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data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Benito_Mussolini" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Benito+Mussolini" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-viewsource" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Benito_Mussolini&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.viewsource" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-viewsource"> View source </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Mussolini" redirects here. For other people named Mussolini, see <a href="/wiki/Mussolini_family" title="Mussolini family">Mussolini family</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style>Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a> (in Switzerland known as Benedetto Mussolini; 29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945) was an Italian <a href="/wiki/Dictator" title="Dictator">dictator</a> who founded and led the <a href="/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">National Fascist Party</a> (PNF). He was <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister of Italy</a> from the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Rome" title="March on Rome">March on Rome</a> in 1922, until <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">his deposition</a> in 1943, as well as <a href="/wiki/Duce" title="Duce">Duce</a> of <a href="/wiki/Italian_fascism" title="Italian fascism">Italian fascism</a> from the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Fasces_of_Combat" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Fasces of Combat">Italian Fasces of Combat</a> in 1919, until <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Benito_Mussolini" title="Death of Benito Mussolini">his summary execution in 1945</a>. As a dictator and founder of <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>, Mussolini inspired the international spread of <a href="/wiki/List_of_fascist_movements" title="List of fascist movements">fascist movements</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[1]</a> <table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Benito Mussolini</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Mussolini_biografia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Mussolini_biografia.jpg/220px-Mussolini_biografia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Mussolini_biografia.jpg/330px-Mussolini_biografia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Mussolini_biografia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="480"></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Mussolini in 1939</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister of Italy</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#endnote_aaa">[a]</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 31 October 1922 – 25 July 1943</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III" title="Victor Emmanuel III">Victor Emmanuel III</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Facta" title="Luigi Facta">Luigi Facta</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Pietro Badoglio</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Duce_of_the_Italian_Social_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Duce of the Italian Social Republic">Duce of the Italian Social Republic</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 23 September 1943 – 25 April 1945</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Office established</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Office abolished</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Duce_of_Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Duce of Fascism">Duce of Fascism</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 23 March 1919 – 28 April 1945</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Movement established</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Movement abolished </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"> <table class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="margin-bottom:-.65em; ; width:100%;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="line-height:normal; padding:0.2em; border:1px dashed lightgrey;;"><div style="text-align: center; padding: 0 0.4em; margin: 0 3.3em">Other positions </div></th> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Italy)" title="Minister of Foreign Affairs (Italy)">Minister of Foreign Affairs</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 5 February 1943 – 25 July 1943</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Prime Minister</th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Galeazzo_Ciano" title="Galeazzo Ciano">Galeazzo Ciano</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Raffaele_Guariglia" title="Raffaele Guariglia">Raffaele Guariglia</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 20 July 1932 – 9 June 1936</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Prime Minister</th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Dino_Grandi" title="Dino Grandi">Dino Grandi</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Galeazzo Ciano</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 30 October 1922 – 12 September 1929</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Prime Minister</th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Schanzer" title="Carlo Schanzer">Carlo Schanzer</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Dino Grandi</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Colonies_(Italy)" title="Ministry of the Colonies (Italy)">Minister of the Colonies</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 20 November 1937 – 31 October 1939</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Prime Minister</th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Attilio_Teruzzi" title="Attilio Teruzzi">Attilio Teruzzi</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 17 January 1935 – 11 June 1936</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Prime Minister</th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Emilio_De_Bono" title="Emilio De Bono">Emilio De Bono</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Alessandro Lessona</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 18 December 1928 – 12 September 1929</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Prime Minister</th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Federzoni" title="Luigi Federzoni">Luigi Federzoni</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Emilio De Bono</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_War_(Italy)" title="Minister of War (Italy)">Minister of War</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 22 July 1933 – 25 July 1943</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Prime Minister</th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Gazzera" title="Pietro Gazzera">Pietro Gazzera</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Sorice" title="Antonio Sorice">Antonio Sorice</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 4 April 1925 – 12 September 1929</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Prime Minister</th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Antonino_Di_Giorgio" title="Antonino Di Giorgio">Antonino Di Giorgio</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Pietro Gazzera</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Corporations" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of Corporations">Minister of Corporations</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 20 July 1932 – 11 June 1936</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Prime Minister</th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Bottai" title="Giuseppe Bottai">Giuseppe Bottai</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ferruccio_Lantini" title="Ferruccio Lantini">Ferruccio Lantini</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Minister_of_the_Interior_(Italy)" title="Minister of the Interior (Italy)">Minister of the Interior</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 6 November 1926 – 25 July 1943</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Prime Minister</th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Luigi Federzoni</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Fornaciari" title="Bruno Fornaciari">Bruno Fornaciari</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 31 October 1922 – 17 June 1924</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Prime Minister</th><td class="infobox-data">Himself</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Paolino_Taddei" title="Paolino Taddei">Paolino Taddei</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data">Luigi Federzoni</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Member of the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Fasces_and_Corporations" title="Chamber of Fasces and Corporations">Chamber of Fasces and Corporations</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 23 March 1939 – 2 August 1943</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Member of the <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Deputies_(Italy)" title="Chamber of Deputies (Italy)">Chamber of Deputies</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 11 June 1921 – 22 March 1939 </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">(1883-07-29)29 July 1883 <a href="/wiki/Dovia_di_Predappio" class="mw-redirect" title="Dovia di Predappio">Dovia di Predappio</a>, Forlì, Kingdom of Italy</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">28 April 1945(1945-04-28) (aged 61) <a href="/wiki/Giulino_di_Mezzegra" class="mw-redirect" title="Giulino di Mezzegra">Giulino di Mezzegra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Como" title="Como">Como</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cause of death</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Benito_Mussolini" title="Death of Benito Mussolini">Summary execution</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label">San Cassiano cemetery, <a href="/wiki/Predappio" title="Predappio">Predappio</a>, Italy</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">PNF</a> (1921‍–‍1943)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other political affiliations</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party" title="Italian Socialist Party">PSI</a> (1901‍–‍1914)</li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Fasci_d%27Azione_Rivoluzionaria" title="Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria">Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria</a> (1914‍–‍1919)</div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Fasci_Italiani_di_Combattimento" title="Fasci Italiani di Combattimento">Fasci Italiani di Combattimento</a> (1919‍–‍1921)</div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Fascist_Party" title="Republican Fascist Party">PFR</a> (1943‍–‍1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ida_Dalser" title="Ida Dalser">Ida Dalser</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1914; <abbr title="divorced">div.</abbr> 1915)</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Rachele_Mussolini" title="Rachele Mussolini">Rachele Guidi</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1915)</div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Domestic partners</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Margherita_Sarfatti" title="Margherita Sarfatti">Margherita Sarfatti</a> (1911‍–‍1931)</div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Petacci" title="Clara Petacci">Clara Petacci</a> (1933‍–‍1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Relatives</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mussolini_family" title="Mussolini family">Mussolini family</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Benito_Mussolini%27s_Signature,_derived_from_Lettramussol.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Benito Mussolini's signature"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Benito_Mussolini%27s_Signature%2C_derived_from_Lettramussol.svg/128px-Benito_Mussolini%27s_Signature%2C_derived_from_Lettramussol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Benito_Mussolini%27s_Signature%2C_derived_from_Lettramussol.svg/192px-Benito_Mussolini%27s_Signature%2C_derived_from_Lettramussol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Benito_Mussolini%27s_Signature%2C_derived_from_Lettramussol.svg/256px-Benito_Mussolini%27s_Signature%2C_derived_from_Lettramussol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="206"></a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Military service</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Allegiance</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Branch/service</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Italian_Army" title="Royal Italian Army">Royal Italian Army</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Years of service</th><td class="infobox-data">1915–1917 (active)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Rank</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_marshal_of_the_empire" title="First marshal of the empire">First Marshal of the Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporal" title="Corporal">Corporal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Unit</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/11th_Bersaglieri_Regiment" title="11th Bersaglieri Regiment">11th Bersaglieri Regiment</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Battles/wars</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Senussi_War" title="Second Italo-Senussi War">Second Italo-Senussi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_military_intervention_in_Spain" title="Italian military intervention in Spain">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Albania" title="Italian invasion of Albania">Italian invasion of Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">a. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_aaa">^</a> As Head of Government, Prime Minister, Secretary of State from 24 December 1925</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"> Mussolini was originally a socialist politician and journalist at the <a href="/wiki/Avanti!_(newspaper)" title="Avanti! (newspaper)">Avanti! newspaper</a>. In 1912, he became a member of the National Directorate of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party" title="Italian Socialist Party">Italian Socialist Party</a> (PSI), but was expelled for advocating military intervention in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. In 1914, Mussolini founded a newspaper, <a href="/wiki/Il_Popolo_d%27Italia" title="Il Popolo d'Italia">Il Popolo d'Italia</a>, and served in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Italian_Army" title="Royal Italian Army">Royal Italian Army</a> until he was wounded and discharged in 1917. Mussolini eventually denounced the PSI, his views now centering on <a href="/wiki/Italian_nationalism" title="Italian nationalism">Italian nationalism</a>, and founded the fascist movement which opposed <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">class conflict</a>, instead advocating "<a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_nationalism#Europe" title="Revolutionary nationalism">revolutionary nationalism</a>" <a href="/wiki/Class_collaboration" title="Class collaboration">transcending class lines</a>. In October 1922, following the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Rome" title="March on Rome">March on Rome</a>, Mussolini was appointed prime minister by <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III" title="Victor Emmanuel III">King Victor Emmanuel III</a>. After removing opposition through his secret police and outlawing <a href="/wiki/Labour_strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour strike">labour strikes</a>, Mussolini and his followers consolidated power through laws that transformed the nation into a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party dictatorship</a>. Within five years, Mussolini established dictatorial authority by legal and illegal means and aspired to create a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> state. In 1929, Mussolini signed the <a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Treaty</a> to establish <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a>. Mussolini's foreign policy was based on the fascist doctrine of "<a href="/wiki/Spazio_vitale" title="Spazio vitale">Spazio vitale</a>" ("living space"), which aimed to expand Italian possessions. In the 1920s, he ordered the <a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacification of Libya">Pacification of Libya</a>, the bombing of Corfu over an <a href="/wiki/Corfu_incident" title="Corfu incident">incident with Greece</a>, and annexed <a href="/wiki/Fiume" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiume">Fiume</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Rome_(1924)" title="Treaty of Rome (1924)">a treaty</a> with <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>. In 1936, <a href="/wiki/Italian_Ethiopia" title="Italian Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> was conquered following the <a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a> and merged into <a href="/wiki/Italian_East_Africa" title="Italian East Africa">Italian East Africa</a> (AOI) with <a href="/wiki/Italian_Eritrea" title="Italian Eritrea">Eritrea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Somalia</a>. In 1939, Italian forces <a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Albania" title="Italian invasion of Albania">annexed Albania</a>. Between 1936 and 1939, Mussolini ordered an <a href="/wiki/Italian_military_intervention_in_Spain" title="Italian military intervention in Spain">intervention in Spain</a> in favour of <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a>. Mussolini took part in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne" title="Treaty of Lausanne">Treaty of Lausanne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Four-Power_Pact" title="Four-Power Pact">Four-Power Pact</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stresa_Front" title="Stresa Front">Stresa Front</a>. However, he alienated the democratic powers as tensions grew in the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, which he left in 1937. Now hostile to France and Britain, Italy formed the <a href="/wiki/Axis_alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis alliance">Axis alliance</a> with <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Imperial Japan</a>. The wars of the 1930s cost Italy enormous resources, leaving it unprepared for the Second World War; Mussolini initially declared Italy's non-belligerence. However, in June 1940, believing Allied defeat imminent, he joined the war on Germany's side, to share the spoils. After the tide turned, and the <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a>, King Victor Emmanuel III dismissed Mussolini as <a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">head of government</a> and placed him in custody in July 1943. After the king agreed to an armistice with the Allies, in September 1943, Mussolini was rescued in the <a href="/wiki/Gran_Sasso_raid" title="Gran Sasso raid">Gran Sasso raid</a> by Germany. <a href="/wiki/Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler">Hitler</a> made Mussolini the figurehead of a puppet state in German-occupied north Italy, the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a>, which served as a <a href="/wiki/Collaborationism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collaborationism">collaborationist</a> regime of the Germans. With Allied victory imminent, Mussolini and mistress <a href="/wiki/Clara_Petacci" title="Clara Petacci">Clara Petacci</a> attempted to flee to Switzerland, but were captured by communist partisans and <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Benito_Mussolini" title="Death of Benito Mussolini">executed</a> on 28 April 1945. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Early_life">1 Early life</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Emigration_to_Switzerland_and_military_service">1.1 Emigration to Switzerland and military service</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Political_journalist,_intellectual_and_socialist">1.2 Political journalist, intellectual and socialist</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Expulsion_from_the_Italian_Socialist_Party">1.3 Expulsion from the Italian Socialist Party</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Beginning_of_Fascism_and_service_in_World_War_I">1.4 Beginning of Fascism and service in World War I</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Rise_to_power">2 Rise to power</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Formation_of_the_National_Fascist_Party">2.1 Formation of the National Fascist Party</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#March_on_Rome">2.2 March on Rome</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Appointment_as_Prime_Minister">2.3 Appointment as Prime Minister</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Acerbo_Law">2.4 Acerbo Law</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Squadristi_violence">2.5 Squadristi violence</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Fascist_Italy">3 Fascist Italy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Organizational_innovations">3.1 Organizational innovations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Police_state">3.2 Police state</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#%22Pacification_of_Libya%22">3.3 "Pacification of Libya"</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Economic_policy">3.4 Economic policy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Railways">3.5 Railways</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Propaganda_and_cult_of_personality">3.6 Propaganda and cult of personality</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Culture">3.7 Culture</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Foreign_policy">3.8 Foreign policy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#World_War_II">4 World War II</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Gathering_storm">4.1 Gathering storm</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#War_declared">4.2 War declared</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Path_to_defeat">4.3 Path to defeat</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Dismissal_and_arrest">4.4 Dismissal and arrest</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Italian_Social_Republic_(%22Sal%C3%B2_Republic%22)">4.5 Italian Social Republic ("Salò Republic")</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Death">5 Death</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Mussolini's_corpse">5.1 Mussolini's corpse</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Personal_life">6 Personal life</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Religious_views">7 Religious views</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Atheism_and_anti-clericalism">7.1 Atheism and anti-clericalism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#Lateran_Treaty">7.2 Lateran Treaty</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Views_on_antisemitism_and_race">8 Views on antisemitism and race</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Legacy">9 Legacy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Family">9.1 Family</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Neo-fascism">9.2 Neo-fascism</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-37"><a href="#Public_image">9.3 Public image</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#Writings">10 Writings</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-39"><a href="#See_also">11 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-40"><a href="#References">12 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-41"><a href="#Bibliography">13 Bibliography</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-42"><a href="#Historiography">13.1 Historiography</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-43"><a href="#Further_reading">14 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-44"><a href="#External_links">15 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benito_Mussolini_birth_certificate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Benito_Mussolini_birth_certificate.jpg/220px-Benito_Mussolini_birth_certificate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="896"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 209px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Benito_Mussolini_birth_certificate.jpg/220px-Benito_Mussolini_birth_certificate.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="209" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Benito_Mussolini_birth_certificate.jpg/330px-Benito_Mussolini_birth_certificate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Benito_Mussolini_birth_certificate.jpg/440px-Benito_Mussolini_birth_certificate.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Benito Mussolini's birth certificate</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Predappio_house.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="vernacular stone building, birthplace of Benito Mussolini, now a museum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Predappio_house.JPG/220px-Predappio_house.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3180" data-file-height="2332"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 161px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Predappio_house.JPG/220px-Predappio_house.JPG" data-alt="vernacular stone building, birthplace of Benito Mussolini, now a museum" data-width="220" data-height="161" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Predappio_house.JPG/330px-Predappio_house.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Predappio_house.JPG/440px-Predappio_house.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Birthplace of Benito Mussolini in <a href="/wiki/Predappio" title="Predappio">Predappio</a>; the building now hosts exhibitions on contemporary history.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:110px;max-width:110px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:130px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Alessandro_Mussolini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Alessandro_Mussolini.jpg/108px-Alessandro_Mussolini.jpg" decoding="async" width="108" height="131" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="364"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 108px;height: 131px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Alessandro_Mussolini.jpg/108px-Alessandro_Mussolini.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="108" data-height="131" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Alessandro_Mussolini.jpg/162px-Alessandro_Mussolini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Alessandro_Mussolini.jpg/216px-Alessandro_Mussolini.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Mussolini's <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Mussolini" title="Alessandro Mussolini">father, Alessandro</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:108px;max-width:108px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:130px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosa_Maltoni_in_Mussolini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Rosa_Maltoni_in_Mussolini.jpg/106px-Rosa_Maltoni_in_Mussolini.jpg" decoding="async" width="106" height="130" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="368"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 106px;height: 130px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Rosa_Maltoni_in_Mussolini.jpg/106px-Rosa_Maltoni_in_Mussolini.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="106" data-height="130" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Rosa_Maltoni_in_Mussolini.jpg/159px-Rosa_Maltoni_in_Mussolini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Rosa_Maltoni_in_Mussolini.jpg/212px-Rosa_Maltoni_in_Mussolini.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Mussolini's <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Maltoni" title="Rosa Maltoni">mother, Rosa</a></div></div></div></div></div> Mussolini was born on 29 July 1883 in <a href="/wiki/Predappio" title="Predappio">Dovia di Predappio</a>, a small town in the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Forl%C3%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="Province of Forlì">province of Forlì</a> in <a href="/wiki/Romagna" title="Romagna">Romagna</a>. During the Fascist era, Predappio was dubbed "Duce's town" and Forlì was called "Duce's city", with pilgrims going to Predappio and Forlì to see the birthplace of Mussolini. Benito Mussolini's father, <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Mussolini" title="Alessandro Mussolini">Alessandro Mussolini</a>, was a <a href="/wiki/Blacksmith" title="Blacksmith">blacksmith</a> and a socialist,<a href="#cite_note-Mediterranean3-3">[2]</a> while his mother, <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Maltoni" title="Rosa Maltoni">Rosa</a> (née Maltoni), was a devout Catholic schoolteacher.<a href="#cite_note-DBI-4">[3]</a> Given his father's political leanings, Mussolini was named Benito after liberal Mexican president <a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Benito Juárez</a>, while his middle names, Andrea and Amilcare, were for Italian socialists <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Costa" title="Andrea Costa">Andrea Costa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amilcare_Cipriani" title="Amilcare Cipriani">Amilcare Cipriani</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Living_History_2-5">[4]</a> In return his mother required that he be baptised at birth.<a href="#cite_note-DBI-4">[3]</a> Benito was followed by his siblings <a href="/wiki/Arnaldo_Mussolini" title="Arnaldo Mussolini">Arnaldo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edvige_Mussolini" title="Edvige Mussolini">Edvige</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[6]</a> As a young boy, Mussolini helped his father in his smithy.<a href="#cite_note-8">[7]</a> Mussolini's early political views were strongly influenced by his father, who idolised 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Italian_nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian nationalist">Italian nationalist</a> figures with <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanist</a> tendencies such as <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Pisacane" title="Carlo Pisacane">Carlo Pisacane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor197929-9">[8]</a> His father's political outlook combined views of <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchist</a> figures such as <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cafiero" title="Carlo Cafiero">Carlo Cafiero</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Mikhail Bakunin</a>, the military <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarianism</a> of Garibaldi, and the nationalism of Mazzini. In 1902, at the anniversary of Garibaldi's death, Mussolini made a public speech in praise of the <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republican</a> nationalist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor197931-10">[9]</a> Mussolini was sent to a <a href="/wiki/Boarding_school" title="Boarding school">boarding school</a> in <a href="/wiki/Faenza" title="Faenza">Faenza</a> run by <a href="/wiki/Salesians" class="mw-redirect" title="Salesians">Salesians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ceci_2017-11">[10]</a> Despite being shy, he often clashed with teachers and fellow boarders due to his proud, grumpy, and violent behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-DBI-4">[3]</a> During an argument, he injured a classmate with a penknife and was severely punished.<a href="#cite_note-DBI-4">[3]</a> After joining a new non-religious school in <a href="/wiki/Forlimpopoli" title="Forlimpopoli">Forlimpopoli</a>, Mussolini achieved good grades, was appreciated by his teachers despite his violent character, and qualified as an elementary schoolmaster in July 1901.<a href="#cite_note-DBI-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grolier_encyclopedia-12">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emigration_to_Switzerland_and_military_service">Emigration to Switzerland and military service</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mussolini_mugshot_1903_Bern.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Mussolini_mugshot_1903_Bern.jpg/220px-Mussolini_mugshot_1903_Bern.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="742"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 222px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Mussolini_mugshot_1903_Bern.jpg/220px-Mussolini_mugshot_1903_Bern.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="222" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Mussolini_mugshot_1903_Bern.jpg/330px-Mussolini_mugshot_1903_Bern.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Mussolini_mugshot_1903_Bern.jpg/440px-Mussolini_mugshot_1903_Bern.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mussolini's booking file following his arrest by the police on 19 June 1903, <a href="/wiki/Bern" title="Bern">Bern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></figcaption></figure> In July 1902, Mussolini <a href="/wiki/Emigration" title="Emigration">emigrated</a> to Switzerland, partly to avoid compulsory military service.<a href="#cite_note-Mediterranean3-3">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-HDS-13">[12]</a> He worked briefly as a <a href="/wiki/Stonemason" class="mw-redirect" title="Stonemason">stonemason</a> but was unable to find a permanent job. During this time he studied the ideas of the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Vilfredo Pareto</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">syndicalist</a> <a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Georges Sorel</a>. Mussolini also later credited <a href="/wiki/Charles_P%C3%A9guy" title="Charles Péguy">Charles Péguy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Lagardelle" title="Hubert Lagardelle">Hubert Lagardelle</a> as influences.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-14">[13]</a> Sorel's emphasis on the need for overthrowing decadent <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a> and capitalism by the use of violence, <a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">direct action</a>, the <a href="/wiki/General_strike" title="General strike">general strike</a>, and the use of <a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">neo-Machiavellian</a> appeals to emotion, impressed Mussolini deeply.<a href="#cite_note-Mediterranean3-3">[2]</a> Mussolini became active in the Italian socialist movement in Switzerland, working for the paper L'Avvenire del Lavoratore, organising meetings, giving speeches to workers, and serving as secretary of the Italian workers' union in <a href="/wiki/Lausanne" title="Lausanne">Lausanne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HDS-13">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Angelica_Balabanov" class="mw-redirect" title="Angelica Balabanov">Angelica Balabanov</a> reportedly introduced him to <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, who later criticised Italian socialists for having lost Mussolini from their cause.<a href="#cite_note-gunther1940-15">[14]</a> In 1903, he was arrested by Bernese police because of his advocacy of a violent general strike, spent two weeks in jail, and was handed over to Italian police in <a href="/wiki/Chiasso" title="Chiasso">Chiasso</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HDS-13">[12]</a> After he was released in Italy, he returned to Switzerland.<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> He was arrested again in Geneva, in April 1904, for falsifying his passport expiration date, and was expelled from the <a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Geneva" title="Canton of Geneva">canton of Geneva</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HDS-13">[12]</a> He was released in <a href="/wiki/Bellinzona" title="Bellinzona">Bellinzona</a> following protests from Genevan socialists.<a href="#cite_note-HDS-13">[12]</a> Mussolini then returned to Lausanne, where he entered the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Lausanne" title="University of Lausanne">University of Lausanne</a>'s Department of <a href="/wiki/Social_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Science">Social Science</a> on 7 May 1904, attending the lectures of Vilfredo Pareto.<a href="#cite_note-HDS-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> In 1937, when he was prime minister of Italy, the University of Lausanne awarded Mussolini an <a href="/wiki/Honorary_doctorate" class="mw-redirect" title="Honorary doctorate">honorary doctorate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> In December 1904, Mussolini returned to Italy to take advantage of an amnesty for desertion from the military. He had been convicted for this in absentia.<a href="#cite_note-HDS-13">[12]</a> Since a condition for being pardoned was serving in the army, he joined the corps of the <a href="/wiki/Bersaglieri" title="Bersaglieri">Bersaglieri</a> in Forlì on 30 December 1904.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> After serving for two years in the military (from January 1905 until September 1906), he returned to teaching.<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_journalist,_intellectual_and_socialist">Political journalist, intellectual and socialist</h3></div> In February 1909,<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a> Mussolini again left Italy, this time to take the job as the secretary of the labour party in the Italian-speaking city of <a href="/wiki/Trento" title="Trento">Trento</a>, then part of <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>. He also did office work for the local Socialist Party, and edited its newspaper L'Avvenire del Lavoratore (The Future of the Worker). Returning to Italy, he spent a brief time in <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>, and in 1910 he returned to his hometown of Forlì, where he edited the weekly Lotta di classe (The Class Struggle). Mussolini thought of himself as an intellectual and was considered to be well-read. He read avidly; his favourites in European philosophy included Sorel, the Italian Futurist <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti" title="Filippo Tommaso Marinetti">Filippo Tommaso Marinetti</a>, French Socialist <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Herv%C3%A9" title="Gustave Hervé">Gustave Hervé</a>, Italian anarchist <a href="/wiki/Errico_Malatesta" title="Errico Malatesta">Errico Malatesta</a>, and German philosophers <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, the founders of <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19829%E2%80%9313-22">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> Mussolini had taught himself French and German and translated excerpts from Nietzsche, <a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kant" class="mw-redirect" title="Kant">Kant</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benito_Mussolini_1900.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Benito_Mussolini_1900.jpg/200px-Benito_Mussolini_1900.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="287" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="205" data-file-height="294"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 287px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Benito_Mussolini_1900.jpg/200px-Benito_Mussolini_1900.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="287" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Benito_Mussolini_1900.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A portrait of Mussolini in the early 1900s</figcaption></figure> During this time, he published Il Trentino veduto da un Socialista (Trentino as viewed by a Socialist) in the radical periodical <a href="/wiki/La_Voce_(magazine)" title="La Voce (magazine)">La Voce</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> He also wrote several essays about German literature, some stories, and one novel: L'amante del Cardinale: Claudia Particella, romanzo storico (The Cardinal's Mistress). This novel he co-wrote with Santi Corvaja, and it was published as a serial book in the Trento newspaper Il Popolo from 20 January to 11 May 1910.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> The novel was bitterly anticlerical, and years later was withdrawn from circulation after Mussolini made a truce with the Vatican.<a href="#cite_note-Mediterranean3-3">[2]</a> He had become one of Italy's most prominent socialists. In September 1911, Mussolini participated in a riot, led by socialists, against the Italian <a href="/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War" title="Italo-Turkish War">war in Libya</a>. He bitterly denounced Italy's "imperialist war," an action that earned him a five-month jail term.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> After his release, he helped expel <a href="/wiki/Ivanoe_Bonomi" title="Ivanoe Bonomi">Ivanoe Bonomi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leonida_Bissolati" title="Leonida Bissolati">Leonida Bissolati</a> from the Socialist Party, as they were two "<a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)">revisionists</a>" who had supported the war. In 1912, he became a member of the National Directorate of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party" title="Italian Socialist Party">Italian Socialist Party</a> (PSI).<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> He was rewarded with the editorship of the Socialist Party newspaper <a href="/wiki/Avanti!_(Italian_newspaper)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avanti! (Italian newspaper)">Avanti!</a> Under his leadership, its circulation soon rose from 20,000 to 100,000.<a href="#cite_note-Mediterranean4-28">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Gunther" title="John Gunther">John Gunther</a> in 1940 called him "one of the best journalists alive"; Mussolini was a working reporter while preparing for the March on Rome, and wrote for the <a href="/wiki/Hearst_News_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Hearst News Service">Hearst News Service</a> until 1935.<a href="#cite_note-gunther1940-15">[14]</a> Mussolini was so familiar with Marxist literature that in his writings he would not only quote from well-known Marxist works but also from the relatively obscure works.<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a> During this period Mussolini considered himself an "authoritarian <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communist</a>"<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> and he described Karl Marx as "the greatest of all theorists of socialism."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19827-31">[30]</a> In 1913, he published Giovanni Hus, il veridico (Jan Hus, true prophet), a historical and political biography about the life and mission of the Czech ecclesiastic reformer <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> and his militant followers, the <a href="/wiki/Hussite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussite">Hussites</a>. During this socialist period of his life, Mussolini sometimes used the pen name "Vero Eretico" ("sincere heretic").