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href="#Schemas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Schemas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schemas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Data types </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-User-defined_objects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#User-defined_objects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 User-defined objects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-User-defined_objects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inheritance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inheritance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Inheritance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inheritance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_storage_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_storage_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Other storage features </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_storage_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control_and_connectivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control_and_connectivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Control and connectivity </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Control_and_connectivity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Control and connectivity subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Control_and_connectivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Foreign_data_wrappers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_data_wrappers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Foreign data wrappers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_data_wrappers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interfaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interfaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Interfaces </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interfaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Procedural_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Procedural_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Procedural languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Procedural_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Triggers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Triggers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Triggers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Triggers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asynchronous_notifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asynchronous_notifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Asynchronous notifications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asynchronous_notifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Rules </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_querying_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_querying_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Other querying features </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_querying_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concurrency_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concurrency_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 Concurrency model </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concurrency_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Security" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Security"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Security </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Security-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standards_compliance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standards_compliance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Standards compliance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standards_compliance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benchmarks_and_performance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benchmarks_and_performance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Benchmarks and performance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benchmarks_and_performance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Platforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Platforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Platforms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Platforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Database_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Database_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Database administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Database_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_users" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_users"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Notable users </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_users-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Service_implementations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Service_implementations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Service implementations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Service_implementations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Release_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Release_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Release history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Release_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">PostgreSQL</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" > 47 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D8%A5%D8%B3_%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%88_%D8%A5%D9%84" title="بوستجري إس كيو إل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بوستجري إس كيو إل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%B2" title="পোস্টগ্রেএসকিউএল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পোস্টগ্রেএসকিউএল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%B3%E2%80%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84" title="پستگرس‌کیوال – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پستگرس‌کیوال" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%8E%E0%B5%BD" title="പോസ്റ്റ്ഗ്രേഎസ്ക്യുഎൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പോസ്റ്റ്ഗ്രേഎസ്ക്യുഎൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" title="PostgreSQL – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="PostgreSQL" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">PostgreSQL</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image logo"><a href="/wiki/File:Postgresql_elephant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Postgresql_elephant.svg/220px-Postgresql_elephant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Postgresql_elephant.svg/330px-Postgresql_elephant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Postgresql_elephant.svg/440px-Postgresql_elephant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="557" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The World's Most Advanced Open Source Relational Database<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Programmer" title="Programmer">Developer(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data">PostgreSQL Global Development Group<a href="#cite_note-contributors-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Initial release</th><td class="infobox-data">8 July 1996; 28 years ago (1996-07-08)<a href="#cite_note-birthday-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release life cycle">Stable release</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="margin:0px;">17.2<a href="#cite_note-wikidata-ae77da838645502b43e57008b75d7f3ca6c7fc2d-v18-4">[4]</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192490?uselang=en#P348" title="Edit this on Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this on Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a> / 21 November 2024; 3 days ago (21 November 2024)</div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Repository_(version_control)" title="Repository (version control)">Repository</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://git.postgresql.org/gitweb/?p=postgresql.git">git.postgresql.org/gitweb/?p=postgresql.git</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192490#P1324" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Written in</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> (and <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> for the <a href="/wiki/LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a> dependency)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Software_categories#Categorization_approaches" title="Software categories">Type</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Relational_database" title="Relational database">RDBMS</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Software_license" title="Software license">License</a></th><td class="infobox-data">PostgreSQL License (<a href="/wiki/Free_and_open-source" class="mw-redirect" title="Free and open-source">free and open-source</a>, <a href="/wiki/Permissive_software_licence" class="mw-redirect" title="Permissive software licence">permissive</a>)<a href="#cite_note-about/licence-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-approved_by_OSI-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-OSI-7">[7]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.postgresql.org">www.postgresql.org</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192490?uselang=en#P856" title="Edit this on Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this on Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">PostgreSQL License<a href="#cite_note-about/licence-5">[5]</a></caption><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:45%;"><a href="/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">Publisher</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:55%;">PostgreSQL Global Development Group Regents of the University of California</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:45%;"><a href="/wiki/Debian_Free_Software_Guidelines" class="mw-redirect" title="Debian Free Software Guidelines">Debian FSG compatible</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:55%;">Yes<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:45%;"><a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">FSF</a> <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_free_and_open-source_software_licences#Approvals" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparison of free and open-source software licences">approved</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:55%;">Yes<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:45%;"><a href="/wiki/Open_Source_Initiative" title="Open Source Initiative">OSI</a> <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_free_and_open-source_software_licences#Approvals" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparison of free and open-source software licences">approved</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:55%;">Yes<a href="#cite_note-OSI-7">[7]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:45%;"><a href="/wiki/GPL_compatible" class="mw-redirect" title="GPL compatible">GPL compatible</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:55%;">Yes</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:45%;"><a href="/wiki/Copyleft" title="Copyleft">Copyleft</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:55%;">No</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:45%;"><a href="/wiki/GPL_linking_exception" title="GPL linking exception">Linking from code with a different licence</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:55%;">Yes</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:45%;">Website</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:55%;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://postgresql.org/about/licence">postgresql.org/about/licence</a></td></tr></tbody></table> PostgreSQL (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˌpoʊstɡrɛskjuˈɛl/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">POHST-gres-kew-EL</a>)<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Audio_sample-12">[12]</a> also known as Postgres, is a <a href="/wiki/Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">free and open-source</a> <a href="/wiki/Relational_database_management_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational database management system">relational database management system</a> (RDBMS) emphasizing <a href="/wiki/Extensibility" title="Extensibility">extensibility</a> and <a href="/wiki/SQL" title="SQL">SQL</a> compliance. PostgreSQL features <a href="/wiki/Transaction_processing" title="Transaction processing">transactions</a> with <a href="/wiki/Atomicity_(database_systems)" title="Atomicity (database systems)">atomicity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consistency_(database_systems)" title="Consistency (database systems)">consistency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isolation_(database_systems)" title="Isolation (database systems)">isolation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Durability_(database_systems)" title="Durability (database systems)">durability</a> (<a href="/wiki/ACID" title="ACID">ACID</a>) properties, automatically updatable <a href="/wiki/View_(SQL)" title="View (SQL)">views</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materialized_view" title="Materialized view">materialized views</a>, <a href="/wiki/Database_trigger" title="Database trigger">triggers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foreign_key" title="Foreign key">foreign keys</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stored_procedure" title="Stored procedure">stored procedures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-intro-whatis-13">[13]</a> It is supported on all major <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating systems</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a>, <a href="/wiki/MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a>, <a href="/wiki/FreeBSD" title="FreeBSD">FreeBSD</a>, and <a href="/wiki/OpenBSD" title="OpenBSD">OpenBSD</a>, and handles a range of workloads from single machines to <a href="/wiki/Data_warehouse" title="Data warehouse">data warehouses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Data_lake" title="Data lake">data lakes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Web_service" title="Web service">web services</a> with many <a href="/wiki/Concurrent_user" title="Concurrent user">concurrent users</a>. The PostgreSQL Global Development Group focuses only on developing a <a href="/wiki/Database_engine" title="Database engine">database engine</a> and closely related components. This core is, technically, what comprises PostgreSQL itself, but there is an extensive developer community and ecosystem that provides other important feature sets that might, traditionally, be provided by a proprietary software vendor. These include special-purpose database engine features, like those needed to support a <a href="/wiki/Spatial_database" title="Spatial database">geospatial</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Temporal_database" title="Temporal database">temporal</a><a href="#cite_note-temporal-extensions-16">[16]</a> database or features which emulate other database products.