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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Psychological defense mechanism</div> <p><b>Motivated forgetting</b> is a theorized psychological behavior in which people may forget unwanted memories, either consciously or unconsciously.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an example of a <a href="/wiki/Defence_mechanism" title="Defence mechanism">defence mechanism</a>, since these are unconscious or conscious coping techniques used to reduce anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful impulses thus it can be a defence mechanism in some ways.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Defence mechanisms are not to be confused with conscious <a href="/wiki/Coping_(psychology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coping (psychology)">coping</a> strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19883526_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19883526-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thought_suppression" title="Thought suppression">Thought suppression</a> is a method in which people protect themselves by blocking the recall of these anxiety-arousing memories.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if something reminds a person of an unpleasant event, their mind may steer towards unrelated topics. This could induce forgetting without being generated by an intention to forget, making it a motivated action. There are two main classes of motivated forgetting: <i><a href="/wiki/Psychological_repression" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological repression">psychological repression</a></i> is an unconscious act, while <i><a href="/wiki/Thought_suppression" title="Thought suppression">thought suppression</a></i> is a conscious form of excluding thoughts and memories from awareness. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sigmund_freud_um_1905.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Sigmund Freud" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Sigmund_freud_um_1905.jpg/220px-Sigmund_freud_um_1905.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Sigmund_freud_um_1905.jpg/330px-Sigmund_freud_um_1905.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Sigmund_freud_um_1905.jpg/440px-Sigmund_freud_um_1905.jpg 2x" data-file-width="971" data-file-height="1294" /></a><figcaption>Sigmund Freud</figcaption></figure> <p>Neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot was the first to do research into <a href="/wiki/Hysteria" title="Hysteria">hysteria</a> as a psychological disorder in the late 19th century. <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Breuer" title="Joseph Breuer">Joseph Breuer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Janet" title="Pierre Janet">Pierre Janet</a> continued with the research that Charcot began on hysteria. These three psychologists determined that hysteria was an intense emotional reaction to some form of severe psychological disturbance, and they proposed that incest and other sexual traumas were the most likely cause of hysteria.<sup id="cite_ref-Stoler_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoler-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treatment that Freud, Breuer, and Pierre agreed upon was named the <i>talking cure</i> and was a method of encouraging patients to recover and discuss their painful memories. During this time, Janet created the term <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology)" title="Dissociation (psychology)">dissociation</a> which is referred to as a lack of integration amongst various memories. He used dissociation to describe the way in which traumatizing memories are stored separately from other memories.<sup id="cite_ref-Stoler_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoler-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The idea of motivated forgetting began with the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> in 1894.<sup id="cite_ref-N_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-N-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud had similar views on the idea of repression of memories as a form of self-preservation. Nietzsche wrote that man must forget in able to move forward. He stated that this process is active, in that we forget specific events as a defense mechanism.<sup id="cite_ref-N_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-N-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The publication of Freud's famous paper, "The Aetiology of Hysteria", in 1896 led to much controversy regarding the topic of these traumatic memories. Freud stated that <a href="/wiki/Neuroses" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroses">neuroses</a> were caused by repressed sexual memories,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which suggested that incest and sexual abuse must be common throughout upper and middle class Europe. The psychological community did not accept Freud's ideas, and years passed without further research on the topic. </p><p>It was during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> and <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> that interest in memory disturbances was piqued again. During this time, many cases of memory loss appeared among war veterans, especially those who had experienced <a href="/wiki/Shell_shock" title="Shell shock">shell shock</a>. Hypnosis and drugs became popular for the treatment of hysteria during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-Stoler_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoler-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <a href="/wiki/Post_traumatic_stress_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Post traumatic stress disorder">post traumatic stress disorder</a> (PTSD) was introduced upon the appearance of similar cases of memory disturbances from veterans of the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>. Forgetting, or the inability to recall a portion of a traumatic event, was considered a key factor for the diagnosis of PTSD.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ann_Burgess" title="Ann Burgess">Ann Burgess</a> and Lynda Holmstrom<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> looked into trauma related memory loss in rape victims during the 1970s. This began a large outpouring of stories related to childhood sexual abuse. It took until 1980 to determine that memory loss due to all severe traumas was the same set of processes.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/False_Memory_Syndrome_Foundation" title="False Memory Syndrome Foundation">False Memory Syndrome Foundation</a> (FMSF) was created in 1992 as a response to the large number of memories claimed to be recovered.<sup id="cite_ref-Stoler_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoler-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The FMSF was created to oppose the idea that memories could be recovered using specific techniques; instead, its members believed that the "memories" were actually <a href="/wiki/Confabulation" title="Confabulation">confabulations</a> created through the inappropriate use of techniques such as hypnosis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories">Theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are many theories which are related to the process of motivated forgetting. </p><p>The main theory, the <i><b>motivated forgetting theory</b></i>, suggests that people forget things because they either do not want to remember them or for another particular reason. Painful and disturbing memories are made unconscious and very difficult to retrieve, but still remain in storage.