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class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button 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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Popularity_and_viral_spread" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popularity_and_viral_spread"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Popularity and viral spread </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popularity_and_viral_spread-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Its_damaging_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Its_damaging_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Its damaging effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Its_damaging_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_fake_news" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_fake_news"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Types of fake news </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_fake_news-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_of_the_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_of_the_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Criticism of the term </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_of_the_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Identification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Identification </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Identification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Identification subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Identification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Online_identification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online_identification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Online identification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online_identification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tackling_and_suppression_strategies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tackling_and_suppression_strategies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Tackling and suppression strategies </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Tackling_and_suppression_strategies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Tackling and suppression strategies subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Tackling_and_suppression_strategies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Strategies_regarding_the_perpetrator" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategies_regarding_the_perpetrator"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Strategies regarding the perpetrator </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategies_regarding_the_perpetrator-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Promotion_of_facts_over_emotions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Promotion_of_facts_over_emotions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Promotion of facts over emotions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Promotion_of_facts_over_emotions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technique_rebuttal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technique_rebuttal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Technique rebuttal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technique_rebuttal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Individual_counteraction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individual_counteraction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Individual counteraction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individual_counteraction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Backfire_effect" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Backfire_effect"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.4 Backfire effect </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Backfire_effect-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategies_regarding_carriers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategies_regarding_carriers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Strategies regarding carriers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategies_regarding_carriers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Regulation_of_social_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulation_of_social_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Regulation of social media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulation_of_social_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_strategy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_strategy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 General strategy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_strategy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fact-checking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fact-checking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 Fact-checking </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fact-checking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Facebook" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Facebook"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.4 Facebook </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Facebook-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Google" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Google"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.5 Google </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Google-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_and_criminal_sanctions_in_general" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_and_criminal_sanctions_in_general"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.6 Legal and criminal sanctions in general </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_and_criminal_sanctions_in_general-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Strategies_regarding_the_recipient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Strategies_regarding_the_recipient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Strategies regarding the recipient </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Strategies_regarding_the_recipient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cognitive_biases_of_recipient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitive_biases_of_recipient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Cognitive biases of recipient </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitive_biases_of_recipient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nudges_as_reflection_prompts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nudges_as_reflection_prompts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Nudges as reflection prompts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nudges_as_reflection_prompts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media_critical_thinking_skills" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media_critical_thinking_skills"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.3 Media critical thinking skills </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media_critical_thinking_skills-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mental_immune_health,_inoculation_and_prebunking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mental_immune_health,_inoculation_and_prebunking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.4 Mental immune health, inoculation and prebunking </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mental_immune_health,_inoculation_and_prebunking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Ancient </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Medieval </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Early modern </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Special_topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Special_topics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Special topics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Special_topics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Special topics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Special_topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deepfakes_and_shallowfakes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deepfakes_and_shallowfakes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Deepfakes and shallowfakes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deepfakes_and_shallowfakes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bots_on_social_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bots_on_social_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Bots on social media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bots_on_social_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internet_trolls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet_trolls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Internet trolls </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet_trolls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fake_news_hoaxes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fake_news_hoaxes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Fake news hoaxes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fake_news_hoaxes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Donald_Trump's_misuse_of_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Donald_Trump's_misuse_of_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Donald Trump's misuse of term </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Donald_Trump's_misuse_of_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 By country </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_country-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle By country subsection </button> <ul id="toc-By_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Austria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Austria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.1 Austria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Austria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Belgium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Belgium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.2 Belgium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Belgium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Czech_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Czech_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.3 Czech Republic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Czech_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.4 European Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Finland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Finland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.5 Finland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Finland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.6 France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.7 Germany </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hungary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hungary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.8 Hungary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hungary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.9 Italy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Malta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.10 Malta </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Netherlands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Netherlands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.11 Netherlands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Netherlands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.12 Poland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.13 Romania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.14 Russia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Serbia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serbia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.15 Serbia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Serbia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.16 Spain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sweden" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sweden"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.17 Sweden </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sweden-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ukraine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ukraine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.18 Ukraine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ukraine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.19 United Kingdom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.1 China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hong_Kong" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hong_Kong"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.1.1 Hong Kong </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hong_Kong-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.2 India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indonesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indonesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.3 Indonesia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indonesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Malaysia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Malaysia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.4 Malaysia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Malaysia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Myanmar_(Burma)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Myanmar_(Burma)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.5 Myanmar (Burma) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Myanmar_(Burma)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pakistan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pakistan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.6 Pakistan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pakistan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philippines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philippines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.7 Philippines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philippines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Singapore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Singapore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.8 Singapore </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Singapore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.9 South Korea </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taiwan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taiwan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.10 Taiwan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taiwan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Americas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Brazil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brazil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1 