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Also available from third parties are a wide variety of user and machine interface features, such as <a href="/wiki/Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interfaces</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Load_balancing_(computing)" title="Load balancing (computing)">load balancing</a> and <a href="/wiki/High_availability" title="High availability">high availability</a> toolsets.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The large third-party PostgreSQL support network of people, companies, products, and projects, even though not part of The PostgreSQL Development Group, are essential to the PostgreSQL database engine's adoption and use and make up the PostgreSQL ecosystem writ large.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> PostgreSQL was originally named POSTGRES, referring to its origins as a successor to the <a href="/wiki/Ingres_(database)" title="Ingres (database)">Ingres</a> database developed at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>.<a href="#cite_note-design-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-about/history-27">[27]</a> In 1996, the project was renamed <q>PostgreSQL</q> to reflect its support for <a href="/wiki/SQL" title="SQL">SQL</a>. After a review in 2007, the development team decided to keep the name PostgreSQL and the alias Postgres.<a href="#cite_note-Project_name-28">[28]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> PostgreSQL evolved from the <a href="/wiki/Ingres_(database)" title="Ingres (database)">Ingres</a> project at the University of California, Berkeley. In 1982, the leader of the Ingres team, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Stonebraker" title="Michael Stonebraker">Michael Stonebraker</a>, left Berkeley to make a proprietary version of Ingres.<a href="#cite_note-design-26">[26]</a> He returned to Berkeley in 1985, and began a post-Ingres project to address the problems with contemporary database systems that had become increasingly clear during the early 1980s. He won the <a href="/wiki/Turing_Award" title="Turing Award">Turing Award</a> in 2014 for these and other projects,<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> and techniques pioneered in them. The new project, POSTGRES, aimed to add the fewest features needed to completely support <a href="/wiki/Data_type" title="Data type">data types</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stonebraker-30">[30]</a> These features included the ability to define types and to fully describe relationships – something used widely, but maintained entirely by the user. In POSTGRES, the database understood relationships, and could retrieve information in related tables in a natural way using rules. POSTGRES used many of the ideas of Ingres, but not its code.<a href="#cite_note-pavel-history-31">[31]</a> Starting in 1986, published papers described the basis of the system, and a prototype version was shown at the 1988 ACM <a href="/wiki/SIGMOD" title="SIGMOD">SIGMOD</a> Conference. The team released version 1 to a small number of users in June 1989, followed by version 2 with a re-written rules system in June 1990. Version 3, released in 1991, again re-wrote the rules system, and added support for multiple storage managers<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> and an improved query engine. By 1993, the number of users began to overwhelm the project with requests for support and features. After releasing version 4.2<a href="#cite_note-University_POSTGRES-33">[33]</a> on June 30, 1994 – primarily a cleanup – the project ended. Berkeley released POSTGRES under an <a href="/wiki/MIT_License" title="MIT License">MIT License</a> variant, which enabled other developers to use the code for any use. At the time, POSTGRES used an Ingres-influenced <a href="/wiki/QUEL_query_languages" title="QUEL query languages">POSTQUEL query language</a> interpreter, which could be interactively used with a <a href="/wiki/Console_application" title="Console application">console application</a> named <kbd>monitor</kbd>. In 1994, Berkeley graduate students Andrew Yu and Jolly Chen replaced the POSTQUEL query language interpreter with one for the SQL query language, creating Postgres95. The <kbd>monitor</kbd> console was also replaced by <kbd>psql</kbd>. Yu and Chen announced the first version (0.01) to <a href="/wiki/Beta_tester" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta tester">beta testers</a> on May 5, 1995. Version 1.0 of Postgres95 was announced on September 5, 1995, with a more liberal license that enabled the software to be freely modifiable. On July 8, 1996, Marc Fournier at Hub.org Networking Services provided the first non-university development server for the open-source development effort.<a href="#cite_note-birthday-3">[3]</a> With the participation of Bruce Momjian and Vadim B. Mikheev, work began to stabilize the code inherited from Berkeley. In 1996, the project was renamed to PostgreSQL to reflect its support for SQL. The online presence at the website PostgreSQL.org began on October 22, 1996.<a href="#cite_note-20th_anniversary-34">[34]</a> The first PostgreSQL release formed version 6.0 on January 29, 1997. Since then developers and volunteers around the world have maintained the software as The PostgreSQL Global Development Group.<a href="#cite_note-contributors-2">[2]</a> The project continues to make releases available under its <a href="/wiki/Free_and_open-source_software" title="Free and open-source software">free and open-source software</a> PostgreSQL License. Code comes from contributions from proprietary vendors, support companies, and open-source programmers. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Multiversion_concurrency_control_(MVCC)">Multiversion concurrency control (MVCC)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Multiversion concurrency control (MVCC)">edit</a>]</div> PostgreSQL manages <a href="/wiki/Concurrency_control" title="Concurrency control">concurrency</a> through <a href="/wiki/Multiversion_concurrency_control" title="Multiversion concurrency control">multiversion concurrency control</a> (MVCC), which gives each transaction a "snapshot" of the database, allowing changes to be made without affecting other transactions. This largely eliminates the need for read locks, and ensures the database maintains <a href="/wiki/ACID_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="ACID (computer science)">ACID</a> principles. PostgreSQL offers four levels of <a href="/wiki/Isolation_(database_systems)" title="Isolation (database systems)">transaction isolation</a>: Read Uncommitted, Read Committed, Repeatable Read and Serializable. Because PostgreSQL is immune to dirty reads, requesting a Read Uncommitted transaction isolation level provides read committed instead. PostgreSQL supports full <a href="/wiki/Serializability" class="mw-redirect" title="Serializability">serializability</a> via the serializable <a href="/wiki/Snapshot_isolation" title="Snapshot isolation">snapshot isolation</a> (SSI) method.<a href="#cite_note-ports-35">[35]</a> The PostgreSQL MVCC implementation is prone to performance issues that require tuning when under a heavy write load which updates existing rows.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Storage_and_replication">Storage and replication</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Storage and replication">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Replication">Replication</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Replication">edit</a>]</div> PostgreSQL includes built-in binary replication based on shipping the changes (<a href="/wiki/Write-ahead_logging" title="Write-ahead logging">write-ahead logs</a> (WAL)) to replica nodes asynchronously, with the ability to run read-only queries against these replicated nodes. This allows splitting read traffic among multiple nodes efficiently. Earlier replication software that allowed similar read scaling normally relied on adding replication triggers to the master, increasing load. PostgreSQL includes built-in synchronous replication<a href="#cite_note-H_Online-37">[37]</a> that ensures that, for each write transaction, the master waits until at least one replica node has written the data to its transaction log. Unlike other database systems, the durability of a transaction (whether it is asynchronous or synchronous) can be specified per-database, per-user, per-session or even per-transaction. This can be useful for workloads that do not require such guarantees, and may not be wanted for all data as it slows down performance due to the requirement of the confirmation of the transaction reaching the synchronous standby. Standby servers can be synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous standby servers can be specified in the configuration which determines which servers are candidates for synchronous replication. The first in the list that is actively streaming will be used as the current synchronous server. When this fails, the system fails over to the next in line. Synchronous <a href="/wiki/Multi-master_replication" title="Multi-master replication">multi-master replication</a> is not included in the PostgreSQL core. Postgres-XC which is based on PostgreSQL provides scalable synchronous multi-master replication.<a href="#cite_note-Postgres-XC-38">[38]</a> It is licensed under the same license as PostgreSQL. A related project is called <a href="/wiki/Postgres-XL" title="Postgres-XL">Postgres-XL</a>. Postgres-R is yet another <a href="/wiki/Fork_(software_development)" title="Fork (software development)">fork</a>.<a href="#cite_note-postgres-r-39">[39]</a> Bidirectional replication (BDR) is an asynchronous multi-master replication system for PostgreSQL.<a href="#cite_note-bdr-40">[40]</a> Tools such as repmgr make managing replication clusters easier. Several asynchronous trigger-based replication packages are available. These remain useful even after introduction of the expanded core abilities, for situations where binary replication of a full database cluster is inappropriate: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slony-I" title="Slony-I">Slony-I</a></li> <li>Londiste, part of SkyTools (developed by <a href="/wiki/Skype" title="Skype">Skype</a>)</li> <li>Bucardo multi-master replication (developed by <a href="/wiki/Backcountry.com" title="Backcountry.com">Backcountry.com</a>)<a href="#cite_note-Fischer-41">[41]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SymmetricDS" title="SymmetricDS">SymmetricDS</a> multi-master, multi-tier replication</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indexes">Indexes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Indexes">edit</a>]</div> PostgreSQL includes built-in support for regular <a href="/wiki/B-tree" title="B-tree">B-tree</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hash_table" title="Hash table">hash table</a> indexes, and four index access methods: generalized search trees (<a href="/wiki/GiST" title="GiST">GiST</a>), generalized <a href="/wiki/Inverted_index" title="Inverted index">inverted indexes</a> (GIN), Space-Partitioned GiST (SP-GiST)<a href="#cite_note-SP-GiST-42">[42]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Block_Range_Index" title="Block Range Index">Block Range Indexes</a> (BRIN). In addition, user-defined index methods can be created, although this is quite an involved process. Indexes in PostgreSQL also support the following features: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Expression_index" title="Expression index">Expression indexes</a> can be created with an index of the result of an expression or function, instead of simply the value of a column.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_index" title="Partial index">Partial indexes</a>, which only index part of a table, can be created by adding a WHERE clause to the end of the CREATE INDEX statement. This allows a smaller index to be created.