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Retrieval Suppression</i> (the ability to utilise inhibitory control to prevent memories from being recalled into consciousness)<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is one way in which we are able to stop the retrieval of unpleasant memories using cognitive control. This theory was tested by Anderson and Green using the Think/No-Think paradigm.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><b><a href="/wiki/Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">decay theory</a></b></i> is another theory of forgetting which refers to the loss of memory over time. When information enters memory, <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> are activated. These memories are retained as long as the neurons remain active. Activation can be maintained through rehearsal or frequent recall. If activation is not maintained, the memory trace fades and decays. This usually occurs in <i>short term memory</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The decay theory is a controversial topic amongst modern psychologists. Bahrick and Hall disagree with the decay theory. They have claimed that people can remember algebra they learnt from school even years later.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A refresher course brought their skill back to a high standard relatively quick. These findings suggest that there may be more to the theory of trace decay in human memory. </p><p>Another theory of motivated forgetting is <i><b>interference theory</b></i>, which posits that subsequent learning can interfere with and degrade a person's memories.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory was tested by giving participants ten nonsense syllables. Some of the participants then slept after viewing the syllables, while the other participants carried on their day as usual. The results of this experiment showed that people who stayed awake had a poor recall of the syllables, while the sleeping participants remembered the syllables better. This could have occurred due to the fact that the sleeping subjects had no interference during the experiment, while the other subjects did. There are two types of interference; <a href="/wiki/Proactive_interference" class="mw-redirect" title="Proactive interference">proactive interference</a> and <a href="/wiki/Retroactive_interference" class="mw-redirect" title="Retroactive interference">retroactive interference</a>. Proactive interference occurs when you are unable to learn a new task due to the interference of an old task that has already been learned. Research has been done to show that students who study similar subjects at the same time often experience interference.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Retroactive interference occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><b>Gestalt theory of forgetting</b></i>, created by <a href="/wiki/Gestalt_psychology" title="Gestalt psychology">Gestalt psychology</a>, suggests that memories are forgotten through <a href="/wiki/Distortion" title="Distortion">distortion</a>. This is also called <a href="/wiki/False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">false memory syndrome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory states that when memories lack detail, other information is put in to make the memory a whole. This leads to the incorrect recall of memories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term recovered memory, also known in some cases as a false memory, refers to the theory that some memories can be repressed by an individual and then later recovered. <a href="/wiki/Recovered_memories" class="mw-redirect" title="Recovered memories">Recovered memories</a> are often used as evidence in a case where the defendant is accused of either sexual or some other form of child abuse, and recently recovered a repressed memory of the abuse. This has created much controversy, and as the use of this form of evidence rises in the courts, the question has arisen as to whether or not recovered memories actually exist.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an effort to determine the factuality of false memories, several laboratories have developed paradigms in order to test whether or not false repressed memories could be purposefully implanted within a subject. As a result, the verbal paradigm was developed. This paradigm dictates that if someone is presented a number of words associated with a single non-presented word, then they are likely to falsely remember that word as presented.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similar to the verbal paradigm is <a href="/wiki/Fuzzy-trace_theory" title="Fuzzy-trace theory">fuzzy-trace theory</a>, which dictates that one encodes two separate things about memory: the actual information itself and the semantic information surrounding it (or the gist).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If we are given a series of semantic information surrounding a false event, such as time and location, then we are more likely to falsely remember an event as occurring.<sup id="cite_ref-P_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-P-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tied to that is <i>Source Monitoring Theory</i>, which, among other things, dictates that emotionally salient events tend to increase the power of the memory that forms from said event. Emotion also weakens our ability to remember the source from the event.<sup id="cite_ref-P_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-P-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Source monitoring is centralized to the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">anterior cingulate cortex</a>. </p><p>Repressed memory therapy has come under heavy criticism as it is said that it follows very similar techniques that are used to purposefully implant a memory in an adult. These include: asking questions on the gist of an event, creating imagery about said gist, and attempting to discover the event from there. This, when compounded with the fact that most repressed memories are emotionally salient, the likelihood of source confusion is high. One might assume that a child abuse case one heard about actually happened to one, remembering it with the imagery established through the therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Repression">Repression</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Repression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Memory_Forgetting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Effects of repression on memory consolidation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Memory_Forgetting.jpg/300px-Memory_Forgetting.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Memory_Forgetting.jpg/450px-Memory_Forgetting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Memory_Forgetting.jpg/600px-Memory_Forgetting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="609" data-file-height="366" /></a><figcaption>Effects of repression on memory consolidation</figcaption></figure> <p>The idea of <a href="/wiki/Psychological_repression" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological repression">psychological repression</a> was developed in 1915 as an automatic defensive mechanism based on Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic model in which people subconsciously push unpleasant or intolerable thoughts and feelings into their unconscious.