<a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a> Mussolini rejected <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Simonetta_Falasca-Zamponi_1997_45-33">[32]</a> a core doctrine of socialism.<a href="#cite_note-Simonetta_Falasca-Zamponi_1997_45-33">[32]</a> He was influenced by Nietzsche's anti-Christian ideas and <a href="/wiki/God_is_dead" title="God is dead">negation of God's existence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolombWistrich2002249-34">[33]</a> Mussolini felt that socialism had faltered, in view of the failures of Marxist <a href="/wiki/Economic_determinism" title="Economic determinism">determinism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democratic</a> <a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">reformism</a>, and believed that Nietzsche's ideas would strengthen socialism. Mussolini's writings came to reflect an abandonment of Marxism and egalitarianism in favour of Nietzsche's <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cbermensch" title="Übermensch">übermensch</a> concept and anti-egalitarianism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGolombWistrich2002249-34">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expulsion_from_the_Italian_Socialist_Party">Expulsion from the Italian Socialist Party</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benito_Mussolini_PSI.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Benito_Mussolini_PSI.jpg/200px-Benito_Mussolini_PSI.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="248" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="564" data-file-height="698"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 248px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Benito_Mussolini_PSI.jpg/200px-Benito_Mussolini_PSI.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="248" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Benito_Mussolini_PSI.jpg/300px-Benito_Mussolini_PSI.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Benito_Mussolini_PSI.jpg/400px-Benito_Mussolini_PSI.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mussolini as director of <a href="/wiki/Avanti!_(Italian_newspaper)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avanti! (Italian newspaper)">Avanti!</a></figcaption></figure> When World War I began in August 1914, many socialist parties worldwide followed the rising nationalist current and supported their country's intervention in the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker20051001-35">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2005884-36">[35]</a> In Italy, the outbreak of the war created a surge of <a href="/wiki/Italian_nationalism" title="Italian nationalism">Italian nationalism</a> and intervention was supported by a variety of political factions. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was <a href="/wiki/Gabriele_d%27Annunzio" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriele d'Annunzio">Gabriele d'Annunzio</a> who promoted <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italian irredentism</a> and helped sway the Italian public to support intervention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2005335-37">[36]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Italian_Liberal_Party" title="Italian Liberal Party">Italian Liberal Party</a> under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Boselli" title="Paolo Boselli">Paolo Boselli</a> promoted intervention on the side of the Allies and utilised the <a href="/wiki/Societ%C3%A0_Dante_Alighieri" class="mw-redirect" title="Società Dante Alighieri">Società Dante Alighieri</a> to promote Italian nationalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2005219-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2005826-39">[38]</a> Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2005209-40">[39]</a> Prior to Mussolini taking a position on the war, a number of revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">syndicalists</a> had announced their support of intervention, including <a href="/wiki/Alceste_De_Ambris" title="Alceste De Ambris">Alceste De Ambris</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Corridoni" title="Filippo Corridoni">Filippo Corridoni</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Angelo_Oliviero_Olivetti" title="Angelo Oliviero Olivetti">Angelo Oliviero Olivetti</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979189-41">[40]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party" title="Italian Socialist Party">Italian Socialist Party</a> decided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors had been killed, resulting in a general strike called <a href="/wiki/Red_Week_(Italy)" title="Red Week (Italy)">Red Week</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2005596-42">[41]</a> Mussolini initially held official support for the party's decision and, in an August 1914 article, Mussolini wrote "Down with the War. We remain neutral." He saw the war as an opportunity, both for his own ambitions as well as those of socialists and Italians. He was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Anti-Austrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Austrian sentiment">anti-Austrian</a> Italian nationalist sentiments, believing that the war offered Italians in Austria-Hungary the chance to liberate themselves from rule of the <a href="/wiki/Hapsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Hapsburg">Habsburgs</a>. He eventually decided to declare support for the war by appealing to the need for socialists to overthrow the <a href="/wiki/Hohenzollern" class="mw-redirect" title="Hohenzollern">Hohenzollern</a> and Habsburg monarchies in Germany and Austria-Hungary who he said had consistently repressed socialism.<a href="#cite_note-Emile_Ludwig_1969._p._321-43">[42]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italian_Arditi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="1918 group photo of Arditi corps showing daggers and black uniforms" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Italian_Arditi.jpg/260px-Italian_Arditi.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="176" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="696" data-file-height="471"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 260px;height: 176px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Italian_Arditi.jpg/260px-Italian_Arditi.jpg" data-alt="1918 group photo of Arditi corps showing daggers and black uniforms" data-width="260" data-height="176" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Italian_Arditi.jpg/390px-Italian_Arditi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Italian_Arditi.jpg/520px-Italian_Arditi.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Members of Italy's <a href="/wiki/Arditi" title="Arditi">Arditi</a> corps in 1918 holding daggers, a symbol of their group. The Arditi's black uniform and use of the fez were adopted by Mussolini in the creation of his Fascist movement.</figcaption></figure> Mussolini further justified his position by denouncing the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> for being <a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">reactionary</a> powers; for pursuing <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialist</a> designs against Belgium and Serbia as well as historically against Denmark, France, and against Italians, since hundreds of thousands of Italians were under Habsburg rule. He argued that the fall of Hohenzollern and Habsburg monarchies and the repression of "reactionary" Turkey would create conditions beneficial for the working class, and that the mobilisation required for the war would undermine Russia's reactionary authoritarianism and bring Russia to social revolution. He said that for Italy the war would complete the process of <a href="/wiki/Italian_unification" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian unification">Risorgimento</a> by uniting the Italians in Austria-Hungary into Italy and by allowing the common people of Italy to be participating members in what would be Italy's first national war. Thus he claimed that the vast social changes that the war could offer meant that it should be supported as a revolutionary war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979189-41">[40]</a> As Mussolini's support for the intervention solidified, he came into conflict with socialists who opposed the war. He attacked the opponents of the war and claimed that those proletarians who supported <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a> were out of step with the proletarians who had joined the rising interventionist <a href="/wiki/Vanguardism" title="Vanguardism">vanguard</a> that was preparing Italy for a revolutionary war. He began to criticise the Italian Socialist Party and socialism itself for having failed to recognise the national problems that had led to the outbreak of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979191-44">[43]</a> He was expelled from the party for his support of intervention. A police report prepared by the Inspector-General of Public Security in Milan, G. Gasti, describes his background and his position on the First World War that resulted in his ousting from the Italian Socialist Party: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Professor Benito Mussolini, ... 38, revolutionary socialist, has a police record; elementary school teacher qualified to teach in secondary schools; former first secretary of the Chambers in Cesena, Forlì, and Ravenna; after 1912 editor of the newspaper Avanti! to which he gave a violent suggestive and intransigent orientation. In October 1914, finding himself in opposition to the directorate of the Italian Socialist party because he advocated a kind of active neutrality on the part of Italy in the War of the Nations against the party's tendency of absolute neutrality, he withdrew on the twentieth of that month from the directorate of Avanti! Then on the fifteenth of November [1914], thereafter, he initiated publication of the newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia, in which he supported—in sharp contrast to Avanti! and amid bitter polemics against that newspaper and its chief backers—the thesis of Italian intervention in the war against the militarism of the Central Empires. For this reason he was accused of moral and political unworthiness and the party thereupon decided to expel him ... Thereafter he ... undertook a very active campaign in behalf of Italian intervention, participating in demonstrations in the piazzas and writing quite violent articles in Popolo d'Italia ...<a href="#cite_note-Mediterranean4-28">[27]</a></blockquote> In his summary, the Inspector also noted: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">He was the ideal editor of Avanti! for the Socialists. In that line of work he was greatly esteemed and beloved. Some of his former comrades and admirers still confess that there was no one who understood better how to interpret the spirit of the proletariat and there was no one who did not observe his apostasy with sorrow. This came about not for reasons of self-interest or money. He was a sincere and passionate advocate, first of vigilant and armed neutrality, and later of war; and he did not believe that he was compromising with his personal and political honesty by making use of every means—no matter where they came from or wherever he might obtain them—to pay for his newspaper, his program and his line of action. This was his initial line. It is difficult to say to what extent his socialist convictions (which he never either openly or privately abjure) may have been sacrificed in the course of the indispensable financial deals which were necessary for the continuation of the struggle in which he was engaged ... But assuming these modifications did take place ... he always wanted to give the appearance of still being a socialist, and he fooled himself into thinking that this was the case.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginning_of_Fascism_and_service_in_World_War_I">Beginning of Fascism and service in World War I</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benito_Mussolini_1917.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="standing photo of Mussolini in 1917 as an Italian soldier" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Benito_Mussolini_1917.jpg/170px-Benito_Mussolini_1917.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="259" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="488"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 259px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Benito_Mussolini_1917.jpg/170px-Benito_Mussolini_1917.jpg" data-alt="standing photo of Mussolini in 1917 as an Italian soldier" data-width="170" data-height="259" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Benito_Mussolini_1917.jpg/255px-Benito_Mussolini_1917.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Benito_Mussolini_1917.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mussolini as an Italian soldier, 1917</figcaption></figure> After being ousted by the Italian Socialist Party, Mussolini made a radical transformation, ending his support for <a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">class conflict</a> and joining in support of <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_nationalism#Benito_Mussolini's_revolutionary_nationalism" title="Revolutionary nationalism">revolutionary nationalism</a> transcending class lines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979191-44">[43]</a> He formed the interventionist newspaper <a href="/wiki/Il_Popolo_d%27Italia" title="Il Popolo d'Italia">Il Popolo d'Italia</a> and the Fascio Rivoluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista ("Revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Fasci" class="mw-redirect" title="Fasci">Fasces</a> of International Action") in October 1914.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2005826-39">[38]</a> The funds to create Il Popolo d'Italia—funneled through entrepeneur <a href="/w/index.php?title=Filippo_Naldi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Filippo Naldi (page does not exist)">Filippo Naldi</a> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filippo_Naldi" class="extiw" title="it:Filippo Naldi">it</a>]—came from many sources, including domestic industrial and agrarian interests, such as the engineering giants <a href="/wiki/Fiat" title="Fiat">Fiat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gio._Ansaldo_%26_C." title="Gio. Ansaldo & C.">Ansaldo</a>, and the governments of France and Britain.<a href="#cite_note-48">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith198225-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1997284-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979186%E2%80%93187-50">[48]</a> On 5 December 1914, Mussolini denounced <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Marxism" title="Orthodox Marxism">orthodox socialism</a> for failing to recognise that the war had made national identity and loyalty more significant than class distinction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979191-44">[43]</a> He fully demonstrated his transformation in a speech that acknowledged the nation as an entity, a notion he had rejected prior to the war, saying: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The nation has not disappeared. We used to believe that the concept was totally without substance. Instead we see the nation arise as a palpitating reality before us! ... Class cannot destroy the nation. Class reveals itself as a collection of interests—but the nation is a history of sentiments, traditions, language, culture, and race. Class can become an integral part of the nation, but the one cannot eclipse the other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979191%E2%80%9392-51">[49]</a> The class struggle is a vain formula, without effect and consequence wherever one finds a people that has not integrated itself into its proper linguistic and racial confines—where the national problem has not been definitely resolved. In such circumstances the class movement finds itself impaired by an inauspicious historic climate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979192-52">[50]</a></blockquote> Mussolini continued to promote the need of a revolutionary vanguard elite to lead society. He no longer advocated a proletarian vanguard, but instead a vanguard led by dynamic and revolutionary people of any social class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979192-52">[50]</a> Though he denounced orthodox socialism and class conflict, he maintained at the time that he was a nationalist socialist and a supporter of the legacy of nationalist socialists in Italy's history, such as <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Giuseppe Mazzini</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Pisacane" title="Carlo Pisacane">Carlo Pisacane</a>. As for the Italian Socialist Party and its support of orthodox socialism, he claimed that his failure as a member of the party to revitalise and transform it to recognise the contemporary reality revealed the hopelessness of orthodox socialism as outdated and a failure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979193-53">[51]</a> This perception of the failure of orthodox socialism in the light of the outbreak of World War I was not solely held by Mussolini; other pro-interventionist Italian socialists such as <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Corridoni" title="Filippo Corridoni">Filippo Corridoni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sergio_Panunzio" title="Sergio Panunzio">Sergio Panunzio</a> had also denounced classical <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> in favour of intervention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979195-54">[52]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mussolini_bersagliere.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Mussolini_bersagliere.jpg/170px-Mussolini_bersagliere.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="816" data-file-height="1097"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 229px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Mussolini_bersagliere.jpg/170px-Mussolini_bersagliere.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="229" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Mussolini_bersagliere.jpg/255px-Mussolini_bersagliere.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Mussolini_bersagliere.jpg/340px-Mussolini_bersagliere.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mussolini as a <a href="/wiki/Bersagliere" class="mw-redirect" title="Bersagliere">bersagliere</a> during WWI</figcaption></figure> These basic political views and principles formed the basis of Mussolini's newly formed political movement, the Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria in 1914, who called themselves Fascisti (Fascists).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979193,_195-55">[53]</a> At this time, the Fascists did not have an integrated set of policies and the movement was small, ineffective in its attempts to hold mass meetings, and was regularly harassed by government authorities and orthodox socialists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979195%E2%80%9396-56">[54]</a> Antagonism between the interventionists versus the anti-interventionist orthodox socialists resulted in violence between the Fascists and socialists. These early hostilities between the Fascists and the revolutionary socialists shaped Mussolini's conception of the nature of Fascism in its support of political violence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979196-57">[55]</a> Mussolini became an ally with the <a href="/wiki/Irredentism" title="Irredentism">irredentist</a> politician and journalist <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Battisti_(politician)" title="Cesare Battisti (politician)">Cesare Battisti</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mediterranean4-28">[27]</a> When World War I started, Mussolini, like many Italian nationalists, volunteered to fight. He was turned down because of his radical Socialism and told to wait for his reserve call up. He was called up on 31 August and reported for duty with his old unit, the Bersaglieri. After a two-week refresher course he was sent to Isonzo front where he took part in the Second Battle of the Isonzo, September 1915. His unit also took part in the Third Battle of the Isonzo, October 1915.<a href="#cite_note-Schindler2001-58">[56]</a> The Inspector General continued: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">He was promoted to the rank of corporal "for merit in war". The promotion was recommended because of his exemplary conduct and fighting quality, his mental calmness and lack of concern for discomfort, his zeal and regularity in carrying out his assignments, where he was always first in every task involving labor and fortitude.<a href="#cite_note-Mediterranean4-28">[27]</a></blockquote> Mussolini's military experience is told in his work Diario di guerra. He totalled about nine months of active, front-line trench warfare. During this time, he contracted <a href="/wiki/Paratyphoid_fever" title="Paratyphoid fever">paratyphoid fever</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kirkpatrick-59">[57]</a> His military exploits ended in February 1917 when he was wounded accidentally by the explosion of a mortar bomb in his trench. He was left with at least 40 shards of metal in his body and had to be evacuated from the front.<a href="#cite_note-Schindler2001-58">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kirkpatrick-59">[57]</a> He was discharged from the hospital in August 1917 and resumed his editor-in-chief position at his new paper, Il Popolo d'Italia. On 25 December 1915, in <a href="/wiki/Treviglio" title="Treviglio">Treviglio</a>, he married his compatriot Rachele Guidi, who had already borne him a daughter, Edda, at Forlì in 1910. In 1915, he had a son with <a href="/wiki/Ida_Dalser" title="Ida Dalser">Ida Dalser</a>, a woman born in Sopramonte, a village near Trento.<a href="#cite_note-Grolier_encyclopedia-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Living_History_2-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-timeswife-60">[58]</a> He legally recognised this son on 11 January 1916. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Rise_to_power">Rise to power</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_of_the_National_Fascist_Party">Formation of the National Fascist Party</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Fascism">Italian Fascism</a></div> By the time he returned from service in the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied</a> forces of World War I, Mussolini was convinced that socialism as a doctrine had largely been a failure. In early 1918 he called for the emergence of a man "ruthless and energetic enough to make a clean sweep" to revive the Italian nation.<a href="#cite_note-Hibbert2001-61">[59]</a> On 23 March 1919 Mussolini re-formed the Milan <a href="/wiki/Fascio" title="Fascio">fascio</a> as the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (Italian Combat Squad), consisting of 200 members.<a href="#cite_note-ww2timeline-62">[60]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fasci_di_combattimento.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="the Fasci italiani di combattimento manifesto as published in Il Popolo d'Italia on 6 June 1919" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Fasci_di_combattimento.jpg/220px-Fasci_di_combattimento.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="492"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 155px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Fasci_di_combattimento.jpg/220px-Fasci_di_combattimento.jpg" data-alt="the Fasci italiani di combattimento manifesto as published in Il Popolo d'Italia on 6 June 1919" data-width="220" data-height="155" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Fasci_di_combattimento.jpg/330px-Fasci_di_combattimento.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Fasci_di_combattimento.jpg/440px-Fasci_di_combattimento.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The platform of Fasci italiani di combattimento, as published in "<a href="/wiki/Il_Popolo_d%27Italia" title="Il Popolo d'Italia">Il Popolo d'Italia</a>" on 6 June 1919</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="color map of Italy in red claimed by Fascists in the 1930s" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg/220px-RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="824"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 287px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg/220px-RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg" data-alt="color map of Italy in red claimed by Fascists in the 1930s" data-width="220" data-height="287" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg/330px-RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg/440px-RegioniIrredenteItalia.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Italian ethnic regions claimed in the 1930s by the <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism" title="Italian irredentism">Italian irredentism</a>: *Green: <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Nice" title="Italian irredentism in Nice">Nice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Switzerland" title="Italian irredentism in Switzerland">Ticino</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Dalmatia" title="Italian irredentism in Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> *Red: <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Malta" title="Italian irredentism in Malta">Malta</a> *Violet: <a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Corsica" title="Italian irredentism in Corsica">Corsica</a> *<a href="/wiki/Italian_irredentism_in_Savoy" title="Italian irredentism in Savoy">Savoy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corfiot_Italians#Corfiot_Italians_and_the_Risorgimento" title="Corfiot Italians">Corfu</a> were later claimed.</figcaption></figure> The ideological basis for fascism came from a number of sources. Mussolini drew from the works of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Georges Sorel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nietzsche" class="mw-redirect" title="Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>, and the economic ideas of <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Vilfredo Pareto</a>. Mussolini admired Plato's <a href="/wiki/The_Republic_(Plato)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Republic (Plato)">The Republic</a>, which he often read for inspiration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoseley200439-63">[61]</a> The Republic expounded a number of ideas that fascism promoted, such as rule by an elite promoting the state as the ultimate end, opposition to democracy, protecting the class system and promoting class collaboration, rejection of egalitarianism, promoting the militarisation of a nation by creating a class of warriors, demanding that citizens perform civic duties in the interest of the state, and utilising state intervention in education to promote the development of warriors and future rulers of the state.<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> The idea behind Mussolini's foreign policy was that of <a href="/wiki/Spazio_vitale" title="Spazio vitale">spazio vitale</a> (vital space), a concept in Italian Fascism that was analogous to <a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a> in German National Socialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKallis200048%E2%80%9351-65">[63]</a> The concept of spazio vitale was first announced in 1919, when the entire <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>, especially so-called <a href="/wiki/Julian_March" title="Julian March">Julian March</a>, was redefined to make it appear a unified region that had belonged to Italy from the times of the <a href="/wiki/Italia_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Italia (Roman province)">ancient Roman province of Italia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Newman1943-66">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jones%C3%96stberg2007-67">[65]</a> and was claimed as Italy's exclusive sphere of influence. The right to colonise the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Slovene_minority_in_Italy_(1920%E2%80%931947)" title="Slovene minority in Italy (1920–1947)">Slovene ethnic areas</a> and the Mediterranean, being inhabited by what were alleged to be less developed peoples, was justified on the grounds that Italy was allegedly suffering from overpopulation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKallis200050%E2%80%9351-68">[66]</a> Borrowing the idea first developed by <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Corradini" title="Enrico Corradini">Enrico Corradini</a> before 1914 of the natural conflict between "<a href="/wiki/Plutocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutocratic">plutocratic</a>" nations like Britain and <a href="/wiki/Proletarian_nation" title="Proletarian nation">"proletarian" nations</a> like Italy, Mussolini claimed that Italy's principal problem was that "plutocratic" countries like Britain were blocking Italy from achieving the necessary spazio vitale that would let the Italian economy grow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKallis200048%E2%80%9350-69">[67]</a> Mussolini equated a nation's potential for economic growth with territorial size, thus in his view the problem of poverty in Italy could only be solved by winning the necessary spazio vitale.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKallis200050-70">[68]</a> Though <a href="/wiki/Biological_racism" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological racism">biological racism</a> was less prominent in Italian Fascism than in <a href="/wiki/National_Socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="National Socialism">National Socialism</a>, right from the start the spazio vitale concept had a strong racist undercurrent. Mussolini asserted there was a "natural law" for stronger peoples to subject and dominate "inferior" peoples such as the "barbaric" Slavic peoples of Yugoslavia. He stated in a September 1920 speech: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">When dealing with such a race as Slavic—inferior and barbarian—we must not pursue the carrot, but the stick policy ... We should not be afraid of new victims ... The Italian border should run across the <a href="/wiki/Brenner_Pass" title="Brenner Pass">Brenner Pass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sne%C5%BEnik" class="mw-redirect" title="Snežnik">Monte Nevoso</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dinaric_Alps" title="Dinaric Alps">Dinaric Alps</a> ... I would say we can easily sacrifice 500,000 barbaric Slavs for 50,000 Italians ... <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Benito Mussolini, speech held in <a href="/wiki/Pula" title="Pula">Pola</a>, 20 September 1920<a href="#cite_note-Sestani2012-02-71">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benito_Mussolini_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Benito_Mussolini_crop.jpg/200px-Benito_Mussolini_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="270" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="368" data-file-height="496"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 270px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Benito_Mussolini_crop.jpg/200px-Benito_Mussolini_crop.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="270" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Benito_Mussolini_crop.jpg/300px-Benito_Mussolini_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Benito_Mussolini_crop.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mussolini in the 1920s</figcaption></figure> In the same way, Mussolini argued that Italy was right to follow an <a href="/wiki/Imperialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperialist">imperialist</a> policy in Africa because he saw all black people as "inferior" to whites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKallis200052-73">[71]</a> Mussolini claimed that the world was divided into a hierarchy of races (though this was justified more on cultural than on biological grounds), and that history was nothing more than a <a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinian</a> struggle for power and territory between various "racial masses".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKallis200052-73">[71]</a> Mussolini saw high birthrates in Africa and Asia as a threat to the "white race". Mussolini believed that the United States was doomed as the American blacks had a higher birthrate than whites, making it inevitable that the blacks would take over the United States to drag it down to their level.<a href="#cite_note-Strang,_Bruce_p._21-74">[72]</a> The fact that Italy was suffering from overpopulation was seen as proving the cultural and spiritual vitality of the Italians, who were thus justified in seeking to colonise lands that Mussolini argued—on a historical basis—belonged to Italy anyway. In Mussolini's thinking, <a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a> was destiny; nations with rising populations were nations destined to conquer; and nations with falling populations were decaying powers that deserved to die. Hence, the importance of <a href="/wiki/Natalism" title="Natalism">natalism</a> to Mussolini, since only by increasing the birth rate could Italy ensure its future as a great power. By Mussolini's reckoning, the Italian population had to reach 60 million to enable Italy to fight a major war—hence his relentless demands for Italian women to have more children.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKallis200052-73">[71]</a> Mussolini and the fascists managed to be simultaneously <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary" title="Revolutionary">revolutionary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist Conservatism">traditionalist</a>;<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> because this was vastly different from anything else in the political climate of the time, it is sometimes described as "The Third Way".<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> The Fascisti, led by one of Mussolini's close confidants, <a href="/wiki/Dino_Grandi" title="Dino Grandi">Dino Grandi</a>, formed armed squads of war veterans called <a href="/wiki/Blackshirts" title="Blackshirts">blackshirts</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Squadrismo" title="Squadrismo">squadristi</a>) with the goal of restoring order to the streets of Italy with a strong hand. The blackshirts clashed with communists, socialists, and anarchists at parades and demonstrations; all of these factions were also involved in clashes against each other. The Italian government rarely interfered with the blackshirts' actions, owing in part to a looming threat and widespread fear of a communist revolution. The Fascisti grew rapidly; within two years they transformed themselves into the <a href="/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">National Fascist Party</a> at a congress in Rome. <a href="/wiki/1921_Italian_general_election" title="1921 Italian general election">In 1921</a>, Mussolini won election to the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Chamber_of_Deputies" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Chamber of Deputies">Chamber of Deputies</a> for the first time.<a href="#cite_note-Living_History_2-5">[4]</a> In the meantime, from about 1911 until 1938, Mussolini had various <a href="/wiki/Affair" title="Affair">affairs</a> with the Jewish author and academic <a href="/wiki/Margherita_Sarfatti" title="Margherita Sarfatti">Margherita Sarfatti</a>, called the "Jewish Mother of Fascism" at the time.<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="March_on_Rome">March on Rome</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/March_on_Rome" title="March on Rome">March on Rome</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Mussolini and the Quadrumviri during the March on Rome in 1922" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg/220px-Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="931"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 164px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg/220px-Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg" data-alt="Mussolini and the Quadrumviri during the March on Rome in 1922" data-width="220" data-height="164" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg/330px-Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg/440px-Naples_Fascist_rally_on_24_October_1922.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mussolini and the <a href="/wiki/Quadrumvirs" title="Quadrumvirs">Quadrumvirs</a> during the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Rome" title="March on Rome">March on Rome</a> in 1922: from left to right: <a href="/wiki/Michele_Bianchi" title="Michele Bianchi">Michele Bianchi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emilio_De_Bono" title="Emilio De Bono">Emilio De Bono</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italo_Balbo" title="Italo Balbo">Italo Balbo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Maria_De_Vecchi" title="Cesare Maria De Vecchi">Cesare Maria De Vecchi</a></figcaption></figure> In the night between 27 and 28 October 1922, about 30,000 Fascist blackshirts gathered in Rome to demand the resignation of liberal Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Facta" title="Luigi Facta">Luigi Facta</a> and the appointment of a new Fascist government. On the morning of 28 October, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_III_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Emmanuel III of Italy">King Victor Emmanuel III</a>, who according to the <a href="/wiki/Statuto_Albertino" title="Statuto Albertino">Albertine Statute</a> held the supreme military power, refused the government request to declare <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a>, which led to Facta's resignation. The King then handed over power to Mussolini (who stayed in his headquarters in Milan during the talks) by asking him to form a new government. The King's controversial decision has been explained by historians as a combination of delusions and fears; Mussolini enjoyed wide support in the military and among the industrial and agrarian elites, while the King and the conservative establishment were afraid of a possible civil war and thought they could use Mussolini to restore law and order, but failed to foresee the danger of a totalitarian evolution.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Appointment_as_Prime_Minister">Appointment as Prime Minister</h3></div> As Prime Minister, the first years of Mussolini's rule were characterised by a right-wing coalition government of Fascists, nationalists, liberals, and two Catholic clerics from the <a href="/wiki/Italian_People%27s_Party_(1919)" title="Italian People's Party (1919)">People's Party</a>. The Fascists made up a small minority in his original governments. Mussolini's domestic goal was the eventual establishment of a <a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">totalitarian</a> state with himself as supreme leader (<a href="/wiki/Il_Duce" class="mw-redirect" title="Il Duce">Il Duce</a>), a message that was articulated by the Fascist newspaper <a href="/wiki/Il_Popolo_d%27Italia" title="Il Popolo d'Italia">Il Popolo d'Italia</a>, which was now edited by Mussolini's brother, <a href="/wiki/Arnaldo_Mussolini" title="Arnaldo Mussolini">Arnaldo</a>. To that end, Mussolini obtained from the legislature dictatorial powers for one year (legal under the Italian constitution of the time). He favoured the complete restoration of state authority, with the integration of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Fasces_of_Combat" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Fasces of Combat">Italian Fasces of Combat</a> into the armed forces (the foundation in January 1923 of the <a href="/wiki/Blackshirts" title="Blackshirts">Voluntary Militia for National Security</a>) and the progressive identification of the party with the state. In political and social economy, he passed legislation that favoured the wealthy industrial and agrarian classes (privatisations, liberalisations of rent laws and dismantlement of the unions).<a href="#cite_note-Living_History_2-5">[4]</a> In 1923, Mussolini sent Italian forces to invade <a href="/wiki/Corfu" title="Corfu">Corfu</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Corfu_incident" title="Corfu incident">Corfu incident</a>. The <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> proved powerless, and Greece was forced to comply with Italian demands. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acerbo_Law">Acerbo Law</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti headshot in suit and tie" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg/170px-Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="346" data-file-height="482"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 237px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg/170px-Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg" data-alt="Socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti headshot in suit and tie" data-width="170" data-height="237" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg/255px-Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg/340px-Giacomo_Matteotti_crop.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Socialist leader <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Matteotti" title="Giacomo Matteotti">Giacomo Matteotti</a> was murdered a few days after he openly denounced fascist violence during the <a href="/wiki/1924_Italian_general_election" title="1924 Italian general election">1924 elections</a>.</figcaption></figure> In June 1923, the government passed the <a href="/wiki/Acerbo_Law" title="Acerbo Law">Acerbo Law</a>, which transformed Italy into a single national constituency. It also granted a two-thirds majority of the seats in Parliament to the party or group of parties that received at least 25% of the votes.<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> This law applied in <a href="/wiki/1924_Italian_general_election" title="1924 Italian general election">the elections of 6 April 1924</a>. The national alliance, consisting of Fascists, most of the old Liberals and others, won 64% of the vote. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Squadristi_violence">Squadristi violence</h3></div> The assassination of the socialist deputy <a href="/wiki/Giacomo_Matteotti" title="Giacomo Matteotti">Giacomo Matteotti</a>, who had requested that the elections be <a href="/wiki/Annulment" title="Annulment">annulled</a> because of the irregularities,<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> provoked a momentary crisis in the Mussolini government. Mussolini ordered a cover-up, but witnesses saw the car that transported Matteotti's body parked outside Matteotti's residence, which linked <a href="/wiki/Amerigo_Dumini" title="Amerigo Dumini">Amerigo Dumini</a> to the murder. Mussolini later confessed that a few resolute men could have altered public opinion and started a coup that would have swept fascism away. Dumini was imprisoned for two years. On his release, Dumini allegedly told other people that Mussolini was responsible, for which he served further prison time. The opposition parties responded weakly or were generally unresponsive. Many of the socialists, liberals, and moderates boycotted Parliament in the <a href="/wiki/Aventine_Secession_(20th_century)" title="Aventine Secession (20th century)">Aventine Secession</a>, hoping to force Victor Emmanuel to dismiss Mussolini. On 31 December 1924, <a href="/wiki/Milizia_Volontaria_per_la_Sicurezza_Nazionale" class="mw-redirect" title="Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale">MVSN</a> consuls met with Mussolini and gave him an ultimatum: crush the opposition or they would do so without him. Fearing a revolt by his own militants, Mussolini decided to drop all pretense of democracy.<a href="#cite_note-Paxton-82">[80]</a> On 3 January 1925, Mussolini made a truculent speech before the Chamber in which he took responsibility for squadristi violence (though he did not mention the assassination of Matteotti).<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> He did not abolish the squadristi until 1927, however.<a href="#cite_note-gunther1940-15">[14]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Fascist_Italy">Fascist Italy</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organizational_innovations">Organizational innovations</h3></div> German-American historian <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Jarausch" title="Konrad Jarausch">Konrad Jarausch</a> has argued that Mussolini was responsible for an integrated suite of political innovations that made fascism a powerful force in Europe. First, he proved the movement could actually seize power and operate a comprehensive government in a major country. Second, the movement claimed to represent the entire national community, not a fragment such as the working class or the aristocracy. He made a significant effort to include the previously alienated Catholic element. He defined public roles for the main sectors of the business community rather than allowing it to operate backstage. Third, he developed a cult of one-man leadership that focused media attention and national debate on his own personality. As a former journalist, Mussolini proved highly adept at exploiting all forms of mass media. Fourth, he created a mass membership party with groups that could be more readily mobilised and monitored. Like all dictators he made liberal use of the threat of extrajudicial violence, as well as actual violence by his Blackshirts, to frighten his opposition.<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Police_state">Police state</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Assassination_attempts_on_Benito_Mussolini" title="Assassination attempts on Benito Mussolini">Assassination attempts on Benito Mussolini</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benito_Mussolini.gif" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Benito Mussolini seated portrait in suit and tie facing left" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Benito_Mussolini.gif" decoding="async" width="198" height="257" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="198" data-file-height="257"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 198px;height: 257px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Benito_Mussolini.gif" data-alt="Benito Mussolini seated portrait in suit and tie facing left" data-width="198" data-height="257" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mussolini in his early years in power</figcaption></figure> Between 1925 and 1927, Mussolini progressively dismantled virtually all constitutional and conventional restraints on his power and built a <a href="/wiki/Police_state" title="Police state">police state</a>. A law passed on 24 December 1925—Christmas Eve for the largely <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> country—changed Mussolini's formal title from "President of the Council of Ministers" to "Head of the Government", although he was still called "Prime Minister" by most non-Italian news sources. He was no longer responsible to Parliament and could be removed only by the King. While the <a href="/wiki/Statuto_Albertino" title="Statuto Albertino">Italian constitution</a> stated that ministers were responsible only to the sovereign, in practice it had become all but impossible to govern against the express will of Parliament. The Christmas Eve law ended this practice, and also made Mussolini the only person competent to determine the body's agenda. This law transformed Mussolini's government into a de facto legal dictatorship. Local autonomy was abolished, and <a href="/wiki/Podest%C3%A0" title="Podestà">podestàs</a> appointed by the <a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Senate of the Kingdom of Italy">Italian Senate</a> replaced elected mayors and councils. While Italy occupied former <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a> areas between years 1918 and 1920, five hundred "Slav" societies (for example <a href="/wiki/Sokol_movement_in_Yugoslavia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sokol movement in Yugoslavia">Sokol</a>) and slightly smaller number of libraries ("reading rooms") had been forbidden, specifically so later with the Law on Associations (1925), the Law on Public Demonstrations (1926) and the Law on Public Order (1926)—the closure of the classical lyceum in <a href="/wiki/Pazin" title="Pazin">Pisino</a>, of the high school in Voloska (1918), and the five hundred Slovene and Croatian primary schools followed.<a href="#cite_note-Sluga2001-85">[83]</a> One thousand "Slav" teachers were forcibly exiled to Sardinia and to <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a>. On 7 April 1926, Mussolini survived a first assassination attempt by <a href="/wiki/Violet_Gibson" title="Violet Gibson">Violet Gibson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-thetimesapr081926-86">[84]</a> On 31 October 1926, 15-year-old <a href="/wiki/Anteo_Zamboni" class="mw-redirect" title="Anteo Zamboni">Anteo Zamboni</a> attempted to shoot Mussolini in Bologna. Zamboni was <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynched</a> on the spot.<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> Mussolini also survived a failed assassination attempt in Rome by anarchist <a href="/wiki/Gino_Lucetti" title="Gino Lucetti">Gino Lucetti</a>,<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> and a planned attempt by the Italian anarchist <a href="/wiki/Michele_Schirru" class="mw-redirect" title="Michele Schirru">Michele Schirru</a>,<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> which ended with Schirru's capture and execution.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> All other parties were outlawed following Zamboni's assassination attempt in 1926, though in practice Italy had been a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> since 1925. In 1928, an electoral law abolished parliamentary elections. Instead, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Council_of_Fascism" title="Grand Council of Fascism">Grand Council of Fascism</a> selected a single list of candidates to be approved by <a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">plebiscite</a>. If voters rejected the list, the process would simply be repeated until it was approved. The Grand Council had been created five years earlier as a party body but was "constitutionalized" and became the highest constitutional authority in the state. On paper, the Grand Council had the power to recommend Mussolini's removal from office, and was thus theoretically the only check on his power. However, only Mussolini could summon the Grand Council and determine its agenda. To gain control of the South, especially <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, he appointed <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Mori" title="Cesare Mori">Cesare Mori</a> as a Prefect of the city of Palermo, with the charge of eradicating the <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Mafia" title="Sicilian Mafia">Sicilian Mafia</a>. In the telegram, Mussolini wrote to Mori:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Your Excellency has carte blanche; the authority of the State must absolutely, I repeat absolutely, be re-established in Sicily. If the laws still in force hinder you, this will be no problem, as we will draw up new laws.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a></blockquote>Mori did not hesitate to lay siege to towns, using torture, and holding women and children as hostages to oblige suspects to give themselves up. These harsh methods earned him the nickname of "Iron Prefect". In 1927, Mori's inquiries brought evidence of collusion between the Mafia and the Fascist establishment, and he was dismissed for length of service in 1929, at which time the number of murders in <a href="/wiki/Palermo_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Palermo Province">Palermo Province</a> had decreased from 200 to 23. Mussolini nominated Mori as a senator, and fascist propaganda claimed that the Mafia had been defeated.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> In accordance with the new electoral law, the <a href="/wiki/1929_Italian_general_election" title="1929 Italian general election">general elections</a> took the form of a plebiscite in which voters were presented with a single PNF-dominated list. According to official figures, the list was approved by 98.43% of voters.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id='"Pacification_of_Libya"'>"Pacification of Libya"</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacification of Libya">Pacification of Libya</a></div> In 1919, the Italian state had brought in a series of liberal reforms in Libya that allowed education in Arabic and Berber and allowed for the possibility that the Libyans might become Italian citizens.<a href="#cite_note-Grand_pp._127%E2%80%9347-95">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Volpi" title="Giuseppe Volpi">Giuseppe Volpi</a>, who had been appointed governor in 1921, was retained by Mussolini, and withdrew all of the measures offering equality to the Libyans.<a href="#cite_note-Grand_pp._127%E2%80%9347-95">[93]</a> A policy of confiscating land from the Libyans and granting it to Italian colonists gave new vigor to Libyan resistance led by <a href="/wiki/Omar_Mukhtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Omar Mukhtar">Omar Mukhtar</a>, and during the ensuing "<a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacification of Libya">Pacification of Libya</a>", the Fascist regime waged a genocidal campaign designed to kill as many Libyans as possible.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grand_pp._127%E2%80%9347-95">[93]</a> Well over half the population of Cyrenaica were confined to 15 concentration camps by 1931 while the Royal Italian Air Force staged chemical warfare attacks against the Bedouin.<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a> On 20 June 1930, Marshal <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Pietro Badoglio</a> wrote to General <a href="/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani" title="Rodolfo Graziani">Rodolfo Graziani</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">As for overall strategy, it is necessary to create a significant and clear separation between the controlled population and the rebel formations. I do not hide the significance and seriousness of this measure, which might be the ruin of the subdued population ... But now the course has been set, and we must carry it out to the end, even if the entire population of Cyrenaica must perish.<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a></blockquote>On 3 January 1933, Mussolini told the diplomat Baron Pompei Aloisi that the French in Tunisia had made an "appalling blunder" by permitting sex between the French and the Tunisians, which he predicted would lead to the French degenerating into a nation of "<a href="/wiki/Half-caste" title="Half-caste">half-castes</a>", and to prevent the same thing happening to the Italians gave orders to Marshal Badoglio that <a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">miscegenation</a> be made a crime in Libya.<a href="#cite_note-ESMONDEROBERTSON1988-99">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_policy">Economic policy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Fascist_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Fascist Italy">Economy of Fascist Italy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"> Mussolini launched several public construction programs and government initiatives throughout Italy to combat economic setbacks or unemployment levels. His earliest (and one of the best known) was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Grain" title="Battle for Grain">Battle for Wheat</a>, by which 5,000 new farms were established and five new agricultural towns (among them <a href="/wiki/Littoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Littoria">Littoria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sabaudia" title="Sabaudia">Sabaudia</a>) on land reclaimed by draining the <a href="/wiki/Pontine_Marshes" title="Pontine Marshes">Pontine Marshes</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>, a model agricultural town was founded and named Mussolinia (it has long since been renamed <a href="/wiki/Arborea" title="Arborea">Arborea</a>). This town was the first of what Mussolini hoped would be thousands of new agricultural settlements across the country. The Battle for Wheat diverted valuable resources to wheat production from other more economically viable crops. Landowners grew wheat on unsuitable soil using all the advances of modern science, and although the wheat harvest increased, prices rose, consumption fell and high <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariffs</a> were imposed.<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> The tariffs promoted widespread inefficiencies and the government <a href="/wiki/Subsidy" title="Subsidy">subsidies</a> given to farmers pushed the country further into debt. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inaugurazione_Littoria_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Inaugurazione Littoria with massed parade in 1932" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Inaugurazione_Littoria_001.jpg/220px-Inaugurazione_Littoria_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="898" data-file-height="661"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 162px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Inaugurazione_Littoria_001.jpg/220px-Inaugurazione_Littoria_001.jpg" data-alt="Inaugurazione Littoria with massed parade in 1932" data-width="220" data-height="162" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Inaugurazione_Littoria_001.jpg/330px-Inaugurazione_Littoria_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Inaugurazione_Littoria_001.jpg/440px-Inaugurazione_Littoria_001.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The inauguration of Littoria in 1932</figcaption></figure> Mussolini also initiated the "<a href="/wiki/Battle_for_Land" title="Battle for Land">Battle for Land</a>", a policy based on <a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">land reclamation</a> outlined in 1928. The initiative had a mixed success; while projects such as the draining of the Pontine Marsh in 1935 for agriculture were good for propaganda purposes, provided work for the <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">unemployed</a> and allowed for great land owners to control subsidies, other areas in the Battle for Land were not very successful. This program was inconsistent with the Battle for Wheat (small plots of land were inappropriately allocated for large-scale wheat production), and the Pontine Marsh was lost during World War II. Fewer than 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a> resettled on the redistributed land, and <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasant</a> poverty remained high. The Battle for Land initiative was abandoned in 1940. In 1930, in "<a href="/wiki/The_Doctrine_of_Fascism" title="The Doctrine of Fascism">The Doctrine of Fascism</a>" he wrote, "The so-called crisis can only be settled by State action and within the orbit of the State."<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> He tried to combat <a href="/wiki/Economic_recession" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic recession">economic recession</a> by introducing a "Gold for the Fatherland" initiative, encouraging the public to voluntarily donate <a href="/wiki/Gold_jewellery" class="mw-redirect" title="Gold jewellery">gold jewellery</a> to government officials in exchange for steel <a href="/wiki/Wristband" title="Wristband">wristbands</a> bearing the words "Gold for the Fatherland". The collected gold was melted down and turned into gold bars, which were then distributed to the national banks. Government control of business was part of Mussolini's policy planning. By 1935, he claimed that three-quarters of Italian businesses were under state control. Later that year, Mussolini issued several edicts to further control the economy, e.g. forcing banks, businesses, and private citizens to surrender all foreign-issued stock and bond holdings to the Bank of Italy. In 1936, he imposed <a href="/wiki/Price_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Price control">price controls</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> He also attempted to turn Italy into a self-sufficient <a href="/wiki/Autarky" title="Autarky">autarky</a>, instituting high barriers on trade with most countries except Germany. In 1943, Mussolini proposed the theory of economic <a href="/wiki/Fascist_socialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist socialization">socialisation</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Railways">Railways</h3></div> Mussolini was keen to take the credit for major public works in Italy, particularly the railway system.<a href="#cite_note-Cathcart-103">[101]</a> His reported overhauling of the railway network led to the popular saying, "Say what you like about Mussolini, he made the trains run on time."<a href="#cite_note-Cathcart-103">[101]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Roberts_(author)" title="Kenneth Roberts (author)">Kenneth Roberts</a>, journalist and novelist, wrote in 1924: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The difference between the Italian railway service in 1919, 1920 and 1921 and that which obtained during the first year of the Mussolini regime was almost beyond belief. The cars were clean, the employees were snappy and courteous, and trains arrived at and left the stations on time — not fifteen minutes late, and not five minutes late; but on the minute.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a></blockquote> In fact, the improvement in Italy's dire post-war railway system had begun before Mussolini took power.<a href="#cite_note-Cathcart-103">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> The improvement was also more apparent than real. <a href="/wiki/Bergen_Evans" title="Bergen Evans">Bergen Evans</a> wrote in 1954: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The author was employed as a courier by the Franco-Belgique Tours Company in the summer of 1930, the height of Mussolini's heyday, when a fascist guard rode on every train, and is willing to make an affidavit to the effect that most Italian trains on which he travelled were not on schedule—or near it. There must be thousands who can support this attestation. It's a trifle, but it's worth nailing down.<a href="#cite_note-Dudley-106">[104]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/George_Seldes" title="George Seldes">George Seldes</a> wrote in 1936 that although the express trains carrying tourists generally—though not always—ran on schedule, the same was not true for the smaller lines, where delays were frequent,<a href="#cite_note-Cathcart-103">[101]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Ben-Ghiat" title="Ruth Ben-Ghiat">Ruth Ben-Ghiat</a> has said that "they improved the lines that had a political meaning to them".<a href="#cite_note-Dudley-106">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Propaganda_and_cult_of_personality">Propaganda and cult of personality</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Fascist_Italy" title="Propaganda in Fascist Italy">Propaganda in Fascist Italy</a></div> Mussolini's foremost priority was the subjugation of the minds of the Italian people through the use of <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_of_Fascist_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Propaganda of Fascist Italy">propaganda</a>. The regime promoted a lavish <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_of_Fascist_Italy#Personality_cult" class="mw-redirect" title="Propaganda of Fascist Italy">cult of personality</a> centered on the figure of Mussolini. He pretended to incarnate the new fascist <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cbermensch" title="Übermensch">Übermensch</a>, promoting an aesthetic of exasperated <a href="/wiki/Machismo" title="Machismo">Machismo</a> that attributed to him quasi-divine capacities.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> At various times after 1922, Mussolini personally took over the ministries of the interior, foreign affairs, colonies, corporations, defence, and public works. Sometimes he held as many as seven departments simultaneously, as well as the premiership. He was also head of the all-powerful Fascist Party and the armed local fascist militia, the <a href="/wiki/Milizia_Volontaria_per_la_Sicurezza_Nazionale" class="mw-redirect" title="Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale">MVSN</a> or "Blackshirts", who terrorised incipient resistance in the cities and provinces. He would later form the <a href="/wiki/OVRA" title="OVRA">OVRA</a>, an institutionalised <a href="/wiki/Secret_police" title="Secret police">secret police</a> that carried official state support. In this way he succeeded in keeping power in his own hands and preventing the emergence of any rival. All teachers in schools and universities had to swear an oath to defend the fascist regime. Newspaper editors were all personally chosen by Mussolini, and only those in possession of a certificate of approval from the Fascist Party could practice journalism. These certificates were issued in secret; Mussolini thus skilfully created the illusion of a "free press". The trade unions were also deprived of any independence and were integrated into what was called the <a href="/wiki/Corporate_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate state">"corporative" system</a>. The aim was to place all Italians in various professional organisations or corporations, all under clandestine governmental control. Large sums of money were spent on highly visible public works and on international prestige projects. These included as the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Riband" title="Blue Riband">Blue Riband</a> ocean liner <a href="/wiki/SS_Rex" title="SS Rex">SS Rex</a>; setting aeronautical records with the world's fastest <a href="/wiki/Seaplane" title="Seaplane">seaplane</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Macchi_M.C.72" title="Macchi M.C.72">Macchi M.C.72</a>; and the transatlantic flying boat cruise of <a href="/wiki/Italo_Balbo" title="Italo Balbo">Italo Balbo</a>, which was greeted with much fanfare in the United States when it landed in Chicago in 1933. The principles of the <a href="/wiki/The_Doctrine_of_Fascism" title="The Doctrine of Fascism">doctrine of Fascism</a> were laid down in an article by eminent philosopher <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Giovanni Gentile</a> and Mussolini himself that appeared in 1932 in the <a href="/wiki/Enciclopedia_Italiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Enciclopedia Italiana">Enciclopedia Italiana</a>. Mussolini always portrayed himself as an intellectual, and some historians agree.<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> Gunther called him "easily the best educated and most sophisticated of the dictators", and the only national leader of 1940 who was an intellectual.<a href="#cite_note-gunther1940-15">[14]</a> German historian <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Nolte" title="Ernst Nolte">Ernst Nolte</a> said that "His command of contemporary philosophy and political literature was at least as great as that of any other contemporary European political leader."<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Culture">Culture</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Benito_Mussolini" title="Special:EditPage/Benito Mussolini">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Benito+Mussolini%22">"Benito Mussolini"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Benito+Mussolini%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Benito+Mussolini%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Benito+Mussolini%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Benito+Mussolini%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Benito+Mussolini%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (October 2018) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Has_seven_1_a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Benito Mussolini being cheered by Fascist Blackshirt youth in 1935" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Has_seven_1_a.jpg/220px-Has_seven_1_a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="647" data-file-height="466"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 158px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Has_seven_1_a.jpg/220px-Has_seven_1_a.jpg" data-alt="Benito Mussolini being cheered by Fascist Blackshirt youth in 1935" data-width="220" data-height="158" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Has_seven_1_a.jpg/330px-Has_seven_1_a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Has_seven_1_a.jpg/440px-Has_seven_1_a.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Benito Mussolini and Fascist <a href="/wiki/Blackshirt" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackshirt">Blackshirt</a> youth in 1935</figcaption></figure> Nationalists in the years after World War I thought of themselves as combating the liberal and domineering institutions created by <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">cabinets</a>—such as those of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Giolitti" title="Giovanni Giolitti">Giovanni Giolitti</a>, including traditional schooling. <a href="/wiki/Futurism_(art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Futurism (art)">Futurism</a>, a revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Cultural_movement" title="Cultural movement">cultural movement</a> which would serve as a catalyst for Fascism, argued for "a school for physical courage and patriotism", as expressed by <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Tommaso_Marinetti" title="Filippo Tommaso Marinetti">Filippo Tommaso Marinetti</a> in 1919. Marinetti expressed his disdain for "the by now prehistoric and <a href="/wiki/Technophobia" title="Technophobia">troglodyte</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> courses", arguing for their replacement with exercise modelled on those of the <a href="/wiki/Arditi" title="Arditi">Arditi</a> soldiers. It was in those years that the first Fascist youth wings were formed: <a href="/wiki/Avanguardia_Giovanile_Fascista" title="Avanguardia Giovanile Fascista">Avanguardia Giovanile Fascista</a> (Fascist Youth Vanguards) in 1919, and Gruppi Universitari Fascisti (Fascist University Groups) in 1922. After the March on Rome that brought Mussolini to power, the Fascists started considering ways to politicise Italian society, with an accent on education. Mussolini assigned former <a href="/wiki/Arditi" title="Arditi">ardito</a> and deputy-secretary for Education <a href="/wiki/Renato_Ricci" title="Renato Ricci">Renato Ricci</a> the task of "reorganizing the youth from a moral and physical point of view." The <a href="/wiki/Opera_Nazionale_Balilla" title="Opera Nazionale Balilla">Opera Nazionale Balilla</a> was created through Mussolini's decree of 3 April 1926, and was led by Ricci for the following eleven years. It included children between the ages of 8 and 18, grouped as the Balilla and the Avanguardisti. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benito_Mussolini_portrait_as_dictator_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Benito_Mussolini_portrait_as_dictator_%28retouched%29.jpg/170px-Benito_Mussolini_portrait_as_dictator_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="624" data-file-height="800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 218px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Benito_Mussolini_portrait_as_dictator_%28retouched%29.jpg/170px-Benito_Mussolini_portrait_as_dictator_%28retouched%29.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="218" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Benito_Mussolini_portrait_as_dictator_%28retouched%29.jpg/255px-Benito_Mussolini_portrait_as_dictator_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Benito_Mussolini_portrait_as_dictator_%28retouched%29.jpg/340px-Benito_Mussolini_portrait_as_dictator_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mussolini in a portrait</figcaption></figure> According to Mussolini: "Fascist education is moral, physical, social, and military: it aims to create a complete and harmoniously developed human, a fascist one according to our views". The "educational value set through action and example" was to replace the established approaches. Fascism opposed its version of <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a> to prevalent <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>, and used the Opera Nazionale Balilla to circumvent educational tradition by imposing the collective and hierarchy, as well as Mussolini's own <a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">personality cult</a>. Another important constituent of the Fascist cultural policy was <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a>. In 1929, a concordat with the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Vatican</a> was signed, ending decades of struggle between the Italian state and the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">papacy</a> that dated back to the 1870 takeover of the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Savoy" title="House of Savoy">House of Savoy</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">unification of Italy</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Treaty</a>, by which the Italian state was at last recognised by the Catholic Church, and the independence of Vatican City was recognised by the Italian state, were so much appreciated by the ecclesiastic hierarchy that Pope <a href="/wiki/Pius_XI" class="mw-redirect" title="Pius XI">Pius XI</a> acclaimed Mussolini as "the Man of Providence".<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a> The 1929 treaty included a legal provision whereby the Italian government would protect the honour and dignity of the Pope by prosecuting offenders.<a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a> Mussolini had had his children baptised in 1923 and himself re-<a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptised</a> by a Catholic priest in 1927.<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> After 1929, Mussolini, with his anti-communist doctrines, convinced many Catholics to actively support him. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_policy">Foreign policy</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mussolini_truppe_Etiopia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Mussolini_truppe_Etiopia.jpg/220px-Mussolini_truppe_Etiopia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Mussolini_truppe_Etiopia.jpg/220px-Mussolini_truppe_Etiopia.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Mussolini_truppe_Etiopia.jpg/330px-Mussolini_truppe_Etiopia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Mussolini_truppe_Etiopia.jpg/440px-Mussolini_truppe_Etiopia.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mussolini inspecting troops during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a></figcaption></figure> In foreign policy, Mussolini was pragmatic and opportunistic. His vision centered on forging a new <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in Africa and the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, vindicating the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Mutilated_victory" title="Mutilated victory">mutilated victory</a>" of 1918 imposed by Britain and France, which betrayed the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_London_(1915)" title="Treaty of London (1915)">Treaty of London</a> and denied Italy its "natural right" to supremacy in the Mediterranean.<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a> However, in the 1920s, given Germany's weakness, post-war reconstruction, and reparations issues, Europe's situation was unfavorable for openly revising the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>. Italy's foreign policy focused on maintaining an "equidistant" stance from major powers to exercise "determinant weight," using alignment with one power to secure support for Italian ambitions in Europe and Africa.<a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a> Mussolini believed that Italy's population, then at 40 million, was insufficient for a major war, and sought to increase it to at least 60 million through relentless natalist policies, including making advocacy of contraception a criminal offense in 1924.<a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a> Initially, Mussolini operated as a pragmatic statesman, seeking advantages without risking war with Britain and France. An exception was the 1923 Corfu incident, where Mussolini was prepared for war with Britain over the assassination of Italian military personnel, but was persuaded to accept a diplomatic solution by the Italian Navy's leadership.<a href="#cite_note-Sullivan_pp._178%E2%80%93203-118">[116]</a> In 1925, Mussolini secretly told Italian military leaders that Italy needed to win spazio vitale, aiming to unite the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean under Italian control, though he acknowledged that Italy lacked sufficient manpower for war until the mid-1930s.<a href="#cite_note-Sullivan_pp._178%E2%80%93203-118">[116]</a> Mussolini participated in the <a href="/wiki/Locarno_Treaties" title="Locarno Treaties">Locarno Treaties</a> of 1925, which guaranteed Germany's western borders. In 1929, he began planning for aggression against France and Yugoslavia, and by 1932 sought an anti-French alliance with Germany.<a href="#cite_note-Sullivan_pp._178%E2%80%93203-118">[116]</a> A planned attack on France and Yugoslavia in 1933 was aborted when Mussolini learned that French intelligence had broken Italian military codes.<a href="#cite_note-Sullivan_pp._178%E2%80%93203-118">[116]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> rose to power, threatening Italian interests in Austria and the Danube basin, Mussolini proposed the <a href="/wiki/Four_Power_Pact" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Power Pact">Four Power Pact</a> with Britain, France, and Germany in 1933. Italy also signed the <a href="/wiki/Italo-Soviet_Pact" title="Italo-Soviet Pact">Italo-Soviet Pact</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a> which was partly intended as a warning to Germany.<a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a> When Austrian Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Engelbert_Dollfuss" title="Engelbert Dollfuss">Engelbert Dollfuss</a> was assassinated in 1934 by <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Nazis" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian Nazis">Austrian Nazis</a> during <a href="/wiki/July_Putsch" title="July Putsch">a coup</a>, Mussolini threatened Hitler with war in the event of a German invasion of Austria, and opposed any German attempt at <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a>, promoting the <a href="/wiki/Stresa_Front" title="Stresa Front">Stresa Front</a> against Germany in 1935. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haile_Selassie_in_full_dress_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Haile_Selassie_in_full_dress_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-Haile_Selassie_in_full_dress_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 240px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Haile_Selassie_in_full_dress_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-Haile_Selassie_in_full_dress_%28cropped%29.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="240" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Haile_Selassie_in_full_dress_%28cropped%29.jpg/270px-Haile_Selassie_in_full_dress_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Haile_Selassie_in_full_dress_%28cropped%29.jpg/360px-Haile_Selassie_in_full_dress_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ethiopian Emperor <a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie I</a> had to flee due to Mussolini's invasion. Selassie met Mussolini in 1924 when he had visited Rome as Regent.<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a></figcaption></figure> Despite earlier opposition to the Italo-Turkish War, after the <a href="/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Abyssinia Crisis</a> of 1935–1936, Mussolini invaded <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> following border incidents between Ethiopia and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Somaliland" title="Italian Somaliland">Italian Somaliland</a>. Historians are divided on the reasons for the invasion. Some argue it was a distraction from the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, while others see it as part of a broader expansionist program.<a href="#cite_note-Kallis,_Aristotle_p._124-122">[120]</a> Italy’s forces quickly overwhelmed Ethiopia, leading to the proclamation of an Italian Empire in May 1936.<a href="#cite_note-Red-123">[121]</a> Confident of French support due to his opposition to Hitler, Mussolini dismissed the League of Nations' sanctions imposed over the Ethiopian invasion. He viewed the sanctions as hypocritical attempts by older imperial powers to block Italy’s expansion.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> Italy was criticized for its use of <a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a> and brutal tactics against Ethiopian guerrillas.<a href="#cite_note-Red-123">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a> Mussolini ordered systematic terror against Ethiopian rebels, targeting both combatants and civilians.<a href="#cite_note-Strang,_Bruce_p._22-127">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-Strang,_Bruce_p._23-128">[126]</a> Mussolini ordered the execution of the entire adult male population in a town and in one district ordered that "the prisoners, their accomplices and the uncertain will have to be executed" as part of the "gradual liquidation" of the population.<a href="#cite_note-Strang,_Bruce_p._22-127">[125]</a> Mussolini favoured a policy of brutality partly because he believed the Ethiopians were not a nation because black people were too stupid to have a sense of nationality.<a href="#cite_note-Strang,_Bruce_p._23-128">[126]</a> The other reason was because Mussolini was planning on bringing millions of Italians into Ethiopia and wanted to kill off much of the population to make room.<a href="#cite_note-Strang,_Bruce_p._23-128">[126]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mussolini_and_Hitler_1940_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Hitler and Mussolini in 1940" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Mussolini_and_Hitler_1940_%28retouched%29.jpg/180px-Mussolini_and_Hitler_1940_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="261" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2415" data-file-height="3500"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 261px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Mussolini_and_Hitler_1940_%28retouched%29.jpg/180px-Mussolini_and_Hitler_1940_%28retouched%29.jpg" data-alt="Hitler and Mussolini in 1940" data-width="180" data-height="261" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Mussolini_and_Hitler_1940_%28retouched%29.jpg/270px-Mussolini_and_Hitler_1940_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Mussolini_and_Hitler_1940_%28retouched%29.jpg/360px-Mussolini_and_Hitler_1940_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mussolini and Hitler in 1940</figcaption></figure> Sanctions against Italy pushed Mussolini towards an alliance with Germany. In 1936, he told the German Ambassador that Italy had no objections to Austria becoming a German satellite, removing a key obstacle to Italo-German relations.<a href="#cite_note-Cassels_pp._57%E2%80%9374-129">[127]</a> After the sanctions ended, France and Britain tried to revive the <a href="/wiki/Stresa_Front" title="Stresa Front">Stresa Front</a>, seeking to retain Italy as an ally. However, in 1936, Mussolini agreed to the <a href="/wiki/Rome-Berlin_Axis" class="mw-redirect" title="Rome-Berlin Axis">Rome-Berlin Axis</a> with Germany, and in 1939 signed the <a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Steel" title="Pact of Steel">Pact of Steel</a>, binding Italy and Germany in a full military alliance. The conquest of Ethiopia cost 12,000 Italian lives and placed a severe financial burden on Italy. Mussolini had underestimated the cost of the invasion, which proved far higher than expected, and the ongoing occupation further strained Italy’s economy. The Ethiopian and Spanish wars consumed funds intended for military modernization, weakening Italy's military power.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-130">[128]</a> From 1936 to 1939, Mussolini provided substantial military support to <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationalist Spain">Nationalists</a> in the Spanish Civil War, further distancing Italy from France and Britain. This intervention and the worsening relationship with the Western powers led Mussolini to accept the <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">German annexation of Austria</a> and the <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of Czechoslovakia">dismemberment of Czechoslovakia</a>. At the <a href="/wiki/Munich_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Munich Conference">Munich Conference</a> in 1938, Mussolini posed as a peacemaker while supporting Germany’s annexation of the <a href="/wiki/Sudetenland" title="Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a>. In 1938, <a href="/wiki/TIGR" title="TIGR">TIGR</a>, a Slovene partisan group, plotted to assassinate Mussolini in <a href="/wiki/Kobarid" title="Kobarid">Kobarid</a>, but their attempt was unsuccessful. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="World_War_II">World War II</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gathering_storm">Gathering storm</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benito_Mussolini_Portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="portrait of Benito Mussolini in a helmet and uniform" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Benito_Mussolini_Portrait.jpg/220px-Benito_Mussolini_Portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="258" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="388" data-file-height="455"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 258px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Benito_Mussolini_Portrait.jpg/220px-Benito_Mussolini_Portrait.jpg" data-alt="portrait of Benito Mussolini in a helmet and uniform" data-width="220" data-height="258" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Benito_Mussolini_Portrait.jpg/330px-Benito_Mussolini_Portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Benito_Mussolini_Portrait.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mussolini in a portrait</figcaption></figure> By the late 1930s, Mussolini concluded that Britain and France were declining powers, and that Germany and Italy, due to their demographic strength, were destined to rule Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStang1999172-131">[129]</a> He believed that the declining birth rates in France were "absolutely horrifying" and that the British Empire was doomed because one-quarter of the British population was over 50.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStang1999172-131">[129]</a> Mussolini preferred an alliance with Germany over Britain and France, viewing it as better to be allied with the strong instead of the weak.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStang1999172%E2%80%9374-132">[130]</a> He saw international relations as a Social Darwinian struggle between "virile" nations with high birth rates destined to destroy "effete" nations with low birth rates. Mussolini had no interest in an alliance with France, which he considered a "weak and old" nation due to its declining birthrate.<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> Mussolini's belief in Italy's destino to rule the Mediterranean led him to neglect serious planning for a war with the Western powers.<a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a> He was held back from full alignment with Berlin by Italy's economic and military unpreparedness and his desire to use the <a href="/wiki/Easter_Pact" class="mw-redirect" title="Easter Pact">Easter Accords</a> of April 1938 to split Britain from France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStang1999173%E2%80%9374-135">[133]</a> A military alliance with Germany, rather than the looser political alliance under the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a>, would end any chance of Britain implementing the Easter Accords.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStang1999174%E2%80%9375-136">[134]</a> The Easter Accords were intended by Mussolini to allow Italy to take on France alone, with the hope that improved Anglo-Italian relations would keep Britain neutral in a Franco-Italian war (Mussolini had designs on Tunisia and some <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Italians" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Italians">support in that country</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStang1999174%E2%80%9375-136">[134]</a> Britain, in turn, hoped the Easter Accords would win Italy away from Germany. Count <a href="/wiki/Galeazzo_Ciano" title="Galeazzo Ciano">Galeazzo Ciano</a>, Mussolini's son-in-law and foreign minister, summed up the dictator's objectives regarding France in his diary on 8 November 1938: <a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> would be ruled jointly with France; Tunisia with a similar regime; and <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a> under Italian control.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> Mussolini showed no interest in <a href="/wiki/Savoy" title="Savoy">Savoy</a>, considering it neither "historically nor geographically Italian." On 30 November 1938, Mussolini provoked the French by orchestrating demonstrations where deputies demanded France turn over Tunisia, Savoy, and Corsica to Italy.<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> This led to heightened tensions, with France and Italy on the verge of war through the winter of 1938–39.<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> In January 1939, British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain" title="Neville Chamberlain">Neville Chamberlain</a> visited Rome. Mussolini learned that while Britain wanted better relations with Italy, it would not sever ties with France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKallis2000153-140">[138]</a> This realization led Mussolini to grow more interested in the German offer of a military alliance, first made in May 1938.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKallis2000153-140">[138]</a> In February 1939, Mussolini declared that a state's power is "proportional to its maritime position," asserting that Italy was a "prisoner in the Mediterranean," surrounded by British-controlled territories.<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italienska_omr%C3%A5den_1939.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Italienska_omr%C3%A5den_1939.PNG/220px-Italienska_omr%C3%A5den_1939.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="332"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 224px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Italienska_omr%C3%A5den_1939.PNG/220px-Italienska_omr%C3%A5den_1939.PNG" data-width="220" data-height="224" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Italienska_omr%C3%A5den_1939.PNG 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a> in 1939</figcaption></figure> The new pro-German course was controversial. On 21 March 1939, during a meeting of the Fascist Grand Council, <a href="/wiki/Italo_Balbo" title="Italo Balbo">Italo Balbo</a> accused Mussolini of "licking Hitler's boots" and criticized the pro-German policy as leading Italy to disaster.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKallis200097-142">[140]</a> Despite some internal opposition, Mussolini's control of foreign policy ensured that dissenting voices had little impact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKallis200097-142">[140]</a> In April 1939, Mussolini ordered the <a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Albania" title="Italian invasion of Albania">Italian invasion of Albania</a>, quickly occupying the country and forcing <a href="/wiki/Zog_I_of_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Zog I of Albania">King Zog I</a> to flee.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2004454-143">[141]</a> In May 1939, Mussolini signed the <a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Steel" title="Pact of Steel">Pact of Steel</a>, a full military alliance with Germany, after securing a promise from Hitler that there would be no war for three years. Despite the pact, Mussolini was cautious. When Hitler expressed his intent to invade Poland, Ciano warned that this would likely lead to war with the Allies. Hitler dismissed the warning, suggesting Italy should invade <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-knox-144">[142]</a> Although tempted, Mussolini knew that Italy was unprepared for a global conflict, particularly given King Victor Emmanuel III's demand for neutrality.<a href="#cite_note-knox-144">[142]</a> Thus, when World War II began with Germany’s invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, Italy remained uninvolved.<a href="#cite_note-knox-144">[142]</a> However, when the Germans arrested 183 professors from <a href="/wiki/Jagiellonian_University" title="Jagiellonian University">Jagiellonian University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w" title="Kraków">Kraków</a> in November 1939, Mussolini intervened personally, resulting in the release of 101 Poles.<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War_declared">War declared</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">Military history of Italy during World War II</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Newsweek_May_13_1940_Mussolini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt='Cover of Newsweek magazine, 13 May 1940, showing Mussolini saluting navy revue from shore, with headline "Il Duce: key man of the Mediterranean".' src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Newsweek_May_13_1940_Mussolini.jpg/220px-Newsweek_May_13_1940_Mussolini.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="292" data-file-height="400"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 301px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Newsweek_May_13_1940_Mussolini.jpg/220px-Newsweek_May_13_1940_Mussolini.jpg" data-alt='Cover of Newsweek magazine, 13 May 1940, showing Mussolini saluting navy revue from shore, with headline "Il Duce: key man of the Mediterranean".' data-width="220" data-height="301" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Newsweek_May_13_1940_Mussolini.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Cover of <a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a> magazine, 13 May 1940, headlined: "Il Duce: key man of the Mediterranean"</figcaption></figure> As World War II began, Ciano and <a href="/wiki/E._F._L._Wood,_1st_Earl_of_Halifax" class="mw-redirect" title="E. F. L. Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax">Viscount Halifax</a> were holding secret phone conversations. The British wanted Italy on their side against Germany as it had been in World War I.<a href="#cite_note-knox-144">[142]</a> French government opinion was more geared towards action against Italy, as they were eager to attack Italy in Libya. In September 1939, France swung to the opposite extreme, offering to discuss issues with Italy, but as the French were unwilling to discuss <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>, Nice and <a href="/wiki/Savoy" title="Savoy">Savoy</a>, Mussolini did not answer.<a href="#cite_note-knox-144">[142]</a> Mussolini's Under-Secretary for War Production, <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Favagrossa" title="Carlo Favagrossa">Carlo Favagrossa</a>, had estimated that Italy could not be prepared for major military operations until 1942 due to its relatively weak industrial sector compared to western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a> In late November 1939, Adolf Hitler declared: "So long as the Duce lives, one can rest assured that Italy will seize every opportunity to achieve its imperialistic aims."<a href="#cite_note-knox-144">[142]</a> Convinced that the war would soon be over, with a German victory looking likely at that point, Mussolini decided to enter the war on the Axis side. Accordingly, Italy declared war on Britain and France on 10 June 1940. Mussolini regarded the war against Britain and France as a life-or-death struggle between opposing ideologies—fascism and the "plutocratic and reactionary democracies of the west"—describing the war as "the struggle of the fertile and young people against the sterile people moving to the sunset; it is the struggle between two centuries and two ideas".<a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a> Italy joined the Germans in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a>, fighting the fortified <a href="/wiki/Alpine_Line" title="Alpine Line">Alpine Line</a> at the border. Just eleven days later, France and Germany signed an <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_22_June_1940" title="Armistice of 22 June 1940">armistice</a>. Included in <a href="/wiki/Italian-occupied_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian-occupied France">Italian-controlled France</a> were most of <a href="/wiki/County_of_Nice" title="County of Nice">Nice</a> and other southeastern counties.<a href="#cite_note-wartwo-148">[146]</a> Mussolini planned to concentrate Italian forces on a major offensive against the British Empire in Africa and the Middle East, known as the "parallel war", while expecting the collapse of the UK in the <a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_world_war_II" class="mw-redirect" title="European theatre of world war II">European theatre</a>. The Italians <a href="/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Egypt" title="Italian invasion of Egypt">invaded Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_bombing_of_Mandatory_Palestine_in_World_War_II" title="Italian bombing of Mandatory Palestine in World War II">bombed Mandatory Palestine</a>, and attacked the British in their <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan" title="Anglo-Egyptian Sudan">Sudan</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_East_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="British East Africa">Kenya</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Somaliland" title="British Somaliland">British Somaliland</a> colonies (in what would become known as the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="East African Campaign (World War II)">East African Campaign</a>);<a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a> <a href="/wiki/Italian_conquest_of_British_Somaliland" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian conquest of British Somaliland">British Somaliland was conquered</a> and became part of Italian East Africa on 3 August 1940, and there were Italian advances in the Sudan and Kenya with initial success.<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> The British government refused to accept proposals for a peace that would involve accepting Axis victories in Europe; plans for an invasion of the UK did not proceed and the war continued. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Path_to_defeat">Path to defeat</h3></div> In September 1940, the <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Army_(Italy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenth Army (Italy)">Italian Tenth Army</a> was commanded by General <a href="/wiki/Rodolfo_Graziani" title="Rodolfo Graziani">Rodolfo Graziani</a> and crossed from <a href="/wiki/Italian_Libya" title="Italian Libya">Italian Libya</a> into <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Egypt_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Military history of Egypt during World War II">Egypt</a>, where British forces were located; this would become the <a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Desert Campaign">Western Desert Campaign</a>. Advances were successful, but the Italians stopped at <a href="/wiki/Sidi_Barrani" title="Sidi Barrani">Sidi Barrani</a> waiting for <a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">logistic</a> supplies to catch up. On 24 October 1940, Mussolini sent the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Air_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Air Corps">Italian Air Corps</a> to Belgium, where it took part in <a href="/wiki/The_Blitz" title="The Blitz">the Blitz</a> until January 1941.<a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a> In October, Mussolini also sent Italian forces into <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece" title="Kingdom of Greece">Greece</a>, starting the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Italian_War" title="Greco-Italian War">Greco-Italian War</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> prevented the Italian invasion and allowed the Greeks to push the Italians back to Albania, but the Greek counter-offensive in Italian Albania ended in a stalemate.<a href="#cite_note-152">[150]</a> Events in Africa had changed by early 1941 as <a href="/wiki/Operation_Compass" title="Operation Compass">Operation Compass</a> had forced the Italians back into <a href="/wiki/Italian_Libya" title="Italian Libya">Libya</a>, causing high losses in the <a href="/wiki/Regio_Esercito_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Regio Esercito (World War II)">Italian Army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a> Also in the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Campaign_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="East African Campaign (World War II)">East African Campaign</a>, an attack was mounted against Italian forces. Despite putting up some stiff resistance, they were overwhelmed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Keren" title="Battle of Keren">Battle of Keren</a>, and the Italian defence started to crumble with a final defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gondar" title="Battle of Gondar">Battle of Gondar</a>. When addressing the Italian public on the events, Mussolini was open about the situation, saying "We call bread bread and wine wine, and when the enemy wins a battle it is useless and ridiculous to seek, as the English do in their incomparable hypocrisy, to deny or diminish it."<a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a> With the Axis <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Yugoslavia" title="Invasion of Yugoslavia">invasion of Yugoslavia</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_invasion_of_Greece" title="German invasion of Greece">Greece</a>, Italy annexed <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Ljubljana" title="Province of Ljubljana">Ljubljana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Dalmatia" title="Governorate of Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_governorate_of_Montenegro" title="Italian governorate of Montenegro">Montenegro</a>, and established the puppet states of <a href="/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Croatia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_State_(1941%E2%80%931944)" title="Hellenic State (1941–1944)">Hellenic State</a>. General <a href="/wiki/Mario_Robotti" title="Mario Robotti">Mario Robotti</a>, Commander of the Italian XI Corps in Slovenia and Croatia, issued an order in line with a directive received from Mussolini in June 1942: "I would not be opposed to all (sic) Slovenes being imprisoned and replaced by Italians. In other words, we should take steps to ensure that political and ethnic frontiers coincide".<a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a> Mussolini first learned of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">Operation Barbarossa</a> after the invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> had begun on 22 June 1941, and was not asked by Hitler to involve himself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005276-156">[154]</a> On 25 June 1941, he inspected the first units at Verona, which served as his launching pad to Russia.<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a> Mussolini told the Council of Ministers of 5 July that his only worry was that Germany might defeat the Soviet Union before the Italians arrived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005276%E2%80%9377-158">[156]</a> At a meeting with Hitler in August, Mussolini offered and Hitler accepted the commitment of further Italian troops to fight the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005277-159">[157]</a> The heavy losses suffered by the Italians on the Eastern Front, where service was extremely unpopular owing to the widespread view that this was not Italy's fight, did much to damage Mussolini's prestige with the Italian people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005277-159">[157]</a> After the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a>, he <a href="/wiki/Italian_declaration_of_war_on_the_United_States" title="Italian declaration of war on the United States">declared war on the United States</a> on 11 December 1941.<a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a> A piece of evidence regarding Mussolini's response to the attack on Pearl Harbor comes from the diary of his Foreign Minister Ciano: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A night telephone call from Ribbentrop. He is overjoyed about the Japanese attack on America. He is so happy about it that I am happy with him, though I am not too sure about the final advantages of what has happened. One thing is now certain, that America will enter the conflict and that the conflict will be so long that she will be able to realize all her potential forces. This morning I told this to the King who had been pleased about the event. He ended by admitting that, in the long run, I may be right. Mussolini was happy, too. For a long time he has favored a definite clarification of relations between America and the Axis.<a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a></blockquote> Italian forces had also achieved some victories suppressing insurgents in Yugoslavia, Greece, Albania and <a href="/wiki/Uprising_in_Montenegro_(1941)" title="Uprising in Montenegro (1941)">in Montenegro</a>. In North Africa. Italian forces would drive the British forces out of Libya during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gazala" title="Battle of Gazala">Battle of Gazala</a>, and pushed into Egypt towards El Alamein where the offensive is halted by the <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="First Battle of El Alamein">First Battle of El Alamein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alam_el_Halfa" title="Battle of Alam el Halfa">Battle of Alam el Halfa</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_El_Alamein" title="Second Battle of El Alamein">Second Battle of El Alamein</a> would be the turning point of North Africa as the British forces would push the Italians back to Libya and by January 1943, the Italian Libya fell to the British forces after the fall of <a href="/wiki/Tripoli_(Libya)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripoli (Libya)">Tripoli</a>. Following <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a>'s collapse and the <a href="/wiki/Case_Anton" title="Case Anton">Case Anton</a> on November 1942, Italy occupied the French territories of <a href="/wiki/Italian_occupation_of_Corsica" title="Italian occupation of Corsica">Corsica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Tunisians#Fascist_requests_after_1938" title="Italian Tunisians">Tunisia</a>. Italian forces would use Tunisia as a base of military operations for the <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_campaign" title="Tunisian campaign">Tunisian campaign</a>. Although Mussolini was aware that Italy, whose resources were reduced by the campaigns of the 1930s, was not ready for a long war, he opted to remain in the conflict to not abandon the occupied territories and the fascist imperial ambitions.<a href="#cite_note-MacGregor_Knox_1999._pp._122%E2%80%9323-163">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dismissal_and_arrest">Dismissal and arrest</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pietro_Badoglio_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Marshal Pietro Badoglio standing in uniform" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Pietro_Badoglio_3.jpg/170px-Pietro_Badoglio_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="260" data-file-height="363"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 237px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Pietro_Badoglio_3.jpg/170px-Pietro_Badoglio_3.jpg" data-alt="Marshal Pietro Badoglio standing in uniform" data-width="170" data-height="237" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Pietro_Badoglio_3.jpg/255px-Pietro_Badoglio_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Pietro_Badoglio_3.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Marshal <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Pietro Badoglio</a> succeeded Mussolini as Prime Minister.</figcaption></figure> By 1943, Italy's military position had become untenable. Axis forces in North Africa were defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Campaign">Tunisian Campaign</a> in early 1943. Italy suffered major setbacks on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)" title="Eastern Front (World War II)">Eastern Front</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoseley2004-164">[162]</a> The Italian home front was also in bad shape as the Allied bombings were taking their toll. Factories all over Italy were brought to a virtual standstill because raw materials were lacking. There was a chronic shortage of food, and what food was available was being sold at nearly confiscatory prices. Mussolini's once-ubiquitous propaganda machine lost its grip on the people; a large number of Italians turned to <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Radio" title="Vatican Radio">Vatican Radio</a> or <a href="/wiki/BBC_World_Service" title="BBC World Service">Radio London</a> for more accurate news coverage. Discontent came to a head in March 1943 with a wave of labour strikes in the industrial north—the first large-scale strikes since 1925.<a href="#cite_note-fital-165">[163]</a> Also in March, some of the major factories in <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a> stopped production to secure evacuation allowances for workers' families. The German presence in Italy had sharply turned public opinion against Mussolini; when the Allies invaded Sicily, the majority of the public there welcomed them as liberators.<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> Mussolini feared that with Allied victory in North Africa, Allied armies would come across the Mediterranean and attack Italy. In April 1943, as the Allies closed into Tunisia, Mussolini had urged Hitler to make a separate peace with the USSR and send German troops to the west to guard against an expected Allied invasion of Italy. The Allies landed in Sicily on 10 July 1943, and within a few days it was obvious the Italian army was on the brink of collapse. This led Hitler to summon Mussolini to a meeting in <a href="/wiki/Feltre" title="Feltre">Feltre</a> on 19 July 1943. By this time, Mussolini was so shaken from stress that he could no longer stand Hitler's boasting. His mood darkened further when that same day, <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Rome_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Rome in World War II">the Allies bombed Rome</a>—the first time that city had ever been the target of enemy bombing.<a href="#cite_note-RiseFall-167">[165]</a> It was obvious by this time that the war was lost, but Mussolini could not extricate himself from the German alliance.<a href="#cite_note-Payne-168">[166]</a> By this point, some prominent members of Mussolini's government had turned against him, including <a href="/wiki/Dino_Grandi" title="Dino Grandi">Grandi</a> and Ciano. Several of his colleagues were close to revolt, and Mussolini was forced to summon the Grand Council on 24 July 1943. This was the first time the body had met since the start of the war. When he announced that the Germans were thinking of evacuating the south, Grandi launched a blistering attack on him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoseley2004-164">[162]</a> Grandi moved a resolution asking the king to resume his full constitutional powers—in effect, a <a href="/wiki/Vote_of_no_confidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote of no confidence">vote of no confidence</a> in Mussolini. This motion carried by a 19–8 margin.<a href="#cite_note-fital-165">[163]</a> Mussolini showed little visible reaction, even though this effectively authorised the king to sack him. He did, however, ask Grandi to consider the possibility that this motion would spell the end of Fascism. The vote, although significant, had no de jure effect, since the prime minister was only responsible to the king.<a href="#cite_note-Payne-168">[166]</a> Despite this sharp rebuke, Mussolini showed up for work the next day as usual. He allegedly viewed the Grand Council as merely an advisory body and did not think the vote would have any substantive effect.<a href="#cite_note-fital-165">[163]</a> That afternoon, at 17:00, he was summoned to the royal palace by Victor Emmanuel. By then, Victor Emmanuel had already decided to sack him; the king had arranged an escort for Mussolini and had the government building surrounded by 200 <a href="/wiki/Carabinieri" title="Carabinieri">carabinieri</a>. Mussolini was unaware of these moves by the king and tried to tell him about the Grand Council meeting. Victor Emmanuel cut him off and formally dismissed him from office, although guaranteeing his immunity.<a href="#cite_note-fital-165">[163]</a> After Mussolini left the palace, he was arrested by the carabinieri on the king's orders. The police took Mussolini in a <a href="/wiki/Red_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Cross">Red Cross</a> ambulance car, without specifying his destination and assuring him that they were doing it for his own safety.<a href="#cite_note-prisonrescue-169">[167]</a> By this time, discontent with Mussolini was so intense that when the news of his downfall was announced on the radio, there was no resistance of any sort. People rejoiced because they believed that the end of Mussolini also meant the end of the war.<a href="#cite_note-fital-165">[163]</a> The king appointed Marshal <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Pietro Badoglio</a> as the prime minister. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07,_Gran_Sasso,_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="line of German soldiers walking with Mussolini" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="500"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 140px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg" data-alt="line of German soldiers walking with Mussolini" data-width="220" data-height="140" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-567-1503A-07%2C_Gran_Sasso%2C_Mussolini_mit_deutschen_Fallschirmj%C3%A4gern.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mussolini rescued by German troops from his prison in <a href="/wiki/Campo_Imperatore" title="Campo Imperatore">Campo Imperatore</a> on 12 September 1943</figcaption></figure> In an effort to conceal his location from the Germans, Mussolini was moved around: first to <a href="/wiki/Ponza" title="Ponza">Ponza</a>, then to <a href="/wiki/La_Maddalena" title="La Maddalena">La Maddalena</a>, before being imprisoned at <a href="/wiki/Campo_Imperatore" title="Campo Imperatore">Campo Imperatore</a>, a mountain resort in <a href="/wiki/Abruzzo" title="Abruzzo">Abruzzo</a> where he was completely isolated. Badoglio kept up the appearance of loyalty to Germany, and announced that Italy would continue fighting on the side of the Axis. However, he dissolved the Fascist Party two days after taking over and began negotiating with the Allies. On 3 September 1943, Badoglio agreed to an <a href="/wiki/Armistice_between_Italy_and_Allied_armed_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces">Armistice between Italy and Allied armed forces</a>. Its announcement five days later threw Italy into chaos; German troops seized control in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Achse" title="Operation Achse">Operation Achse</a>. As the Germans approached Rome, Badoglio and the king fled with their main collaborators to <a href="/wiki/Apulia" title="Apulia">Apulia</a>, putting themselves under the protection of the Allies, but leaving the Italian Army without orders.<a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a> After a period of anarchy, they formed a government in <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, and finally declared war on Germany on 13 October 1943. Several thousand Italian troops joined the Allies to fight against the Germans; most others deserted or surrendered to the Germans; some refused to switch sides and joined the Germans. The Badoglio government agreed to a political truce with the <a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">predominantly leftist Partisans</a> for the sake of Italy and to rid the land of the Nazis.<a href="#cite_note-lastdays-171">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id='Italian_Social_Republic_("Salò_Republic")'>Italian Social Republic ("Salò Republic")</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italian_social_republic_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="four color map of northern Italy with Italian Socialist Republic in tan, 1943" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Italian_social_republic_map.png/220px-Italian_social_republic_map.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="983" data-file-height="1022"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 229px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Italian_social_republic_map.png/220px-Italian_social_republic_map.png" data-alt="four color map of northern Italy with Italian Socialist Republic in tan, 1943" data-width="220" data-height="229" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Italian_social_republic_map.png/330px-Italian_social_republic_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Italian_social_republic_map.png/440px-Italian_social_republic_map.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"> Italian Social Republic (RSI) as of 1943</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"> German military operational zones (<a href="/wiki/OZAV" class="mw-redirect" title="OZAV">OZAV</a>/<a href="/wiki/OZAK" class="mw-redirect" title="OZAK">OZAK</a>) under direct German administration</div></figcaption></figure> Only two months after Mussolini had been dismissed and arrested, he was rescued from his prison at the Hotel Campo Imperatore in the <a href="/wiki/Gran_Sasso_raid" title="Gran Sasso raid">Gran Sasso raid</a> on 12 September 1943 by a special <a href="/wiki/Fallschirmj%C3%A4ger" title="Fallschirmjäger">Fallschirmjäger</a> (paratroopers) unit and <a href="/wiki/Waffen-SS" title="Waffen-SS">Waffen-SS</a> <a href="/wiki/Commando" title="Commando">commandos</a> led by Major <a href="/wiki/Harald_Mors" title="Harald Mors">Otto-Harald Mors</a>; <a href="/wiki/Otto_Skorzeny" title="Otto Skorzeny">Otto Skorzeny</a> was also present.<a href="#cite_note-prisonrescue-169">[167]</a> The rescue saved Mussolini from being turned over to the Allies in accordance with the armistice.<a href="#cite_note-lastdays-171">[169]</a> Hitler had made plans to arrest the king, the <a href="/wiki/Umberto_II_of_Italy" title="Umberto II of Italy">Crown Prince Umberto</a>, Badoglio, and the rest of the government and restore Mussolini to power in Rome, but the government's escape south likely foiled those plans.<a href="#cite_note-RiseFall-167">[165]</a> Three days after his rescue in the Gran Sasso raid, Mussolini was taken to Germany for a meeting with Hitler in <a href="/wiki/K%C4%99trzyn" title="Kętrzyn">Rastenburg</a> at <a href="/wiki/Wolf%27s_Lair" title="Wolf's Lair">his East Prussian headquarters</a>. Despite his public support, Hitler was clearly shocked by Mussolini's dishevelled and haggard appearance as well as his unwillingness to go after the men in Rome who overthrew him. Feeling that he had to do what he could to blunt the edges of Nazi repression, Mussolini agreed to set up a new regime, the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: Repubblica Sociale Italiana, RSI),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoseley2004-164">[162]</a> informally known as the Salò Republic because of its seat in the town of <a href="/wiki/Sal%C3%B2" title="Salò">Salò</a>, where he was settled 11 days after his rescue by the Germans. His new regime was much reduced in territory; in addition to losing the Italian lands held by the Allies and Badoglio's government, the provinces of <a href="/wiki/South_Tyrol" title="South Tyrol">Bolzano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Belluno" title="Province of Belluno">Belluno</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trentino" title="Trentino">Trento</a> were placed under German administration in the <a href="/wiki/Operational_Zone_of_the_Alpine_Foothills" title="Operational Zone of the Alpine Foothills">Operational Zone of the Alpine Foothills</a>, while the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Friuli" title="Friuli">Udine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorizia_and_Gradisca" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorizia and Gradisca">Gorizia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Trieste" title="Province of Trieste">Trieste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Istria" title="Istria">Pola</a> (now Pula), <a href="/wiki/Rijeka" title="Rijeka">Fiume</a> (now Rijeka), and <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Ljubljana" title="Province of Ljubljana">Ljubljana</a> (Lubiana in Italian) were incorporated into the German <a href="/wiki/Operational_Zone_of_the_Adriatic_Littoral" title="Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral">Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Speer-172">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1175-25,_Italien,_Benito_Mussolini_bei_Inspektion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Mussolini climbing steps out of a bunker" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1175-25%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_bei_Inspektion.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1175-25%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_bei_Inspektion.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="493" data-file-height="622"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 214px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1175-25%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_bei_Inspektion.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1175-25%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_bei_Inspektion.jpg" data-alt="Mussolini climbing steps out of a bunker" data-width="170" data-height="214" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1175-25%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_bei_Inspektion.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1175-25%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_bei_Inspektion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1175-25%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_bei_Inspektion.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1175-25%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_bei_Inspektion.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mussolini inspecting fortifications, 1944</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11,_Italien,_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Benito Mussolini reviewing adolescent soldiers in 1944" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="108" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="507"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 108px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg" data-alt="Benito Mussolini reviewing adolescent soldiers in 1944" data-width="170" data-height="108" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_101I-316-1181-11%2C_Italien%2C_Benito_Mussolini_mit_italienischen_Soldaten.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A rain-spattered Mussolini reviewing adolescent soldiers in northern Italy, late 1944</figcaption></figure> Additionally, German forces occupied the <a href="/wiki/Governorship_of_Dalmatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Governorship of Dalmatia">Dalmatian provinces</a> of <a href="/wiki/Split,_Croatia" title="Split, Croatia">Split</a> (Spalato) and <a href="/wiki/Kotor" title="Kotor">Kotor</a> (Cattaro), which were subsequently annexed by the <a href="/wiki/Independent_State_of_Croatia" title="Independent State of Croatia">Croatian fascist regime</a>. Italy's conquests in <a href="/wiki/Axis_occupation_of_Greece" title="Axis occupation of Greece">Greece</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_protectorate_of_Albania_(1939%E2%80%931943)" title="Italian protectorate of Albania (1939–1943)">Albania</a> were also lost to Germany, with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Islands_of_the_Aegean" title="Italian Islands of the Aegean">Italian Islands of the Aegean</a>, which remained nominally under RSI rule.<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> Mussolini opposed any territorial reductions of the Italian state and told his associates:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I am not here to renounce even a square meter of state territory. We will go back to war for this. And we will rebel against anyone for this. Where the Italian flag flew, the Italian flag will return. And where it has not been lowered, now that I am here, no one will have it lowered. I have said these things to the Führer.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a></blockquote> For about a year and a half, Mussolini lived in <a href="/wiki/Gargnano" title="Gargnano">Gargnano</a> on <a href="/wiki/Lake_Garda" title="Lake Garda">Lake Garda</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lombardy" title="Lombardy">Lombardy</a>. Although he insisted in public that he was in full control, he knew he was a <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet ruler</a> under the protection of his German liberators—for all intents and purposes, the <a href="/wiki/Gauleiter" title="Gauleiter">Gauleiter</a> of Lombardy.<a href="#cite_note-RiseFall-167">[165]</a> Indeed, he lived under what amounted to house arrest by the SS, who restricted his communications and travel. He told one of his colleagues that being sent to a concentration camp would be preferable.<a href="#cite_note-Payne-168">[166]</a> Yielding to pressure from Hitler and the remaining loyal fascists who formed the government of the Republic of Salò, Mussolini helped orchestrate executions of some of the leaders who had betrayed him at the last meeting of the Fascist Grand Council. One of those executed was his son-in-law, <a href="/wiki/Galeazzo_Ciano" title="Galeazzo Ciano">Galeazzo Ciano</a>. As head of state and Minister of Foreign Affairs for the Italian Social Republic, Mussolini used much of his time to write his memoirs. Along with his autobiographical writings of 1928, these writings would be combined and published by <a href="/wiki/Da_Capo_Press" title="Da Capo Press">Da Capo Press</a> as My Rise and Fall. In an interview in January 1945 by Madeleine Mollier, a few months before he was captured and executed, he stated flatly: "Seven years ago, I was an interesting person. Now, I am little more than a corpse." He continued: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Yes, madam, I am finished. My star has fallen. I have no fight left in me. I work and I try, yet know that all is but a farce... I await the end of the tragedy and—strangely detached from everything—I do not feel any more an actor. I feel I am the last of spectators.<a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a></blockquote> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Death_of_Benito_Mussolini" title="Death of Benito Mussolini">Death of Benito Mussolini</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cross_mezzegra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="metal cross memorial in Mezzegra Benito Mussolini 28 Aprile 1945" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Cross_mezzegra.jpg/220px-Cross_mezzegra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Cross_mezzegra.jpg/220px-Cross_mezzegra.jpg" data-alt="metal cross memorial in Mezzegra Benito Mussolini 28 Aprile 1945" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Cross_mezzegra.jpg/330px-Cross_mezzegra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Cross_mezzegra.jpg/440px-Cross_mezzegra.