Brazil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brazil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.2 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colombia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colombia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.3 Colombia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colombia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.4 Mexico </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.5 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_East_and_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_East_and_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Middle East and Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_East_and_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Armenia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armenia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.1 Armenia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armenia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Israel_and_Palestinian_territories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israel_and_Palestinian_territories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.2 Israel and Palestinian territories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israel_and_Palestinian_territories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saudi_Arabia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saudi_Arabia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.3 Saudi Arabia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saudi_Arabia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.4 Syria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Arab_Emirates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Arab_Emirates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.5 United Arab Emirates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Arab_Emirates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.6 Egypt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.7 South Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Oceania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5.1 Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Fake news</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 68 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-68" aria-hidden="true" > 68 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fopnuus" title="Fopnuus – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Fopnuus" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B0%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="أخبار كاذبة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أخبار كاذبة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%81%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF" title="ভুৱা বাতৰি – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ভুৱা বাতৰি" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxta_x%C9%99b%C9%99rl%C9%99r" title="Saxta xəbərlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Saxta xəbərlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="ভুয়া সংবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভুয়া সংবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Фэйкавыя навіны – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фэйкавыя навіны" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9C" title="फेक न्यूज – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="फेक न्यूज" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Фалшиви новини – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Фалшиви новини" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falskelo%C3%B9" title="Falskeloù – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Falskeloù" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not%C3%ADcia_enganyosa" title="Notícia enganyosa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Notícia enganyosa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fake news" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falske_nyheder" title="Falske nyheder – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Falske nyheder" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_News" title="Fake News – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Fake News" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libauudis" title="Libauudis – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Libauudis" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A8%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%B4%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%82_%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%AE%CF%83%CE%B5%CE%B9%CF%82" title="Ψευδείς ειδήσεις – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ψευδείς ειδήσεις" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fake news" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsaj_nova%C4%B5oj" title="Falsaj novaĵoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Falsaj novaĵoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albiste_faltsu" title="Albiste faltsu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Albiste faltsu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C" title="خبررسانی جعلی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خبررسانی جعلی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infox" title="Infox – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Infox" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepnijs" title="Nepnijs – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Nepnijs" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%A9agnuacht" title="Bréagnuacht – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Bréagnuacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B0%80%EC%A7%9C%EB%89%B4%EC%8A%A4" title="가짜뉴스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="가짜뉴스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labaran_%C6%99arya" title="Labaran ƙarya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Labaran ƙarya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%AE_%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Կեղծ լուրեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կեղծ լուրեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="असत्य समाचार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="असत्य समाचार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%C5%BEne_vijesti" title="Lažne vijesti – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Lažne vijesti" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berita_palsu" title="Berita palsu – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Berita palsu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_news" title="Fake news – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fake news" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A7_%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%96" title="פייק ניוז – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פייק ניוז" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BA_%D0%BD%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%81" title="Фейк ньюс – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Фейк ньюс" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habari_uongo" title="Habari uongo – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Habari uongo" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BB%C3%A7ey%C3%AAn_derew%C3%AEn" title="Nûçeyên derewîn – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Nûçeyên derewîn" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuntii_fallaces" title="Nuntii fallaces – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Nuntii fallaces" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viltus_zi%C5%86as" title="Viltus