<sup id="cite_ref-Freud_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freud-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When situations or memories occur that we are unable to cope with, we push them away. It is a primary <a href="/wiki/Id,_ego_and_super-ego#Ego" class="mw-redirect" title="Id, ego and super-ego">ego</a> defence mechanism that many psychotherapists readily accept.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There have been numerous studies which have supported the psychoanalytic theory that states that murder, childhood trauma and sexual abuse can be repressed for a period of time and then recovered in therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-Bower_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bower-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Repressed memories can influence behavior unconsciously, manifesting themselves in our discussions, dreams, and emotional reactions. An example of repression would include a child who is abused by a parent, who later has no recollection of the events, but has trouble forming relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-Bower_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bower-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Freud suggested <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a> as a treatment method for repressed memories. The goal of treatment was to bring repressed memories, fears and thoughts back to the conscious level of awareness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Suppression">Suppression</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Suppression"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thought_suppression" title="Thought suppression">Thought suppression</a> is referred to as the conscious and deliberate efforts to curtail one's thoughts and memories.<sup id="cite_ref-Wegner_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wegner-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Suppression is goal-directed and it includes conscious strategies to forget, such as intentional context shifts. For example, if someone is thinking of unpleasant thoughts, ideas that are inappropriate at the moment, or images that may instigate unwanted behaviors, they may try to think of anything else but the unwanted thought in order to push the thought out of consciousness. </p><p>In order to suppress a thought, one must (a) plan to suppress the thought and (b) carry out that plan by suppressing all other manifestations of the thought, including the original plan.<sup id="cite_ref-Freud_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Freud-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thought suppression seems to entail a state of knowing and not knowing all at once. It can be assumed that thought suppression is a difficult and even time consuming task. Even when thoughts are suppressed, they can return to consciousness with minimal prompting. This is why suppression has also been associated with <a href="/wiki/Obsessive-compulsive_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Obsessive-compulsive disorder">obsessive-compulsive disorder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wegner_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wegner-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Directed_forgetting">Directed forgetting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Directed forgetting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thought_suppression" title="Thought suppression">Thought suppression</a></div> <p>Suppression encompasses the term directed forgetting, also known as <a href="/wiki/Intentional_forgetting" class="mw-redirect" title="Intentional forgetting">intentional forgetting</a>. This term refers to forgetting which is initiated by a conscious goal to forget.<sup id="cite_ref-Bad_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bad-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intentional forgetting is important at the individual level: suppressing an unpleasant memory of a trauma or a loss that is particularly painful.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>directed forgetting paradigm</i> is a psychological term meaning that information can be forgotten upon instruction.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are two methods of the directed forgetting paradigm: item method and list method. In both methods, the participants are instructed to forget some items, the to-be-forgotten items and remember some items, the to-be-remembered items. The directed forgetting paradigm was originally conceived by Robert Bjork.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Bjork Learning and Forgetting Lab and members of the <a href="/wiki/Cogfog" class="mw-redirect" title="Cogfog">Cogfog</a> group performed much important research using the paradigm in subsequent years.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the item method of directed forgetting, participants are presented with a series of random to-be-remembered and to-be-forgotten items.<sup id="cite_ref-MacLeod_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacLeod-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After each item an instruction is given to the participant to either remember it, or forget it. After the study phase, when participants are told to remember or to forget subsets of the items, the participants are given a test of all the words presented.<sup id="cite_ref-MacLeod_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacLeod-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The participants were unaware that they would be tested on the to-be-forgotten items. The recall for the to-be-forgotten words are often significantly impaired compared to the to-be-remembered words. The directed forgetting effect has also been demonstrated on recognition tests. For this reason researchers believe that the item method affects episodic encoding.<sup id="cite_ref-MacLeod_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacLeod-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the list method procedure, the instructions to forget are given only after half of the list has been presented. These instructions are given once in the middle of the list, and once at the end of the list.<sup id="cite_ref-MacLeod_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacLeod-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The participants are told that the first list they had to study was just a practice list, and to focus their attention on the upcoming list. After the participants have conducted the study phase for the first list, a second list is presented. A final test is then given, sometimes for only the first list and other times for both lists. The participants are asked to remember all the words they studied. When participants are told they are able to forget the first list, they remember less in this list and remember more in the second list.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> List method directed forgetting demonstrates the ability to intentionally reduce memory retrieval.