10 Ways of Looking at Cells

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She joined Britannica in 2006 and...</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Kara Rogers</span></div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div></div> </div> <article class="topic-content content"><div class="topic-paragraph font-serif md-list-intro pt-15 pb-20"><figure class="md-assembly md-feature-assembly print-false" data-type="1" data-descid="1"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/43/188143-131-61835E31/H1N1-influenza-virus-particles-surface-Surface-proteins.jpg" target="_blank" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center " data-href="*0"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/43/188143-131-61835E31/H1N1-influenza-virus-particles-surface-Surface-proteins.jpg?w=1000" alt="H1N1 influenza virus particles. Colorized transmission electron micrograph. Surface proteins on surface of the virus particles shown in black. Influenza flu" data-width="900" data-height="675" loading="eager"><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class=""><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif "><span></span></div><cite class="credit d-block mt-5">NIAID</cite></figcaption></figure><p class="topic-paragraph">Since 1665, when English physicist Robert Hooke coined the term <em>cell</em> to describe the microscopic view of cork, scientists have been developing increasingly sophisticated microscopy tools, enabling them to view ever-smaller details of cellular structure. Far from the poor-quality microscopes that limited cell study in the 17th and 18th centuries, today’s instruments and techniques allow for high magnification and very fine resolution—in some instances, enabling the visualization of details at resolutions of 10 nm or less (1 nm = 10<sup>−9</sup> meter). Contemporary techniques also allow researchers to identify specific molecules on or in cells and can allow molecules to be tracked over time in living cells and whole organisms such as mice. The following list highlights 10 exciting and cutting-edge microscopy approaches to cellular and molecular visualization.</p><span class="MOD"></span></div><ul class="list-unstyled md-mendel-list"><li><h2>Near-field scanning optical microscopy</h2><div><p class="topic-paragraph">Near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM) allows for the visualization of nanoscale features in a specimen by surpassing the diffraction limit, which in conventional light microscopy prevents the resolution of structures that lie close together (generally, less than half the wavelength of the light used to image them, or about 200 nm for the shortest wavelengths of visible light). In NSOM, to resolve features below the diffraction limit, light waves are emitted very near to the specimen’s surface (hence the term <em>near-field</em>). Although limited to the study of specimen (e.g., cell) surfaces, NSOM can achieve lateral resolutions of about 20 nm and axial (vertical) resolutions in the range of 2 to 5 nm. Because it resolves features below the diffraction limit, it is considered a type of superresolution microscopy.</p><span class="MOD"></span></div><span class="LIST-ITEM-1"></span></li><li><h2>Atomic-force microscopy </h2><div><p class="topic-paragraph">Atomic-force microscopy (AFM) allows for very high surface resolution of samples, providing researchers with information about surface features. AFM works by dragging a sharp tip (only a few atoms wide) over the sample surface and measuring the force between the tip and the sample surface. The resulting signal can be translated into a description of the surface topography, and the surface-force scan can be converted to produce a three-dimensional image of the sample surface. In the biological sciences, AFM has been used to investigate cell behavior and cell-cell interactions, as well as to evaluate certain cell-surface characteristics.</p><span class="MOD"></span></div><span class="LIST-ITEM-2"></span></li><li><h2>Laser-scanning confocal microscopy</h2><div><p class="topic-paragraph">Laser-scanning confocal microscopy allows for deep imaging of biological specimens and eliminates or reduces information from areas beyond the focal plane, resulting in the production of sharply defined images. The development of the first laser scanning confocal microscope in the late 1960s and early 1970s marked a major advance in microscopy. The continued development of laser technology, detectors and filters, and fluorescent chemicals that attach to highly specific targets in cells and tissues has made confocal microscopy a key tool in biological research.</p><span class="MOD"></span></div><span class="LIST-ITEM-3"></span></li><li><h2>Structured-illumination microscopy</h2><div><p class="topic-paragraph">Structured-illumination microscopy (SIM), another superresolution technique, was developed as a means of improving the illumination and imaging capabilities of wide-field microscopes (microscopes with relatively large fields of view). This is accomplished by using Fourier transforms to reconstruct and digitally filter spatially incoherent fluorescent emissions detected from a sample. Fourier transformation produces images of samples at resolutions that surpass the diffraction limit.