ziņas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Viltus ziņas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melagienos" title="Melagienos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Melagienos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81lh%C3%ADr" title="Álhír – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Álhír" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a 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/></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">False or misleading information presented as real</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about a general discussion of false or misleading information presented as news. For the online type and the websites that specialize in it, see <a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">Fake news website</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Fake_news_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Fake news (disambiguation)">Fake news (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Very_long plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-very_long" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_size" title="Wikipedia:Article size">too long</a> to read and navigate comfortably. When this tag was added, its <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:SIZERULE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:SIZERULE">readable prose size</a> was 18,300 words. Consider <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">splitting</a> content into sub-articles, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">condensing</a> it, or adding <a href="/wiki/Help:Section#Subsections" title="Help:Section">subheadings</a>. Please discuss this issue on the article's <a href="/wiki/Talk:Fake_news" title="Talk:Fake news">talk page</a>. (January 2024)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_fin_de_si%C3%A8cle_newspaper_proprietor_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Three running men carrying papers with the labels "Humbug News", "Fake News", and "Cheap Sensation"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/The_fin_de_si%C3%A8cle_newspaper_proprietor_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-The_fin_de_si%C3%A8cle_newspaper_proprietor_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/The_fin_de_si%C3%A8cle_newspaper_proprietor_%28cropped%29.jpg/450px-The_fin_de_si%C3%A8cle_newspaper_proprietor_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/The_fin_de_si%C3%A8cle_newspaper_proprietor_%28cropped%29.jpg/600px-The_fin_de_si%C3%A8cle_newspaper_proprietor_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1525" data-file-height="846" /></a><figcaption>Reporters with various forms of "fake news" from an 1894 illustration by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Burr_Opper" title="Frederick Burr Opper">Frederick Burr Opper</a></figcaption></figure> Fake news or information disorder is false or misleading information (<a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">misinformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">disinformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hoaxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoaxes">hoaxes</a>) claiming the aesthetics and legitimacy of <a href="/wiki/News" title="News">news</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian12.17.16-1">[1]</a> Fake news often has the aim of <a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">damaging the reputation of a person or entity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-USNewsWR-2">[2]</a> or making money through <a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">advertising</a> revenue.<a href="#cite_note-:0-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Although false news has always been spread throughout history, the term fake news was first used in the 1890s when sensational reports in newspapers were common.<a href="#cite_note-webster-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-politico-6">[6]</a> Nevertheless, the term does not have a fixed definition and has been applied broadly to any type of false information presented as news. It has also been used by high-profile people to apply to any news unfavorable to them. Further, <a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">disinformation</a> involves spreading false information with harmful intent and is sometimes generated and propagated by hostile foreign actors, particularly <a href="/wiki/Foreign_electoral_intervention" title="Foreign electoral intervention">during elections</a>. In some definitions, fake news includes <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satirical</a> articles misinterpreted as genuine, and articles that employ <a href="/wiki/Sensationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensationalist">sensationalist</a> or <a href="/wiki/Clickbait" title="Clickbait">clickbait</a> <a href="/wiki/Headline" title="Headline">headlines</a> that are not supported in the text.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian12.17.16-1">[1]</a> Because of this diversity of types of false news, researchers are beginning to favour information disorder as a more neutral and informative term. The prevalence of fake news has increased with the recent rise of <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> especially the <a href="/wiki/Facebook_News_Feed" class="mw-redirect" title="Facebook News Feed">Facebook News Feed</a>, and this misinformation is gradually seeping into the mainstream media.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Several factors have been implicated in the spread of fake news, such as <a href="/wiki/Political_polarization" title="Political polarization">political polarization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Post-truth_politics" title="Post-truth politics">post-truth politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motivated_reasoning" title="Motivated reasoning">motivated reasoning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a>, and social media <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian12.17.16-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-wired.com-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Guardian11.11.16-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Fake news can reduce the impact of real news by competing with it. For example, a <a href="/wiki/BuzzFeed_News" title="BuzzFeed News">BuzzFeed News</a> analysis found that the top fake news stories about the <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016 U.S. presidential election</a> received more engagement on <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> than top stories from major media outlets.<a href="#cite_note-Silverman_11/16/2016-13">[13]</a> It also particularly has the potential to undermine trust in serious media coverage. The term has at times been used to cast doubt upon credible news, and former U.S. president <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> has been credited with popularizing the term by using it to describe any negative press coverage of himself. It has been increasingly criticized, due in part to Trump's misuse, with the British government deciding to avoid the term, as it is "poorly-defined" and "conflates a variety of false information, from genuine error through to foreign interference".