can destroy these water bodies as habitats for freshwater organisms and sources of drinking water for towns and cities.<sup id="cite_ref-nicholls_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholls-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hunt_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hunt-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reduction_and_control">Reduction and control</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Reduction and control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation#Flooding" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation § Flooding</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flood_control">Flood control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Flood control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Flood_management" title="Flood management">Flood management</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flood_management&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Humber_Weir.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/63/Humber_Weir.JPG/287px-Humber_Weir.JPG" decoding="async" width="287" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/63/Humber_Weir.JPG/431px-Humber_Weir.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/63/Humber_Weir.JPG/574px-Humber_Weir.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Weir" title="Weir">weir</a> was built on the <a href="/wiki/Humber_River_(Ontario)" title="Humber River (Ontario)">Humber River (Ontario)</a> to prevent a recurrence of a catastrophic flood.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Flood_management" title="Flood management">Flood management</a> describes methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">flood</a> waters. Flooding can be caused by a mix of both natural processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">extreme weather</a> upstream, and human changes to waterbodies and runoff. Flood management methods can be either of the <i>structural</i> type (i.e. flood control) and of the <i>non-structural</i> type. Structural methods hold back floodwaters physically, while non-structural methods do not. Building <a href="/wiki/Hard_infrastructure" title="Hard infrastructure">hard infrastructure</a> to prevent flooding, such as <a href="/wiki/Flood_wall" title="Flood wall">flood walls</a>, is effective at managing flooding. However, it is best practice within <a href="/wiki/Landscape_engineering" title="Landscape engineering">landscape engineering</a> to rely more on <a href="/wiki/Soft_infrastructure" title="Soft infrastructure">soft infrastructure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">natural systems</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">marshes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Floodplain" title="Floodplain">flood plains</a>, for handling the increase in water. </p><p>Flood management can include <i>flood risk management,</i> which focuses on measures to reduce risk, vulnerability and exposure to flood disasters and providing risk analysis through, for example, <a href="/wiki/Flood_risk_assessment" title="Flood risk assessment">flood risk assessment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Flood_management_:622_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood_management_:622-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Flood mitigation</i> is a related but separate concept describing a broader set of strategies taken to reduce flood risk and potential impact while improving resilience against flood events. </p> As <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> has led to increased flood risk an intensity, flood management is an important part of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">climate change adaptation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">climate resilience</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Flood_management_:0_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Flood_management_:0-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, to prevent or manage coastal flooding, <a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">coastal management</a> practices have to handle natural processes like <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a> but also <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> due to climate change. The prevention and mitigation of flooding can be studied on three levels: on individual properties, small communities, and whole towns or cities.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-structural_mechanisms">Non-structural mechanisms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Non-structural mechanisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If human systems are affected by flooding, an adaption to how that system operates on the coast through behavioral and institutional changes is required, these changes are the so-called <i>non-structural</i> mechanisms of coastal flooding response.<sup id="cite_ref-dawson2011_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dawson2011-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Building_code" title="Building code">Building regulations</a>, coastal <a href="/wiki/Hazard" title="Hazard">hazard</a> zoning, urban development planning, spreading the risk through <a href="/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">insurance</a>, and enhancing public awareness are some ways of achieving this.<sup id="cite_ref-nicholls_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholls-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-dawson2011_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dawson2011-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-snoussi_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-snoussi-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adapting</a> to the risk of flood occurrence can be the best option if the cost of building defense structures outweighs any benefits or if the natural processes in that stretch of coastline add to its natural character and attractiveness.<sup id="cite_ref-pope_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pope-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A more extreme and often difficult to accept the response to coastal flooding is abandoning the area (also known as <a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">managed retreat</a>) prone to flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-gallien_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gallien-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This however raises issues for where the people and <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> affected would go and what sort of <a href="/wiki/Damages" title="Damages">compensation</a> should/could be paid. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Engineered_defenses">Engineered defenses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Engineered defenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:53sitges.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/53sitges.jpg/220px-53sitges.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/53sitges.jpg/330px-53sitges.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/53sitges.jpg/440px-53sitges.jpg 2x" data-file-width="534" data-file-height="357" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Groynes" class="mw-redirect" title="Groynes">Groynes</a> are engineered structures that aim to prevent <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> of the beach front</figcaption></figure> <p>There are a variety of ways in which humans are trying to prevent the flooding of coastal environments, typically through so-called hard engineering structures such as <a href="/wiki/Flood_barrier" title="Flood barrier">flood barriers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seawalls" class="mw-redirect" title="Seawalls">seawalls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Levees" class="mw-redirect" title="Levees">levees</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-pope_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pope-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-short_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-short-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That armouring of the coast is typical to protect towns and cities which have developed right up to the beachfront.