</p><span class="MOD"></span></div><span class="LIST-ITEM-4"></span></li><li><h2>Selective plane illumination microscopy/light-sheet fluorescence microscopy</h2><div><p class="topic-paragraph">In selective plane illumination microscopy (SPIM)/light-sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM), only the focused plane of a sample is illuminated, allowing for the optical sectioning of specimens in the axial (vertical) direction. Combined with fluorescence microscopy techniques, SPIM/LSFM enables researchers to visualize specimens in real-time and at high resolution and sample depth without causing photodamage. SPIM/LSFM frequently is used for time-lapse imaging of live cells and whole-tissue specimens, such as embryos.</p><span class="MOD"></span></div><span class="LIST-ITEM-5"></span></li><li><h2>Serial time-encoded amplified microscopy</h2><div><p class="topic-paragraph">Serial time-encoded amplified microscopy (STEAM) is a high-speed imaging technology that employs a phenomenon known as photonic time stretch, in which light signals reflected from a sample to the microscope are slowed down by spatial dispersion. A photodetector receives the amplified time-stretched signals, which are subsequently processed digitally to reconstruct a real-time image. This technique is especially useful in the biomedical sciences for the visualization of dynamic processes (e.g., chemical signaling) in live cells.</p><span class="MOD"></span></div><span class="LIST-ITEM-6"></span></li><li><h2>Stimulated emission depletion microscopy</h2><div><p class="topic-paragraph">In stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy, samples are treated with fluorescent dyes, which are then selectively depleted by the optical system. The system uses two laser beams, the first of which excites the fluorophores and the second of which immediately returns them to the ground state. The second beam, however, is modified to exhibit zero intensity at the center of focus. Hence, when the two beams are superimposed, the area of illumination is minimized, leaving only a small region of fluorescence where focal power is concentrated. STED is considered a type of superresolution microscopy, enabling details of proteins and other molecules to be resolved down to the single nanometer range.</p><span class="MOD"></span></div><span class="LIST-ITEM-7"></span></li><li><h2>Differential interference contrast microscopy</h2><div><p class="topic-paragraph">Differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy is used to image unstained transparent specimens, with contrast in specimen components generated from differences in index of refraction. Although similar to phase-contrast microscopy (in which changes in brightness in an image correspond to phase shifts in light as light passes through a transparent specimen), DIC has superior resolution capabilities. It is commonly used for viewing cultured cells, blood smears, and single-celled organisms, such as bacteria and diatoms.</p><span class="MOD"></span></div><span class="LIST-ITEM-8"></span></li><li><h2>Expansion microscopy</h2><div><p class="topic-paragraph">Expansion microscopy is an emerging technique that relies on the manipulation of specimens, rather than on the modification of microscope or imaging components, to achieve spatial resolution at nanometer scales. In this approach, fixed cells and tissues are treated with a polymer gel, which is then chemically induced to swell, expanding by nearly two orders of magnitude. The expansion separates and thereby allows for the optical resolution of features that are otherwise below the diffraction limit (too near to one another to resolve). Using this superresolution technique, researchers are able to view features in the sub-100-nm range.</p><span class="MOD"></span></div><span class="LIST-ITEM-9"></span></li><li><h2>Transmission electron microscopy</h2><div><p class="topic-paragraph">Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is among the most-powerful microscopy techniques developed, enabling the visualization of features at resolutions on the order of single nanometers. In TEM, a beam of electrons is focused onto a specimen. The electrons pass through the specimen, forming a highly magnified electron image, which is then made visible to the human eye either by capturing the electrons on a fluorescent screen or by capturing them digitally. In biological applications, TEM has been used to image a wide variety of specimens, from cells and virus particles to individual proteins and other molecules.</p><span class="MOD"></span></div><span class="LIST-ITEM-10"></span></li></ul><span class="AM-END-OF-ARTICLE am-inline"></span></article> </div> </div> </div> <aside class="cm-rightrail d-none d-md-block ad-rail"></aside> </div> </div> </div> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col"> <div class="md-loading hidden display-4 font-weight-normal"></div> <div class="text-center my-20 mb-100"> <button class="md-infinite-load-next btn btn-blue" data-value="next-page">Load More</button> </div> </div> <div class="col-md-da-320 hidden-xs"> </div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"List","templateName":null,"pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":11,"pageId":5906,"pageLength":null,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/list-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"List","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":null,"gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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