<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Multiple strategies for fighting fake news are actively researched, for various types of fake news. Politicians in certain <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocratic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a> countries have demanded effective self-regulation and legally-enforced regulation in varying forms, of social media and web search engines. On an individual scale, the ability to actively confront false narratives, as well as taking care when sharing information can reduce the prevalence of falsified information. However, it has been noted that this is vulnerable to the effects of <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motivated_reasoning" title="Motivated reasoning">motivated reasoning</a> and other cognitive biases that can seriously distort reasoning, particularly in dysfunctional and polarised societies. <a href="/wiki/Inoculation_theory" title="Inoculation theory">Inoculation theory</a> has been proposed as a method to render individuals resistant to undesirable narratives. Because new misinformation emerges frequently, researchers have stated that one solution to address this is to inoculate the population against accepting fake news in general (a process termed <a href="#Prebunking">prebunking</a>), instead of continually debunking the same repeated lies.<a href="#cite_note-PsychologyToday-15">[15]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Defining_fake_news">Defining fake news</h2></div> Fake news is false or misleading information presented as <a href="/wiki/News" title="News">news</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wired.com-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20170623-16">[16]</a> The term as it developed in 2017 is a <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologism</a> (a new or re-purposed expression that is entering the language, driven by culture or technology changes).<a href="#cite_note-NYTneo-17">[17]</a> Fake news is now used by many people as a catch-all, referring to any lies and misrepresentations, from a news distributor or not; further, a few people use the term to condemn creditable news sources they do not like, without otherwise arguing details. Fake news stories in the old sense, plus misleading headlines, are presented among other stories by news aggregators or political sites, for financial or political gain. There are also <a href="/wiki/Fake_news_websites" class="mw-redirect" title="Fake news websites">fake news websites</a> which run only stories that have no basis in fact but are presented as being factually accurate.<a href="#cite_note-Allcott-2017-18">[18]</a> Some satirical sites openly label themselves as fake news or satire, or they may reveal that they are fake only on closer inspection for clues. Overlapping terms are <a href="/wiki/Bullshit" title="Bullshit">bullshit</a>, hoax news, pseudo-news, alternative facts, false news and junk news.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_Democracy" title="National Endowment for Democracy">National Endowment for Democracy</a> defines fake news as "[M]isleading content found on the internet, especially on social media [...] Much of this content is produced by for-profit websites and Facebook pages gaming the platform for advertising revenue" and distinguishes it from disinformation: "[F]ake news does not meet the definition of disinformation or propaganda. Its motives are usually financial, not political, and it is usually not tied to a larger agenda."<a href="#cite_note-ned-20">[20]</a> Media scholar <a href="/wiki/Nolan_Higdon" title="Nolan Higdon">Nolan Higdon</a> has defined fake news as "false or misleading content presented as news and communicated in formats spanning spoken, written, printed, electronic, and digital communication". Higdon has also argued that the definition of fake news has been applied too narrowly to select mediums and political ideologies.<a href="#cite_note-Higdon-21">[21]</a> While most definitions focus strictly on content accuracy and format, current research indicates that the rhetorical structure of the content might play a significant role in the perception of fake news.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Michael Radutzky, a producer of CBS <a href="/wiki/60_Minutes" title="60 Minutes">60 Minutes</a>, said his show considers fake news to be "stories that are probably false, have enormous traction [popular appeal] in the culture, and are consumed by millions of people." These stories are not only found in politics, but also in areas like vaccination, stock values and nutrition.<a href="#cite_note-lazer-23">[23]</a> He did not include news that is "invoked by politicians against the media for stories that they don't like or for comments that they don't like" as fake news. Guy Campanile, also a 60 Minutes producer said, "What we are talking about are stories that are fabricated out of thin air. By most measures, deliberately, and by any definition, that's a lie."<a href="#cite_note-60Overtime-24">[24]</a> The intent and purpose of fake news is important. In some cases, fake news may be <a href="/wiki/News_satire" title="News satire">news satire</a>, which uses exaggeration and introduces non-factual elements that are intended to amuse or make a point, rather than to deceive. <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> can also be fake news.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian12.17.16-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> In the context of the United States of America and its election processes in the 2010s, fake news generated considerable controversy and argument, with some commentators defining concern over it as <a href="/wiki/Moral_panic" title="Moral panic">moral panic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mass_hysteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass hysteria">mass hysteria</a> and others worried about damage done to public trust.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> It particularly has the potential to undermine trust in serious media coverage generally.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The term has also been used to cast doubt upon credible mainstream media.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In January 2017, the United Kingdom <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons" title="House of Commons">House of Commons</a> commenced a <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_inquiry_(parliamentary_procedure)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary inquiry (parliamentary procedure)">parliamentary inquiry</a> into the "growing phenomenon of fake news".<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> In 2016, <a href="/wiki/PolitiFact" title="PolitiFact">PolitiFact</a> selected fake news as their Lie of the Year. No single lie stood out, so the generic term was chosen. Also in 2016, Oxford Dictionaries selected <a href="/wiki/Post-truth" title="Post-truth">post-truth</a> as its word of the year and defined it as the state of affairs when "objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to emotion and personal belief."<a href="#cite_note-lie2016-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roots">Roots</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Media_pluralism" title="Media pluralism">Media pluralism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_roots_of_%27fake_news%27.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/The_roots_of_%27fake_news%27.png/220px-The_roots_of_%27fake_news%27.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/The_roots_of_%27fake_news%27.png/330px-The_roots_of_%27fake_news%27.