</li> <li>The planner is able to use multiple indexes together to satisfy complex queries, using temporary in-memory <a href="/wiki/Bitmap_index" title="Bitmap index">bitmap index</a> operations (useful for <a href="/wiki/Data_warehouse" title="Data warehouse">data warehouse</a> applications for joining a large <a href="/wiki/Fact_table" title="Fact table">fact table</a> to smaller <a href="/wiki/Dimension_table" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimension table">dimension tables</a> such as those arranged in a <a href="/wiki/Star_schema" title="Star schema">star schema</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-nearest_neighbors_algorithm" title="K-nearest neighbors algorithm">k-nearest neighbors</a> (k-NN) indexing (also referred to KNN-GiST<a href="#cite_note-KNN-GiST-43">[43]</a>) provides efficient searching of "closest values" to that specified, useful to finding similar words, or close objects or locations with <a href="/wiki/Geographic_data_and_information" title="Geographic data and information">geospatial</a> data. This is achieved without exhaustive matching of values.</li> <li>Index-only scans often allow the system to fetch data from indexes without ever having to access the main table.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Block_Range_Index" title="Block Range Index">Block Range Indexes</a> (BRIN).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schemas">Schemas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Schemas">edit</a>]</div> PostgreSQL schemas are <a href="/wiki/Namespace" title="Namespace">namespaces</a>, allowing objects of the same kind and name to co-exist in a single database. They are not to be confused with a <a href="/wiki/Database_schema" title="Database schema">database schema</a>—the abstract, structural, organizational specification which defines how every table's data relates to data within other tables. All PostgreSQL database objects, except for a few global objects such as <a href="#Security">roles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tablespace" title="Tablespace">tablespaces</a>, exist within a schema. They cannot be nested, schemas cannot contain schemas. The permission system controls access to schemas and their content. By default, newly created databases have only a single schema called public but other schemas can be added and the public schema isn't mandatory. A <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">search_path</code> setting determines the order in which PostgreSQL checks schemas for unqualified objects (those without a prefixed schema). By default, it is set to <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">$user, public</code> (<code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">$user</code> refers to the currently connected database user). This default can be set on a database or role level, but as it is a session parameter, it can be freely changed (even multiple times) during a client session, affecting that session only. Non-existent schemas, or other schemas not accessible to the logged-in user, that are listed in search_path are silently skipped during object lookup. New objects are created in whichever valid schema (one that can be accessed) appears first in the search_path. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_types">Data types</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Data types">edit</a>]</div> A wide variety of native <a href="/wiki/Data_type" title="Data type">data types</a> are supported, including: <ul><li>Boolean</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbitrary-precision_arithmetic" title="Arbitrary-precision arithmetic">Arbitrary-precision</a> numerics</li> <li>Character (text, varchar, char)</li> <li>Binary</li> <li>Date/time (timestamp/time with/without time zone, date, interval)</li> <li>Money</li> <li>Enum</li> <li>Bit strings</li> <li>Text search type</li> <li>Composite</li> <li>HStore, an extension enabled key-value store within PostgreSQL<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></li> <li>Arrays (<a href="/wiki/Dynamic_array" title="Dynamic array">variable-length</a> and can be of any data type, including text and composite types) up to 1 GB in total storage size</li> <li>Geometric primitives</li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPv4" title="IPv4">IPv4</a> and <a href="/wiki/IPv6" title="IPv6">IPv6</a> addresses</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_Inter-Domain_Routing" title="Classless Inter-Domain Routing">Classless Inter-Domain Routing</a> (CIDR) blocks and <a href="/wiki/MAC_address" title="MAC address">MAC addresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XML" title="XML">XML</a> supporting <a href="/wiki/XPath" title="XPath">XPath</a> queries</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universally_unique_identifier" title="Universally unique identifier">Universally unique identifier</a> (UUID)</li> <li>JavaScript Object Notation (<a href="/wiki/JSON" title="JSON">JSON</a>), and a faster <a href="/wiki/Binary_code" title="Binary code">binary</a> JSONB (not the same as <a href="/wiki/BSON" title="BSON">BSON</a><a href="#cite_note-jsonb-45">[45]</a>)</li></ul> In addition, users can create their own data types which can usually be made fully indexable via PostgreSQL's indexing infrastructures – GiST, GIN, SP-GiST. Examples of these include the <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographic information system</a> (GIS) data types from the <a href="/wiki/PostGIS" title="PostGIS">PostGIS</a> project for PostgreSQL. There is also a data type called a domain, which is the same as any other data type but with optional constraints defined by the creator of that domain. This means any data entered into a column using the domain will have to conform to whichever constraints were defined as part of the domain. A data type that represents a range of data can be used which are called range types. These can be discrete ranges (e.g. all integer values 1 to 10) or continuous ranges (e.g., any time between 10:00 am and 11:00 am). The built-in range types available include ranges of integers, big integers, decimal numbers, time stamps (with and without time zone) and dates. Custom range types can be created to make new types of ranges available, such as IP address ranges using the inet type as a base, or float ranges using the float data type as a base. Range types support inclusive and exclusive range boundaries using the <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239335663">.mw-parser-output .mw-tmpl-kbd{background:#EEE;color:var(--color-base)}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mw-tmpl-kbd{background:#171a1d}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mw-tmpl-kbd{background:#171a1d}}</style><kbd class="mw-tmpl-kbd" style="letter-spacing:0.05em; padding-left:0.25em; padding-right:0.2em;">[]</kbd> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239335663"><kbd class="mw-tmpl-kbd" style="letter-spacing:0.05em; padding-left:0.25em; padding-right:0.2em;">()</kbd> characters respectively. (e.g., <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">[4,9)</code> represents all integers starting from and including 4 up to but not including 9.) Range types are also compatible with existing operators used to check for overlap, containment, right of etc. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="User-defined_objects">User-defined objects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: User-defined objects">edit</a>]</div> New types of almost all objects inside the database can be created, including: <ul><li>Casts</li> <li>Conversions</li> <li>Data types</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_domain" title="Data domain">Data domains</a></li> <li>Functions, including aggregate functions and window functions</li> <li>Indexes including custom indexes for custom types</li> <li>Operators (existing ones can be <a href="/wiki/Operator_overloading" title="Operator overloading">overloaded</a>)</li> <li>Procedural languages</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inheritance">Inheritance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Inheritance">edit</a>]</div> Tables can be set to inherit their characteristics from a parent table. Data in child tables will appear to exist in the parent tables, unless data is selected from the parent table using the ONLY keyword, i.e. <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-sql mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">SELECT * FROM ONLY parent_table;</code>. Adding a column in the parent table will cause that column to appear in the child table. Inheritance can be used to implement table partitioning, using either triggers or rules to direct inserts to the parent table into the proper child tables. This feature is not fully supported. In particular, table constraints are not currently inheritable. All check constraints and not-null constraints on a parent table are automatically inherited by its children. Other types of constraints (unique, primary key, and foreign key constraints) are not inherited. Inheritance provides a way to map the features of generalization hierarchies depicted in <a href="/wiki/Entity%E2%80%93relationship_model" title="Entity–relationship model">entity–relationship diagrams</a> (ERDs) directly into the PostgreSQL database. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_storage_features">Other storage features</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Other storage features">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referential_integrity" title="Referential integrity">Referential integrity</a> constraints including <a href="/wiki/Foreign_key" title="Foreign key">foreign key</a> constraints, column <a href="/wiki/Constraint_satisfaction" title="Constraint satisfaction">constraints</a>, and row checks</li> <li>Binary and textual large-object storage</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tablespace" title="Tablespace">Tablespaces</a></li> <li>Per-column collation</li> <li>Online backup</li> <li>Point-in-time recovery, implemented using write-ahead logging</li> <li>In-place upgrades with pg_upgrade for less downtime</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Control_and_connectivity">Control and connectivity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Control and connectivity">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_data_wrappers">Foreign data wrappers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Foreign data wrappers">edit</a>]</div> PostgreSQL can link to other systems to retrieve data via foreign data wrappers (FDWs).<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> These can take the form of any data source, such as a file system, another <a href="/wiki/Relational_database" title="Relational database">relational database</a> management system (RDBMS), or a web service. This means that regular database queries can use these data sources like regular tables, and even join multiple data-sources together. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interfaces">Interfaces</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Interfaces">edit</a>]</div> PostgreSQL supports a binary <a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">communication protocol</a> that allows applications to connect to the database server. The protocol is versioned (currently 3.0, as of PostgreSQL 7.4) and has a detailed specification.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The official client implementation of this communication protocol is a <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> <a href="/wiki/API" title="API">API</a>, libpq.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In addition, the officially supported <a href="/wiki/ECPG" title="ECPG">ECPG</a> tool allows SQL commands to be embedded in C code.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Both are part of the standard PostgreSQL distribution.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Third-party libraries for connecting to PostgreSQL are available for many <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming languages</a>, including <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>,<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>,<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming language)">Julia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-PL/Julia-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>,<a href="#cite_note-psycopg2-56">[56]</a> <a href="/wiki/Node.js" title="Node.js">Node.js</a>,<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Go_(programming_language)" title="Go (programming language)">Go</a>,<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rust_(programming_language)" title="Rust (programming language)">Rust</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Procedural_languages">Procedural languages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Procedural languages">edit</a>]</div> Procedural languages allow developers to extend the database with custom <a href="/wiki/Subroutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Subroutine">subroutines</a> (functions), often called <a href="/wiki/Stored_procedure" title="Stored procedure">stored procedures</a>. These functions can be used to build <a href="/wiki/Database_trigger" title="Database trigger">database triggers</a> (functions invoked on modification of certain data) and custom data types and <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_function" title="Aggregate function">aggregate functions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Procedural languages can also be invoked without defining a function, using a DO command at SQL level.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Languages are divided into two groups: Procedures written in safe languages are <a href="/wiki/Sandbox_(computer_security)" title="Sandbox (computer security)">sandboxed</a> and can be safely created and used by any user. Procedures written in unsafe languages can only be created by <a href="/wiki/Superuser" title="Superuser">superusers</a>, because they allow bypassing a database's security restrictions, but can also access sources external to the database. Some languages like Perl provide both safe and unsafe versions. PostgreSQL has built-in support for three procedural languages: <ul><li>Plain SQL (safe). Simpler SQL functions can get <a href="/wiki/Inline_expansion" title="Inline expansion">expanded inline</a> into the calling (SQL) query, which saves function call overhead and allows the query optimizer to "see inside" the function.