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Cross marking the place in <a href="/wiki/Mezzegra" title="Mezzegra">Mezzegra</a> where Mussolini was shot</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Execution_of_Mussolini_%281945%29.ogv/220px--Execution_of_Mussolini_%281945%29.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="147" data-durationhint="53" data-mwtitle="Execution_of_Mussolini_(1945).ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Execution_of_Mussolini_(1945).ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Execution_of_Mussolini_%281945%29.ogv" type='video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"' data-width="720" data-height="480"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e2/Execution_of_Mussolini_%281945%29.ogv/Execution_of_Mussolini_%281945%29.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"' data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="720" data-height="480"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e2/Execution_of_Mussolini_%281945%29.ogv/Execution_of_Mussolini_%281945%29.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="216" data-height="144"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e2/Execution_of_Mussolini_%281945%29.ogv/Execution_of_Mussolini_%281945%29.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"' data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="360" data-height="240"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e2/Execution_of_Mussolini_%281945%29.ogv/Execution_of_Mussolini_%281945%29.ogv.360p.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"' data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="540" data-height="360"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e2/Execution_of_Mussolini_%281945%29.ogv/Execution_of_Mussolini_%281945%29.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type='video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"' data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="540" data-height="360"></source><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AExecution_of_Mussolini_%281945%29.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr"></track></video><figcaption>American newsreel coverage of the death of Mussolini in 1945</figcaption></figure> On 25 April 1945, Allied troops were advancing into northern Italy, and the collapse of the Salò Republic was imminent. Mussolini and his <a href="/wiki/Mistress_(lover)" title="Mistress (lover)">mistress</a> <a href="/wiki/Clara_Petacci" title="Clara Petacci">Clara Petacci</a> set out for Switzerland,<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> intending to board a plane and escape to Spain.<a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a> Two days later on 27 April, they were stopped near the village of <a href="/wiki/Dongo_(CO)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dongo (CO)">Dongo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lake_Como" title="Lake Como">Lake Como</a>) by communist partisans named Valerio and Bellini and identified by the <a href="/wiki/Political_Commissar" class="mw-redirect" title="Political Commissar">Political Commissar</a> of the partisans' 52nd Garibaldi Brigade, <a href="/wiki/Urbano_Lazzaro" title="Urbano Lazzaro">Urbano Lazzaro</a>. Petacci's brother posed as a Spanish consul.<a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a> With the spread of the news of the arrest, several telegrams arrived at the command of the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Committee_for_Northern_Italy" title="National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy">National Liberation Committee for Northern Italy</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Strategic_Services" title="Office of Strategic Services">Office of Strategic Services</a> headquarters in <a href="/wiki/Siena" title="Siena">Siena</a> with the request that Mussolini be entrusted to Allied forces.<a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> In fact, clause number 29 of the armistice signed in <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> by <a href="/wiki/Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a> and the Marshal of Italy <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Pietro Badoglio</a> on 29 September 1943, expressly provided that: <blockquote>Benito Mussolini, his main fascist associates and all persons suspected of having committed crimes of war or similar crimes, whose names are on the lists that will be delivered by the United Nations and which now or in the future are in territory controlled by the allied military command or by the Italian government, will be immediately arrested and handed over to the United Nations forces.<a href="#cite_note-181">[179]</a></blockquote> The next day, Mussolini and Petacci were both summarily shot, along with most of the members of their 15-man train, primarily ministers and officials of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Italian Social Republic</a>. The shootings took place in the small village of <a href="/wiki/Giulino_di_Mezzegra" class="mw-redirect" title="Giulino di Mezzegra">Giulino di Mezzegra</a> and were conducted by a partisan leader with the <a href="/wiki/Nom_de_guerre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nom de guerre">nom de guerre</a> Colonnello Valerio. His real identity is unknown, but conventionally he is thought to have been <a href="/wiki/Walter_Audisio" title="Walter Audisio">Walter Audisio</a>, who always claimed to have carried out the execution, though another partisan controversially alleged that Colonnello Valerio was <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Longo" title="Luigi Longo">Luigi Longo</a>, subsequently a leading communist politician.<a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mussolini's_corpse">Mussolini's corpse</h3></div> On 29 April 1945, the bodies of Mussolini, Petacci, and the other executed fascists were loaded into a van and moved south to <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>. At 3:00 a.m., the corpses were dumped on the ground in the old <a href="/wiki/Piazzale_Loreto" title="Piazzale Loreto">Piazzale Loreto</a>. The piazza had been renamed "Piazza Quindici Martiri" (Fifteen Martyrs' Square) in honour of fifteen Italian partisans recently executed there.<a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto,_1945.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="corpses hanging by feet including Mussolini next to Petacci at Piazzale Loreto, Milan, 1945" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto%2C_1945.jpg/220px-Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto%2C_1945.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2042" data-file-height="1451"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 156px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto%2C_1945.jpg/220px-Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto%2C_1945.jpg" data-alt="corpses hanging by feet including Mussolini next to Petacci at Piazzale Loreto, Milan, 1945" data-width="220" data-height="156" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto%2C_1945.jpg/330px-Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto%2C_1945.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto%2C_1945.jpg/440px-Mussolini_e_Petacci_a_Piazzale_Loreto%2C_1945.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>From left to right, the bodies of <a href="/wiki/Nicola_Bombacci" title="Nicola Bombacci">Bombacci</a>, Mussolini, <a href="/wiki/Clara_Petacci" title="Clara Petacci">Petacci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Pavolini" title="Alessandro Pavolini">Pavolini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Achille_Starace" title="Achille Starace">Starace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Piazzale_Loreto" title="Piazzale Loreto">Piazzale Loreto</a>, 1945</figcaption></figure> After being kicked and spat upon, the bodies were hung upside down from the roof of a service station<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a> and stoned from below by civilians. This was done both to discourage any fascists from continuing the fight and as an act of revenge for the hanging of partisans in the same place by Axis authorities. The corpse of the deposed leader was subject to ridicule and abuse. Fascist loyalist <a href="/wiki/Achille_Starace" title="Achille Starace">Achille Starace</a> was captured and sentenced to death, then taken to the Piazzale Loreto and shown the body of Mussolini, which he saluted just before being shot. His body was strung up beside Mussolini's. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> Mussolini's first wife was <a href="/wiki/Ida_Dalser" title="Ida Dalser">Ida Dalser</a>, whom he married in <a href="/wiki/Trento" title="Trento">Trento</a> in 1914. The couple had a son the following year and named him <a href="/wiki/Ida_Dalser#Fate_of_Benito_Albino" title="Ida Dalser">Benito Albino Mussolini</a>. In December 1915, Mussolini married <a href="/wiki/Rachele_Mussolini" title="Rachele Mussolini">Rachele Guidi</a>, who had been his mistress since 1910. Due to his upcoming political ascendency, the information about his first marriage was suppressed, and both his first wife and son were later persecuted.<a href="#cite_note-timeswife-60">[58]</a> With Rachele, Mussolini had two daughters, <a href="/wiki/Edda_Mussolini" title="Edda Mussolini">Edda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anna_Maria_Mussolini" title="Anna Maria Mussolini">Anna Maria</a>, the latter of whom married Nando Pucci Negri in <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> on 11 June 1960; and three sons: <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Mussolini" title="Vittorio Mussolini">Vittorio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Mussolini" title="Bruno Mussolini">Bruno</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romano_Mussolini" title="Romano Mussolini">Romano</a>. Mussolini had several mistresses, among them <a href="/wiki/Margherita_Sarfatti" title="Margherita Sarfatti">Margherita Sarfatti</a> and his final companion, <a href="/wiki/Clara_Petacci" title="Clara Petacci">Clara Petacci</a>. Mussolini had many brief sexual encounters with female supporters, as reported by his biographer Nicholas Farrell.<a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a> Imprisonment may have been the cause of Mussolini's <a href="/wiki/Claustrophobia" title="Claustrophobia">claustrophobia</a>. He refused to enter the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Grotto_(Capri)" title="Blue Grotto (Capri)">Blue Grotto</a> and preferred large rooms like his 18 by 12 by 12 m (60 by 40 by 40 feet) office at the <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Venezia" title="Palazzo Venezia">Palazzo Venezia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gunther1940-15">[14]</a> In addition to his native Italian, Mussolini spoke English, French, and sufficient German to dispense with an interpreter. This was notable at the Munich Conference, as no other national leader spoke anything other than his native language; Mussolini was described as effectively being the "chief interpreter".<a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Religious_views">Religious views</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atheism_and_anti-clericalism">Atheism and anti-clericalism</h3></div> Mussolini was raised by a devoutly <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> mother<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19821-189">[187]</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">anti-clerical</a> father.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19828-190">[188]</a> His mother Rosa had him <a href="/wiki/Sacraments_of_the_Catholic_Church#Baptism" title="Sacraments of the Catholic Church">baptised</a> into the Roman Catholic Church, and took her children to services every Sunday. His father never attended.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19821-189">[187]</a>Mussolini regarded his time at a religious boarding school as punishment, compared the experience to hell, and "once refused to go to <a href="/wiki/Mass_(liturgy)" title="Mass (liturgy)">morning Mass</a> and had to be dragged there by force."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19822%E2%80%933-191">[189]</a> Mussolini became anti-clerical like his father. As a young man, he "proclaimed himself to be an <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheist</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a> and several times tried to shock an audience by calling on God to strike him dead."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19828-190">[188]</a> He believed that science had proven there was no God, and that the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Jesus" title="Historical Jesus">historical Jesus</a> was ignorant and mad. He considered religion a disease of the psyche, and accused Christianity of promoting resignation and cowardice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19828-190">[188]</a> Mussolini is claimed to be superstitious, because after hearing of the <a href="/wiki/Curse_of_the_Pharaohs" class="mw-redirect" title="Curse of the Pharaohs">curse of the Pharaohs</a>, he ordered the immediate removal of an Egyptian mummy that he had been gifted from the <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Chigi" class="mw-redirect" title="Palazzo Chigi">Palazzo Chigi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gunther1940-15">[14]</a> Mussolini was an admirer of <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Denis_Mack_Smith" title="Denis Mack Smith">Denis Mack Smith</a>, "In Nietzsche he found justification for his crusade against the Christian virtues of humility, resignation, charity, and goodness."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith198212-193">[191]</a> He valued Nietzsche's concept of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%9Cbermensch" title="Übermensch">superman</a>, "The supreme egoist who defied both God and the masses, who despised egalitarianism and democracy, who believed in the weakest going to the wall and pushing them if they did not go fast enough."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith198212-193">[191]</a> On his 60th birthday, Mussolini received a gift from Hitler of a complete twenty-four volume set of the works of Nietzsche.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeville2014176-194">[192]</a> Mussolini made vitriolic attacks against Christianity and the Catholic Church, which he accompanied with provocative remarks about the consecrated host, and about a love affair between Christ and <a href="/wiki/Mary_Magdalene" title="Mary Magdalene">Mary Magdalene</a>. He denounced socialists who were tolerant of religion, or who had their children baptised, and called for socialists who accepted religious marriage to be expelled from the party. He denounced the Catholic Church for "its <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarianism</a> and refusal to allow <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">freedom of thought</a> ..." Mussolini's newspaper, La Lotta di Classe, reportedly had an anti-Christian editorial stance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith198215-195">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lateran_Treaty">Lateran Treaty</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Treaty</a></div> Despite making such attacks, Mussolini tried to win popular support by appeasing the Catholic majority in Italy. In 1924, Mussolini saw to it that three of his children were given <a href="/wiki/Sacraments_of_the_Catholic_Church#Eucharist" title="Sacraments of the Catholic Church">communion</a>. In 1925, he had a priest perform a <a href="/wiki/Catholic_marriage" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic marriage">religious marriage ceremony</a> for himself and his wife Rachele, whom he had married in a <a href="/wiki/Civil_ceremony" title="Civil ceremony">civil ceremony</a> 10 years earlier.<a href="#cite_note-rmussolini_129-196">[194]</a> On 11 February 1929, he signed a concordat and treaty with the Roman Catholic Church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162%E2%80%93163-197">[195]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Pact</a>, Vatican City was granted independent statehood and placed under Church law—rather than Italian law—and the Catholic religion was recognised as Italy's <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Roberts-198">[196]</a> The Church also regained authority over marriage, Catholicism could be taught in all secondary schools, birth control and freemasonry were banned, and the clergy received subsidies from the state and was exempted from taxation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeville201484-199">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-Townley2002-200">[198]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XI" title="Pope Pius XI">Pope Pius XI</a> praised Mussolini, and the official Catholic newspaper pronounced "Italy has been given back to God and God to Italy."<a href="#cite_note-Roberts-198">[196]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg/220px-Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="445"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg/220px-Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg/330px-Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg/440px-Group_of_Vatican_and_Italian_government_notables_posing_at_the_Lateran_Palace_before_the_signing_of_the_treaty.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Vatican and Italian delegations prior to signing the treaty</figcaption></figure> After this conciliation, he claimed the Church was subordinate to the State, and "referred to Catholicism as, in origin, a minor sect that had spread beyond Palestine only because grafted onto the organization of the Roman empire."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162%E2%80%93163-197">[195]</a> After the concordat, "he confiscated more issues of Catholic newspapers in the next three months than in the previous seven years."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162%E2%80%93163-197">[195]</a> Mussolini reportedly came close to being <a href="/wiki/Excommunication_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Excommunication (Catholic Church)">excommunicated</a> from the Catholic Church around this time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162%E2%80%93163-197">[195]</a> Mussolini publicly reconciled with the Pope Pius XI in 1932, but "took care to exclude from the newspapers any photography of himself kneeling or showing deference to the Pope."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162%E2%80%93163-197">[195]</a> He wanted to persuade Catholics that "[f]ascism was Catholic and he himself a believer who spent some of each day in prayer ..."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162%E2%80%93163-197">[195]</a> The Pope began referring to Mussolini as "a man sent by Providence."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith198215-195">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162%E2%80%93163-197">[195]</a> Despite Mussolini's efforts to appear pious, by order of his party, pronouns referring to him "had to be capitalized like those referring to God ..."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982163-201">[199]</a> In 1938 Mussolini began reasserting his anti-clericalism. He would sometimes refer to himself as an "outright disbeliever", and once told his cabinet that "Islam was perhaps a more effective religion than Christianity" and that the "papacy was a malignant tumor in the body of Italy and must 'be rooted out once and for all', because there was no room in Rome for both the Pope and himself."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982222%E2%80%93223-202">[200]</a> He publicly backed down from these anti-clerical statements, but continued making similar statements in private.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-203">[201]</a> After his fall from power in 1943, Mussolini began speaking "more about God and the obligations of conscience", although "he still had little use for the priests and sacraments of the Church".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982311-204">[202]</a> He also began drawing parallels between himself and Jesus Christ.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982311-204">[202]</a> Mussolini's widow, Rachele, stated that her husband had remained "basically <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligious</a> until the later years of his life".<a href="#cite_note-rmussolini_131-205">[203]</a> Mussolini was given a funeral in 1957 when his remains were placed in the family crypt.<a href="#cite_note-rmussolini_135-206">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[206]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Views_on_antisemitism_and_race">Views on antisemitism and race</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Fascism_and_racism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Fascism and racism">Italian Fascism and racism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_Race" title="Manifesto of Race">Manifesto of Race</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Italian_racial_laws" title="Italian racial laws">Italian racial laws</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mussolini_a_Hitler_-_Berl%C3%ADn_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Mussolini walking with Adolf Hitler in Berlin, in military uniforms 1937" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Mussolini_a_Hitler_-_Berl%C3%ADn_1937.jpg/220px-Mussolini_a_Hitler_-_Berl%C3%ADn_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1389" data-file-height="1950"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 309px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Mussolini_a_Hitler_-_Berl%C3%ADn_1937.jpg/220px-Mussolini_a_Hitler_-_Berl%C3%ADn_1937.jpg" data-alt="Mussolini walking with Adolf Hitler in Berlin, in military uniforms 1937" data-width="220" data-height="309" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Mussolini_a_Hitler_-_Berl%C3%ADn_1937.jpg/330px-Mussolini_a_Hitler_-_Berl%C3%ADn_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Mussolini_a_Hitler_-_Berl%C3%ADn_1937.jpg/440px-Mussolini_a_Hitler_-_Berl%C3%ADn_1937.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mussolini with <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> in Berlin, 1937</figcaption></figure> Over the span of his career, Mussolini's views and policies regarding Jews and antisemitism were often inconsistent, contradictory, and radically shifted depending on the situation. Most historians have generally labeled him as a political opportunist when it came to the treatment of the Jews rather than following a sincere belief. Mussolini considered Italian Jews to be Italians, but this belief may have been influenced more by his anti-clericalism and the general mood of Italy at the time, which denounced the abusive treatment of the Jews in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Ghetto" title="Roman Ghetto">Roman Ghetto</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> until the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification of Italy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-209">[207]</a> Although Mussolini had initially disregarded biological racism, he was a firm believer in national traits and made several generalisations about Jews. Mussolini blamed the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> of 1917 on "Jewish vengeance" against Christianity with the remark "Race does not betray race ... Bolshevism is being defended by the international plutocracy. That is the real truth." He also made an assertion that 80% of Soviet leaders were Jewish.<a href="#cite_note-nm35-210">[208]</a> Yet, within a few weeks, he contradicted himself with the remark "Bolshevism is not, as people believe, a Jewish phenomenon. The truth is that Bolshevism is leading to the utter ruin of the Jews of Eastern Europe."<a href="#cite_note-Zimmerman2005-211">[209]</a> In the early 1920s, Mussolini stated that Fascism would never raise a "<a href="/wiki/Jewish_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Question">Jewish Question</a>" and in an article he wrote he stated "Italy knows no antisemitism and we believe that it will never know it", and then elaborated, "let us hope that Italian Jews will continue to be sensible enough so as not to give rise to antisemitism in the only country where it has never existed."<a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a> In 1932, Mussolini during a conversation with <a href="/wiki/Emil_Ludwig" title="Emil Ludwig">Emil Ludwig</a> described antisemitism as a "German vice" and stated that "There was 'no Jewish Question' in Italy and could not be one in a country with a healthy system of government."<a href="#cite_note-213">[211]</a> On several occasions, Mussolini spoke positively about Jews and the <a href="/wiki/Zionist_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Zionist movement">Zionist movement</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Zimmerman,_p._160-214">[212]</a> although Fascism remained suspicious of Zionism after the Fascist Party gained power.<a href="#cite_note-215">[213]</a> In 1934, Mussolini supported the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Betar_Naval_Academy" title="Betar Naval Academy">Betar Naval Academy</a> in <a href="/wiki/Civitavecchia" title="Civitavecchia">Civitavecchia</a> to train Zionist cadets, arguing that a Jewish state would be in Italy's interest.<a href="#cite_note-Kaplan,_2005,_p._154-216">[214]</a> Until 1938 Mussolini had denied any antisemitism within the Fascist Party.<a href="#cite_note-Zimmerman,_p._160-214">[212]</a> The relationship between Mussolini and Adolf Hitler was a contentious one early on. While Hitler cited Mussolini as an influence and privately expressed great admiration for him,<a href="#cite_note-217">[215]</a> Mussolini had little regard for Hitler, especially after the Nazis had his friend and ally, <a href="/wiki/Engelbert_Dollfuss" title="Engelbert Dollfuss">Engelbert Dollfuss</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Austrofascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrofascist">Austrofascist</a> dictator of Austria, killed in 1934. With the assassination of Dollfuss, Mussolini attempted to distance himself from Hitler by rejecting much of the racialism (particularly <a href="/wiki/Nordicism" title="Nordicism">Nordicism</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> espoused by the Nazis. Mussolini during this period rejected <a href="/wiki/Biological_racism" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological racism">biological racism</a>, at least in the Nazi sense, and instead emphasised "<a href="/wiki/Italianization" title="Italianization">Italianising</a>" the parts of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian Empire</a> he had desired to build.<a href="#cite_note-cultural-218">[216]</a> He declared that the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> and the racially charged concept of an <a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryan</a> nation were not possible.<a href="#cite_note-cultural-218">[216]</a> Mussolini dismissed the idea of a <a href="/wiki/Master_race" title="Master race">master race</a> as "arrant nonsense, stupid and idiotic".<a href="#cite_note-219">[217]</a> When discussing the Nazi decree that the German people must carry a passport with either Aryan or Jewish racial affiliation marked on it, in 1934, Mussolini wondered how they would designate membership in the "Germanic race": <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">But which race? Does there exist a German race? Has it ever existed? Will it ever exist? Reality, myth, or hoax of the theorists? Ah well, we respond, a Germanic race does not exist. Various movements. Curiosity. Stupor. We repeat. Does not exist. We don't say so. Scientists say so. Hitler says so.<a href="#cite_note-220">[218]</a></blockquote> When German-Jewish journalist Emil Ludwig asked about his views on race in 1933, Mussolini exclaimed: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Race! It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today. Amusingly enough, not one of those who have proclaimed the "nobility" of the Teutonic race was himself a Teuton. <a href="/wiki/Arthur_de_Gobineau" title="Arthur de Gobineau">Gobineau</a> was a Frenchman, (Houston Stewart) <a href="/wiki/Houston_Stewart_Chamberlain" title="Houston Stewart Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a>, an Englishman; <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Woltmann" title="Ludwig Woltmann">Woltmann</a>, a Jew; <a href="/wiki/Georges_Vacher_de_Lapouge" title="Georges Vacher de Lapouge">Lapouge</a>, another Frenchman.<a href="#cite_note-221">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[220]</a></blockquote> In a speech given in <a href="/wiki/Bari" title="Bari">Bari</a> in 1934, he reiterated his attitude towards the German ideology of <a href="/wiki/Master_race" title="Master race">Master race</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Thirty centuries of history allow us to look with supreme pity on certain doctrines which are preached beyond the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> by the descendants of those who were illiterate when Rome had <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-223">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[222]</a> </blockquote> Though Italian Fascism varied its official positions on race from the 1920s to 1934, ideologically Italian Fascism did not originally discriminate against the Italian-Jewish community: Mussolini recognised that a small contingent had lived there "since the days of the <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Rome">Kings of Rome</a>" and should "remain undisturbed".<a href="#cite_note-225">[223]</a> There were even some Jews in the <a href="/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">National Fascist Party</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ettore_Ovazza" title="Ettore Ovazza">Ettore Ovazza</a>, who in 1935 founded the Jewish Fascist paper La Nostra Bandiera ("Our Flag").<a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Corriere_testata_1938.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Corriere_testata_1938.jpg/300px-Corriere_testata_1938.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="139" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4518" data-file-height="2100"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 300px;height: 139px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Corriere_testata_1938.jpg/300px-Corriere_testata_1938.jpg" data-width="300" data-height="139" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Corriere_testata_1938.jpg/450px-Corriere_testata_1938.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Corriere_testata_1938.jpg/600px-Corriere_testata_1938.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Front page of the Italian newspaper <a href="/wiki/Corriere_della_Sera" title="Corriere della Sera">Corriere della Sera</a> on 11 November 1938: the fascist regime has approved the racial laws.</figcaption></figure> By mid-1938, the enormous influence Hitler now had over Mussolini became clear with the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_Race" title="Manifesto of Race">Manifesto of Race</a>. The Manifesto, which was closely modelled on the Nazi <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Paxton-82">[80]</a> stripped Jews of their <a href="/wiki/Italian_citizenship" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian citizenship">Italian citizenship</a> and with it any position in the government or professions. The racial laws declared Italians to be part of the <a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan race</a> and forbade sexual relations and marriages between Italians and those considered to be of an "inferior race", chiefly Jews and Africans.<a href="#cite_note-Rodogno2006-227">[225]</a> Jews were not permitted to own or manage companies involved in military production, or factories that employed over one hundred people or exceeded a certain value. They could not own land over a certain value, serve in the armed forces, employ non-Jewish domestics, or belong to the Fascist party. Their employment in banks, insurance companies, and public schools was forbidden.<a href="#cite_note-228">[226]</a> While many historians have explained Mussolini's introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Manifesto_of_Race" title="Manifesto of Race">Manifesto of Race</a> as being purely a pragmatic move to gain favour with Italy's new ally,<a href="#cite_note-229">[227]</a> others have challenged that viewpoint<a href="#cite_note-230">[228]</a> and pointed out that Mussolini, along with other Fascist officials, had encouraged antisemitic sentiment well before 1938, such as in response to significant Jewish participation in <a href="/wiki/Giustizia_e_Libert%C3%A0" title="Giustizia e Libertà">Giustizia e Libertà</a>, a highly prominent anti-Fascist organisation.<a href="#cite_note-231">[229]</a> Proponents of this viewpoint argue that Mussolini's implementation of these laws reflected a homegrown Italian flavour of antisemitism distinct from that of Nazism,<a href="#cite_note-232">[230]</a> one which perceived Jews as being bound to decadence and liberalism<a href="#cite_note-233">[231]</a> and was influenced not just by Fascist ideology but also by the Catholic Church.<a href="#cite_note-ESMONDEROBERTSON1988-99">[97]</a> Even after the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Racial_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Racial Laws">racial laws</a>, Mussolini continued to make contradictory statements about race.<a href="#cite_note-Zimmerman,_p._160-214">[212]</a> Many high government officials told Jewish representatives that the antisemitism in <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">Fascist Italy</a> would soon be over.<a href="#cite_note-Zimmerman,_p._160-214">[212]</a> <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a> was unpopular within the Fascist party; once when a Fascist scholar protested to Mussolini about the treatment of his Jewish friends, Mussolini is reported to have said "I agree with you entirely. I don't believe a bit in the stupid antisemitic theory. I am carrying out my policy entirely for political reasons."<a href="#cite_note-234">[232]</a> Hitler was disappointed with Mussolini's perceived lack of antisemitism,<a href="#cite_note-235">[233]</a> as was <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a>, who once said that "Mussolini appears to have not recognized the Jewish question". Nazi racial theorist <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a> criticised Fascist Italy for its lack of what he defined as a true concept of 'race' and 'Jewishness', while the virulently racist <a href="/wiki/Julius_Streicher" title="Julius Streicher">Julius Streicher</a>, writing for the unofficial Nazi propaganda newspaper <a href="/wiki/Der_St%C3%BCrmer" title="Der Stürmer">Der Stürmer</a>, dismissed Mussolini as a Jewish puppet and lackey.<a href="#cite_note-The_great_divide?_Notions_of_racism-236">[234]</a> Mussolini and the Italian Army in occupied regions openly opposed German efforts to deport Italian Jews to Nazi concentration camps.<a href="#cite_note-Kroener_Muller_Umbreit_p273-237">[235]</a> Italy's refusal to comply with German demands of Jewish persecution influenced other countries.<a href="#cite_note-Kroener_Muller_Umbreit_p273-237">[235]</a> In September 1943 semi-autonomous militarised squads of Fascist fanatics sprouted up throughout the Republic of Salò. These squads spread terror among Jews and partisans for a year and a half. In the power vacuum that existed during the first three or four months of the occupation, the semi-autonomous bands were virtually uncontrollable. Many were linked to individual high-ranking Fascist politicians.<a href="#cite_note-238">[236]</a> Italian Fascists, sometimes government employees but more often fanatic civilians or paramilitary volunteers, hastened to curry favour with the Nazis. Informers betrayed their neighbours, <a href="/wiki/Squadristi" class="mw-redirect" title="Squadristi">squadristi</a> seized Jews and delivered them to the German SS, and Italian journalists seemed to compete in the virulence of their anti-Semitic diatribes.<a href="#cite_note-239">[237]</a> It has been widely speculated that Mussolini adopted the Manifesto of Race in 1938 for merely tactical reasons, to strengthen Italy's relations with Germany. Mussolini and the Italian military did not consistently apply the laws adopted in the Manifesto of Race.<a href="#cite_note-Kroener_Muller_Umbreit_p273-237">[235]</a> In December 1943, Mussolini made a confession to journalist/politician Bruno Spampanato that seems to indicate that he regretted the Manifesto of Race: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The Racial Manifesto could have been avoided. It dealt with the scientific abstruseness of a few teachers and journalists, a conscientious German essay translated into bad Italian. It is far from what I have said, written and signed on the subject. I suggest that you consult the old issues of <a href="/wiki/Il_Popolo_d%27Italia" title="Il Popolo d'Italia">Il Popolo d'Italia</a>. For this reason I am far from accepting (Alfred) <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Rosenberg</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Myth_of_the_Twentieth_Century" title="The Myth of the Twentieth Century">myth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-240">[238]</a></blockquote> Mussolini also reached out to the Muslims in his empire and in the predominantly Arab countries of the Middle East. In 1937, the Muslims of <a href="/wiki/Italian_Libya" title="Italian Libya">Libya</a> presented Mussolini with the "<a href="/wiki/Sword_of_Islam_(Mussolini)" title="Sword of Islam (Mussolini)">Sword of Islam</a>" while Fascist propaganda pronounced him as the "Protector of Islam".<a href="#cite_note-241">[239]</a> Despite Mussolini's ostensible disbelief in <a href="/wiki/Biological_racism" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological racism">biological racism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">Fascist Italy</a> implemented numerous laws rooted in such notions throughout <a href="/wiki/Italian_imperialism_under_Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian imperialism under Fascism">its colonial empire</a> on his orders as well as those of lower-ranking Fascist officials.<a href="#cite_note-The_great_divide?_Notions_of_racism-236">[234]</a> Following the Second Italo-Senussi War, Mussolini directed Marshal <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Pietro Badoglio</a> to ban <a href="/wiki/Miscegenation" title="Miscegenation">miscegenation</a> in Libya, fearing that Italian settlers in the colony would degenerate into "half-castes" if interracial relationships were permitted.<a href="#cite_note-ESMONDEROBERTSON1988-99">[97]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a> and the ensuing Italian colonisation of <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, Mussolini implemented numerous laws mandating strict racial segregation between <a href="/wiki/Black_Africans" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Africans">black Africans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> in <a href="/wiki/Italian_East_Africa" title="Italian East Africa">Italian East Africa</a>. These racist laws were much more rigorous and pervasive than those in other European colonies, comparable in scope and scale to those of <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Apartheid_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Apartheid era">Apartheid era</a>. Fascist Italy's segregationism further differed from that of other European colonies in that its impetus came not from within its colonies, as was usually the case, but from metropolitan Italy, specifically from Mussolini himself. Though many of these laws were ignored by local officials due to the difficulty of properly enforcing them, Mussolini frequently complained to subordinates upon hearing of instances of them being broken and saw the need to micromanage race relations as part of his ideological vision.<a href="#cite_note-242">[240]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family">Family</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Predappio_tomba.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="Tomb of Mussolini in the family crypt, in the cemetery of Predappio, sarcophagus with death mask" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Predappio_tomba.jpg/220px-Predappio_tomba.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1696" data-file-height="1272"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Predappio_tomba.jpg/220px-Predappio_tomba.jpg" data-alt="Tomb of Mussolini in the family crypt, in the cemetery of Predappio, sarcophagus with death mask" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Predappio_tomba.jpg/330px-Predappio_tomba.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Predappio_tomba.jpg/440px-Predappio_tomba.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Tomb of Mussolini in the family crypt, in the cemetery of Predappio</figcaption></figure> Mussolini was survived by his wife, <a href="/wiki/Rachele_Mussolini" title="Rachele Mussolini">Rachele Mussolini</a>, two sons, <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Mussolini" title="Vittorio Mussolini">Vittorio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romano_Mussolini" title="Romano Mussolini">Romano Mussolini</a>, and his daughters <a href="/wiki/Edda_Mussolini" title="Edda Mussolini">Edda</a> (the widow of Count Ciano) and Anna Maria. A third son, <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Mussolini" title="Bruno Mussolini">Bruno</a>, was killed in an air accident while flying a <a href="/wiki/Piaggio_P.108" title="Piaggio P.108">Piaggio P.108 bomber</a> on a test mission, on 7 August 1941. <a href="/wiki/Alessandra_Mussolini" title="Alessandra Mussolini">Alessandra Mussolini</a>, granddaughter of Mussolini, is politically active in Italian right circles. She has been a member of the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European Parliament</a> for the far-right <a href="/wiki/Alternativa_Sociale" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternativa Sociale">Social Alternative</a> movement, a deputy in the Italian lower chamber and served in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Senate">Senate</a> as a member of <a href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Silvio Berlusconi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Forza_Italia_(2013)" title="Forza Italia (2013)">Forza Italia</a> party. Her stepsister Rachele Mussolini is also active in politics through <a href="/wiki/Brothers_of_Italy" title="Brothers of Italy">Brothers of Italy</a>, the main Italian right-wing party; she is the daughter of Romano and his second wife Carla Maria Puccini. Caio Giulio Cesare Mussolini, a great-grandson of Mussolini through his son Vittorio, is also active in politics in Brothers of Italy.