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/The_roots_of_%27fake_news%27.png/440px-The_roots_of_%27fake_news%27.png 2x" data-file-width="627" data-file-height="578" /></a><figcaption>The roots of "fake news" from UNESCO's World Trends Report<a href="#cite_note-unesco-34">[34]</a></figcaption></figure> The term fake news gained importance with the electoral context in Western Europe and North America. It is determined by <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">fraudulent</a> content in news format and its velocity.<a href="#cite_note-unesco-34">[34]</a> According to Bounegru, Gray, Venturini and Mauri, a lie becomes fake news when it "is picked up by dozens of other <a href="/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">blogs</a>, retransmitted by hundreds of websites, cross-posted over thousands of social media accounts and read by hundreds of thousands".<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The evolving nature of online business models encourages the production of information that is "click-worthy" and independent of its accuracy.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> The nature of trust depends on the assumptions that non-institutional forms of communication are freer from power and more able to report information that <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_media" title="Mainstream media">mainstream media</a> are perceived as unable or unwilling to reveal. Declines in confidence in much traditional media<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> and expert knowledge<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> have created fertile grounds for alternative, and often obscure sources of information to appear as authoritative and credible. This ultimately leaves users confused about basic facts.<a href="#cite_note-pew1-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popularity_and_viral_spread">Popularity and viral spread</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20241116_%22Fake_news%22_(topic)_on_Google_Trends.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/20241116_%22Fake_news%22_%28topic%29_on_Google_Trends.svg/220px-20241116_%22Fake_news%22_%28topic%29_on_Google_Trends.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/20241116_%22Fake_news%22_%28topic%29_on_Google_Trends.svg/330px-20241116_%22Fake_news%22_%28topic%29_on_Google_Trends.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/20241116_%22Fake_news%22_%28topic%29_on_Google_Trends.svg/440px-20241116_%22Fake_news%22_%28topic%29_on_Google_Trends.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Google_Trends" title="Google Trends">Google Trends</a> topic searches began a substantial increase in late 2016, about the time of the U.S. presidential election.<a href="#cite_note-FakeNews_GoogleTrends-40">[40]</a></figcaption></figure> Fake news has become popular with various media outlets and platforms. Journalists have identified that the platforms like <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> or <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Meta</a> profit from the distribution of fake news.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Part of the reason behind the broad circulation of fake news online is that <a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">fake news websites</a> can be profitable by monetizing them through <a href="/wiki/Online_advertising" title="Online advertising">online advertising</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-3">[3]</a> Researchers at <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research_Center" title="Pew Research Center">Pew Research Center</a> discovered that over 60% of Americans access news through social media compared to traditional newspaper and magazines.<a href="#cite_note-pew2-43">[43]</a> With the popularity of social media, individuals can easily access fake news and disinformation. The rapid spread of false stories on social media during the 2012 elections in Italy has been documented, as has diffusion of false stories on Facebook during the 2016 US election campaign.<a href="#cite_note-Zhuravskaya-44">[44]</a> Fake news has the tendency to become viral among the public. With the presence of social media platforms like <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>, it becomes easier for false information to diffuse quickly. Research has found that false political information tends to spread three times faster than other false news.<a href="#cite_note-vosoughi-45">[45]</a> On Twitter, false tweets have a much higher chance of being retweeted than truthful tweets. More so, it is humans who are responsible for disseminating false news and information as opposed to bots and <a href="/wiki/Click_farm" title="Click farm">click farms</a>. The tendency for humans to spread false information has to do with human behavior; according to research, humans are attracted to events and information that are surprising and new, and, as a result, cause high arousal in the brain.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Besides, motivated reasoning was found to play a role in the spread of fake news.<a href="#cite_note-Tsang-2020-48">[48]</a> This ultimately leads humans to retweet or share false information, which are usually characterized with <a href="/wiki/Clickbait" title="Clickbait">clickbait</a> and eye-catching titles. This prevents people from stopping to verify the information. As a result, massive online communities form around a piece of false news without any prior fact-checking or verification of the veracity of the information. Of particular concern regarding viral spread of fake news is the role of super-spreaders. <a href="/wiki/Brian_Stelter" title="Brian Stelter">Brian Stelter</a>, the anchor of Reliable Sources at <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a>, has documented the systematic long-term two-way feedback that developed between President Donald Trump and <a href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a> presenters. The resultant conditioning of outrage in their large audience against government and the mainstream media has proved a highly successful money-spinner for the TV network.<a href="#cite_note-stelter-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Its_damaging_effects">Its damaging effects</h3></div> In 2017, the inventor of the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a> claimed that fake news was one of the three most significant new disturbing Internet trends that must first be resolved if the Internet is to be capable of truly "serving humanity." The other two new disturbing trends were the recent surge in the use of the Internet by governments for citizen-surveillance purposes, and for <a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">cyberwarfare</a> purposes.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Author <a href="/wiki/Terry_Pratchett" title="Terry Pratchett">Terry Pratchett</a>, previously a journalist and press officer, was among the first to be concerned about the spread of fake news on the Internet. In a 1995 interview with <a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a>, founder of <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>, he said, "Let's say I call myself the Institute for Something-or-other and I decide to promote a spurious treatise saying the Jews were entirely responsible for the Second World War, and <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> didn't happen, and it goes out there on the Internet and is available on the same terms as any piece of historical research which has undergone <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> and so on. There's a kind of parity of esteem of information on the net. It's all there: there's no way of finding out whether this stuff has any bottom to it or whether someone has just made it up". Gates was optimistic and disagreed, saying that authorities on the Internet would index and check facts and reputations in a much more sophisticated way than in print. But it was Pratchett who more accurately predicted how the Internet would propagate and legitimize fake news.