</li> <li>Procedural Language/PostgreSQL (<a href="/wiki/PL/pgSQL" title="PL/pgSQL">PL/pgSQL</a>) (safe), which resembles Oracle's Procedural Language for SQL (<a href="/wiki/PL/SQL" title="PL/SQL">PL/SQL</a>) procedural language and SQL/Persistent Stored Modules (<a href="/wiki/SQL/PSM" title="SQL/PSM">SQL/PSM</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a> (unsafe), which allows loading one or more custom <a href="/wiki/Shared_library" title="Shared library">shared library</a> into the database. Functions written in C offer the best performance, but bugs in code can crash and potentially corrupt the database. Most built-in functions are written in C.</li></ul> In addition, PostgreSQL allows procedural languages to be loaded into the database through extensions. Three language extensions are included with PostgreSQL to support <a href="/wiki/Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tcl" title="Tcl">Tcl</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>. For Python, the current Python 3 is used, and the discontinued Python 2 is no longer supported as of PostgreSQL 15. Both were supported previously, defaulting to Python 2, while old and new versions couldn't be used in the same session.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> External projects provide support for many other languages,<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> including PL/<a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a> (PL/V8), PL/<a href="/wiki/Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming language)">Julia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-PL/Julia-55">[55]</a> PL/<a href="/wiki/R_(programming_language)" title="R (programming language)">R</a>,<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> PL/<a href="/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a>, and others. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Triggers">Triggers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Triggers">edit</a>]</div> Triggers are events triggered by the action of SQL <a href="/wiki/Data_manipulation_language" title="Data manipulation language">data manipulation language</a> (DML) statements. For example, an <a href="/wiki/Insert_(SQL)" title="Insert (SQL)">INSERT</a> statement might activate a trigger that checks if the values of the statement are valid. Most triggers are only activated by either INSERT or <a href="/wiki/Update_(SQL)" title="Update (SQL)">UPDATE</a> statements. Triggers are fully supported and can be attached to tables. Triggers can be per-column and conditional, in that UPDATE triggers can target specific columns of a table, and triggers can be told to execute under a set of conditions as specified in the trigger's WHERE clause. Triggers can be attached to <a href="/wiki/View_(SQL)" title="View (SQL)">views</a> by using the INSTEAD OF condition. Multiple triggers are fired in alphabetical order. In addition to calling functions written in the native PL/pgSQL, triggers can also invoke functions written in other languages like PL/Python or PL/Perl. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asynchronous_notifications">Asynchronous notifications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Asynchronous notifications">edit</a>]</div> PostgreSQL provides an asynchronous messaging system that is accessed through the NOTIFY, LISTEN and UNLISTEN commands. A session can issue a NOTIFY command, along with the user-specified channel and an optional payload, to mark a particular event occurring. Other sessions are able to detect these events by issuing a LISTEN command, which can listen to a particular channel. This functionality can be used for a wide variety of purposes, such as letting other sessions know when a table has updated or for separate applications to detect when a particular action has been performed. Such a system prevents the need for continuous <a href="/wiki/Polling_(computer_science)" title="Polling (computer science)">polling</a> by applications to see if anything has yet changed, and reducing unnecessary overhead. Notifications are fully transactional, in that messages are not sent until the transaction they were sent from is committed. This eliminates the problem of messages being sent for an action being performed which is then rolled back. Many connectors for PostgreSQL provide support for this notification system (including libpq, JDBC, Npgsql, psycopg and node.js) so it can be used by external applications. PostgreSQL can act as an effective, persistent <a href="/wiki/Publish%E2%80%93subscribe_pattern" title="Publish–subscribe pattern">"pub/sub" server</a> or job server by combining LISTEN with FOR UPDATE SKIP LOCKED.<a href="#cite_note-postgres-jobserver-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-release-9.5-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-ringer-skip-locked-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rules">Rules</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Rules">edit</a>]</div> Rules allow the "query tree" of an incoming query to be rewritten; they are an, automatically invoked, <a href="/wiki/Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">macro language</a> for SQL. "Query Re-Write Rules" are attached to a table/class and "Re-Write" the incoming DML (select, insert, update, and/or delete) into one or more queries that either replace the original DML statement or execute in addition to it. Query Re-Write occurs after DML statement parsing and before query planning. The functionality rules provide was, in almost every way, later duplicated with the introduction of newer types of triggers. The use of triggers is usually preferred over rules as it is easier to reason about trigger behavior and interactions than when equivalent rules are used. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_querying_features">Other querying features</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other querying features">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Database_transaction" title="Database transaction">Transactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-text_search" title="Full-text search">Full-text search</a></li> <li>Views <ul><li>Materialized views<a href="#cite_note-materialized_views-68">[68]</a></li> <li>Updateable views<a href="#cite_note-updatable_views-69">[69]</a></li> <li>Recursive views<a href="#cite_note-recursive_views-70">[70]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Inner, outer (full, left, and right), and cross <a href="/wiki/Join_(SQL)" title="Join (SQL)">joins</a></li> <li>Sub-<a href="/wiki/Select_(SQL)" title="Select (SQL)">selects</a> <ul><li>Correlated sub-queries<a href="#cite_note-Introduction_and_Concepts-71">[71]</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_expression" title="Regular expression">Regular expressions</a><a href="#cite_note-Bernier-72">[72]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_and_recursive_queries_in_SQL#Common_table_expression" title="Hierarchical and recursive queries in SQL">Common table expressions</a> and writable common table expressions</li> <li>Encrypted connections via <a href="/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security" title="Transport Layer Security">Transport Layer Security</a> (TLS); current versions do not use vulnerable SSL, even with that configuration option<a href="#cite_note-POODLE-73">[73]</a></li> <li>Domains</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savepoint" title="Savepoint">Savepoints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-phase_commit_protocol" title="Two-phase commit protocol">Two-phase commit</a></li> <li>The Oversized-Attribute Storage Technique (TOAST) is used to transparently store large table attributes (such as big MIME attachments or XML messages) in a separate area, with automatic compression.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_SQL" title="Embedded SQL">Embedded SQL</a> is implemented using preprocessor. SQL code is first written embedded into C code. Then code is run through ECPG preprocessor, which replaces SQL with calls to code library. Then code can be compiled using a C compiler. Embedding works also with <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a> but it does not recognize all C++ constructs.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concurrency_model">Concurrency model</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Concurrency model">edit</a>]</div> PostgreSQL server is <a href="/wiki/Process_(computing)" title="Process (computing)">process</a>-based (not threaded), and uses one operating system process per database session. Multiple sessions are automatically spread across all available CPUs by the operating system. Many types of queries can also be parallelized across multiple background worker processes, taking advantage of multiple CPUs or cores.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Client applications can use threads and create multiple database connections from each thread.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Security">Security</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Security">edit</a>]</div> PostgreSQL manages its internal security on a per-<a href="/wiki/Role-oriented_programming" title="Role-oriented programming">role</a> basis. A role is generally regarded to be a user (a role that can log in), or a group (a role of which other roles are members). Permissions can be granted or revoked on any object down to the column level, and can allow or prevent the visibility/creation/alteration/deletion of objects at the database, <a href="#Schemas">schema</a>, table, and row levels. PostgreSQL's SECURITY LABEL feature (extension to SQL standards), allows for additional security; with a bundled loadable module that supports label-based <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_access_control" title="Mandatory access control">mandatory access control</a> (MAC) based on <a href="/wiki/Security-Enhanced_Linux" title="Security-Enhanced Linux">Security-Enhanced Linux</a> (SELinux) security policy.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> PostgreSQL natively supports a broad number of external authentication mechanisms, including: <ul><li>Password: either <a href="/wiki/Salted_Challenge_Response_Authentication_Mechanism" title="Salted Challenge Response Authentication Mechanism">SCRAM-SHA-256</a>,<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/MD5" title="MD5">MD5</a> or plain-text</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generic_Security_Services_Application_Program_Interface" title="Generic Security Services Application Program Interface">Generic Security Services Application Program Interface</a> (GSSAPI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_Support_Provider_Interface" title="Security Support Provider Interface">Security Support Provider Interface</a> (SSPI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerberos_(protocol)" title="Kerberos (protocol)">Kerberos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ident_protocol" title="Ident protocol">ident</a> (maps O/S user-name as provided by an ident server to database user-name)</li> <li>Peer (maps local user name to database user name)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightweight_Directory_Access_Protocol" title="Lightweight Directory Access Protocol">Lightweight Directory Access Protocol</a> (LDAP) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_Directory" title="Active Directory">Active Directory</a> (AD)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RADIUS" title="RADIUS">RADIUS</a></li> <li>Certificate</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluggable_authentication_module" title="Pluggable authentication module">Pluggable authentication module</a> (PAM)</li></ul> The GSSAPI, SSPI, Kerberos, peer, ident and certificate methods can also use a specified "map" file that lists which users matched by that authentication system are allowed to connect as a specific database user. These methods are specified in the cluster's host-based authentication configuration file (<kbd>pg_hba.conf</kbd>), which determines what connections are allowed. This allows control over which user can connect to which database, where they can connect from (IP address, IP address range, domain socket), which authentication system will be enforced, and whether the connection must use <a href="/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security" title="Transport Layer Security">Transport Layer Security</a> (TLS). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Standards_compliance">Standards compliance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Standards compliance">edit</a>]</div> PostgreSQL claims high, but not complete, conformance with the latest <a href="/wiki/SQL" title="SQL">SQL standard</a> ("as of the version 17 release in September 2024, PostgreSQL conforms to at least 170 of the 177 mandatory features for <a href="/wiki/SQL:2023" title="SQL:2023">SQL:2023</a> Core conformance", and no other databases fully conformed to it<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a>). One exception is the handling of unquoted identifiers like table or column names. In PostgreSQL they are folded, internally, to lower case characters<a href="#cite_note-identifiers-80">[80]</a> whereas the standard says that unquoted identifiers should be folded to upper case. Thus, <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">Foo</code> should be equivalent to <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">FOO</code> not <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">foo</code> according to the standard. Other shortcomings concern the absence of temporal tables allowing automatic logging of row versions during transactions with the possibility of browsing in time (FOR SYSTEM TIME predicate),[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] although relatively SQL compliant third-party extensions are available.