<a href="#cite_note-243">[241]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neo-fascism">Neo-fascism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neo-fascism#Italy" title="Neo-fascism">Neo-fascism § Italy</a></div> Mussolini inspired and supported the <a href="/wiki/Fascism_as_an_international_phenomenon" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascism as an international phenomenon">international spread of fascist movements</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Inter-war_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter-war period">inter-war period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hakim_1995-244">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-245">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[246]</a> Although the <a href="/wiki/National_Fascist_Party" title="National Fascist Party">National Fascist Party</a> was outlawed by the postwar <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Constitution of Italy</a>, a number of successor neo-fascist parties emerged to carry on its legacy. Historically, the largest neo-fascist party was the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Movement" title="Italian Social Movement">Italian Social Movement</a> (Movimento Sociale Italiano), which disbanded in 1995 and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/National_Alliance_(Italy)" title="National Alliance (Italy)">National Alliance</a>, a conservative party that distanced itself from Fascism (its founder, former foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Gianfranco_Fini" title="Gianfranco Fini">Gianfranco Fini</a>, declared during an official visit to <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> that Fascism was "an absolute evil").<a href="#cite_note-249">[247]</a> National Alliance and a number of neo-fascist parties were merged in 2009 to create the short-lived <a href="/wiki/The_People_of_Freedom" title="The People of Freedom">People of Freedom</a> party led by then Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Silvio_Berlusconi" title="Silvio Berlusconi">Silvio Berlusconi</a>, which eventually disbanded after the defeat in the <a href="/wiki/2013_Italian_general_election" title="2013 Italian general election">2013 general election</a>. In 2012, many former members of National Alliance joined <a href="/wiki/Brothers_of_Italy" title="Brothers of Italy">Brothers of Italy</a>, led by current <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister of Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giorgia_Meloni" title="Giorgia Meloni">Giorgia Meloni</a>.<a href="#cite_note-250">[248]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_image">Public image</h3></div> In February 2018, a poll conducted by the Demos & Pi research institute found that out of the total 1,014 people interviewed, 19% of voters across the Italian political spectrum had a "positive or very positive" opinion of Mussolini, 60% saw him negatively and 21% did not have an opinion.<a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Writings">Writings</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li>Giovanni Hus, il Veridico (<a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a>, True Prophet), Rome (1913). Published in America as John Hus (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1929). Republished by the Italian Book Co., NY (1939) as John Hus, the Veracious.</li> <li>The Cardinal's Mistress (trans. Hiram Motherwell, New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1928).</li> <li>There is an essay on "<a href="/wiki/The_Doctrine_of_Fascism" title="The Doctrine of Fascism">The Doctrine of Fascism</a>" written by Benito Mussolini that appeared in the 1932 edition of the <a href="/wiki/Enciclopedia_Italiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Enciclopedia Italiana">Enciclopedia Italiana</a>.</li> <li>La Mia Vita ("My Life"), Mussolini's autobiography written upon request of the American Ambassador in Rome (Child). Mussolini, at first not interested, decided to dictate the story of his life to Arnaldo Mussolini, his brother. The story covers the period up to 1929, includes Mussolini's personal thoughts on Italian politics and the reasons that motivated his new revolutionary idea. It covers the march on Rome and the beginning of the dictatorship and includes some of his most famous speeches in the Italian Parliament (Oct 1924, Jan 1925).</li> <li>Vita di <a href="/wiki/Arnaldo_Mussolini" title="Arnaldo Mussolini">Arnaldo</a> (Life of Arnaldo), Milano, Il Popolo d'Italia, 1932.</li> <li>Scritti e discorsi di Benito Mussolini (Writings and Discourses of Mussolini), 12 volumes, Milano, Hoepli, 1934–1940.</li> <li>Four Speeches on the Corporate State, Laboremus, Roma, 1935, p. 38</li> <li>Parlo con <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Mussolini" title="Bruno Mussolini">Bruno</a> (Talks with Bruno), Milano, Il Popolo d'Italia, 1941.</li> <li>Storia di un anno. Il tempo del bastone e della carota (History of a Year), Milano, Mondadori, 1944.</li> <li>From 1951 to 1962, Edoardo and Duilio Susmel worked for the publisher "La Fenice" to produce Opera Omnia (the complete works) of Mussolini in 35 volumes.</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/mussolini_benito.shtml">"BBC - History - Historic Figures: Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)"</a>. www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 1 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=BBC+-+History+-+Historic+Figures%3A+Benito+Mussolini+%281883-1945%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fhistoric_figures%2Fmussolini_benito.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mediterranean3-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mediterranean3_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mediterranean3_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mediterranean3_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mediterranean3_3-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_F._Delzel1970" class="citation book cs1">Charles F. Delzel, ed. (1970). Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945. 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Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mussolini%2C+Benito&rft.btitle=Dizionario+Biografico+degli+Italiani&rft.pub=Istituto+dell%27Enciclopedia+Italiana&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Gentile&rft.aufirst=Emilio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fbenito-mussolini_%2528Dizionario-Biografico%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Living_History_2-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Living_History_2_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Living_History_2_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Living_History_2_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Living_History_2_5-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollinsHenryTonge2004" class="citation book cs1">Collins, M. E.; Henry, Gráinne; Tonge, Stephen (2004). "Chapter 2". Living history 2: A Complete Course for Junior Certificate (New ed.). 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Biography. 22 April 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biography&rft.atitle=Benito+Mussolini+-+Quotes%2C+Facts+%26+Death&rft.date=2021-04-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biography.com%2Fpolitical-figures%2Fbenito-mussolini&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.italyonthisday.com/2016/07/the-birth-of-benito-mussolini.html">"The birth of Benito Mussolini"</a>. Retrieved 1 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+birth+of+Benito+Mussolini&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.italyonthisday.com%2F2016%2F07%2Fthe-birth-of-benito-mussolini.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Felice1965" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">De Felice, Renzo (1965). Mussolini. Il Rivoluzionario (in Italian) (1 ed.). Torino: Einaudi. p. 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini.+Il+Rivoluzionario&rft.place=Torino&rft.pages=11&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=De+Felice&rft.aufirst=Renzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor197929-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGregor197929_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregor1979">Gregor 1979</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor197931-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGregor197931_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregor1979">Gregor 1979</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ceci_2017-11"><a href="#cite_ref-Ceci_2017_11-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCeci2017" class="citation book cs1">Ceci, Lucia (2017). The Vatican and Mussolini's Italy. Leiden: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30859-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30859-6"><bdi>978-90-04-30859-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/951955762">951955762</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vatican+and+Mussolini%27s+Italy&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F951955762&rft.isbn=978-90-04-30859-6&rft.aulast=Ceci&rft.aufirst=Lucia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grolier_encyclopedia-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grolier_encyclopedia_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grolier_encyclopedia_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080205165430/http://www.grolier.com/wwii/wwii_mussolini.html">"Benito Mussolini"</a>. Grolier.com. 8 January 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.grolier.com/wwii/wwii_mussolini.html">the original</a> on 5 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Benito+Mussolini&rft.date=2008-01-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.grolier.com%2Fwwii%2Fwwii_mussolini.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HDS-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HDS_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HDS_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HDS_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HDS_13-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HDS_13-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HDS_13-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HDS_13-6">g</a> Mauro Cerutti: Benito Mussolini in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/d/D27903.php">German</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/f/F27903.php">French</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/i/I27903.php">Italian</a> in the online <a href="/wiki/Historical_Dictionary_of_Switzerland" title="Historical Dictionary of Switzerland">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-14"><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_14-0">^</a> Delzel, Charles F. Mediterranean Fascism, p. 96 </li> <li id="cite_note-gunther1940-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gunther1940_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gunther1940_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gunther1940_15-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gunther1940_15-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gunther1940_15-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gunther1940_15-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunther1940" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Gunther" title="John Gunther">Gunther, John</a> (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.149663/2015.149663.Inside-Europe#page/n257/mode/2up">Inside Europe</a>. New York: Harper & Brothers. pp. 236–37, 239–41, 243, 245–49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+Europe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=236-37%2C+239-41%2C+243%2C+245-49&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Gunther&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.149663%2F2015.149663.Inside-Europe%23page%2Fn257%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaugen2007" class="citation book cs1">Haugen, Brenda (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rleP5CVe070C&pg=PA24">Benito Mussolini</a>. Compass Point Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7565-1892-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7565-1892-9"><bdi>978-0-7565-1892-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200925055443/https://books.google.com/books?id=rleP5CVe070C&pg=PA24">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benito+Mussolini&rft.pub=Compass+Point+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7565-1892-9&rft.aulast=Haugen&rft.aufirst=Brenda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrleP5CVe070C%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Felice1965" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">De Felice, Renzo (1965). Mussolini. Il Rivoluzionario (in Italian) (1 ed.). Torino: Einaudi. pp. 36–37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini.+Il+Rivoluzionario&rft.place=Torino&rft.pages=36-37&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=De+Felice&rft.aufirst=Renzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarc_Tribelhorn2018" class="citation news cs1">Marc Tribelhorn (3 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzz.ch/schweiz/mussolini-und-der-ehrendoktor-der-uni-lausanne-ld.1371228">"Neue Zürcher Zeitung – Als Mussolini den Ehrendoktor der Uni Lausanne erhielt"</a>. Neue Zürcher Zeitung. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180622220315/https://www.nzz.ch/schweiz/mussolini-und-der-ehrendoktor-der-uni-lausanne-ld.1371228">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2018. Retrieved 12 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neue+Z%C3%BCrcher+Zeitung&rft.atitle=Neue+Z%C3%BCrcher+Zeitung+%E2%80%93+Als+Mussolini+den+Ehrendoktor+der+Uni+Lausanne+erhielt&rft.date=2018-04-03&rft.au=Marc+Tribelhorn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nzz.ch%2Fschweiz%2Fmussolini-und-der-ehrendoktor-der-uni-lausanne-ld.1371228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> De Felice, 46-47 </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100510083139/http://library.thinkquest.org/19592/Persons/mussolin.htm">"Mussolini: il duce"</a>. ThinkQuest.org. 24 October 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.thinkquest.org/19592/Persons/mussolin.htm">the original</a> on 10 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Mussolini%3A+il+duce&rft.date=2009-10-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.thinkquest.org%2F19592%2FPersons%2Fmussolin.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Georg Scheuer: Mussolinis langer Schatten. Marsch auf Rom im Nadelstreif. Köln 1996, S. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19829–13-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19829%E2%80%9313_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMack_Smith1982">Mack Smith 1982</a>, pp. 9–13. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> R.J.B. Bosworth, Mussolini (2002) pp. 55–68 </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Margherita G. Sarfatti, The Life of Benito Mussolini p. 156 </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> taken from WorldCat's entry for this book's title. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Charles F. Delzel, ed., Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945 (1970) p. 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_James_Gregor1979" class="citation book cs1">Anthony James Gregor (1979). Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03799-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-03799-1"><bdi>978-0-520-03799-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Young+Mussolini+and+the+Intellectual+Origins+of+Fascism&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-520-03799-1&rft.au=Anthony+James+Gregor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mediterranean4-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mediterranean4_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mediterranean4_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mediterranean4_28-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mediterranean4_28-3">d</a> Delzel, ed., Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945 p. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Anthony James Gregor, Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism, pp. 41–42 </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Gaudens Megaro, Mussolini in the Making, p. 102 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19827-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19827_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMack_Smith1982">Mack Smith 1982</a>, pp. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Bosworth, Mussolini (2002) p. 86 </li> <li id="cite_note-Simonetta_Falasca-Zamponi_1997_45-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Simonetta_Falasca-Zamponi_1997_45_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simonetta_Falasca-Zamponi_1997_45_33-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimonetta_Falasca-Zamponi1997" class="citation book cs1">Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_vcFQTOsRXgC&pg=PA45">Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy</a>. University of California Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92615-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92615-8"><bdi>978-0-520-92615-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200423103648/https://books.google.com/books?id=_vcFQTOsRXgC&pg=PA45">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2020. 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Nine Etched from Life. Ayer Company Publishers, 1934 (original), 1969. p. 321. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregor1979191-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGregor1979191_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGregor1979191_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGregor1979191_44-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregor1979">Gregor 1979</a>, p. 191. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945 Edited by Charles F. 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UK. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article411675.ece">the original</a> on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 14 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=Power-mad+Mussolini+sacrificed+wife+and+son&rft.date=2005-01-13&rft.aulast=Owen&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.timesonline.co.uk%2Ftol%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Farticle411675.ece&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hibbert2001-61"><a href="#cite_ref-Hibbert2001_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristopher_Hibbert2001" class="citation book cs1">Christopher Hibbert (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P5YtoVKyzhcC&pg=PT427">Rome: The Biography of a City</a>. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 427–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-192716-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-192716-9"><bdi>978-0-14-192716-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170129084451/https://books.google.com/books?id=P5YtoVKyzhcC&pg=PT427">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2017. <q>As early as February 1918 he had been pressing for the appointment of a dictator in Italy, 'a man who is ruthless and energetic enough to make a clean sweep'. 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Manchester University Press. p. 155. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-7417-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-7417-2"><bdi>978-0-7190-7417-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150927055130/https://books.google.com/books?id=4h1nAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2015. 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Resistance, Suffering, Hope: The Slovene Partisan Movement 1941–1945. National Committee of Union of Societies of Combatants of the Slovene National Liberation Struggle. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-961-6681-02-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-961-6681-02-5"><bdi>978-961-6681-02-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130420093806/http://znaci.net/00001/179.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 20 April 2013. Retrieved 30 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Strategy+of+the+Occupiers&rft.btitle=Resistance%2C+Suffering%2C+Hope%3A+The+Slovene+Partisan+Movement+1941%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=National+Committee+of+Union+of+Societies+of+Combatants+of+the+Slovene+National+Liberation+Struggle&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-961-6681-02-5&rft.aulast=Pirjevec&rft.aufirst=Jo%C5%BEe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fznaci.org%2F00001%2F179.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKallis200052-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKallis200052_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKallis200052_73-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKallis200052_73-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKallis2000">Kallis 2000</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-Strang,_Bruce_p._21-74"><a href="#cite_ref-Strang,_Bruce_p._21_74-0">^</a> Strang, Bruce On the Fiery March, New York: Praeger, 2003 p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoland_Sarti2008" class="citation journal cs1">Roland Sarti (8 January 2008). 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The American Historical Review. 75 (4): 1029–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1852268">10.2307/1852268</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-8762">0002-8762</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1852268">1852268</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Fascist+Modernization+in+Italy%3A+Traditional+or+Revolutionary&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1029-45&rft.date=2008-01-08&rft.issn=0002-8762&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1852268%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1852268&rft.au=Roland+Sarti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080415145038/http://www.appstate.edu/~brantzrw/history3134/mussolini.html">"Mussolini's Italy"</a>. Appstate.edu. 8 January 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.appstate.edu/~brantzrw/history3134/mussolini.html">the original</a> on 15 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Mussolini%27s+Italy&rft.date=2008-01-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.appstate.edu%2F~brantzrw%2Fhistory3134%2Fmussolini.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacdonald1999" class="citation book cs1">Macdonald, Hamish (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=221W9vKkWrcC&q=%22third+way%22+mussolini&pg=PT17">Mussolini and Italian Fascism</a>. Nelson Thornes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7487-3386-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7487-3386-6"><bdi>978-0-7487-3386-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220628022912/https://books.google.com/books?id=221W9vKkWrcC&pg=PT17">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini+and+Italian+Fascism&rft.pub=Nelson+Thornes&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7487-3386-6&rft.aulast=Macdonald&rft.aufirst=Hamish&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D221W9vKkWrcC%26q%3D%2522third%2Bway%2522%2Bmussolini%26pg%3DPT17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080617050824/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=735492">"Ha'aretz Newspaper, Israel, 'The Jewish Mother of Fascism"</a>. Haaretz. Israel. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=735492">the original</a> on 17 June 2008. Retrieved 13 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Ha%27aretz+Newspaper%2C+Israel%2C+%27The+Jewish+Mother+of+Fascism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fhasen%2Fpages%2FShArt.jhtml%3FitemNo%3D735492&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyttelton2009" class="citation book cs1">Lyttelton, Adrian (2009). The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1929. New York: Routledge. pp. 75–77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-55394-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-55394-0"><bdi>978-0-415-55394-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Seizure+of+Power%3A+Fascism+in+Italy%2C+1919%E2%80%931929&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=75-77&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-415-55394-0&rft.aulast=Lyttelton&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoffa,_Federico2004" class="citation web cs1">Boffa, Federico (1 February 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090305031636/http://129.3.20.41/eps/eh/papers/0402/0402001.pdf">"Italy and the Antitrust Law: an Efficient Delay?"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://129.3.20.41/eps/eh/papers/0402/0402001.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 5 March 2009. Retrieved 5 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Italy+and+the+Antitrust+Law%3A+an+Efficient+Delay%3F&rft.date=2004-02-01&rft.au=Boffa%2C+Federico&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F129.3.20.41%2Feps%2Feh%2Fpapers%2F0402%2F0402001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a class="external text" href="https://it.wikisource.org/wiki/Italia_-_30_maggio_1924,_Discorso_alla_Camera_dei_Deputati_di_denuncia_di_brogli_elettorali">Speech of 30 May 1924</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100217033833/http://it.wikisource.org/wiki/Italia_-_30_maggio_1924,_Discorso_alla_Camera_dei_Deputati_di_denuncia_di_brogli_elettorali">Archived</a> 17 February 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> the last speech of Matteotti, from it.wikisource </li> <li id="cite_note-Paxton-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paxton_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paxton_82-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaxton2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Paxton" title="Robert Paxton">Paxton, Robert</a> (2004). <a href="/wiki/The_Anatomy_of_Fascism" title="The Anatomy of Fascism">The Anatomy of Fascism</a>. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-4094-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-4094-0"><bdi>978-1-4000-4094-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anatomy+of+Fascism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-4094-0&rft.aulast=Paxton&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anatomyoffascism00paxt_0">read online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMussolini" class="citation web cs1">Mussolini, Benito. <a class="external text" href="https://it.wikisource.org/wiki/Italia_-_3_gennaio_1925,_Discorso_sul_delitto_Matteotti">"discorso sul delitto Matteotti"</a>. wikisource.it. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130509234514/http://it.wikisource.org/wiki/Italia_-_3_gennaio_1925,_Discorso_sul_delitto_Matteotti">Archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=discorso+sul+delitto+Matteotti&rft.pub=wikisource.it&rft.aulast=Mussolini&rft.aufirst=Benito&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fit.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FItalia_-_3_gennaio_1925%2C_Discorso_sul_delitto_Matteotti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Konrad Jarausch, Out of Ashes: A New History of Europe in the 20th Century (2015) pp. 179–80 </li> <li id="cite_note-Sluga2001-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Sluga2001_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlenda_Sluga2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Glenda_Sluga" title="Glenda Sluga">Glenda Sluga</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1C0mJLFrpC0C">The Problem of Trieste and the Italo-Yugoslav Border: Difference, Identity, and Sovereignty in Twentieth-Century Europe</a>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4823-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-4823-6"><bdi>978-0-7914-4823-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151101173250/https://books.google.com/books?id=1C0mJLFrpC0C">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2015. Retrieved 13 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Problem+of+Trieste+and+the+Italo-Yugoslav+Border%3A+Difference%2C+Identity%2C+and+Sovereignty+in+Twentieth-Century+Europe&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-4823-6&rft.au=Glenda+Sluga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1C0mJLFrpC0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-thetimesapr081926-86"><a href="#cite_ref-thetimesapr081926_86-0">^</a> The Times, 8 April 1926; p. 12; Issue 44240; column A </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCannistraro1996" class="citation journal cs1">Cannistraro, Philip (March 1996). "Mussolini, Sacco-Vanzetti, and the Anarchists: The Transatlantic Context". The Journal of Modern History. 68 (1): 31–62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F245285">10.1086/245285</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2124332">2124332</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143847291">143847291</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Mussolini%2C+Sacco-Vanzetti%2C+and+the+Anarchists%3A+The+Transatlantic+Context&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=31-62&rft.date=1996-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143847291%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2124332%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F245285&rft.aulast=Cannistraro&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1926/11/03/archives/father-inspired-zamboni-but-parent-of-mussolinis-assailant-long-ago.html">"Father inspired Zamboni. But Parent of Mussolini's Assailant Long Ago Gave Up Anarchism. Blood Shed in Riots throughout Italy"</a>. The New York Times. 3 November 1926. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190225223846/https://www.nytimes.com/1926/11/03/archives/father-inspired-zamboni-but-parent-of-mussolinis-assailant-long-ago.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Father+inspired+Zamboni.+But+Parent+of+Mussolini%27s+Assailant+Long+Ago+Gave+Up+Anarchism.+Blood+Shed+in+Riots+throughout+Italy&rft.date=1926-11-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1926%2F11%2F03%2Farchives%2Ffather-inspired-zamboni-but-parent-of-mussolinis-assailant-long-ago.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libcom.org/history/1926-attempted-assassination-mussolini">"The attempted assassination of Mussolini in Rome"</a>. Libcom.org. 10 September 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110805201157/http://libcom.org/history/1926-attempted-assassination-mussolini">Archived</a> from the original on 5 August 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+attempted+assassination+of+Mussolini+in+Rome&rft.pub=Libcom.org&rft.date=2006-09-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibcom.org%2Fhistory%2F1926-attempted-assassination-mussolini&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew2005" class="citation web cs1">Andrew (3 March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111120173452/http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=87">"Remembering the Anarchist Resistance to fascism"</a>. Anarkismo.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=87">the original</a> on 20 November 2011. Retrieved 6 November 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Remembering+the+Anarchist+Resistance+to+fascism&rft.pub=Anarkismo.net&rft.date=2005-03-03&rft.au=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.anarkismo.net%2Fnewswire.php%3Fstory_id%3D87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelchior_Seele2006" class="citation web cs1">Melchior Seele (11 September 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090122231427/http://libcom.org/history/articles/murder-michael-schirru">"1931: The murder of Michael Schirru"</a>. Libcom.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/murder-michael-schirru">the original</a> on 22 January 2009. 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"When the Subaltern Speak: Memory of Genocide in Colonial Libya 1929 to 1933". Italian Studies. 61 (2): 175–190. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1179%2F007516306X142924">10.1179/007516306X142924</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161690236">161690236</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Italian+Studies&rft.atitle=When+the+Subaltern+Speak%3A+Memory+of+Genocide+in+Colonial+Libya+1929+to+1933&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175-190&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2F007516306X142924&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161690236%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Ali+Abdullatif+Ahmida&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Grand, Alexander de "Mussolini's Follies: Fascism in Its Imperial and Racist Phase, 1935–1940" pp. 127–47 from Contemporary European History, Volume 13, No. 2, May 2004, pp. 131–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> Grand, Alexander de "Mussolini's Follies: Fascism in Its Imperial and Racist Phase, 1935–1940" pp. 127–47 from Contemporary European History, Volume 13, No. 2 May 2004 p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-ESMONDEROBERTSON1988-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ESMONDEROBERTSON1988_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ESMONDEROBERTSON1988_99-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ESMONDEROBERTSON1988_99-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson1988" class="citation journal cs1">Robertson, Esmonde (1988). "Race as a Factor in Mussolini's Policy in Africa and Europe". Journal of Contemporary History. 23: 37–58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200948802300103">10.1177/002200948802300103</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161818702">161818702</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=Race+as+a+Factor+in+Mussolini%27s+Policy+in+Africa+and+Europe&rft.volume=23&rft.pages=37-58&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002200948802300103&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161818702%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=Esmonde&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Clark, Martin, Modern Italy, Pearson Longman, 2008, p. 322 </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Mussolini, Benito, The Doctrine of Fascism, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2012, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1479216345" title="Special:BookSources/978-1479216345">978-1479216345</a>, p. 21 </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarl_F._Goerdeler1938" class="citation journal cs1">Carl F. Goerdeler (1 April 1938). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/69815/carl-f-goerdeler/do-government-price-controls-work">"Do Government Price Controls Work?"</a>. Foreign Affairs. 16 (April 1938). Council on Foreign Relations. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141117103844/http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/69815/carl-f-goerdeler/do-government-price-controls-work">Archived</a> from the original on 17 November 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2014. <q>When Italy depreciated the lira in 1936, Mussolini ruled that all prices had to remain as they were. However, in May 1937 he had to increase wages by 15 percent because retail prices had gone up as a result of the rise in the cost of imported commodities. Nature cannot be ordered to renounce her principles.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Affairs&rft.atitle=Do+Government+Price+Controls+Work%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=April+1938&rft.date=1938-04-01&rft.au=Carl+F.+Goerdeler&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.foreignaffairs.com%2Farticles%2F69815%2Fcarl-f-goerdeler%2Fdo-government-price-controls-work&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cathcart-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cathcart_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cathcart_103-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cathcart_103-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cathcart_103-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCathcart1994" class="citation news cs1">Cathcart, Brian (3 April 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/rear-window-making-italy-work-did-mussolini-really-get-the-trains-running-on-time-1367688.html">"Rear Window: Making Italy work: Did Mussolini really get the trains running on time?"</a>. 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(1924). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackmagic00kenn">Black magic: an account of its beneficial use in Italy, of its perversion in Bavaria, and of certain tendencies which might necessitate its study in America</a>. The Bobbs-Merrill Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackmagic00kenn/page/110">110</a>. Retrieved 25 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+magic%3A+an+account+of+its+beneficial+use+in+Italy%2C+of+its+perversion+in+Bavaria%2C+and+of+certain+tendencies+which+might+necessitate+its+study+in+America&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=The+Bobbs-Merrill+Company&rft.date=1924&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackmagic00kenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikkeson2007" class="citation web cs1">Mikkeson, David (9 October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/loco-motive/">"Mussolini and on-time trains"</a>. Snopes. 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Retrieved 25 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Citylab&rft.atitle=The+Problem+with+Mussolini+and+his+Trains&rft.date=2016-11-15&rft.aulast=Dudley&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.citylab.com%2Ftransportation%2F2016%2F11%2Fthe-problem-with-mussolini-and-his-trains%2F507764%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalasca-Zamponi2000" class="citation book cs1">Falasca-Zamponi, Simonetta (2000). Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy (1st pbk. ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22677-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22677-7"><bdi>978-0-520-22677-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fascist+Spectacle%3A+The+Aesthetics+of+Power+in+Mussolini%27s+Italy&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=67&rft.edition=1st+pbk.&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22677-7&rft.aulast=Falasca-Zamponi&rft.aufirst=Simonetta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Bosworth, Mussolini pp. 58–59 </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Ernst Nolte, Three Faces of Fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, National Socialism (1966) p. 200 </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFattorini2011" class="citation book cs1">Fattorini, Emma (2011). 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Cambridge: Polity Press. p. xi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-4488-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-4488-2"><bdi>978-0-7456-4488-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%2C+Mussolini+and+the+Vatican%3A+Pope+Pius+XI+and+the+speech+that+was+never+made&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=xi&rft.edition=%5BEnglish+edition%5D&rft.pub=Polity+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7456-4488-2&rft.aulast=Fattorini&rft.aufirst=Emma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/oddlyEnoughNews/idUSN1944220320080919">Comic escapes prosecution for insulting pope (Oddly Enough) Reuters</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131113062447/http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/09/19/us-comic-pope-idUSN1944220320080919">Archived</a> 13 November 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, (Friday 19 September 2008 1:15 pm EDT) By Phil Stewart </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBencivenni2014" class="citation book cs1">Bencivenni, Marcella (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gjIUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA198">Italian Immigrant Radical Culture: The Idealism of the Sovversivi in the United States, 1890–1940</a>. 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About.com. 8 January 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080415191136/http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/worldwarii/p/compass.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2008. Retrieved 6 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=World+War+II%3A+Operation+Compass&rft.date=2008-01-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmilitaryhistory.about.com%2Fod%2Fworldwarii%2Fp%2Fcompass.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1941/410223a.html">"Speech Delivered by Premier Benito Mussolini"</a>. IlBiblio.org. 8 January 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516054119/http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1941/410223a.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 3 May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Speech+Delivered+by+Premier+Benito+Mussolini&rft.date=2008-01-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ibiblio.org%2Fpha%2Fpolicy%2F1941%2F410223a.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Tommaso Di Francesco, Giacomo Scotti (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.google.com/document/pub?id=1Y7G4b7KzqSMXkdLJg-jkHUXWqso_pF33-YztoPdsYe4">Sixty years of ethnic cleansing</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131005064430/https://docs.google.com/document/pub?id=1Y7G4b7KzqSMXkdLJg-jkHUXWqso_pF33-YztoPdsYe4">Archived</a> 5 October 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Le_Monde_diplomatique" title="Le Monde diplomatique">Le Monde diplomatique</a>, May Issue. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005276-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005276_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinberg2005">Weinberg 2005</a>, p. 276. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> Marino, James I. (5 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/wwii/italians-on-the-eastern-front-from-barbarossa-to-stalingrad/">"Italians on the Eastern Front: From Barbarossa to Stalingrad"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180920010353/http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/wwii/italians-on-the-eastern-front-from-barbarossa-to-stalingrad/">Archived</a> 20 September 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Warfare History Network. Retrieved 17 November 2018. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005276–77-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005276%E2%80%9377_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinberg2005">Weinberg 2005</a>, pp. 276–77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005277-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005277_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeinberg2005277_159-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWeinberg2005">Weinberg 2005</a>, p. 277. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> MacGregor Knox. Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War. Edition of 1999. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. pp. 122–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/11/newsid_3532000/3532401.stm">"1941: Germany and Italy declare war on US"</a>. BBC News. 11 December 1941. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191205102107/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/11/newsid_3532000/3532401.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 December 2019. Retrieved 10 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=1941%3A+Germany+and+Italy+declare+war+on+US&rft.date=1941-12-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2Fonthisday%2Fhi%2Fdates%2Fstories%2Fdecember%2F11%2Fnewsid_3532000%2F3532401.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Trial of German Major War Criminals. Vol. 3. p. 398.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trial+of+German+Major+War+Criminals&rft.pages=398&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacGregor_Knox_1999._pp._122–23-163"><a href="#cite_ref-MacGregor_Knox_1999._pp._122%E2%80%9323_163-0">^</a> MacGregor Knox. Mussolini Unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War. Edition of 1999. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. pp. 122–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoseley2004-164">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoseley2004_164-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoseley2004_164-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoseley2004_164-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMoseley2004">Moseley 2004</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-fital-165">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fital_165-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fital_165-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fital_165-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fital_165-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fital_165-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittam2005" class="citation book cs1">Whittam, John (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hHgMm6APG_0C&pg=PA129">Fascist Italy</a>. Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4004-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4004-7"><bdi>978-0-7190-4004-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 3 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fascist+Italy&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-4004-7&rft.aulast=Whittam&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhHgMm6APG_0C%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bestofsicily.com/history3.htm">"Modern era"</a>. BestofSicily.com. 8 January 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190304000544/http://www.bestofsicily.com/history3.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 4 March 2019. Retrieved 28 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Modern+era&rft.date=2008-01-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bestofsicily.com%2Fhistory3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RiseFall-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RiseFall_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RiseFall_167-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RiseFall_167-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShirer1960" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_L._Shirer" title="William L. Shirer">Shirer, William</a> (1960). <a href="/wiki/The_Rise_and_Fall_of_the_Third_Reich" title="The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich">The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich</a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-671-72868-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-671-72868-7"><bdi>978-0-671-72868-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Third+Reich&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-0-671-72868-7&rft.aulast=Shirer&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Payne-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Payne_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Payne_168-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Payne_168-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPayne1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_G._Payne" title="Stanley G. Payne">Payne, Stanley G.</a> (1996). A History of Fascism, 1914-1945. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0203501322" title="Special:BookSources/0203501322"><bdi>0203501322</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Fascism%2C+1914-1945&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0203501322&rft.aulast=Payne&rft.aufirst=Stanley+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-prisonrescue-169">^ <a href="#cite_ref-prisonrescue_169-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-prisonrescue_169-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnnussek2005" class="citation book cs1">Annussek, Greg (2005). Hitler's Raid to Save Mussolini. Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81396-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-81396-2"><bdi>978-0-306-81396-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+Raid+to+Save+Mussolini&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-306-81396-2&rft.aulast=Annussek&rft.aufirst=Greg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Moseley(2004), p. 23 </li> <li id="cite_note-lastdays-171">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lastdays_171-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lastdays_171-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoseley2004" class="citation book cs1">Moseley, Ray (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UmxaWvOL_IgC&pg=PA7">Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce</a>. Taylor Trade. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58979-095-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58979-095-7"><bdi>978-1-58979-095-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200925055508/https://books.google.com/books?id=UmxaWvOL_IgC&pg=PA7">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini%3A+The+Last+600+Days+of+Il+Duce&rft.pub=Taylor+Trade&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-58979-095-7&rft.aulast=Moseley&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUmxaWvOL_IgC%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Speer-172"><a href="#cite_ref-Speer_172-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpeer1995" class="citation book cs1">Speer, Albert (1995). Inside the Third Reich. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 420–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1842127353" title="Special:BookSources/978-1842127353"><bdi>978-1842127353</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inside+the+Third+Reich&rft.place=London&rft.pages=420-21&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1842127353&rft.aulast=Speer&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> A copy of an existing document is available online. It reads "In addition to my ... order of the commander of the Greater German Reich in Italy and the organisation of the occupied Italian area from 10 September 1943 I determine: The supreme commanders in the Operational Zone Adriatic Coast consisting of the provinces of Friaul, Görz, Triest, Istrien, Fiume, Quarnero, Laibach, and in the Prealpine Operations Zone consisting of the provinces of Bozen, Trient and Belluno receive the fundamental instructions for their activity from me. Führer's headquarters, 10 September 1943. The Führer Gen. Adolf Hitler". See second document at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.karawankengrenze.at/ferenc/document/show/id/317?symfony=ad81b9f2cd1e66a7c973073ed0532df1">http://www.karawankengrenze.at/ferenc/document/show/id/317?symfony=ad81b9f2cd1e66a7c973073ed0532df1</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicola_CospitoHans_Werner_Neulen1992" class="citation book cs1">Nicola Cospito; Hans Werner Neulen (1992). Salò-Berlino: l'alleanza difficile. La Repubblica Sociale Italiana nei documenti segreti del Terzo Reich. Mursia. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-425-1285-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-425-1285-1"><bdi>978-88-425-1285-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sal%C3%B2-Berlino%3A+l%27alleanza+difficile.+La+Repubblica+Sociale+Italiana+nei+documenti+segreti+del+Terzo+Reich&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Mursia&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-88-425-1285-1&rft.au=Nicola+Cospito&rft.au=Hans+Werner+Neulen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Moseley (2004), p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enterstageright.com/archive/articles/0105/0105mussolini.htm">"The twilight of Italian fascism"</a>. EnterStageRight.com. 8 January 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516071305/http://www.enterstageright.com/archive/articles/0105/0105mussolini.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+twilight+of+Italian+fascism&rft.date=2008-01-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enterstageright.com%2Farchive%2Farticles%2F0105%2F0105mussolini.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFViganò2001" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Viganò, Marino (2001), "Un'analisi accurata della presunta fuga in Svizzera", Nuova Storia Contemporanea (in Italian), 3</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nuova+Storia+Contemporanea&rft.atitle=Un%27analisi+accurata+della+presunta+fuga+in+Svizzera&rft.volume=3&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Vigan%C3%B2&rft.aufirst=Marino&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein2015" class="citation web cs1">Klein, Christopher (28 April 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/news/mussolinis-final-hours-70-years-ago">"Mussolini's Final Hours, 70 Years Ago"</a>. History.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170206041614/http://www.history.com/news/mussolinis-final-hours-70-years-ago">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History.com&rft.atitle=Mussolini%27s+Final+Hours%2C+70+Years+Ago&rft.date=2015-04-28&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fnews%2Fmussolinis-final-hours-70-years-ago&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Toland, John. (1966). The Last 100 Days Random House, p. 504, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/294225">294225</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuciano_Garibaldi2018" class="citation book cs1">Luciano Garibaldi (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vlruDwAAQBAJ&q=%22La+sera+del+27+giunsero+al+comando+del+Cvl%22&pg=PT2">La pista inglese: Chi uccise Mussolini e la Petacci?</a>. Edizioni Ares. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788881557783" title="Special:BookSources/9788881557783"><bdi>9788881557783</bdi></a>. <q>Ecco come esso è narrato, ancora, da Gian Franco Vené: «La sera del 27 giunsero al comando del Cvl, in via del Carmine, diversi messaggi radio inviati dal Quartier generale alleato di Siena. Ciascuno di questi messaggi passava di tavolo in tavolo: "Al Comando generale and Clnai – stop – fateci sapere esatta situazione Mussolini – stop – invieremo aereo per rilevarlo – stop – Quartier generale alleato"» [...] E ancora: "Per Clnai – stop – Comando alleato desidera immediatamente informazioni su presunta locazione Mussolini dico Mussolini – stop se est stato catturato si ordina egli venga trattenuto per immediata consegna al Comando alleato – stop si richiede che voi portiate queste informazioni at formazioni partigiane che avrebbero effettuato cattura assoluta precedenza" [...] L'ufficio operativo al quartier generale delle forze alleate, aveva inviato istruzioni alle 25 squadre dell'Oss (Office of strategic services) già pronte all'azione nei boschi e nelle montagne: "Conforme agli ordini del Quartier generale alleato, è desiderio degli Alleati di catturare vivo Mussolini. Notitificare a questo quartier generale se è stato catturato, e tenerlo sotto protezione fino all'arrivo delle truppe alleate".</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+pista+inglese%3A+Chi+uccise+Mussolini+e+la+Petacci%3F&rft.pub=Edizioni+Ares&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9788881557783&rft.au=Luciano+Garibaldi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvlruDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522La%2Bsera%2Bdel%2B27%2Bgiunsero%2Bal%2Bcomando%2Bdel%2BCvl%2522%26pg%3DPT2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberto_Roggero2006" class="citation book cs1">Roberto Roggero (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BIVzVZoh8moC&q=%22Benito+Mussolini%2C+i+suoi+principali+associati+fascisti+e+tutte+le+persone+sospette+di+aver+commesso+delitti+di+guerra+o+reati+analoghi%2C+i+cui+nomi+si+trovino+sugli+elenchi+che+verranno+comunicati+dalle+Nazioni+Unite+e+che+ora+o+in+avvenire+si+trovino+in+territorio+controllato+dal+Comando+militare+alleato+o+dal+Governo+italiano%2C+saranno+immediatamente+arrestati+e+consegnati+alle+Forze+delle+Nazioni+Unite%22&pg=PA112">Oneri e onori: le verità militari e politiche della guerra di liberazione in Italia</a>. GRECO & GRECO Editori. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788879804172" title="Special:BookSources/9788879804172"><bdi>9788879804172</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oneri+e+onori%3A+le+verit%C3%A0+militari+e+politiche+della+guerra+di+liberazione+in+Italia&rft.pub=GRECO+%26+GRECO+Editori&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9788879804172&rft.au=Roberto+Roggero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBIVzVZoh8moC%26q%3D%2522Benito%2BMussolini%252C%2Bi%2Bsuoi%2Bprincipali%2Bassociati%2Bfascisti%2Be%2Btutte%2Ble%2Bpersone%2Bsospette%2Bdi%2Baver%2Bcommesso%2Bdelitti%2Bdi%2Bguerra%2Bo%2Breati%2Banaloghi%252C%2Bi%2Bcui%2Bnomi%2Bsi%2Btrovino%2Bsugli%2Belenchi%2Bche%2Bverranno%2Bcomunicati%2Bdalle%2BNazioni%2BUnite%2Be%2Bche%2Bora%2Bo%2Bin%2Bavvenire%2Bsi%2Btrovino%2Bin%2Bterritorio%2Bcontrollato%2Bdal%2BComando%2Bmilitare%2Balleato%2Bo%2Bdal%2BGoverno%2Bitaliano%252C%2Bsaranno%2Bimmediatamente%2Barrestati%2Be%2Bconsegnati%2Balle%2BForze%2Bdelle%2BNazioni%2BUnite%2522%26pg%3DPA112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooper2006" class="citation news cs1">Hooper, John (28 February 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/news/2006/feb/28/guardianobituaries.italy">"Urbano Lazzaro, The partisan who arrested Mussolini"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140921061531/http://www.theguardian.com/news/2006/feb/28/guardianobituaries.italy">Archived</a> from the original on 21 September 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Urbano+Lazzaro%2C+The+partisan+who+arrested+Mussolini&rft.date=2006-02-28&rft.aulast=Hooper&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fnews%2F2006%2Ffeb%2F28%2Fguardianobituaries.italy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130828035808/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,804084,00.html">"What Price Brutus?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. 7 April 1947. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,804084,00.html">the original</a> on 28 August 2013. Retrieved 24 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=What+Price+Brutus%3F&rft.date=1947-04-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C804084%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Time, 7 May 1945[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/1945-05-14_Beaten_Nazis_Sign_Historic_Surrender">Video: Beaten Nazis Sign Historic Surrender, 1945/05/14 (1945)</a>. <a href="/wiki/Universal_Newsreel" title="Universal Newsreel">Universal Newsreel</a>. 1945. Retrieved 20 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Video%3A+Beaten+Nazis+Sign+Historic+Surrender%2C+1945%2F05%2F14+%281945%29&rft.pub=Universal+Newsreel&rft.date=1945&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F1945-05-14_Beaten_Nazis_Sign_Historic_Surrender&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/28/newsid_3564000/3564529.stm">"1945: Italian partisans kill Mussolini"</a>. BBC News. 28 April 1945. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111126075555/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/28/newsid_3564000/3564529.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 26 November 2011. Retrieved 17 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=1945%3A+Italian+partisans+kill+Mussolini&rft.date=1945-04-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2Fonthisday%2Fhi%2Fdates%2Fstories%2Fapril%2F28%2Fnewsid_3564000%2F3564529.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_York2006" class="citation book cs1">Peter York (2006). Dictator Style. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. pp. 17–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8118-5314-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8118-5314-9"><bdi>978-0-8118-5314-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictator+Style&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pages=17-18&rft.pub=Chronicle+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8118-5314-9&rft.au=Peter+York&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> Baigorri-Jalón, Jesús. From Paris to Nuremberg: The birth of conference interpreting. Vol. 111. John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2014, pp.167–168 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19821-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19821_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19821_189-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMack_Smith1982">Mack Smith 1982</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19828-190">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19828_190-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19828_190-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19828_190-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMack_Smith1982">Mack Smith 1982</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19822–3-191"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith19822%E2%80%933_191-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMack_Smith1982">Mack Smith 1982</a>, pp. 2–3. </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJesse_Greenspan2012" class="citation web cs1">Jesse Greenspan (25 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/news/9-things-you-may-not-know-about-mussolini">"9 Things You May Not Know About Mussolini"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181018122340/https://www.history.com/news/9-things-you-may-not-know-about-mussolini">Archived</a> from the original on 18 October 2018. Retrieved 28 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=9+Things+You+May+Not+Know+About+Mussolini&rft.date=2012-10-25&rft.au=Jesse+Greenspan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fnews%2F9-things-you-may-not-know-about-mussolini&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith198212-193">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith198212_193-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith198212_193-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMack_Smith1982">Mack Smith 1982</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeville2014176-194"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeville2014176_194-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeville2014">Neville 2014</a>, p. 176. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith198215-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith198215_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith198215_195-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMack_Smith1982">Mack Smith 1982</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-rmussolini_129-196"><a href="#cite_ref-rmussolini_129_196-0">^</a> Rachele Mussolini 1974, p. 129 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162–163-197">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162%E2%80%93163_197-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162%E2%80%93163_197-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162%E2%80%93163_197-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162%E2%80%93163_197-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162%E2%80%93163_197-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162%E2%80%93163_197-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982162%E2%80%93163_197-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFMack_Smith1982">Mack Smith 1982</a>, pp. 162–163. </li> <li id="cite_note-Roberts-198">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_198-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roberts_198-1">b</a> Roberts, Jeremy (2006). Benito Mussolini. Minneapolis, MN: Twenty-First Century Books, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeville201484-199"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeville201484_199-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeville2014">Neville 2014</a>, p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-Townley2002-200"><a href="#cite_ref-Townley2002_200-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_Townley2002" class="citation book cs1">Edward Townley (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7CIAYPTx2gC&pg=PA49">Mussolini and Italy</a>. Heinemann. pp. 49–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-435-32725-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-435-32725-5"><bdi>978-0-435-32725-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151017194249/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7CIAYPTx2gC&pg=PA49">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 13 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini+and+Italy&rft.pages=49-&rft.pub=Heinemann&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-435-32725-5&rft.au=Edward+Townley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY7CIAYPTx2gC%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982163-201"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982163_201-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMack_Smith1982">Mack Smith 1982</a>, p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982222–223-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982222%E2%80%93223_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMack_Smith1982">Mack Smith 1982</a>, pp. 222–223. </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2014/01/27/265794658/pope-and-mussolini-tells-the-secret-history-of-fascism-and-the-church">"'Pope And Mussolini' Tells The 'Secret History' Of Fascism And The Church"</a>. npr.org. 27 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=npr.org&rft.atitle=%27Pope+And+Mussolini%27+Tells+The+%27Secret+History%27+Of+Fascism+And+The+Church&rft.date=2014-01-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2014%2F01%2F27%2F265794658%2Fpope-and-mussolini-tells-the-secret-history-of-fascism-and-the-church&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982311-204">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982311_204-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith1982311_204-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMack_Smith1982">Mack Smith 1982</a>, p. 311. </li> <li id="cite_note-rmussolini_131-205"><a href="#cite_ref-rmussolini_131_205-0">^</a> Rachele Mussolini 1974, p. 131 </li> <li id="cite_note-rmussolini_135-206"><a href="#cite_ref-rmussolini_135_206-0">^</a> Rachele Mussolini 1974, p. 135 </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/news/mussolinis-final-hours">"Mussolini's Final Hours"</a>. 27 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mussolini%27s+Final+Hours&rft.date=2020-04-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fnews%2Fmussolinis-final-hours&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mussoliniintimat00muss/page/134/mode/2up">Mussolini: An intimate biography</a>. New York, Morrow. 1974. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780688002664" title="Special:BookSources/9780688002664"><bdi>9780688002664</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini%3A+An+intimate+biography&rft.pub=New+York%2C+Morrow&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=9780688002664&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmussoliniintimat00muss%2Fpage%2F134%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanchez2014" class="citation web cs1">Sanchez, Meghan (9 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.tricolib.brynmawr.edu/bitstream/handle/10066/16687/2015SanchezM.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y">""Discriminate, but do not persecute": Musolini's urban plan for the Jews of Rome"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Bryn_Mawr_College" title="Bryn Mawr College">Bryn Mawr College</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Discriminate%2C+but+do+not+persecute%22%3A+Musolini%27s+urban+plan+for+the+Jews+of+Rome&rft.pub=Bryn+Mawr+College&rft.date=2014-12-09&rft.aulast=Sanchez&rft.aufirst=Meghan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.tricolib.brynmawr.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F10066%2F16687%2F2015SanchezM.pdf%3Fsequence%3D2%26isAllowed%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nm35-210"><a href="#cite_ref-nm35_210-0">^</a> Neocleous, Mark. Fascism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-Zimmerman2005-211"><a href="#cite_ref-Zimmerman2005_211-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoshua_D._Zimmerman2005" class="citation book cs1">Joshua D. Zimmerman (2005). Jews in Italy Under Fascist and Nazi Rule, 1922–1945. Cambridge University Press. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84101-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84101-6"><bdi>978-0-521-84101-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+in+Italy+Under+Fascist+and+Nazi+Rule%2C+1922%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84101-6&rft.au=Joshua+D.+Zimmerman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> Zimmerman, p. 62 </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> Christopher Hibbert, Benito Mussolini (1975), p. 99 </li> <li id="cite_note-Zimmerman,_p._160-214">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zimmerman,_p._160_214-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zimmerman,_p._160_214-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zimmerman,_p._160_214-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zimmerman,_p._160_214-3">d</a> Zimmerman, p. 160 </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> Zimmerman, pp. 26–27 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kaplan,_2005,_p._154-216"><a href="#cite_ref-Kaplan,_2005,_p._154_216-0">^</a> Kaplan, 2005, p. 154. </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> "If the Duce were to die, it would be a great misfortune for Italy. As I walked with him in the gardens of the <a href="/wiki/Villa_Borghese" class="mw-redirect" title="Villa Borghese">Villa Borghese</a>, I could easily compare his profile with that of the Roman busts, and I realised he was one of the Caesars. There's no doubt at all that Mussolini is the heir of the great men of that period." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/HitlersTableTalk#page/n15/mode/2up/search/caesars">Hitler's Table Talk</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-cultural-218">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cultural_218-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cultural_218-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCannistraro1972" class="citation journal cs1">Cannistraro, P.V. (April 1972). "Mussolini's Cultural Revolution: Fascist or Nationalist?". Journal of Contemporary History. 7 (3): 115–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200947200700308">10.1177/002200947200700308</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162125178">162125178</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=Mussolini%27s+Cultural+Revolution%3A+Fascist+or+Nationalist%3F&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=115-39&rft.date=1972-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002200947200700308&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162125178%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cannistraro&rft.aufirst=P.V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> (subscription required) </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Hibbert, p. 98 </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillette2002" class="citation book cs1">Gillette, Aaron (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Y8XRZAdv9IC&q=mussolini+thoughts+on+race&pg=PA45">Racial Theories in Fascist Italy</a>. Routledge. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25292-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25292-8"><bdi>978-0-415-25292-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220628023809/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Y8XRZAdv9IC&pg=PA45&lpg=PA42">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Racial+Theories+in+Fascist+Italy&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-25292-8&rft.aulast=Gillette&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6Y8XRZAdv9IC%26q%3Dmussolini%2Bthoughts%2Bon%2Brace%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillette2002" class="citation book cs1">Gillette, Aaron (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Y8XRZAdv9IC&q=mussolini+thoughts+on+race&pg=PA44">Racial Theories in Fascist Italy</a>. Routledge. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25292-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25292-8"><bdi>978-0-415-25292-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Racial+Theories+in+Fascist+Italy&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-25292-8&rft.aulast=Gillette&rft.aufirst=Aaron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6Y8XRZAdv9IC%26q%3Dmussolini%2Bthoughts%2Bon%2Brace%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> Emil Lugwig, Talks with Mussolini, Boston, MA, Little, Brown and Company (1933) pp. 69–70. Interview between 23 March and 4 April 1932, at the Palazzo di Venezia in Rome <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/talkswithmussoli006557mbp">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInstitute_of_Jewish_Affairs2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Jewish_Policy_Research" title="Institute for Jewish Policy Research">Institute of Jewish Affairs</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vCA4AAAAIAAJ&q=%22Thirty+centuries+of+history+allow+us+to+look+with+supreme+pity%22">Hitler's ten-year war on the Jews</a>. Kessinger Publishing. p. 283. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4325-9942-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4325-9942-3"><bdi>978-1-4325-9942-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler%27s+ten-year+war+on+the+Jews&rft.pages=283&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4325-9942-3&rft.au=Institute+of+Jewish+Affairs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvCA4AAAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522Thirty%2Bcenturies%2Bof%2Bhistory%2Ballow%2Bus%2Bto%2Blook%2Bwith%2Bsupreme%2Bpity%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j3ClvAk-0sw">Video clip from the speech</a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHollander1997" class="citation book cs1">Hollander, Ethan J (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080515202656/http://weber.ucsd.edu/~ejhollan/Haaretz%20-%20Ital%20fascism%20-%20English.PDF">Italian Fascism and the Jews</a> (PDF). University of California. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-4648-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-4648-4"><bdi>978-0-8039-4648-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weber.ucsd.edu/~ejhollan/Haaretz%20-%20Ital%20fascism%20-%20English.PDF">the original</a> (PDF) on 15 May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italian+Fascism+and+the+Jews&rft.pub=University+of+California&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8039-4648-4&rft.aulast=Hollander&rft.aufirst=Ethan+J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweber.ucsd.edu%2F~ejhollan%2FHaaretz%2520-%2520Ital%2520fascism%2520-%2520English.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Egill_Brownfeld2003" class="citation web cs1">Peter Egill Brownfeld (Fall 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acjna.org/acjna/articles_detail.aspx?id=300">"The Italian Holocaust: The Story of an Assimilated Jewish Community"</a>. The American Council for Judaism. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120211192954/http://www.acjna.org/acjna/articles_detail.aspx?id=300">Archived</a> from the original on 11 February 2012. Retrieved 23 March 2011. <q>Ovazza started a Jewish fascist newspaper, "La Nostra Bandiera" (Our Flag) in an effort to show that the Jews were among the regime's most loyal followers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Italian+Holocaust%3A+The+Story+of+an+Assimilated+Jewish+Community&rft.pub=The+American+Council+for+Judaism&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Peter+Egill+Brownfeld&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.acjna.org%2Facjna%2Farticles_detail.aspx%3Fid%3D300&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rodogno2006-227"><a href="#cite_ref-Rodogno2006_227-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavide_Rodogno2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Davide_Rodogno" title="Davide Rodogno">Davide Rodogno</a> (2006). Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation During the Second World War. Cambridge University Press. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84515-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84515-1"><bdi>978-0-521-84515-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fascism%27s+European+Empire%3A+Italian+Occupation+During+the+Second+World+War&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84515-1&rft.au=Davide+Rodogno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZuccotti1987" class="citation book cs1">Zuccotti, Susan (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/italiansholocaus00susa">Italians and the Holocaust</a>. New York: Basic Books Inc. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/italiansholocaus00susa/page/36">36</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italians+and+the+Holocaust&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Basic+Books+Inc.&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Zuccotti&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fitaliansholocaus00susa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernardini1977" class="citation journal cs1">Bernardini, Gene (1977). "The Origins and Development of Racial Anti-Semitism in Fascist Italy". The Journal of Modern History. 49 (3): 431–453. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F241596">10.1086/241596</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143652167">143652167</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+Origins+and+Development+of+Racial+Anti-Semitism+in+Fascist+Italy&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=431-453&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F241596&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143652167%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bernardini&rft.aufirst=Gene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaudenmeier2019" class="citation journal cs1">Staudenmeier, Peter (7 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://epublications.marquette.edu/hist_fac/290">"Racial Ideology between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Julius Evola and the Aryan Myth, 1933–43"</a>. Journal of Contemporary History. 55 (3): 473–491. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022009419855428">10.1177/0022009419855428</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:211306550">211306550</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=Racial+Ideology+between+Fascist+Italy+and+Nazi+Germany%3A+Julius+Evola+and+the+Aryan+Myth%2C+1933%E2%80%9343&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=473-491&rft.date=2019-10-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0022009419855428&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A211306550%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Staudenmeier&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fepublications.marquette.edu%2Fhist_fac%2F290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuconi2004" class="citation journal cs1">Luconi, Stefano (2004). "Recent trends in the study of Italian antisemitism under the Fascist regime". Patterns of Prejudice. 38 (1): 1–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0031322032000185550">10.1080/0031322032000185550</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144743081">144743081</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Patterns+of+Prejudice&rft.atitle=Recent+trends+in+the+study+of+Italian+antisemitism+under+the+Fascist+regime&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-17&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0031322032000185550&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144743081%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Luconi&rft.aufirst=Stefano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoeschel2012" class="citation journal cs1">Goeschel, Christian (2012). "Italia docet? The Relationship between Italian Fascism and Nazism Revisited". 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Retrieved 7 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=Former+fascists+seek+respectability&rft.date=2003-12-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnode%2F2269141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Week_Staff2022" class="citation web cs1">The Week Staff (17 November 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theweek.com/news/world-news/europe/958535/brothers-of-italy-giorgia-meloni-political-party">"Brothers of Italy: understanding Giorgia Meloni's political party"</a>. theweek. Retrieved 1 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=theweek&rft.atitle=Brothers+of+Italy%3A+understanding+Giorgia+Meloni%27s+political+party&rft.date=2022-11-17&rft.au=The+Week+Staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheweek.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-news%2Feurope%2F958535%2Fbrothers-of-italy-giorgia-meloni-political-party&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/16063594.italy-goes-polls-shadow-mussolini/">"Italy goes to the polls in the shadow of Mussolini"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Herald_(Glasgow)" title="The Herald (Glasgow)">The Herald</a>. 4 March 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200925055513/https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/16063594.italy-goes-polls-shadow-mussolini/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved 16 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Herald&rft.atitle=Italy+goes+to+the+polls+in+the+shadow+of+Mussolini&rft.date=2018-03-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.heraldscotland.com%2Fnews%2F16063594.italy-goes-polls-shadow-mussolini%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˌmʊsəˈliːni, ˌmʌs-/</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">US</a>: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˌmuːs-/</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991">Italian: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian" title="Help:IPA/Italian">[beˈniːto aˈmilkare anˈdrɛːa mussoˈliːni]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> It is alleged that the governments of Russia, the United States, and Italy itself also funded the paper.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMack_Smith198225-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeville201434-47">[46]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy_(1922%E2%80%931943)#Further_reading" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist Italy (1922–1943)">Fascist Italy (1922–1943) § Further reading</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Bosworth, R.J.B. (2002). Mussolini. London, Hodder.</li> <li>Bosworth, R.J.B. (2006). Mussolini's Italy: Life Under the Dictatorship 1915–1945. London, Allen Lane.</li> <li>Caprotti, Federico (2007). Mussolini's Cities: Internal Colonialism in Italy, 1930–1939, Cambria Press.</li> <li>Celli, Carlo (2013). Economic Fascism: Primary Sources on Mussolini's Crony Capitalism. Axios Press.</li> <li>Corvaja, Santi (2001). Hitler and Mussolini: The Secret Meetings. Enigma. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-929631-00-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-929631-00-6">1-929631-00-6</a></li> <li>Daldin, Rudolph S. The Last Centurion. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.benito-mussolini.com">www.benito-mussolini.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200423165442/http://www.benito-mussolini.com/">Archived</a> 23 April 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-921447-34-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-921447-34-5">0-921447-34-5</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Felice1965" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">De Felice, Renzo (1965). Mussolini. Il Rivoluzionario,1883–1920 (in Italian) (1 ed.). Torino: Einaudi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini.+Il+Rivoluzionario%2C1883%E2%80%931920&rft.place=Torino&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=De+Felice&rft.aufirst=Renzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Felice1966" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Renzo_De_Felice" title="Renzo De Felice">De Felice, Renzo</a> (1966). Mussolini. Il Fascista. 1: La conquista del potere, 1920–1925 (in Italian) (1 ed.). Torino: Einaudi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini.+Il+Fascista.+1%3A+La+conquista+del+potere%2C+1920%E2%80%931925&rft.place=Torino&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=De+Felice&rft.aufirst=Renzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Felice1969" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">De Felice, Renzo (1969). Mussolini. Il Fascista. 2: L'organizzazione dello Stato fascista, 1925–1929 (in Italian) (1 ed.). Torino: Einaudi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini.+Il+Fascista.+2%3A+L%27organizzazione+dello+Stato+fascista%2C+1925%E2%80%931929&rft.place=Torino&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=De+Felice&rft.aufirst=Renzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Felice1974" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">De Felice, Renzo (1974). Mussolini. Il Duce. 1: Gli anni del consenso, 1929–1936 (in Italian) (1 ed.). Torino: Einaudi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini.+Il+Duce.+1%3A+Gli+anni+del+consenso%2C+1929%E2%80%931936&rft.place=Torino&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=De+Felice&rft.aufirst=Renzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Felice1981" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">De Felice, Renzo (1981). Mussolini. Il Duce. 2: Lo stato totalitario, 1936–1940 (in Italian) (1 ed.). Torino: Einaudi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini.+Il+Duce.+2%3A+Lo+stato+totalitario%2C+1936%E2%80%931940&rft.place=Torino&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=De+Felice&rft.aufirst=Renzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Felice1990" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">De Felice, Renzo (1990). Mussolini. L'Alleato, 1940–1942. 