<sup id="cite_ref-pope_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pope-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enhancing depositional processes along the <a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">coast</a> can also help prevent coastal flooding. Structures such as <a href="/wiki/Groynes" class="mw-redirect" title="Groynes">groynes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breakwaters" class="mw-redirect" title="Breakwaters">breakwaters</a>, and artificial headlands promote the deposition of sediment on the beach thus helping to buffer against storm waves and surges as the wave energy is spent on moving the sediments in the beach than on moving water inland.<sup id="cite_ref-short_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-short-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_defenses">Natural defenses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Natural defenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mangroves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Mangroves.jpg/220px-Mangroves.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Mangroves.jpg/330px-Mangroves.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Mangroves.jpg/440px-Mangroves.jpg 2x" data-file-width="689" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mangroves" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangroves">Mangroves</a> are one of the coasts natural defense systems against <a href="/wiki/Storm_surges" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm surges">storm surges</a> and flooding. Their high <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> both above and below the water can help dissipate wave energy.</figcaption></figure> <p>Coastal areas do provide natural protective structures to guard against coastal flooding. These include physical features like <a href="/wiki/Gravel_bars" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravel bars">gravel bars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sand_dune" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand dune">sand dune</a> systems, but also <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Salt_marshes" class="mw-redirect" title="Salt marshes">salt marshes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangrove</a> forests have a buffering function. <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wetlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetlands">wetlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">seagrass meadows</a> are often considered to provide significant protection against storm waves, tsunamis, and shoreline <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> through their ability to attenuate wave energy.<sup id="cite_ref-griffis_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffis-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-alongi_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alongi-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To protect the coastal zone from flooding, the natural defenses should, therefore, be protected and maintained in for example <a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine Protected Areas</a> (MPAs).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Longer_term_aspects_and_research">Longer term aspects and research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Longer term aspects and research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reducing global sea level rise is one way to prevent significant flooding of coastal areas. This could be minimised by further reducing <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>. However, even if significant emission decreases are achieved, there is already a substantial amount of sea level rise into the future.<sup id="cite_ref-nicholls_5-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholls-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> International <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_policies" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change policies">climate change policies</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> are seeking to mitigate the future <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a>, including sea level rise. In addition, more immediate measures of engineered and natural defenses are put in place to prevent coastal flooding. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thames.barrier.5.london.arp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Thames.barrier.5.london.arp.jpg/220px-Thames.barrier.5.london.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Thames.barrier.5.london.arp.jpg/330px-Thames.barrier.5.london.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Thames.barrier.5.london.arp.jpg/440px-Thames.barrier.5.london.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1292" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Thames_Barrier" title="Thames Barrier">Thames Barrier</a> provides flood control for London, U.K.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KatrinaNewOrleansFlooded_edit2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/KatrinaNewOrleansFlooded_edit2.jpg/220px-KatrinaNewOrleansFlooded_edit2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/KatrinaNewOrleansFlooded_edit2.jpg/330px-KatrinaNewOrleansFlooded_edit2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/KatrinaNewOrleansFlooded_edit2.jpg/440px-KatrinaNewOrleansFlooded_edit2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1153" data-file-height="1514" /></a><figcaption>Significant flooding in New Orleans as a result of <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> and the failure of the city's flood protection systems</figcaption></figure> <p>Examples of countries with existing coastal flooding problems include: </p> <ul><li>The Netherlands: <a href="/wiki/Flood_control_in_the_Netherlands" title="Flood control in the Netherlands">Flood control in the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>: <a href="/wiki/Floods_in_Bangladesh" title="Floods in Bangladesh">Floods in Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>: The <a href="/wiki/Thames_Barrier" title="Thames Barrier">Thames Barrier</a> is one of the world's largest flood barriers and serves to protect <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> from flooding during exceptionally high tides and storm surges.<sup id="cite_ref-hunt_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hunt-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-horner_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horner-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Barrier can be lifted at high tide to prevent sea waters flooding London and can be lowered to release <a href="/wiki/Stormwater_runoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Stormwater runoff">stormwater runoff</a> from the Thames catchment.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>: Flooding of the low-lying coastal zone <a href="/wiki/South_Canterbury" title="South Canterbury">South Canterbury</a> Plains in New Zealand can result in prolonged inundation, which can affect the productivity of the affected <a href="/wiki/Pastoral" title="Pastoral">pastoral</a> agriculture for several years.