<a href="#cite_note-temporal-extensions-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Benchmarks_and_performance">Benchmarks and performance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Benchmarks and performance">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: Performance information based on soft- and hardware of 9 years ago is basically useless. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. Last update: 2015-06-01 (April 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Many informal performance studies of PostgreSQL have been done.<a href="#cite_note-Berkus-81">[81]</a> Performance improvements aimed at improving scalability began heavily with version 8.1. Simple benchmarks between version 8.0 and version 8.4 showed that the latter was more than ten times faster on read-only workloads and at least 7.5 times faster on both read and write workloads.<a href="#cite_note-Vilmos-82">[82]</a> The first industry-standard and peer-validated benchmark was completed in June 2007, using the Sun Java System Application Server (proprietary version of <a href="/wiki/GlassFish" title="GlassFish">GlassFish</a>) 9.0 Platform Edition, <a href="/wiki/UltraSPARC_T1" title="UltraSPARC T1">UltraSPARC T1</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Sun_Fire" title="Sun Fire">Sun Fire</a> server and PostgreSQL 8.2.<a href="#cite_note-SPECJ-83">[83]</a> This result of 778.14 SPECjAppServer2004 JOPS@Standard compares favourably with the 874 JOPS@Standard with Oracle 10 on an <a href="/wiki/Itanium" title="Itanium">Itanium</a>-based <a href="/wiki/HP-UX" title="HP-UX">HP-UX</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-Berkus-81">[81]</a> In August 2007, Sun submitted an improved benchmark score of 813.73 SPECjAppServer2004 JOPS@Standard. With the <a href="/wiki/System_under_test" title="System under test">system under test</a> at a reduced price, the price/performance improved from $84.98/JOPS to $70.57/JOPS.<a href="#cite_note-SPECjAppServer2004-84">[84]</a> The default configuration of PostgreSQL uses only a small amount of dedicated memory for performance-critical purposes such as caching database blocks and sorting. This limitation is primarily because older operating systems required kernel changes to allow allocating large blocks of <a href="/wiki/Shared_memory" title="Shared memory">shared memory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kernel_Resources-85">[85]</a> PostgreSQL.org provides advice on basic recommended performance practice in a <a href="/wiki/Wiki" title="Wiki">wiki</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pg9hiperf-86">[86]</a> In April 2012, Robert Haas of EnterpriseDB demonstrated PostgreSQL 9.2's linear CPU scalability using a server with 64 cores.<a href="#cite_note-Haas-87">[87]</a> Matloob Khushi performed benchmarking between PostgreSQL 9.0 and MySQL 5.6.15 for their ability to process genomic data. In his performance analysis he found that PostgreSQL extracts overlapping genomic regions eight times faster than MySQL using two datasets of 80,000 each forming random human DNA regions. Insertion and data uploads in PostgreSQL were also better, although general searching ability of both databases was almost equivalent.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Platforms">Platforms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Platforms">edit</a>]</div> PostgreSQL is available for the following operating systems: <a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a> (all recent distributions), <a href="/wiki/64-bit_computing" title="64-bit computing">64-bit</a> <a href="/wiki/AArch64" title="AArch64">ARM</a> and <a href="/wiki/X86-64" title="X86-64">x86-64</a> installers available and tested for <a href="/wiki/MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a> (OS X)<a href="#cite_note-OS_X-89">[89]</a> version 10.14 and newer, <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a> (with installers available and tested for 64-bit <a href="/wiki/Windows_Server_2022" title="Windows Server 2022">Windows Server 2022</a> and <a href="/wiki/Windows_Server_2016" title="Windows Server 2016">2016</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a>), <a href="/wiki/FreeBSD" title="FreeBSD">FreeBSD</a>, <a href="/wiki/OpenBSD" title="OpenBSD">OpenBSD</a>,<a href="#cite_note-openbsd-91">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/NetBSD" title="NetBSD">NetBSD</a>, <a href="/wiki/DragonFlyBSD" class="mw-redirect" title="DragonFlyBSD">DragonFlyBSD</a>, and these without official (though unofficial likely available) binary executables, <a href="/wiki/Solaris_(operating_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solaris (operating system)">Solaris</a>,<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illumos" title="Illumos">illumos</a>. PostgreSQL can be expected to work on any of the following <a href="/wiki/Instruction_set_architecture" title="Instruction set architecture">instruction set architectures</a> (and operating systems): 64-bit <a href="/wiki/X86-64" title="X86-64">x86-64</a> and <a href="/wiki/32-bit_computing" title="32-bit computing">32-bit</a> <a href="/wiki/X86" title="X86">x86</a> on <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a> and other operating systems; these are supported on other than Windows: 64-bit <a href="/wiki/AArch64" title="AArch64">ARM</a><a href="#cite_note-AArch64-93">[93]</a> and the older 32-bit <a href="/wiki/ARM_architecture_family" title="ARM architecture family">ARM</a>, including older such as <a href="/wiki/ARMv6" class="mw-redirect" title="ARMv6">ARMv6</a> in <a href="/wiki/Raspberry_Pi" title="Raspberry Pi">Raspberry Pi</a><a href="#cite_note-raspi-94">[94]</a>), <a href="/wiki/RISC-V" title="RISC-V">RISC-V</a>, <a href="/wiki/Z/Architecture" title="Z/Architecture">z/Architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM_System/390" title="IBM System/390">S/390</a>, <a href="/wiki/PowerPC" title="PowerPC">PowerPC</a> (incl. 64-bit <a href="/wiki/Power_ISA" title="Power ISA">Power ISA</a>), <a href="/wiki/SPARC" title="SPARC">SPARC</a> (also 64-bit), <a href="/wiki/MIPS_architecture" title="MIPS architecture">MIPS</a> and <a href="/wiki/PA-RISC" title="PA-RISC">PA-RISC</a>. It was also known to work on some other platforms (while not been tested on for years, i.e. for latest versions).<a href="#cite_note-SupportedPlatforms-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Database_administration">Database administration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Database administration">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_database_administration_tools" title="Comparison of database administration tools">Comparison of database administration tools</a></div> Open source front-ends and tools for administering PostgreSQL include: <dl><dt>psql</dt> <dd>The primary <a href="/wiki/Front_and_back_ends" class="mw-redirect" title="Front and back ends">front-end</a> for PostgreSQL is the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">psql</code> <a href="/wiki/Command-line_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Command-line program">command-line program</a>, which can be used to enter SQL queries directly, or execute them from a file. In addition, psql provides a number of meta-commands and various shell-like features to facilitate writing scripts and automating a wide variety of tasks; for example tab completion of object names and SQL syntax.</dd> <dt>pgAdmin</dt> <dd>The pgAdmin package is a free and open-source <a href="/wiki/Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interface</a> (GUI) administration tool for PostgreSQL, which is supported on many computer platforms.<a href="#cite_note-pgAdmin-96">[96]</a> The program is available in more than a dozen languages. The first prototype, named pgManager, was written for PostgreSQL 6.3.2 from 1998, and rewritten and released as pgAdmin under the <a href="/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License" title="GNU General Public License">GNU General Public License</a> (GPL) in later months. The second incarnation (named pgAdmin II) was a complete rewrite, first released on January 16, 2002. The third version, pgAdmin III, was originally released under the <a href="/wiki/Artistic_License" title="Artistic License">Artistic License</a> and then released under the same license as PostgreSQL. Unlike prior versions that were written in <a href="/wiki/Visual_Basic" title="Visual Basic">Visual Basic</a>, pgAdmin III is written in C++, using the <a href="/wiki/WxWidgets" title="WxWidgets">wxWidgets</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> framework allowing it to run on most common operating systems. The query tool includes a scripting language called pgScript for supporting admin and development tasks. In December 2014, Dave Page, the pgAdmin project founder and primary developer,<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> announced that with the shift towards web-based models, work has begun on pgAdmin 4 with the aim to facilitate cloud deployments.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> In 2016, pgAdmin 4 was released. The pgAdmin 4 backend was written in <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, using <a href="/wiki/Flask_(web_framework)" title="Flask (web framework)">Flask</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Qt_(software)" title="Qt (software)">Qt framework</a>.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></dd> <dt>phpPgAdmin</dt> <dd>phpPgAdmin is a web-based administration tool for PostgreSQL written in <a href="/wiki/PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a> and based on the popular <a href="/wiki/PhpMyAdmin" title="PhpMyAdmin">phpMyAdmin</a> interface originally written for <a href="/wiki/MySQL" title="MySQL">MySQL</a> administration.<a href="#cite_note-PHPADMIN-101">[101]</a></dd> <dt>PostgreSQL Studio</dt> <dd>PostgreSQL Studio allows users to perform essential PostgreSQL database development tasks from a web-based console. PostgreSQL Studio allows users to work with cloud databases without the need to open firewalls.<a href="#cite_note-POSTGRESQLSTUDIO-102">[102]</a></dd> <dt>TeamPostgreSQL</dt> <dd>AJAX/JavaScript-driven web interface for PostgreSQL. Allows browsing, maintaining and creating data and database objects via a web browser. The interface offers tabbed SQL editor with autocompletion, row editing widgets, click-through foreign key navigation between rows and tables, favorites management for commonly used scripts, among other features. Supports SSH for both the web interface and the <a href="/wiki/Database_connection" title="Database connection">database connections</a>. Installers are available for Windows, Macintosh, and Linux, and a simple cross-platform archive that runs from a script.<a href="#cite_note-TEAMPOSTGRESQL-103">[103]</a></dd> <dt>LibreOffice, OpenOffice.org</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/LibreOffice" title="LibreOffice">LibreOffice</a> and <a href="/wiki/OpenOffice.org" title="OpenOffice.org">OpenOffice.org</a> Base can be used as a front-end for PostgreSQL.<a href="#cite_note-ooAsFrntEnd-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-loAsFrntEnd-105">[105]</a></dd> <dt>pgBadger</dt> <dd>The pgBadger PostgreSQL log analyzer generates detailed reports from a PostgreSQL log file.<a href="#cite_note-tuningPGinstance-106">[106]</a></dd> <dt>pgDevOps</dt> <dd>pgDevOps is a suite of web tools to install & manage multiple PostgreSQL versions, extensions, and community components, develop SQL queries, monitor running databases and find performance problems.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></dd> <dt>Adminer</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Adminer" title="Adminer">Adminer</a> is a simple web-based administration tool for PostgreSQL and others, written in PHP.</dd> <dt>pgBackRest</dt> <dd>pgBackRest is a backup and restore tool for PostgreSQL that provides support for full, differential, and incremental backups.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></dd> <dt>pgaudit</dt> <dd>pgaudit is a PostgreSQL extension that provides detailed session and/or object audit logging via the standard logging facility provided by PostgreSQL.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></dd> <dt>WAL-E</dt> <dd>WAL-E is a backup and restore tool for PostgreSQL that provides support for physical (<a href="/wiki/Write-ahead_logging" title="Write-ahead logging">WAL</a>-based) backups, written in Python.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>DBeaver</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/DBeaver" title="DBeaver">DBeaver</a> is a free and open source GUI administration tool for PostgreSQL, it has Visual Entity Diagrams and <a href="/wiki/Intellisense" class="mw-redirect" title="Intellisense">Intellisense</a> features. It also has a commercial PRO license.</dd></dl> A number of companies offer proprietary tools for PostgreSQL. They often consist of a universal core that is adapted for various specific database products. These tools mostly share the administration features with the open source tools but offer improvements in <a href="/wiki/Data_modeling" title="Data modeling">data modeling</a>, importing, exporting or reporting. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_users">Notable users</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notable users">edit</a>]</div> Notable organizations and products that use PostgreSQL as the primary database include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>, used for a petabyte-scale “Release Quality View” (RQV) analytics dashboard, which tracks quality of Windows updates analyzing 20K types of metrics from over 800M Windows devices.