<sup id="cite_ref-Bad_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bad-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To support this theory, researchers did an experiment in which they asked participants to record 2 unique events that happened to them each day over a 5-day period in a journal. After these five days, the participants were asked to either remember or forget the events on these days. They were then asked to repeat the process for another five days, after which they were told to remember all the events in both weeks, regardless of earlier instructions. The participants that were part of the forget group had had worse recall for the first week compared to the second week.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two theories that can explain directed forgetting: retrieval inhibition hypothesis and context shift hypothesis. </p><p>The <i>Retrieval Inhibition Hypothesis</i> states that the instruction to forget the first list hinders memory of the list-one items.<sup id="cite_ref-Bad_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bad-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This hypothesis suggests that directed forgetting only reduces the retrieval of the unwanted memories, not causing permanent damage. If we intentionally forget items, they are difficult to recall but are recognized if the items are presented again.<sup id="cite_ref-Bad_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bad-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Context Shift Hypothesis</i> suggests that the instructions to forget mentally separate the to-be-forgotten items. They are put into a different context from the second list. The subject's mental context changes between the first and second list, but the context from the second list remains. This impairs the recall ability for the first list.<sup id="cite_ref-Bad_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bad-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychogenic_amnesia">Psychogenic amnesia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Psychogenic amnesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_amnesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychogenic amnesia">Psychogenic amnesia</a></div> <p>Motivated forgetting encompasses the term <a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_amnesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychogenic amnesia">psychogenic amnesia</a> which refers to the inability to remember past experiences of personal information, due to psychological factors rather than biological dysfunction or brain damage<sup id="cite_ref-M_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Psychogenic amnesia is not part of Freud's theoretical framework.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The memories still exist buried deeply in the mind, but could be resurfaced at any time on their own or from being exposed to a trigger in the person's surroundings. Psychogenic amnesia is generally found in cases where there is a profound and surprising forgetting of chunks of one's personal life, whereas motivated forgetting includes more day-to-day examples in which people forget unpleasant memories in a way that would not call for clinical evaluation.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychogenic_fugue">Psychogenic fugue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Psychogenic fugue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fugue_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugue state">Fugue state</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fugue_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugue state">Psychogenic fugue</a>, a form of <a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_amnesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychogenic amnesia">psychogenic amnesia</a>, is a <a href="/wiki/Category:Dissociative_disorders" title="Category:Dissociative disorders">DSM-IV Dissociative Disorder</a> in which people forget their personal history, including who they are, for a period of hours to days following a trauma.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A history of <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Stress_(psychological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (psychological)">stress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a> or <a href="/wiki/Head_injury" title="Head injury">head injury</a> could lead to fugue states.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the person recovers they are able to remember their personal history, but they have amnesia for the events that took place during the fugue state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neurobiology">Neurobiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Neurobiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prefrontal_cortex.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Prefrontal Cortex" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Prefrontal_cortex.png/220px-Prefrontal_cortex.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Prefrontal_cortex.png/330px-Prefrontal_cortex.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Prefrontal_cortex.png/440px-Prefrontal_cortex.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="278" /></a><figcaption>Prefrontal cortex</figcaption></figure> <p>Motivated forgetting occurs as a result of activity that occurs within the <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a>. This was discovered by testing subjects while taking a functional <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRI</a> of their brain.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid14716015_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid14716015-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prefrontal cortex is made up of the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior cingulate">anterior cingulate</a> cortex, the <a href="/wiki/Intraparietal_sulcus" title="Intraparietal sulcus">intraparietal sulcus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dorsolateral_prefrontal_cortex" title="Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex">dorsolateral prefrontal cortex</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ventrolateral_prefrontal_cortex" title="Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex">ventrolateral prefrontal cortex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-L_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These areas are also associated with stopping unwanted actions, which confirms the hypothesis that the suppression of unwanted memories and actions follow a similar inhibitory process.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These regions are also known to have executive functions within the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-L_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The anterior cingulate cortex has functions linked to motivation and emotion.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The intraparietal sulcus possesses functions that include coordination between perception and motor activities, visual attention, symbolic numerical processing,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> visuospatial working memory,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and determining the intent in the actions of other organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex plans complex cognitive activities and processes decision making.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The other key brain structure involved in motivated forgetting is the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>, which is responsible for the formation and recollection of memories.