<sup id="cite_ref-ramsay_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ramsay-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hurricane_Katrina_in_New_Orleans">Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a> made landfall as a category 3 <a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">cyclone</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Saffir%E2%80%93Simpson_hurricane_wind_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale">Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale</a>, indicating that it had become an only moderate level storm.<sup id="cite_ref-link_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-link-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the catastrophic damage caused by the extensive flooding was the result of the highest recorded storm surges in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-link_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-link-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For several days prior to the landfall of Katrina, wave setup was generated by the persistent winds of the <a href="/wiki/Cyclonic_rotation" title="Cyclonic rotation">cyclonic rotation</a> of the system. This prolonged wave set up coupled with the very low central pressure level meant massive storm surges were generated.<sup id="cite_ref-ebersole_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebersole-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Storm surges overtopped and breached the <a href="/wiki/Levees" class="mw-redirect" title="Levees">levees</a> and floodwalls intended to protect the city from inundation.<sup id="cite_ref-griffis_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffis-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-link_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-link-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ebersole_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ebersole-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unfortunately, <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> is inherently prone to coastal flooding for a number of factors. Firstly, much of New Orleans is below sea level and is bordered by the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> therefore protection against flooding from both the sea and the river has become dependent on engineered structures. <a href="/wiki/Land-use_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Land-use change">Land-use change</a> and modification to natural systems in the Mississippi River have rendered the natural defenses for the city less effective. <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a> loss has been calculated to be around 1,900 square miles (4,920 square kilometres) since 1930. This is a significant amount as four miles of wetland are estimated to reduce the height of a <a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm surge</a> by one foot (30 centimeters).<sup id="cite_ref-griffis_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-griffis-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Navy_050102-N-9593M-040_A_village_near_the_coast_of_Sumatra_lays_in_ruin_after_the_Tsunami_that_struck_South_East_Asia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/US_Navy_050102-N-9593M-040_A_village_near_the_coast_of_Sumatra_lays_in_ruin_after_the_Tsunami_that_struck_South_East_Asia.jpg/220px-US_Navy_050102-N-9593M-040_A_village_near_the_coast_of_Sumatra_lays_in_ruin_after_the_Tsunami_that_struck_South_East_Asia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/US_Navy_050102-N-9593M-040_A_village_near_the_coast_of_Sumatra_lays_in_ruin_after_the_Tsunami_that_struck_South_East_Asia.jpg/330px-US_Navy_050102-N-9593M-040_A_village_near_the_coast_of_Sumatra_lays_in_ruin_after_the_Tsunami_that_struck_South_East_Asia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/US_Navy_050102-N-9593M-040_A_village_near_the_coast_of_Sumatra_lays_in_ruin_after_the_Tsunami_that_struck_South_East_Asia.jpg/440px-US_Navy_050102-N-9593M-040_A_village_near_the_coast_of_Sumatra_lays_in_ruin_after_the_Tsunami_that_struck_South_East_Asia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>A village near the coast of <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> lies in ruin on 2 January 2005 after the devastating <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> that struck on Boxing Day 2004</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indonesia_and_Japan_earthquake-related_tsunamis">Indonesia and Japan earthquake-related tsunamis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Indonesia and Japan earthquake-related tsunamis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_tsunamis" title="List of tsunamis">List of tsunamis</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami</a>: An <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquake</a> of approximately magnitude 9.0 struck off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> causing the propagation of a massive <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunami</a> throughout the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-alongi_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alongi-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This tsunami caused significant loss of human life, an estimate of 280,000 – 300,000 people has been reported <sup id="cite_ref-cochard_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cochard-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and caused extensive damage to villages, towns, and cities and to the physical environment. The natural structures and habitats destroyed or damaged include <a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral reefs">coral reefs</a>, mangroves, beaches, and seagrass beds.<sup id="cite_ref-alongi_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alongi-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The more recent earthquake and tsunami in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> in March 2011 (<a href="/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami">2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami</a>) also clearly illustrates the destructive power of tsunamis and the turmoil of coastal flooding. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flood_advisory" title="Coastal flood advisory">Coastal flood advisory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coastal_flood_watch" title="Coastal flood watch">watch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coastal_flood_warning" title="Coastal flood warning">warning</a> (U.S.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">Coastal management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">Flash flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_intrusion" title="Saltwater intrusion">Saltwater intrusion</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output 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weather terminology (United States) navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Severe_weather_terminology_(United_States)_navbox" title="Template talk:Severe weather terminology (United States) navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Severe_weather_terminology_(United_States)_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Severe weather terminology (United States) navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Severe_weather_terminology_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather_terminology_(United_States)" title="Severe weather terminology (United States)">Severe weather terminology</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Severe<br />storms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Severe_thunderstorm" class="mw-redirect" title="Severe thunderstorm">Thunderstorm</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Significant_weather_advisory" title="Significant weather advisory">Advisory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_thunderstorm_watch" title="Severe thunderstorm watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particularly_dangerous_situation" title="Particularly