<a href="#cite_note-Microsoft-111">[111]</a></li> <li>In 2009, the social-networking website <a href="/wiki/Myspace" title="Myspace">Myspace</a> used <a href="/wiki/Aster_Data_Systems" title="Aster Data Systems">Aster Data Systems</a>'s nCluster database for data warehousing, which was built on unmodified PostgreSQL.<a href="#cite_note-Cecchet-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aster_Data-113">[113]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geni.com" title="Geni.com">Geni.com</a> uses PostgreSQL for their main genealogy database.<a href="#cite_note-Geni-114">[114]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenStreetMap" title="OpenStreetMap">OpenStreetMap</a>, a collaborative project to create a free editable map of the world.<a href="#cite_note-OpenStreetMap-115">[115]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afilias" title="Afilias">Afilias</a>, domain registries for <a href="/wiki/.org" title=".org">.org</a>, <a href="/wiki/.info" title=".info">.info</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-Afilias-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-begPHPpg-book-117">[117]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sony_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Sony Online">Sony Online</a> multiplayer online games.<a href="#cite_note-Sony_Online-118">[118]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BASF" title="BASF">BASF</a>, shopping platform for their agribusiness portal.<a href="#cite_note-BASF-119">[119]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reddit" title="Reddit">Reddit</a> social news website.<a href="#cite_note-Reddit-120">[120]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skype" title="Skype">Skype</a> VoIP application, central <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a> databases.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_xVM" title="Sun xVM">Sun xVM</a>, Sun's virtualization and datacenter automation suite.<a href="#cite_note-xVM-122">[122]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MusicBrainz" title="MusicBrainz">MusicBrainz</a>, open online music encyclopedia.<a href="#cite_note-MusicBrainz-123">[123]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> – to collect telemetry data in orbit and replicate it to the ground.<a href="#cite_note-ISS-124">[124]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MyYearbook" class="mw-redirect" title="MyYearbook">MyYearbook</a> social-networking site.<a href="#cite_note-MyYearbook-125">[125]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instagram" title="Instagram">Instagram</a>, a mobile photo-sharing service.<a href="#cite_note-Instagram-126">[126]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disqus" title="Disqus">Disqus</a>, an online discussion and commenting service.<a href="#cite_note-Disqus-127">[127]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TripAdvisor" class="mw-redirect" title="TripAdvisor">TripAdvisor</a>, travel-information website of mostly user-generated content.<a href="#cite_note-TripAdvisor-128">[128]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yandex" title="Yandex">Yandex</a>, a Russian internet company switched its Yandex.Mail service from Oracle to Postgres.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Redshift" title="Amazon Redshift">Amazon Redshift</a>, part of AWS, a columnar <a href="/wiki/Online_analytical_processing" title="Online analytical processing">online analytical processing</a> (OLAP) system based on <a href="/wiki/ParAccel" title="ParAccel">ParAccel</a>'s Postgres modifications.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>'s (NOAA) <a href="/wiki/National_Weather_Service" title="National Weather Service">National Weather Service</a> (NWS), Interactive Forecast Preparation System (IFPS), a system that integrates data from the <a href="/wiki/NEXRAD" title="NEXRAD">NEXRAD</a> <a href="/wiki/Weather_radar" title="Weather radar">weather radars</a>, surface, and <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrology</a> systems to build detailed localized forecast models.<a href="#cite_note-begPHPpg-book-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-pg9AdminCookEdt2-book-130">[130]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>'s national weather service, <a href="/wiki/Met_Office" title="Met Office">Met Office</a>, has begun swapping Oracle for PostgreSQL in a strategy to deploy more open source technology.<a href="#cite_note-pg9AdminCookEdt2-book-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WhitePages.com" class="mw-redirect" title="WhitePages.com">WhitePages.com</a> had been using Oracle and <a href="/wiki/MySQL" title="MySQL">MySQL</a>, but when it came to moving its core directories in-house, it turned to PostgreSQL. Because WhitePages.com needs to combine large sets of data from multiple sources, PostgreSQL's ability to load and index data at high rates was a key to its decision to use PostgreSQL.<a href="#cite_note-begPHPpg-book-117">[117]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FlightAware" title="FlightAware">FlightAware</a>, a flight tracking website.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grofers" class="mw-redirect" title="Grofers">Grofers</a>, an online grocery delivery service.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a> migrated from <a href="/wiki/MongoDB" title="MongoDB">MongoDB</a> to PostgreSQL in 2018.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YugabyteDB" title="YugabyteDB">YugabyteDB</a> implements the PostgreSQL query layer as its default SQL mode</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenAI" title="OpenAI">OpenAI</a> uses PostgreSQL as part of its primary API service.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Service_implementations">Service implementations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Service implementations">edit</a>]</div> Some notable vendors offer PostgreSQL as <a href="/wiki/Software_as_a_service" title="Software as a service">software as a service</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heroku" title="Heroku">Heroku</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Platform_as_a_service" title="Platform as a service">platform as a service</a> provider, has supported PostgreSQL since the start in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-Heroku-136">[136]</a> They offer value-add features like full database roll-back (ability to restore a database from any specified time),<a href="#cite_note-Darrow-137">[137]</a> which is based on WAL-E, open-source software developed by Heroku.<a href="#cite_note-Kerstiens-138">[138]</a></li> <li>In January 2012, <a href="/wiki/EnterpriseDB" title="EnterpriseDB">EnterpriseDB</a> released a cloud version of both PostgreSQL and their own proprietary Postgres Plus Advanced Server with automated provisioning for failover, replication, load-balancing, and scaling. It runs on <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Web_Services" title="Amazon Web Services">Amazon Web Services</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Techweekeurope-139">[139]</a> Since 2015, Postgres Advanced Server has been offered as ApsaraDB for PPAS, a relational database as a service on Alibaba Cloud.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VMware" title="VMware">VMware</a> has offered vFabric Postgres (also termed vPostgres<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a>) for private clouds on <a href="/wiki/VMware_vSphere" title="VMware vSphere">VMware vSphere</a> since May 2012.<a href="#cite_note-Sargent-142">[142]</a> The company announced End of Availability (EOA) of the product in 2014.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a></li> <li>In November 2013, <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Web_Services" title="Amazon Web Services">Amazon Web Services</a> announced the addition of PostgreSQL to their <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Relational_Database_Service" title="Amazon Relational Database Service">Relational Database Service</a> offering.<a href="#cite_note-aws.typepad.com-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-Williams-145">[145]</a></li> <li>In November 2016, <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Web_Services" title="Amazon Web Services">Amazon Web Services</a> announced the addition of PostgreSQL compatibility to their cloud-native <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Aurora" title="Amazon Aurora">Amazon Aurora</a> managed database offering.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></li> <li>In May 2017, <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Azure" title="Microsoft Azure">Microsoft Azure</a> announced Azure Databases for PostgreSQL.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></li> <li>In May 2019, <a href="/wiki/Alibaba_Cloud" title="Alibaba Cloud">Alibaba Cloud</a> announced PolarDB for PostgreSQL.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jelastic" title="Jelastic">Jelastic</a> <a href="/wiki/Multicloud" title="Multicloud">Multicloud</a> <a href="/wiki/Platform_as_a_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Platform as a Service">Platform as a Service</a> has provided container-based PostgreSQL support since 2011. It also offers automated asynchronous master-slave replication of PostgreSQL.<a href="#cite_note-Auto-Replication-149">[149]</a></li> <li>In June 2019, <a href="/wiki/IBM_Cloud" title="IBM Cloud">IBM Cloud</a> announced IBM Cloud Hyper Protect DBaaS for PostgreSQL.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></li> <li>In September 2020, Crunchy Data announced Crunchy Bridge.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></li> <li>In June 2022, Neon.tech announced Neon Serverless Postgres.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></li> <li>In October 2023, Nile announced Nile Postgres Platform.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Release_history">Release history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Release history">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Release history </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Release </th> <th scope="col">First release </th> <th scope="col">Latest minor version </th> <th scope="col">Latest release </th> <th scope="col">End of life<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> </th> <th scope="col">Milestones </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">6.0 </th> <td style="white-space:nowrap">1997-01-29 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>First formal release of PostgreSQL, unique indexes, pg_dumpall utility, ident authentication </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">6.1 </th> <td style="white-space:nowrap">1997-06-08 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center; white-space:nowrap" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="6.1.1">Old version, no longer maintained: 6.1.1 </td> <td>1997-07-22 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>Multicolumn indexes, sequences, money data type, GEQO (GEnetic Query Optimizer) </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">6.2 </th> <td>1997-10-02 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="6.2.1">Old version, no longer maintained: 6.2.1 </td> <td>1997-10-17 </td> <td data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">— </td> <td>JDBC interface, triggers, server programming interface, constraints </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">6.3 </th> <td>1998-03-01 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="6.3.2">Old version, no longer maintained: 6.3.2 </td> <td>1998-04-07 </td> <td>2003-03-01 </td> <td>SQL-92 subselect ability, PL/pgTCL </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">6.4 </th> <td>1998-10-30 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="6.4.2">Old version, no longer maintained: 6.4.2 </td> <td>1998-12-20 </td> <td>2003-10-30 </td> <td>VIEWs (then only read-only) and RULEs, <a href="/wiki/PL/pgSQL" title="PL/pgSQL">PL/pgSQL</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">6.5 </th> <td>1999-06-09 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="6.5.3">Old version, no longer maintained: 6.5.3 </td> <td style="white-space:nowrap">1999-10-13 </td> <td style="white-space:nowrap">2004-06-09 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Multiversion_concurrency_control" title="Multiversion concurrency control">MVCC</a>, temporary tables, more SQL statement support (CASE, INTERSECT, and EXCEPT) </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">7.0 </th> <td>2000-05-08 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="7.0.3">Old version, no longer maintained: 7.0.3 </td> <td>2000-11-11 </td> <td>2004-05-08 </td> <td>Foreign keys, SQL-92 syntax for joins </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">7.1 </th> <td>2001-04-13 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="7.1.3">Old version, no longer maintained: 7.1.3 </td> <td>2001-08-15 </td> <td>2006-04-13 </td> <td>Write-ahead log, outer joins </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">7.2 </th> <td>2002-02-04 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="7.2.8">Old version, no longer maintained: 7.2.8 </td> <td>2005-05-09 </td> <td>2007-02-04 </td> <td>PL/Python, <a href="/wiki/Object_identifier" title="Object identifier">OIDs</a> no longer required, <a href="/wiki/Internationalization_and_localization" title="Internationalization and localization">internationalization</a> of messages </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">7.3 </th> <td>2002-11-27 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="7.3.21">Old version, no longer maintained: 7.3.21 </td> <td>2008-01-07 </td> <td>2007-11-27 </td> <td>Schema, table function, <a href="/wiki/Prepared_query" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepared query">prepared