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the process of motivated forgetting is engaged, meaning that we actively attempt to suppress our unwanted memories, the prefrontal cortex exhibits higher activity than baseline, while suppressing hippocampal activity at the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid14716015_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid14716015-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been proposed that the executive areas which control motivation and decision-making lessen the functioning of the hippocampus in order to stop the recollection of the selected memories that the subject has been motivated to forget.<sup id="cite_ref-L_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War">War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Army_machine_gun_team_near_the_Chongchon_River_in_North_Korea_(November_1950).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="American soldiers on the battle front of the Korean War" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/U.S._Army_machine_gun_team_near_the_Chongchon_River_in_North_Korea_%28November_1950%29.jpg/220px-U.S._Army_machine_gun_team_near_the_Chongchon_River_in_North_Korea_%28November_1950%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/U.S._Army_machine_gun_team_near_the_Chongchon_River_in_North_Korea_%28November_1950%29.jpg/330px-U.S._Army_machine_gun_team_near_the_Chongchon_River_in_North_Korea_%28November_1950%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/U.S._Army_machine_gun_team_near_the_Chongchon_River_in_North_Korea_%28November_1950%29.jpg/440px-U.S._Army_machine_gun_team_near_the_Chongchon_River_in_North_Korea_%28November_1950%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2058" /></a><figcaption>American soldiers on the battle front of the Korean War.</figcaption></figure> <p>Motivated forgetting has been a crucial aspect of psychological study relating to such traumatizing experiences as rape, torture, war, natural disasters, and homicide.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the earliest documented cases of memory suppression and repression relate to veterans of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rivers_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rivers-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of cases of motivated forgetting was high during war times, mainly due to factors associated with the difficulties of trench life, injury, and shell shock.<sup id="cite_ref-Rivers_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rivers-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time that many of these cases were documented, there were limited medical resources to deal with many of these soldiers' mental well-being. There was also a weaker understanding of the aspects of memory suppression and repression.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Case_of_a_soldier_(1917)"><span id="Case_of_a_soldier_.281917.29"></span>Case of a soldier (1917)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Case of a soldier (1917)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The repression of memories was the prescribed treatment by many doctors and psychiatrists, and was deemed effective for the management of these memories. Unfortunately, many soldiers' traumas were much too vivid and intense to be dealt with in this manner, as described in the journal of <a href="/wiki/W._H._R._Rivers" title="W. H. R. Rivers">Dr. Rivers</a>. One soldier, who entered the hospital after losing consciousness due to a shell explosion, is described as having a generally pleasant demeanor. This was disrupted by his sudden onsets of depression occurring approximately every 10 days. This intense depression, leading to suicidal feelings, rendered him unfit to return to war. It soon became apparent that these symptoms were due to the patient's repressed thoughts and apprehensions about returning to war. Dr. Smith suggested that this patient face his thoughts and allow himself to deal with his feelings and anxieties. Although this caused the soldier to take on a significantly less cheery state, he only experienced one more minor bout of depression. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abuse">Abuse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Abuse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many cases of motivated forgetting have been reported in regards to recovered memories of childhood abuse. Many cases of abuse, particularly those performed by relatives or figures of authority, can lead to memory suppression and repression of varying amounts of time. One study indicates that 31% of abuse victims were aware of at least some forgetting of their abuse<sup id="cite_ref-Bowman_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowman-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a collaboration of seven studies has shown that one eighth to one quarter of abuse victims have periods of complete unawareness (amnesia) of the incident or series of events.<sup id="cite_ref-Bowman_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowman-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many factors associated with forgetting abuse including: younger age at onset, threats/intense emotions, more types of abuse, and increased number of abusers.<sup id="cite_ref-Herman_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herman-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cued recovery has been shown in 90% of cases, usually with one specific event triggering the memory.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the return of incest memories have been shown to be brought on by television programs about incest, the death of the perpetrator, the abuse of the subject's own child, and seeing the site of abuse.<sup id="cite_ref-Bowman_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowman-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a study by Herman and Schatzow, confirming evidence was found for the same proportion of individuals with continuous memories of abuse as those individuals who had recovered memories. 74% of cases from each group were confirmed.<sup id="cite_ref-Herman_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herman-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cases of Mary de Vries and Claudia show examples of confirmed recovered memories of sexual abuse. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_controversy">Legal controversy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Legal controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Motivated forgetting and repressed memories have become a very controversial issue within the court system. Courts are currently dealing with historical cases, in particular a relatively new phenomenon known as <i>historic child sexual abuse</i> (HCSA). HCSA refers to allegations of child abuse having occurred several years prior to the time at which they are being prosecuted.<sup id="cite_ref-Jo_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jo-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike most American states, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand have no <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_limitations" title="Statute of limitations">statute of limitations</a> to limit the prosecution of historical offenses. Therefore, legal decision-makers in each case need to evaluate the credibility of allegations that may go back many years. It is nearly impossible to provide evidence for many of these historical abuse cases. It is therefore extremely important to consider the credibility of the witness and accused in making a decision regarding guiltiness of the defendant.