dangerous situation">PDS watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_thunderstorm_warning" title="Severe thunderstorm warning">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">Tornado</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tornado_watch" title="Tornado watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particularly_dangerous_situation" title="Particularly dangerous situation">PDS watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tornado_warning" title="Tornado warning">Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particularly_dangerous_situation" title="Particularly dangerous situation">PDS warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tornado_emergency" title="Tornado emergency">Emergency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Marine thunderstorm</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_marine_warning" title="Special marine warning">Special marine warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Winter<br />weather</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Advisories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winter_weather_advisory" title="Winter weather advisory">Winter weather advisory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Winter_storm" title="Winter storm">Winter storm</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winter_storm_watch" title="Winter storm watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_storm_warning" title="Winter storm warning">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Blizzard" title="Blizzard">Blizzard/blowing snow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blowing_snow_advisory" title="Blowing snow advisory">Blowing snow advisory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blizzard_watch" title="Blizzard watch">Blizzard watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blizzard_warning" title="Blizzard warning">Blizzard warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Heavy snow</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_snow_warning" title="Heavy snow warning">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Lake-effect_snow" title="Lake-effect snow">Lake-effect snow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_effect_snow_advisory" title="Lake effect snow advisory">Advisory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_effect_snow_watch" title="Lake effect snow watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_effect_snow_warning" title="Lake effect snow warning">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Snow_squall" title="Snow squall">Snow squall</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Snow_squall_warning" title="Snow squall warning">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Ice</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freezing_rain_advisory" title="Freezing rain advisory">Freezing rain advisory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm_warning" title="Ice storm warning">Ice storm warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Avalanche" title="Avalanche">Avalanche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche_warning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Avalanche warning (page does not exist)">Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche_watch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Avalanche watch (page does not exist)">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Avalanche_advisory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Avalanche advisory (page does not exist)">Advisory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_warnings_and_watches" title="Tropical cyclone warnings and watches">Tropical<br />cyclones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Tropical_storm" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical storm">Tropical storms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_storm_watch" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical storm watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_storm_warning" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical storm warning">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane">Hurricanes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_watch" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_force_wind_warning" title="Hurricane force wind warning">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Typhoon" title="Typhoon">Typhoons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Typhoon_watch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Typhoon watch (page does not exist)">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typhoon_warning" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoon warning">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">Cyclones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyclone_watch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyclone watch (page does not exist)">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cyclone_warning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cyclone warning (page does not exist)">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">Storm surge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Storm_surge_watch" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm surge watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_surge_warning" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm surge warning">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_local_statement" title="Hurricane local statement">Hurricane local statement</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tropical_storm_local_statement&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tropical storm local statement (page does not exist)">Tropical storm local statement</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tropical_depression_local_statement&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tropical depression local statement (page does not exist)">Tropical depression local statement</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_watch" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_warning" title="Flood warning">Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Flood_advisory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Flood advisory (page does not exist)">Advisory</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">Flash flood</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood_watch" title="Flash flood watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particularly_dangerous_situation" title="Particularly dangerous situation">PDS watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood_warning" title="Flash flood warning">Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood_warning" title="Flash flood warning">Emergency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal flood">Coastal flood</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flood_advisory" title="Coastal flood advisory">Advisory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flood_watch" title="Coastal flood watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flood_warning" title="Coastal flood warning">Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flood_statement&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coastal flood statement (page does not exist)">Statement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Lakeshore flood</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather_terminology_(United_States)#Coastal/lakeshore_hazards" title="Severe weather terminology (United States)">Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather_terminology_(United_States)#Coastal/lakeshore_hazards" title="Severe weather terminology (United States)">Advisory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather_terminology_(United_States)#Coastal/lakeshore_hazards" title="Severe