query</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">7.4 </th> <td>2003-11-17 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="7.4.30">Old version, no longer maintained: 7.4.30 </td> <td>2010-10-04 </td> <td>2010-10-01 </td> <td>Optimization on JOINs and <a href="/wiki/Data_warehouse" title="Data warehouse">data warehouse</a> functions<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">8.0 </th> <td>2005-01-19 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="8.0.26">Old version, no longer maintained: 8.0.26 </td> <td>2010-10-04 </td> <td>2010-10-01 </td> <td>Native server on <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a>, <a href="/wiki/Savepoint" title="Savepoint">savepoints</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tablespace" title="Tablespace">tablespaces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Point-in-time_recovery" title="Point-in-time recovery">point-in-time recovery</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">8.1 </th> <td>2005-11-08 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="8.1.23">Old version, no longer maintained: 8.1.23 </td> <td>2010-12-16 </td> <td>2010-11-08 </td> <td>Performance optimization, two-phase commit, table <a href="/wiki/Partition_(database)" title="Partition (database)">partitioning</a>, index bitmap scan, shared row locking, roles </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">8.2 </th> <td>2006-12-05 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="8.2.23">Old version, no longer maintained: 8.2.23 </td> <td>2011-12-05 </td> <td>2011-12-05 </td> <td>Performance optimization, online index builds, advisory locks, warm standby<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">8.3 </th> <td>2008-02-04 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="8.3.23">Old version, no longer maintained: 8.3.23 </td> <td>2013-02-07 </td> <td>2013-02-07 </td> <td>Heap-only tuples, <a href="/wiki/Full_text_search" class="mw-redirect" title="Full text search">full text search</a>,<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> <a href="/wiki/SQL/XML" title="SQL/XML">SQL/XML</a>, ENUM types, <a href="/wiki/Universally_unique_identifier" title="Universally unique identifier">UUID</a> types </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">8.4 </th> <td>2009-07-01 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="8.4.22">Old version, no longer maintained: 8.4.22 </td> <td>2014-07-24 </td> <td>2014-07-24 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Window_function_(SQL)" title="Window function (SQL)">Window functions</a>, column-level permissions, parallel database restore, per-database collation, <a href="/wiki/Common_table_expressions" class="mw-redirect" title="Common table expressions">common table expressions</a> and recursive queries<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">9.0 </th> <td>2010-09-20 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="9.0.23">Old version, no longer maintained: 9.0.23 </td> <td>2015-10-08 </td> <td>2015-10-08 </td> <td>Built-in binary streaming <a href="/wiki/Replication_(computing)" title="Replication (computing)">replication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hot_standby" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot standby">hot standby</a>, in-place upgrade ability, 64-bit Windows<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">9.1 </th> <td>2011-09-12 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="9.1.24">Old version, no longer maintained: 9.1.24 </td> <td>2016-10-27 </td> <td>2016-10-27 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Synchronous_replication" class="mw-redirect" title="Synchronous replication">Synchronous replication</a>, per-column <a href="/wiki/Collation" title="Collation">collations</a>, unlogged tables, <a href="/wiki/Serializable_snapshot_isolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Serializable snapshot isolation">serializable snapshot isolation</a>, writeable common table expressions, <a href="/wiki/Security-Enhanced_Linux" title="Security-Enhanced Linux">SELinux</a> integration, extensions, foreign tables<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">9.2 </th> <td>2012-09-10<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="9.2.24">Old version, no longer maintained: 9.2.24 </td> <td>2017-11-09 </td> <td>2017-11-09 </td> <td>Cascading streaming replication, index-only scans, native <a href="/wiki/JSON" title="JSON">JSON</a> support, improved lock management, range types, pg_receivexlog tool, space-partitioned GiST indexes </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">9.3 </th> <td>2013-09-09 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="9.3.25">Old version, no longer maintained: 9.3.25 </td> <td>2018-11-08 </td> <td>2018-11-08 </td> <td>Custom background workers, data checksums, dedicated JSON operators, LATERAL JOIN, faster pg_dump, new pg_isready server monitoring tool, trigger features, view features, writeable foreign tables, <a href="/wiki/Materialized_view" title="Materialized view">materialized views</a>, replication improvements </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">9.4 </th> <td>2014-12-18 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="9.4.26">Old version, no longer maintained: 9.4.26 </td> <td>2020-02-13 </td> <td>2020-02-13 </td> <td>JSONB data type, ALTER SYSTEM statement for changing config values, ability to refresh materialized views without blocking reads, dynamic registration/start/stop of background worker processes, Logical Decoding API, GiN index improvements, Linux huge page support, database cache reloading via pg_prewarm, reintroducing Hstore as the column type of choice for document-style data.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">9.5 </th> <td>2016-01-07 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="9.5.25">Old version, no longer maintained: 9.5.25 </td> <td>2021-02-11 </td> <td>2021-02-11 </td> <td>UPSERT, row level security, TABLESAMPLE, CUBE/ROLLUP, GROUPING SETS, and new <a href="/wiki/Block_Range_Index" title="Block Range Index">BRIN</a> index<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">9.6 </th> <td>2016-09-29 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="9.6.24">Old version, no longer maintained: 9.6.24 </td> <td>2021-11-11 </td> <td>2021-11-11 </td> <td>Parallel query support, PostgreSQL foreign data wrapper (FDW) improvements with sort/join pushdown, multiple synchronous standbys, faster vacuuming of large table </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">10 </th> <td>2017-10-05 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="10.23">Old version, no longer maintained: 10.23 </td> <td>2022-11-10 </td> <td>2022-11-10 </td> <td>Logical replication,<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> declarative table partitioning, improved query parallelism </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">11 </th> <td>2018-10-18 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="11.22">Old version, no longer maintained: 11.22 </td> <td>2023-11-09 </td> <td>2023-11-09 </td> <td>Increased robustness and performance for partitioning, transactions supported in stored procedures, enhanced abilities for query parallelism, just-in-time (JIT) compiling for expressions<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">12 </th> <td>2019-10-03 </td> <td style="color:black; background-color: #FDB3AB; text-align:center" title="Old version, no longer maintained" data-sort-value="12.22">Old version, no longer maintained: 12.22 </td> <td>2024-11-21 </td> <td>2024-11-21 </td> <td>Improvements to query performance and space utilization; SQL/JSON path expression support; generated columns; improvements to internationalization, and authentication; new pluggable table storage interface.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">13 </th> <td>2020-09-24 </td> <td class="templateVersion co" style="color:black; background-color: #FEF8C6; text-align:center" title="Old version, yet still maintained" data-sort-value="13.18">Old version, yet still maintained: 13.18 </td> <td>2024-11-21 </td> <td>2025-11-13 </td> <td>Space savings and performance gains from de-duplication of B-tree index entries, improved performance for queries that use aggregates or partitioned tables, better query planning when using extended statistics, parallelized vacuuming of indexes, incremental sorting<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">14 </th> <td>2021-09-30 </td> <td class="templateVersion co" style="color:black; background-color: #FEF8C6; text-align:center; white-space:nowrap" title="Old version, yet still maintained" data-sort-value="14.15">Old version, yet still maintained: 14.15 </td> <td>2024-11-21 </td> <td>2026-11-12 </td> <td>Added SQL-standard SEARCH and CYCLE clauses for common table expressions, allow DISTINCT to be added to GROUP BY<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">15 </th> <td>2022-10-13 </td> <td class="templateVersion co" style="color:black; background-color: #FEF8C6; text-align:center" title="Old version, yet still maintained" data-sort-value="15.10">Old version, yet still maintained: 15.10 </td> <td>2024-11-21 </td> <td>2027-11-11 </td> <td>Implements SQL-standard <a href="/wiki/Merge_(SQL)" title="Merge (SQL)">MERGE</a> statement. PL/Python now only supports current Python 3, and <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">plpythonu</code> now means Python 3, no longer the discontinued Python 2. </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">16 </th> <td>2023-09-14 </td> <td class="templateVersion co" style="color:black; background-color: #FEF8C6; text-align:center; white-space:nowrap" title="Old version, yet still maintained" data-sort-value="16.6">Old version, yet still maintained: 16.6 </td> <td>2024-11-21 </td> <td>2028-11-09 </td> <td>Improvements to logical replication, pg_stat_io view (for I/O metrics)<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">17 </th> <td>2024-09-26 </td> <td class="templateVersion c" style="color:black; background-color: #D4F4B4; text-align:center; white-space:nowrap" title="Current stable version" data-sort-value="17.2">Current stable version: 17.2 </td> <td>2024-11-21 </td> <td>2029-11-08 </td> <td>Performance boosts to the vacuum process, I/O layer, and query execution, expanding JSON functionality, more features to MERGE and improving COPY; enhances logical replication for high availability and upgrades, improvements to security, operations, monitoring, and analysis.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="templateVersion l" style="margin-left: -1em;"><div style="float: left; margin-left: 1em;">Legend:</div><div style="float: left; margin-left: 1em;">Old version, not maintained</div><div style="float: left; margin-left: 1em;">Old version, still maintained</div><div style="float: left; margin-left: 1em;">Latest version</div><div style="float: left; margin-left: 1em;">Latest preview version</div><div style="float: left; margin-left: 1em;">Future release</div><div style="clear: left;"></div></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_lkd633j2nev18ywi7ay26pugxrhz08b"></map><img usemap="#timeline_lkd633j2nev18ywi7ay26pugxrhz08b" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/lkd633j2nev18ywi7ay26pugxrhz08b.png" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/28px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/42px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg/56px-Free_and_open-source_software_logo_%282009%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software" title="Portal:Free and open-source software">Free and open-source software portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_relational_database_management_systems" title="Comparison of relational database management systems">Comparison of relational database management systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database_scalability" title="Database scalability">Database scalability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_databases_using_MVCC" title="List of databases using MVCC">List of databases using MVCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LLVM" title="LLVM">LLVM</a> (llvmjit is the JIT engine used by PostgreSQL)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist 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(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.postgresql.org">"PostgreSQL"</a>. Retrieved September 21, 2019. <q>PostgreSQL: The World's Most Advanced Open Source Relational Database</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PostgreSQL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.postgresql.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-contributors-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-contributors_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-contributors_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.postgresql.org/community/contributors/">"Contributor Profiles"</a>. PostgreSQL Global Development Group. 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Retrieved December 18, 2023. <q>Babelfish for PostgreSQL ... provides the capability for PostgreSQL to understand queries from applications written for Microsoft SQL Server.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=babelfishpg.org&rft.atitle=Babelfish+for+PostgreSQL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabelfishpg.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wiki.postgresql.org/wiki/PostgreSQL_Clients">"PostgreSQL Clients"</a>. wiki.postgresql.org. October 18, 2023. 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There is no one-size fits all...