<sup id="cite_ref-Stephen_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephen-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the main arguments against the credibility of historical allegations, involving the retrieval of repressed memories, is found in false memory syndrome. False memory syndrome claims that through therapy and the use of suggestive techniques, clients mistakenly come to believe that they were sexually abused as children.<sup id="cite_ref-Jo_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jo-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, the statute of limitations requires that legal action be taken within three to five years of the incident of interest. Exceptions are made for minors, where the child has until they reach eighteen years of age.<sup id="cite_ref-Memon_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memon-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are many factors related to the age at which child abuse cases may be presented. These include bribes, threats, dependency on the abuser, and ignorance of the child to their state of harm.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of these factors may lead a person, who has been harmed, to require more time to present their case. As well as seen in the case below of Jane Doe and Jane Roe, time may be required if memories of the abuse have been repressed or suppressed. In 1981, the statute was adjusted to make exceptions for those individuals who were not consciously aware that their situation was harmful. This rule was called the <i>discovery rule</i>. This rule is to be used by the court as deemed necessary by the Judge of that case.<sup id="cite_ref-Memon_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Memon-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychogenic_amnesia_2">Psychogenic amnesia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Psychogenic amnesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_amnesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychogenic amnesia">Psychogenic amnesia</a></div> <p>Severe cases of trauma may lead to psychogenic amnesia, or the loss of all memories occurring around the event.<sup id="cite_ref-M_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">Cognitive dissonance</a> – Stress from contradiction between beliefs and actions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotional memory">Emotional memory</a> – Critical factors contributing to the emotional enhancement effect on human memory<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivated_reasoning" title="Motivated reasoning">Motivated reasoning</a> – Using emotionally-biased reasoning to produce justifications or make decisions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_memory" title="Politics of memory">Politics of memory</a> – Political influence on collective memory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Courage_to_Heal" title="The Courage to Heal">The Courage to Heal</a> – 1988 book by Ellen Bass and Laura Davis<i></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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"The experience of forgetting childhood abuse: a national survey of psychologists". <i>Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology</i>. <b>62</b> (3): 636–639. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0022-006X.62.3.636">10.1037/0022-006X.62.3.636</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8063991">8063991</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Consulting+and+Clinical+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+experience+of+forgetting+childhood+abuse%3A+a+national+survey+of+psychologists&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=636-639&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0022-006X.62.3.636&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8063991&rft.aulast=Feldman-Summers&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Pope%2C+KS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotivated+forgetting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jo-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jo_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jo_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennell,_CraigPozzulo,_JoannaAdelle_E._Forth2006" class="citation book cs1">Bennell, Craig; Pozzulo, Joanna; Adelle E. 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Upper Saddle River, N.J: Pearson/Prentice Hall. pp. 135–137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-121582-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-121582-5"><bdi>978-0-13-121582-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forensic+psychology&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+N.J&rft.pages=135-137&rft.pub=Pearson%2FPrentice+Hall&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-13-121582-5&rft.au=Bennell%2C+Craig&rft.au=Pozzulo%2C+Joanna&rft.au=Adelle+E.+Forth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotivated+forgetting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stephen-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stephen_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorterCampbell_MABirt_ARWoodworth_MT2003" class="citation journal cs1">Porter, S; Campbell MA; Birt AR; Woodworth MT (2003). 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(1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cogprints.org/642/">"Desperately seeking evidence: The recovered memory debate"</a>. <i>Legal and Criminological Psychology</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 131–154. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.2044-8333.1997.tb00339.x">10.1111/j.2044-8333.1997.tb00339.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Legal+and+Criminological+Psychology&rft.atitle=Desperately+seeking+evidence%3A+The+recovered+memory+debate&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=131-154&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.2044-8333.1997.tb00339.x&rft.aulast=Memon&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Young%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcogprints.org%2F642%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotivated+forgetting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBulkleyHorowitz_MJ1994" class="citation journal cs1">Bulkley, JA; Horowitz MJ (1994). "Adults sexually abused as children: legal actions and issues". <i>Behavioral Sciences & the Law</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 65–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbsl.2370120107">10.1002/bsl.2370120107</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+Sciences+%26+the+Law&rft.atitle=Adults+sexually+abused+as+children%3A+legal+actions+and+issues&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=65-86&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fbsl.2370120107&rft.aulast=Bulkley&rft.aufirst=JA&rft.au=Horowitz+MJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMotivated+forgetting" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Memory" title="Template:Memory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Memory" title="Template talk:Memory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Memory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Memory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_memory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Human memory">Human memory</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encoding_(memory)" title="Encoding (memory)">Encoding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_(memory)" title="Storage (memory)">Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recall_(memory)" title="Recall (memory)">Recall</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_consolidation" title="Memory consolidation">Consolidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_memory" title="Neuroanatomy of memory">Neuroanatomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_memory" title="Sensory memory">Sensory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Echoic_memory" title="Echoic memory">Echoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eidetic_memory" title="Eidetic memory">Eidetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eyewitness_memory" title="Eyewitness memory">Eyewitness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haptic_memory" title="Haptic memory">Haptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconic_memory" title="Iconic memory">Iconic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_learning" title="Motor learning">Motor learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_memory" title="Visual memory">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">Short-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Magical_Number_Seven,_Plus_or_Minus_Two" title="The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two">The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">Working memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">Long-term</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_recall" class="mw-redirect" title="Active recall">Active recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autobiographical_memory" title="Autobiographical memory">Autobiographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Explicit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_memory" title="Explicit memory">Declarative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episodic_memory" title="Episodic memory">Episodic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_memory" title="Semantic memory">Semantic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flashbulb_memory" title="Flashbulb memory">Flashbulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthymesia" title="Hyperthymesia">Hyperthymesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implicit_memory" title="Implicit memory">Implicit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaningful_learning" title="Meaningful learning">Meaningful learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal-event_memory" title="Personal-event memory">Personal-event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_memory" title="Procedural memory">Procedural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">Rote learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_retention" title="Selective retention">Selective retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip_of_the_tongue" title="Tip of the tongue">Tip of the tongue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forgetting" title="Forgetting">Forgetting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amnesia" title="Amnesia">Amnesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterograde_amnesia" title="Anterograde amnesia">anterograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_amnesia" title="Childhood amnesia">childhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthypnotic_amnesia" title="Posthypnotic amnesia">post-hypnotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_amnesia" title="Post-traumatic amnesia">post-traumatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_amnesia" title="Dissociative amnesia">dissociative (psychogenic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrograde_amnesia" title="Retrograde amnesia">retrograde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_amnesia" title="Selective amnesia">selective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transient_global_amnesia" title="Transient global amnesia">transient global</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_theory" title="Decay theory">Decay theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgetting_curve" title="Forgetting curve">Forgetting curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interference_theory" title="Interference theory">Interference theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_erasure" title="Memory erasure">Memory erasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_inhibition" title="Memory inhibition">Memory inhibition</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Motivated forgetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repressed_memory" title="Repressed memory">Repressed memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrieval-induced_forgetting" title="Retrieval-induced forgetting">Retrieval-induced forgetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_focus" title="Weapon focus">Weapon focus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Memory_error" title="Memory error">Memory errors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confabulation" title="Confabulation">Confabulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindsight_bias" title="Hindsight bias">Hindsight bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination_inflation" title="Imagination inflation">Imagination inflation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memory_biases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of memory biases">Memory biases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misattribution_of_memory" title="Misattribution of memory">Misattribution of memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_effect" title="Misinformation effect">Misinformation effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source-monitoring_error" title="Source-monitoring error">Source-monitoring error</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/False_memory" title="False memory">False memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deese%E2%80%93Roediger%E2%80%93McDermott_paradigm" title="Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm">Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_memory_syndrome" title="False memory syndrome">False memory syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_implantation" title="Memory implantation">Memory implantation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lost_in_the_mall_technique" title="Lost in the mall technique">Lost in the mall technique</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Methods_used_to_study_memory" title="Methods used to study memory">Research methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exceptional_memory" title="Exceptional memory">Exceptional memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_tests_of_memory" title="Indirect tests of memory">Indirect tests of memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_disorder" title="Memory disorder">Memory disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_memory" title="Collective memory">Collective memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_memory" title="Politics of memory">Politics of memory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_memory" title="Cultural memory">Cultural memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_social_interactions" title="Memory and social interactions">Memory and social interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_conformity" title="Memory conformity">Memory conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactive_memory" title="Transactive memory">Transactive memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_aging" title="Memory and aging">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_memory" title="Art of memory">Art of memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chunking_(psychology)" title="Chunking (psychology)">chunking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_alcohol_on_memory" title="Effects of alcohol on memory">Effects of alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Memory" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">Effects of exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion_and_memory" title="Emotion and memory">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_improvement" title="Memory improvement">Memory improvement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_and_memory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrition and memory">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_and_memory" title="Sleep and memory">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_and_trauma" title="Memory and trauma">Trauma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_sport" title="Memory sport">Memory sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Memory_Championships" title="World Memory Championships">World Memory Championships</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shas_Pollak" title="Shas Pollak">Shas Pollak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absent-mindedness" title="Absent-mindedness">Absent-mindedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atkinson%E2%80%93Shiffrin_memory_model" title="Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model">Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context-dependent_memory" title="Context-dependent memory">Context-dependent</a> and <a href="/wiki/State-dependent_memory" title="State-dependent memory">state-dependent</a> memory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_memory" title="Childhood memory">Childhood memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exosomatic_memory" title="Exosomatic memory">Exosomatic memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_recall" title="Free recall">Free recall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate-term_memory" title="Intermediate-term memory">Intermediate-term memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_memory" title="Involuntary memory">Involuntary memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flashback_(psychology)" title="Flashback (psychology)">flashbacks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levels_of_Processing_model" title="Levels of Processing model">Levels of Processing model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamemory" title="Metamemory">Metamemory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priming_(psychology)" title="Priming (psychology)">Priming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intertrial_priming" title="Intertrial priming">intertrial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospective_memory" title="Prospective memory">Prospective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Retrospective_memory" title="Retrospective memory">retrospective</a> memory</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Seven_Sins_of_Memory" title="The Seven Sins of Memory">The Seven Sins of Memory</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Researchers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_C._Atkinson" title="Richard C. Atkinson">Richard C. Atkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Bjork" title="Robert A. Bjork">Robert A. Bjork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_J._Ceci" title="Stephen J. Ceci">Stephen J. Ceci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Clancy" title="Susan Clancy">Susan Clancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Goldman-Rakic" title="Patricia Goldman-Rakic">Patricia Goldman-Rakic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Izquierdo" title="Ivan Izquierdo">Ivan Izquierdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcia_K._Johnson" title="Marcia K. Johnson">Marcia K. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Loftus" title="Elizabeth Loftus">Elizabeth Loftus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Loftus" title="Geoffrey Loftus">Geoffrey Loftus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McGaugh" title="James McGaugh">James McGaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Maguire" title="Eleanor Maguire">Eleanor Maguire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George Armitage Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenda_Milner" title="Brenda Milner">Brenda Milner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Nadel" title="Lynn Nadel">Lynn Nadel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_L._Roediger_III" title="Henry L. Roediger III">Henry L. Roediger III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Schacter" title="Daniel Schacter">Daniel Schacter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Shiffrin" title="Richard Shiffrin">Richard Shiffrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_P._Shimamura" title="Arthur P. Shimamura">Arthur P. Shimamura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Squire" title="Larry Squire">Larry Squire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Treisman" title="Anne Treisman">Anne Treisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endel_Tulving" title="Endel Tulving">Endel Tulving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Stickgold" title="Robert Stickgold">Robert Stickgold</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Patients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Molaison" title="Henry Molaison">HM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kent_Cochrane" title="Kent Cochrane">KC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_N.A." title="Patient N.A.">NA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Wearing" title="Clive Wearing">Clive Wearing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Hancock" title="Jonathan Hancock">Jonathan Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_R._McHugh" title="Paul R. McHugh">Paul R. McHugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominic_O%27Brien" title="Dominic O'Brien">Dominic O'Brien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Pridmore" title="Ben Pridmore">Ben Pridmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_Rossellius" title="Cosmos Rossellius">Cosmos Rossellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andriy_Slyusarchuk" title="Andriy Slyusarchuk">Andriy Slyusarchuk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&oldid=1241233115">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motivated_forgetting&oldid=1241233115</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Memory" title="Category:Memory">Memory</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Memory_disorders" title="Category:Memory disorders">Memory disorders</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2015" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2015">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_displaying_short_descriptions_of_redirect_targets_via_Module:Annotated_link" title="Category:Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 20 August 2024, at 02:36<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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