weather terminology (United States)">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_weather_terminology_(United_States)#Coastal/lakeshore_hazards" title="Severe weather terminology (United States)">Statement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">River flood</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/River_flood_advisory" title="River flood advisory">Advisory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_flood_watch" title="River flood watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_flood_warning" title="River flood warning">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Urban and small stream flood</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_and_small_stream_flood_advisory" title="Urban and small stream flood advisory">Advisory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Apparent_temperature" title="Apparent temperature">Apparent<br />temperature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Heat_index" title="Heat index">Heat index</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heat_advisory" title="Heat advisory">Heat advisory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_heat_watch" title="Excessive heat watch">Excessive heat watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_heat_warning" title="Excessive heat warning">Excessive heat warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Wind_chill" title="Wind chill">Wind chill</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_chill_advisory" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind chill advisory">Advisory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_chill_watch" title="Wind chill watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_chill_warning" title="Wind chill warning">Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particularly_dangerous_situation" title="Particularly dangerous situation">PDS warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Extreme cold</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_cold_warning" title="Extreme cold warning">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Freeze</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freeze_watch" title="Freeze watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeze_warning" title="Freeze warning">Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_freeze_warning" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard freeze warning">Hard freeze warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost_advisory" class="mw-redirect" title="Frost advisory">Frost advisory</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hard_freeze_watch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hard freeze watch (page does not exist)">Hard freeze watch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Maritime<br />and<br />coastal<br />weather</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Marine winds</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_craft_advisory" title="Small craft advisory">Small craft advisory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brisk_wind_advisory" class="mw-redirect" title="Brisk wind advisory">Brisk wind advisory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_wind_advisory" title="Lake wind advisory">Lake wind advisory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Gale" title="Gale">Gale</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gale_watch" title="Gale watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gale_warning" title="Gale warning">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Storm</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Storm_watch" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_warning" title="Storm warning">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Hurricane-force wind</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_force_wind_warning" title="Hurricane force wind warning">Warning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurricane_force_wind_watch" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane force wind watch">Watch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Hazardous seas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_seas_watch" title="Hazardous seas watch">Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_seas_warning" title="Hazardous seas warning">Warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Freezing spray</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freezing_spray_advisory" title="Freezing spray advisory">Freezing spray advisory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_freezing_spray_watch" title="Heavy freezing spray watch">Heavy freezing spray watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_freezing_spray_warning" title="Heavy freezing spray warning">Heavy freezing spray warning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_weather_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine weather statement">Marine weather statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current_statement" title="Rip current statement">Rip current statement</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Beach_hazards_statement&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Beach hazards statement (page does not exist)">Beach hazards statement</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">High surf</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/High_surf_advisory" class="mw-redirect" title="High surf advisory">High surf advisory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_surf_warning" class="mw-redirect" title="High 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toll</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geological_hazard" title="Geological hazard">Geological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">Mass wasting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">Landslide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalanche" title="Avalanche">Avalanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflow" title="Mudflow">Mudflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris_flow" title="Debris flow">Debris flow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earthquake" 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href="/wiki/Coastal_flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal flood">Coastal flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">Flash flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">Storm surge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">Megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnic_eruption" title="Limnic eruption">Limnic eruption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Meteorological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Temperature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blizzard" title="Blizzard">Blizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_wave" title="Cold wave">Cold wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Ice storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megadrought" title="Megadrought">Megadrought</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cyclonic storms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bomb_cyclone" class="mw-redirect" title="Bomb cyclone">Bomb cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">Thunderstorm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">Tornado</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tornado_outbreak" title="Tornado outbreak">Tornado outbreak</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical cyclone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho">Derecho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">Firestorm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARkStorm" title="ARkStorm">ARkStorm</a></li></ul> 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