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wiki.postgresql.org&rft.atitle=Replication%2C+Clustering%2C+and+Connection+Pooling&rft.date=2020-07-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwiki.postgresql.org%2Fwiki%2FReplication%2C_Clustering%2C_and_Connection_Pooling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> This is recognized by the liberal permission to use the PostgreSQL name, as approved (for fair use, when not confusing people about a legal relationship with the actual PostgreSQL project) when used in support of PostgreSQL, subject to the PostgreSQL Trademark Policy: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.postgresql.org/about/policies/trademarks/">"Trademark Policy"</a>. PostgreSQL.org. December 8, 2020. Retrieved December 17, 2023. <q>We will try to work with you to permit uses [of the PostgreSQL name] that support the PostgreSQL project and our Community.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PostgreSQL.org&rft.atitle=Trademark+Policy&rft.date=2020-12-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.postgresql.org%2Fabout%2Fpolicies%2Ftrademarks%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-design-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-design_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-design_26-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStonebrakerRowe1986" class="citation conference cs1">Stonebraker, M.; Rowe, L. A. (May 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://db.cs.berkeley.edu/papers/ERL-M85-95.pdf">The design of POSTGRES</a> (PDF). Proc. 1986 ACM <a href="/wiki/SIGMOD" title="SIGMOD">SIGMOD</a> Conference on Management of Data. Washington, DC. Retrieved December 17, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=The+design+of+POSTGRES&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.date=1986-05&rft.aulast=Stonebraker&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Rowe%2C+L.+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdb.cs.berkeley.edu%2Fpapers%2FERL-M85-95.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-about/history-27"><a href="#cite_ref-about/history_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170326020245/https://www.postgresql.org/about/history/">"PostgreSQL: History"</a>. PostgreSQL Global Development Group. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.postgresql.org/about/history/">the original</a> on March 26, 2017. Retrieved August 27, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PostgreSQL%3A+History&rft.pub=PostgreSQL+Global+Development+Group&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.postgresql.org%2Fabout%2Fhistory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Project_name-28"><a href="#cite_ref-Project_name_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.postgresql.org/pgsql-advocacy/2007-11/msg00109.php">"Project name – statement from the core team"</a>. archives.postgresql.org. November 16, 2007. Retrieved November 16, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Project+name+%E2%80%93+statement+from+the+core+team&rft.pub=archives.postgresql.org&rft.date=2007-11-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.postgresql.org%2Fpgsql-advocacy%2F2007-11%2Fmsg00109.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://amturing.acm.org/award_winners/stonebraker_1172121.cfm">"Michael Stonebraker – A.M. Turing Award Winner"</a>. amturing.acm.org. Retrieved March 20, 2018. <q>Techniques pioneered in Postgres were widely implemented [..] Stonebraker is the only Turing award winner to have engaged in serial entrepreneurship on anything like this scale, giving him a distinctive perspective on the academic world.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=amturing.acm.org&rft.atitle=Michael+Stonebraker+%E2%80%93+A.M.+Turing+Award+Winner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Famturing.acm.org%2Faward_winners%2Fstonebraker_1172121.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stonebraker-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Stonebraker_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStonebrakerRowe" class="citation conference cs1">Stonebraker, M.; Rowe, L. 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September 24, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.postgresql.org&rft.atitle=PostgreSQL+13+Released%21&rft.date=2020-09-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.postgresql.org%2Fabout%2Fnews%2Fpostgresql-13-released-2077%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.postgresql.org/docs/14/release-14.html">"PostgreSQL 14 Release Notes"</a>. www.postgresql.org. November 11, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.postgresql.org&rft.atitle=PostgreSQL+14+Release+Notes&rft.date=2021-11-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.postgresql.org%2Fdocs%2F14%2Frelease-14.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.postgresql.org/about/news/postgresql-14-released-2318/">"PostgreSQL 14 Released!"</a>. www.postgresql.org. September 30, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.postgresql.org&rft.atitle=PostgreSQL+14+Released%21&rft.date=2021-09-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.postgresql.org%2Fabout%2Fnews%2Fpostgresql-14-released-2318%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.postgresql.org/about/news/postgresql-16-released-2715/">"PostgreSQL 16 Released!"</a>. September 14, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PostgreSQL+16+Released%21&rft.date=2023-09-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.postgresql.org%2Fabout%2Fnews%2Fpostgresql-16-released-2715%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.postgresql.org/about/news/postgresql-17-released-2936/">"PostgreSQL 17 Released!"</a>. September 26, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PostgreSQL+17+Released%21&rft.date=2024-09-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.postgresql.org%2Fabout%2Fnews%2Fpostgresql-17-released-2936%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFObeHsu2012" class="citation book cs1">Obe, Regina; Hsu, Leo (July 8, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.postgresonline.com/store.php?asin=1449326331">PostgreSQL: Up and Running</a>. <a href="/wiki/O%27Reilly_Media" title="O'Reilly Media">O'Reilly</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4493-2633-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4493-2633-3"><bdi>978-1-4493-2633-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=PostgreSQL%3A+Up+and+Running&rft.pub=O%27Reilly&rft.date=2012-07-08&rft.isbn=978-1-4493-2633-3&rft.aulast=Obe&rft.aufirst=Regina&rft.au=Hsu%2C+Leo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.postgresonline.com%2Fstore.php%3Fasin%3D1449326331&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrosingRoybal2013" class="citation book cs1">Krosing, Hannu; Roybal, Kirk (June 15, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.2ndquadrant.com/books/">PostgreSQL Server Programming</a> (second ed.). <a href="/wiki/Packt_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Packt Publishing">Packt Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84951-698-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84951-698-3"><bdi>978-1-84951-698-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=PostgreSQL+Server+Programming&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Packt+Publishing&rft.date=2013-06-15&rft.isbn=978-1-84951-698-3&rft.aulast=Krosing&rft.aufirst=Hannu&rft.au=Roybal%2C+Kirk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.2ndquadrant.com%2Fbooks%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiggsKrosing2010" class="citation book cs1">Riggs, Simon; Krosing, Hannu (October 27, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.2ndquadrant.com/books/">PostgreSQL 9 Administration Cookbook</a> (second ed.). <a href="/wiki/Packt_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Packt Publishing">Packt Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84951-028-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84951-028-8"><bdi>978-1-84951-028-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=PostgreSQL+9+Administration+Cookbook&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Packt+Publishing&rft.date=2010-10-27&rft.isbn=978-1-84951-028-8&rft.aulast=Riggs&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Krosing%2C+Hannu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.2ndquadrant.com%2Fbooks%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2010" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Greg (October 15, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.2ndquadrant.com/books/">PostgreSQL 9 High Performance</a>. <a href="/wiki/Packt_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Packt Publishing">Packt Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84951-030-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84951-030-1"><bdi>978-1-84951-030-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=PostgreSQL+9+High+Performance&rft.pub=Packt+Publishing&rft.date=2010-10-15&rft.isbn=978-1-84951-030-1&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Greg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.2ndquadrant.com%2Fbooks%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilmoreTreat2006" class="citation book cs1">Gilmore, W. Jason; Treat, Robert (February 27, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090708113944/http://www.apress.com/book/view/1590595475">Beginning PHP and PostgreSQL 8: From Novice to Professional</a>. <a href="/wiki/Apress" class="mw-redirect" title="Apress">Apress</a>. p. 896. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59059-547-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-59059-547-5"><bdi>1-59059-547-5</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apress.com/book/view/1590595475">the original</a> on July 8, 2009. Retrieved April 28, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beginning+PHP+and+PostgreSQL+8%3A+From+Novice+to+Professional&rft.pages=896&rft.pub=Apress&rft.date=2006-02-27&rft.isbn=1-59059-547-5&rft.aulast=Gilmore&rft.aufirst=W.+Jason&rft.au=Treat%2C+Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apress.com%2Fbook%2Fview%2F1590595475&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas2005" class="citation book cs1">Douglas, Korry (August 5, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.informit.com/store/product.aspx?isbn=0672327562">PostgreSQL</a> (second ed.). <a href="/wiki/Sams_Publishing" title="Sams Publishing">Sams</a>. p. 1032. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-672-32756-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-672-32756-2"><bdi>0-672-32756-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=PostgreSQL&rft.pages=1032&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Sams&rft.date=2005-08-05&rft.isbn=0-672-32756-2&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=Korry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.informit.com%2Fstore%2Fproduct.aspx%3Fisbn%3D0672327562&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthewStones2005" class="citation book cs1">Matthew, Neil; Stones, Richard (April 6, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090409150911/http://www.apress.com/book/view/9781590594780">Beginning Databases with PostgreSQL</a> (second ed.). <a href="/wiki/Apress" class="mw-redirect" title="Apress">Apress</a>. p. 664. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59059-478-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-59059-478-9"><bdi>1-59059-478-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apress.com/book/view/9781590594780">the original</a> on April 9, 2009. Retrieved April 28, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beginning+Databases+with+PostgreSQL&rft.pages=664&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Apress&rft.date=2005-04-06&rft.isbn=1-59059-478-9&rft.aulast=Matthew&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft.au=Stones%2C+Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.apress.com%2Fbook%2Fview%2F9781590594780&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorsleyDrake2002" class="citation book cs1">Worsley, John C.; Drake, Joshua D. (January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/practicalpostgre00wors/page/636">Practical PostgreSQL</a>. <a href="/wiki/O%27Reilly_Media" title="O'Reilly Media">O'Reilly Media</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/practicalpostgre00wors/page/636">636</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56592-846-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-56592-846-6"><bdi>1-56592-846-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Practical+PostgreSQL&rft.pages=636&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media&rft.date=2002-01&rft.isbn=1-56592-846-6&rft.aulast=Worsley&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.au=Drake%2C+Joshua+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpracticalpostgre00wors%2Fpage%2F636&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APostgreSQL" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=PostgreSQL&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:PostgreSQL" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:PostgreSQL">PostgreSQL</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/PostgreSQL" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:PostgreSQL">PostgreSQL</a></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.postgresql.org">Official website</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192490#P856" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a>, and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wiki.postgresql.org/">wiki</a></li> <li>A <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.postgresql.org/download/product-categories/">Software Catalog</a> of related projects and products</li> <li>The official <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://git.postgresql.org/gitweb/?p=postgresql.git">Main Source Code Repository (for browsing)</a>, and the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wiki.postgresql.org/wiki/Developer_FAQ">Developer FAQ</a></li> <li>The official <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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