1: L'Italia in guerra I. Dalla "guerra breve" alla guerra lunga (in Italian) (1 ed.). Torino: Einaudi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini.+L%27Alleato%2C+1940%E2%80%931942.+1%3A+L%27Italia+in+guerra+I.+Dalla+%22guerra+breve%22+alla+guerra+lunga&rft.place=Torino&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=De+Felice&rft.aufirst=Renzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Felice1990" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">De Felice, Renzo (1990). Mussolini. L'Alleato. 1: L'Italia in guerra II: Crisi e agonia del regime (in Italian) (1 ed.). Torino: Einaudi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini.+L%27Alleato.+1%3A+L%27Italia+in+guerra+II%3A+Crisi+e+agonia+del+regime&rft.place=Torino&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=De+Felice&rft.aufirst=Renzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Felice1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">De Felice, Renzo (1997). Mussolini. L'Alleato. 2: La guerra civile, 1943–1945 (in Italian) (1 ed.). Torino: Einaudi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini.+L%27Alleato.+2%3A+La+guerra+civile%2C+1943%E2%80%931945&rft.place=Torino&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Einaudi&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=De+Felice&rft.aufirst=Renzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Farrell, Nicholas (2003). Mussolini: A New Life. London: Phoenix Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84212-123-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-84212-123-5">1-84212-123-5</a>.</li> <li>Garibaldi, Luciano (2004). Mussolini: The Secrets of his Death. Enigma. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-929631-23-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-929631-23-5">1-929631-23-5</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolombWistrich2002" class="citation book cs1">Golomb, Jacob; Wistrich, Robert S. (1 September 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5UWxQgAACAAJ">Nietzsche, Godfather of Fascism?: On the Uses and Abuses of a Philosophy</a>. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00710-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00710-6"><bdi>978-0-691-00710-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nietzsche%2C+Godfather+of+Fascism%3F%3A+On+the+Uses+and+Abuses+of+a+Philosophy&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2002-09-01&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00710-6&rft.aulast=Golomb&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft.au=Wistrich%2C+Robert+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5UWxQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregor1979" class="citation book cs1">Gregor, Anthony James (1979). Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California; London, England: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520037991" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520037991"><bdi>978-0520037991</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Young+Mussolini+and+the+Intellectual+Origins+of+Fascism&rft.place=Berkeley+and+Los+Angeles%2C+California%3B+London%2C+England&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0520037991&rft.aulast=Gregor&rft.aufirst=Anthony+James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hibbert, Christopher. Il Duce.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Haugen" class="citation book cs1">Haugen, Brenda (2007). Benito Mussolini: Fascist Italian Dictator. Minneapolis, MN: Compass Point Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7565-1988-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7565-1988-9"><bdi>978-0-7565-1988-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benito+Mussolini%3A+Fascist+Italian+Dictator&rft.place=Minneapolis%2C+MN&rft.pub=Compass+Point+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7565-1988-9&rft.aulast=Haugen&rft.aufirst=Brenda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKallis2000" class="citation book cs1">Kallis, Aristotle A. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BeeRQHDOKXQC">Fascist Ideology: Territory and Expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922-1945</a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-21612-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-21612-8"><bdi>978-0-415-21612-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fascist+Ideology%3A+Territory+and+Expansionism+in+Italy+and+Germany%2C+1922-1945&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-415-21612-8&rft.aulast=Kallis&rft.aufirst=Aristotle+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBeeRQHDOKXQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="KMU" class="citation book cs1">Kroener, Bernhard R.; Muller, Rolf-Dieter; Umbreit, Hans (2003). Germany and the Second World War Organization and Mobilization in the German Sphere of Power. Vol. VII. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820873-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820873-0"><bdi>978-0-19-820873-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germany+and+the+Second+World+War+Organization+and+Mobilization+in+the+German+Sphere+of+Power&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+Inc&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-820873-0&rft.aulast=Kroener&rft.aufirst=Bernhard+R.&rft.au=Muller%2C+Rolf-Dieter&rft.au=Umbreit%2C+Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lowe, Norman. Italy, "1918–1945: the first appearance of fascism" in Mastering Modern World History.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMack_Smith1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Denis_Mack_Smith" title="Denis Mack Smith">Mack Smith, Denis</a> (1982). Mussolini. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-50694-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-50694-4"><bdi>0-394-50694-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-394-50694-4&rft.aulast=Mack+Smith&rft.aufirst=Denis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMack_Smith1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Denis_Mack_Smith" title="Denis Mack Smith">Mack Smith, Denis</a> (1997). Modern Italy. Ann Arbor, Mich: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10895-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10895-4"><bdi>978-0-472-10895-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Italy&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+Mich&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-472-10895-4&rft.aulast=Mack+Smith&rft.aufirst=Denis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Morris, Terry; Murphy, Derrick. Europe 1870–1991.</li> <li>Moseley, Ray (2004). Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce. Dallas: Taylor Trade Publishing.</li> <li>Mussolini, Rachele (1977) [1974]. Mussolini: An Intimate Biography. Pocket Books. Originally published by William Morrow, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-81272-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-81272-6">0-671-81272-6</a>, <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/74001129">74-1129</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeville2014" class="citation book cs1">Neville, Peter (2014). Mussolini. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315750736">10.4324/9781315750736</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-75073-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-75073-6"><bdi>978-1-315-75073-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mussolini&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315750736&rft.isbn=978-1-315-75073-6&rft.aulast=Neville&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li>O'Brien, Paul (2004). Mussolini in the First World War: The Journalist, the Soldier, the Fascist. Oxford: Berg Publishers.</li> <li>Painter Jr., Borden W. (2005). Mussolini's Rome: Rebuilding the Eternal City.</li> <li>Passannanti, Erminia, Mussolini nel cinema italiano Passione, potere egemonico e censura della memoria. Un'analisi metastorica del film di Marco Bellocchio Vincere!, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4927-3723-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4927-3723-0">978-1-4927-3723-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearson2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Pearson, Owen (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3_Sh3y9IMZAC">Albania in the Twentieth Century, A History</a>. Vol. I - Albania and King Zog. The Centre for Albanian Studies / I.B.Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-184511013-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-184511013-0"><bdi>978-184511013-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Albania+in+the+Twentieth+Century%2C+A+History&rft.pub=The+Centre+for+Albanian+Studies+%2F+I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-184511013-0&rft.aulast=Pearson&rft.aufirst=Owen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3_Sh3y9IMZAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Petacco, Arrigo, ed. (1998). L'archivio segreto di Mussolini. Mondadori. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-04-44914-4" title="Special:BookSources/88-04-44914-4">88-04-44914-4</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternhellSznajderAsheri1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Zeev_Sternhell" title="Zeev Sternhell">Sternhell, Zeev</a>; Sznajder, Mario; Asheri, Maia (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/birthoffascistid00ster">The Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution</a>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04486-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04486-6"><bdi>978-0-691-04486-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+Fascist+Ideology%3A+From+Cultural+Rebellion+to+Political+Revolution&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-691-04486-6&rft.aulast=Sternhell&rft.aufirst=Zeev&rft.au=Sznajder%2C+Mario&rft.au=Asheri%2C+Maia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbirthoffascistid00ster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStang1999" class="citation book cs1">Stang, G. Bruce (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/munichcrisis193800igor">"War and peace: Mussolini's road to Munich"</a>. In Lukes, Igor; Goldstein, Erik (eds.). The Munich Crisis 1938: Prelude to World War II. London: Frank Cass. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/munichcrisis193800igor/page/160">160–90</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=War+and+peace%3A+Mussolini%27s+road+to+Munich&rft.btitle=The+Munich+Crisis+1938%3A+Prelude+to+World+War+II&rft.place=London&rft.pages=160-90&rft.pub=Frank+Cass&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Stang&rft.aufirst=G.+Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmunichcrisis193800igor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2005" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer (2005). Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social, and Military History. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+World+War+I%3A+A+Political%2C+Social%2C+and+Military+History&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Spencer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg2005" class="citation book cs1">Weinberg, Gerhard (2005). A World in Arms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+World+in+Arms&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Zuccotti, Susan (1987). Italians and the Holocaust Basic Books, Inc.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3></div> <ul><li>O'Brien, Paul. 2004. Mussolini in the First World War: The Journalist, the Soldier, the Fascist. O'Brien evaluates the biographies in Italian and English in the Introduction.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(14)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div><section class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14"> <ul><li>Hibbert, Christopher. Benito Mussolini, a Biography. (London: Reprint Society, [1962) p., ill. with b&w photos. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ilducelifeofbeni00hibb">online</a></li> <li>Kirkpatrick, Ivone, Sir. Mussolini, a study in power (1964) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mussolinistudyi000kirk">online</a></li> <li>Ridley, Jasper. Mussolini: A Biography (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mussolini00ridl">online</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(15)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-15 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-15"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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Mussolini">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.snopes.com/history/govern/trains.htm">Did Mussolini really make the trains run on time?</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://greatspeeches.wordpress.com/category/twentieth-century-speeches/benito-mussolini-speeches/">Benito Mussolini Speeches</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Mussolini%2C%20Benito%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Benito%20Mussolini%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Mussolini%2C%20Benito%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Benito%20Mussolini%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Mussolini%2C%20B%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Benito%20Mussolini%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Mussolini%2C%20Benito%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Benito%20Mussolini%22%29%20OR%20%28%221883-1945%22%20AND%20Mussolini%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Benito Mussolini</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/1303">Works by Benito Mussolini</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 15px;height: 15px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="15" data-height="15" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3144984.stm">Il Duce 'sought Hitler ban'</a> September 2003 <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.wix.com/ugd/927b40_c1ee26114a4d480cb048f5f96a4cc68f.pdf">Authorized translation of Mussolini's The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism (1933)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maxschoenherr.de/Archiv/londonNews1936.html#Mussolini">Maximilian Schönherr – Archiv</a> Mussolini shaking hands with King George V. of the United Kingdom, 1923, <a href="/wiki/The_Illustrated_London_News" title="The Illustrated London News">The Illustrated London News</a>, published 25 January 1936.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdm.reed.edu/ara-pacis/meier/piazza-augusto-imperatore/piazza/">Mussolini's Piazza Augusto Imperatore</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110502052317/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,757543,00.html">"Islam, Duce, and Duke"</a>. Time. 5 April 1937. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,757543,00.html">the original</a> on 2 May 2011. Retrieved 19 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Islam%2C+Duce%2C+and+Duke&rft.date=1937-04-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C757543%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100720092822/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,797481-1,00.html">"Death in Milan"</a>. Time. 7 May 1945. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,797481-1,00.html">the original</a> on 20 July 2010. Retrieved 20 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Death+in+Milan&rft.date=1945-05-07&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C797481-1%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenito+Mussolini" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theeuropeanlibrary.org/tel4/newspapers/search?query=mussolini">References to Mussolini in European newspapers</a> – The European Library</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0615907/">Benito Mussolini</a> at <a href="/wiki/IMDb_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="IMDb (identifier)">IMDb</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/012744">Newspaper clippings about Benito Mussolini</a> in the <a href="/wiki/20th_Century_Press_Archives" title="20th Century Press Archives">20th Century Press Archives</a> of the <a href="/wiki/German_National_Library_of_Economics" title="German National Library of Economics">ZBW</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Facta" title="Luigi Facta">Luigi Facta</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister of Italy</a> 1922–1943 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Pietro Badoglio</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Paolino_Taddei" title="Paolino Taddei">Paolino Taddei</a> <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Federzoni" title="Luigi Federzoni">Luigi Federzoni</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Italian_Minister_of_the_Interior" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Minister of the Interior">Minister of the Interior</a> 1922–1924 1926–1943 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Federzoni" title="Luigi Federzoni">Luigi Federzoni</a> <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Fornaciari" title="Bruno Fornaciari">Bruno Fornaciari</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Antonino_Di_Giorgio" title="Antonino Di Giorgio">Antonino Di Giorgio</a> <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Gazzera" title="Pietro Gazzera">Pietro Gazzera</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_War_(Italy)" title="Ministry of War (Italy)">Minister of War</a> 1925–1929 1933–1943 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Pietro_Gazzera" title="Pietro Gazzera">Pietro Gazzera</a> <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Sorice" title="Antonio Sorice">Antonio Sorice</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Paolo_Thaon_di_Revel" title="Paolo Thaon di Revel">Paolo Thaon di Revel</a> <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Sirianni" title="Giuseppe Sirianni">Giuseppe Sirianni</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Navy_(Italy)" title="Ministry of the Navy (Italy)">Minister of the Navy</a> 1925–1929 1933–1943 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Sirianni" title="Giuseppe Sirianni">Giuseppe Sirianni</a> <a href="/wiki/Raffaele_de_Courten" title="Raffaele de Courten">Raffaele de Courten</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold">New title <a href="/wiki/Italo_Balbo" title="Italo Balbo">Italo Balbo</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Aeronautics" title="Ministry of Aeronautics">Minister of Aeronautics</a> 1925–1929 1933–1943 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Italo_Balbo" title="Italo Balbo">Italo Balbo</a> <a href="/wiki/Renato_Sandalli" title="Renato Sandalli">Renato Sandalli</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Federzoni" title="Luigi Federzoni">Luigi Federzoni</a> <a href="/wiki/Emilio_De_Bono" title="Emilio De Bono">Emilio De Bono</a> <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Lessona" title="Alessandro Lessona">Alessandro Lessona</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Colonies_(Italy)" title="Ministry of the Colonies (Italy)">Minister of the Italian Africa</a> 1928–1929 1935–1936 1937–1939 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Emilio_De_Bono" title="Emilio De Bono">Emilio De Bono</a> <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Lessona" title="Alessandro Lessona">Alessandro Lessona</a> <a href="/wiki/Attilio_Teruzzi" title="Attilio Teruzzi">Attilio Teruzzi</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Schanzer" title="Carlo Schanzer">Carlo Schanzer</a> <a href="/wiki/Dino_Grandi" title="Dino Grandi">Dino Grandi</a> <a href="/wiki/Galeazzo_Ciano" title="Galeazzo Ciano">Galeazzo Ciano</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Italian_Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs">Minister of Foreign Affairs</a> 1922–1929 1932–1936 1943 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Dino_Grandi" title="Dino Grandi">Dino Grandi</a> <a href="/wiki/Galeazzo_Ciano" title="Galeazzo Ciano">Galeazzo Ciano</a> <a href="/wiki/Raffaele_Guariglia" title="Raffaele Guariglia">Raffaele Guariglia</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="2">New title </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Duce" title="Duce">Duce of the Italian Social Republic</a> 1943–1945 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="2">Abolished </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Minister of Foreign Affairs</a> 1943–1945 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFBF00;">Party political offices </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="2">New title </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Duce_of_Fascism" class="mw-redirect" title="Duce of Fascism">Duce of Fascism</a> 1919–1943 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="2">Abolished </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Duce_of_the_Republican_Fascist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Duce of the Republican Fascist Party">Duce of the Republican Fascist Party</a> 1943–1945 </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #CF9C65;">Military offices </th></tr> <tr> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">New title </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/First_marshal_of_the_empire" title="First marshal of the empire">First Marshal of the Empire</a> 1938–1943 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;">Abolished </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benito_Mussolini&oldid=1260393145">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benito_Mussolini&oldid=1260393145</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Benito_Mussolini&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 30 November 2024, at 14:36 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%99%E1%88%B6%E1%88%8A%E1%8A%92" title="ሙሶሊኒ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሙሶሊኒ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="बेनितो मुसोलिनी – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="बेनितो मुसोलिनी" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%88_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A" title="بينيتو موسوليني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بينيتو موسوليني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="बेनितो मुसोलिनी – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="बेनितो मुसोलिनी" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8,_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Муссолини, Бенито – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Муссолини, Бенито" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8B_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF" title="বেনিতো মুসোলিনি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বেনিতো মুসোলিনি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Беніта Мусаліні – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Беніта Мусаліні" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Бэніта Мусаліні – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Бэніта Мусаліні" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="बेनिटो मुसोलिनी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="बेनिटो मुसोलिनी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Бенито Мусолини – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Бенито Мусолини" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Муссолини Бенито – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Муссолини Бенито" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B7%D9%88_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A" title="بينيطو موسوليني – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="بينيطو موسوليني" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%AF%CF%84%CE%BF_%CE%9C%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%83%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B9" title="Μπενίτο Μουσολίνι – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μπενίτο Μουσολίνι" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%88_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="بنیتو موسولینی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بنیتو موسولینی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A0%EB%8B%88%ED%86%A0_%EB%AC%B4%EC%86%94%EB%A6%AC%EB%8B%88" title="베니토 무솔리니 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="베니토 무솔리니" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8_%D5%84%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%AB" title="Բենիտո Մուսոլինի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բենիտո Մուսոլինի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="बेनिटो मुसोलिनी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बेनिटो मुसोलिनी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8,_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Муссолини, Бенито – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Муссолини, Бенито" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%98%D7%95_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99" title="בניטו מוסוליני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בניטו מוסוליני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8B_%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF" title="ಬೆನಿಟೋ ಮುಸೊಲಿನಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬೆನಿಟೋ ಮುಸೊಲಿನಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ბენიტო მუსოლინი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბენიტო მუსოლინი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Бенито Муссолини – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Бенито Муссолини" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Бенито Муссолини – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Бенито Муссолини" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benitus_Mussolini" title="Benitus Mussolini – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Benitus Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Musol%C4%ABni" title="Benito Musolīni – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Benito Musolīni" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Бенито Муссолини – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Бенито Муссолини" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="बेनितो मुसोलिनी – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="बेनितो मुसोलिनी" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Бенито Мусолини – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Бенито Мусолини" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF" title="മുസ്സോളിനി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മുസ്സോളിനി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="बेनितो मुसोलिनी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="बेनितो मुसोलिनी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ბენიტო მუსოლინი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ბენიტო მუსოლინი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%88_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%89" title="بينيتو موسولينى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="بينيتو موسولينى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%88_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="بنیتو موسولینی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="بنیتو موسولینی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Бенито Муссолини – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Бенито Муссолини" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%97%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%AE%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF_%E1%80%99%E1%80%B0%E1%80%86%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%94%E1%80%AE" title="ဗင်နီတို မူဆိုလီနီ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဗင်နီတို မူဆိုလီနီ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="बेनितो मुसोलिनी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="बेनितो मुसोलिनी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="बेनिटो मुसोलिनी – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="बेनिटो मुसोलिनी" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%83%8B%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A0%E3%83%83%E3%82%BD%E3%83%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%83%8B" title="ベニート・ムッソリーニ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ベニート・ムッソリーニ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%93%DF%8B%DF%A3%DF%8C%DF%95%DF%8F%DF%AB_%DF%A1%DF%8E%DF%9B%DF%8F%DF%9F%DF%A3%DF%8C%DF%AB" title="ߓߋߣߌߕߏ߫ ߡߎߛߏߟߣߌ߫ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߓߋߣߌߕߏ߫ ߡߎߛߏߟߣߌ߫" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">ߒߞߏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%8B_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80" title="ਬੇਨੀਤੋ ਮੁਸੋਲੀਨੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੇਨੀਤੋ ਮੁਸੋਲੀਨੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="میسولینی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="میسولینی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8,_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Муссолини, Бенито – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Муссолини, Бенито" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80" title="मुसोलिनी – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="मुसोलिनी" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Musolini" title="Benito Musolini – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Benito Musolini" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benitu_Mussolini" title="Benitu Mussolini – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Benitu Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%9D_%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%93" title="බෙනිටෝ මුසෝලිනී – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බෙනිටෝ මුසෝලිනී" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8E%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%86_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%86%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="بێنیتۆ موسۆلینی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="بێنیتۆ موسۆلینی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Бенито Мусолини – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Бенито Мусолини" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8B_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF" title="பெனிட்டோ முசோலினி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பெனிட்டோ முசோலினி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%80" title="ముస్సోలినీ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ముస్సోలినీ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%95_%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B5" title="เบนิโต มุสโสลินี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เบนิโต มุสโสลินี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96" title="Беніто Муссоліні – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Беніто Муссоліні" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%88_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="بینیتو موسولینی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="بینیتو موسولینی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mussolini_Benito" title="Mussolini Benito – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Mussolini Benito" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A2%A8%E7%B4%A2%E9%87%8C%E5%B0%BC" title="墨索里尼 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="墨索里尼" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E5%B0%BC%E6%89%98%C2%B7%E5%A2%A8%E7%B4%A2%E9%87%8C%E5%B0%BC" title="本尼托·墨索里尼 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="本尼托·墨索里尼" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%98%D7%90_%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99" title="בעניטא מוסאליני – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="בעניטא מוסאליני" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B2%9D%E5%B0%BC%E6%89%98%C2%B7%E5%A2%A8%E7%B4%A2%E9%87%8C%E5%B0%BC" title="貝尼托·墨索里尼 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="貝尼托·墨索里尼" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benits_Mosuol%C4%97n%C4%97s" title="Benits Mosuolėnės – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Benits Mosuolėnės" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B4%9D%E5%B0%BC%E6%89%98%C2%B7%E5%A2%A8%E7%B4%A2%E9%87%8C%E5%B0%BC" title="贝尼托·墨索里尼 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="贝尼托·墨索里尼" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Benito Mussolini" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 30 November 2024, at 14:36 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a 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Template:Reflist"," 15.94% 593.144 34 Template:Infobox_officeholder/office"," 11.42% 425.231 76 Template:Cite_book"," 8.87% 330.016 81 Template:Sfn"," 5.16% 192.107 7 Template:Succession_box"," 4.92% 183.118 22 Template:Cite_web"," 4.57% 170.219 161 Template:Main_other"," 4.22% 156.977 2 Template:Efn"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.123","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":33423100,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n}\n\"\"\ntable#1 {\n}\n\"\"\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdler2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAli_Abdullatif_Ahmida2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrew2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnnussek2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnthony_James_Gregor1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArielli2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarrera2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBencivenni2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernard_Newman1943\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernardini1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernhard2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoffa,_Federico2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurgwyn2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCannistraro1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCannistraro1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarl_F._Goerdeler1938\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCathcart1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCeci2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharles_F._Delzel1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristopher_Hibbert2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarke1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollinsHenryTonge2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavide_Rodogno2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Felice1965\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Felice1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Felice1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Felice1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Felice1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Felice1990\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Felice1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelve2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDudley2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdward_Townley2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFalasca-Zamponi2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFattorini2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGentile2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGillette2002\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFGlenda_Sluga2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoeschel2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolombWistrich2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGregor1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGunther1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHakim1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarriet_JonesKjell_ÖstbergNico_Randeraad2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaugen2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHollander1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHooper2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInstitute_of_Jewish_Affairs2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJesse_Greenspan2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoshua_D._Zimmerman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKallis2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlein2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnox1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuciano_Garibaldi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuconi2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLyttelton2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacdonald1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMack_Smith1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMack_Smith1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarc_Tribelhorn2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMelchior_Seele2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichael_Sanfey2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMikkeson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMollo1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMonin2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoseley2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMussolini\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeville2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicola_CospitoHans_Werner_Neulen1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaxton2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayne1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Egill_Brownfeld2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_York2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPirjevec2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberto_Roggero2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1924\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobertson1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoland_Sarti2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamson1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanchez2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchindler2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSestani,_Armando2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShirer1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimonetta_Falasca-Zamponi1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpeer1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStang1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaudenmeier2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSternhellSznajderAsheri1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Week_Staff2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTownley2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTucker2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFViganò2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinberg2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhittam2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuccotti1987\"] = 3,\n [\"Haugen\"] = 1,\n [\"KMU\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"'s\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Avoid wrap\"] = 1,\n [\"Awrap\"] = 1,\n [\"Benito Mussolini\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 16,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 76,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 15,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 22,\n [\"Cite video\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 22,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Collapsed infobox section begin\"] = 1,\n [\"Collapsed infobox section end\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Corporatism sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Mussolini, Benito\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 2,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"End\"] = 1,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Fascism\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"HDS\"] = 1,\n [\"IMDb name\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 11,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox officeholder\"] = 2,\n [\"Internet Archive author\"] = 1,\n [\"Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs\"] = 1,\n [\"LCCN\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 5,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend striped\"] = 1,\n [\"Librivox author\"] = 1,\n [\"Listen\"] = 1,\n [\"Longitem\"] = 3,\n [\"Main\"] = 12,\n [\"Marriage\"] = 2,\n [\"More citations needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Mussolini Cabinet\"] = 1,\n [\"Mussolini sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbnd\"] = 7,\n [\"No bold\"] = 1,\n [\"Note\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"OCLC\"] = 1,\n [\"PM20\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 5,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Prime ministers of Italy\"] = 1,\n [\"R\"] = 5,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Ref label\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"S-mil\"] = 1,\n [\"S-new\"] = 3,\n [\"S-non\"] = 3,\n [\"S-off\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ppo\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 5,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 81,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Spnd\"] = 1,\n [\"Subscription required\"] = 1,\n [\"Succession box\"] = 7,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 6,\n [\"YouTube\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","580","24.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","240","10.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","180","7.6"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","180","7.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","120","5.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","100","4.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","100","4.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","3.4"],["(for generator)","60","2.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","60","2.5"],["[others]","660","28.0"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-6fdd9f9b88-wjpjl","timestamp":"20241130143721","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Benito Mussolini","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Benito_Mussolini","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q23559","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q23559","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-04-28T06:01:18Z","dateModified":"2024-11-30T14:36:54Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/6\/67\/Mussolini_biografia.jpg","headline":"dictator of Italy from 1922 to 1945"}</script><script>(window.NORLQ=window.NORLQ||[]).push(function(){var ns,i,p,img;ns=document.getElementsByTagName('noscript');for(i=0;i<ns.length;i++){p=ns[i].nextSibling;if(p&&p.className&&p.className.indexOf('lazy-image-placeholder')>-1){img=document.createElement('img');img.setAttribute('src',p.getAttribute('data-src'));img.setAttribute('width',p.getAttribute('data-width'));img.setAttribute('height',p.getAttribute('data-height'));img.setAttribute('alt',p.getAttribute('data-alt'));p.parentNode.replaceChild(img,p);}}});</script> </body> </html>