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> When the Internet first became accessible for public use in the 1990s, its main purpose was for the seeking and accessing of information.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> As fake news was introduced to the Internet, this made it difficult for some people to find truthful information. The impact of fake news has become a worldwide phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Fake news is often spread through the use of <a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">fake news websites</a>, which, in order to gain credibility, specialize in creating attention-grabbing news, which often <a href="/wiki/Website_spoofing" title="Website spoofing">impersonate</a> well-known news sources.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-snopesfieldguide-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-bengilbert-56">[56]</a> Jestin Coler, who said he does it for "fun",<a href="#cite_note-60Overtime-24">[24]</a> has indicated that he earned US$10,000 per month from advertising on his fake news websites.<a href="#cite_note-60Minutes-57">[57]</a> Research has shown that fake news hurts social media and online based outlets far worse than traditional print and TV outlets. After a survey was conducted, it was found that 58% of people had less trust in social media news stories as opposed to 24% of people in mainstream media after learning about fake news.<a href="#cite_note-Reuters-2017-58">[58]</a> In 2019 <a href="/wiki/Christine_Michel_Carter" title="Christine Michel Carter">Christine Michel Carter</a>, a writer who has reported on <a href="/wiki/Generation_Alpha" title="Generation Alpha">Generation Alpha</a> for Forbes stated that one-third of the generation can decipher false or misleading information in the media.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_fake_news">Types of fake news</h2></div> Claire Wardle of <a href="/wiki/First_Draft_News" title="First Draft News">First Draft News</a>, has identified seven types of fake news:<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Bad_example_of_frame_grab.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Bad_example_of_frame_grab.jpg/190px-Bad_example_of_frame_grab.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Bad_example_of_frame_grab.jpg/285px-Bad_example_of_frame_grab.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Bad_example_of_frame_grab.jpg/380px-Bad_example_of_frame_grab.jpg 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="305" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Rev._Jim_Jones,_1977_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Rev._Jim_Jones%2C_1977_%28cropped%29.jpg/190px-Rev._Jim_Jones%2C_1977_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Rev._Jim_Jones%2C_1977_%28cropped%29.jpg/285px-Rev._Jim_Jones%2C_1977_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Rev._Jim_Jones%2C_1977_%28cropped%29.jpg/380px-Rev._Jim_Jones%2C_1977_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2851" data-file-height="2230" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Manipulated content: an intentionally deceptive photoshopped image of <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a> over a 1977 photo of <a href="/wiki/Peoples_Temple" title="Peoples Temple">Peoples Temple</a> cult leader <a href="/wiki/Jim_Jones" title="Jim Jones">Jim Jones</a></div></div></div></div> <ol><li>satire or parody ("no intention to cause harm but has potential to fool")</li> <li>false connection ("when headlines, visuals or captions don't support the content")</li> <li>misleading content ("misleading use of information to <a href="/wiki/Spin_(public_relations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spin (public relations)">frame an issue</a> or an individual")</li> <li>false context ("when genuine content is shared with false contextual information")</li> <li>impostor content ("when genuine sources are impersonated" with false, made-up sources)</li> <li>manipulated content ("when genuine information or imagery is manipulated to deceive", as with a "doctored" photo)</li> <li>fabricated content ("new content is 100% false, designed to deceive and do harm")</li></ol> <a href="/wiki/Scientific_denialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific denialism">Scientific denialism</a> is another potential explanatory type of fake news, defined as the act of producing false or misleading facts to unconsciously support strong pre-existing beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_of_the_term">Criticism of the term</h2></div> In 2017, Wardle announced she has now rejected the phrase fake news and "censors it in conversation", finding it "woefully inadequate" to describe the issues. She now speaks of information disorder and information pollution, and distinguishes between three overarching types of information content problems:<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">Mis-information</a> (misinformation): false information disseminated without harmful intent.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_attack" title="Disinformation attack">Dis-information</a> (disinformation): false information created and shared by people with harmful intent.</li> <li>Mal-information (malinformation): the sharing of "genuine" information with the intent to cause harm.</li></ol> <a href="/wiki/Disinformation_attack" title="Disinformation attack">Disinformation attacks</a> are the most insidious type because of the harmful intent. For example, it is sometimes generated and propagated by hostile foreign actors, particularly <a href="/wiki/Foreign_electoral_intervention" title="Foreign electoral intervention">during elections</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Because of the manner in which former president Donald Trump has co-opted the term, <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> media columnist <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sullivan_(journalist)" title="Margaret Sullivan (journalist)">Margaret Sullivan</a> has warned fellow journalists that "It's time to retire the tainted term 'fake news'. Though the term hasn't been around long, its meaning already is lost."<a href="#cite_note-Gendreau_2/25/2017-65">[65]</a> By late 2018, the term "fake news" had become verboten and U.S. journalists, including the <a href="/wiki/Poynter_Institute" title="Poynter Institute">Poynter Institute</a> were asking for apologies and for product retirements from companies using the term.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In October 2018, the British government decided that the term fake news will no longer be used in official documents because it is "a poorly-defined and misleading term that conflates a variety of false information, from genuine error through to foreign interference in democratic processes." This followed a recommendation by the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons" title="House of Commons">House of Commons</a>' <a href="/wiki/Digital,_Culture,_Media_and_Sport_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee">Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee</a> to avoid the term.<a href="#cite_note-telegraphoct18-69">[69]</a> However, recent reviews of fake news still regard it as a useful broad construct, equivalent in meaning to fabricated news, as separate from related types of problematic news content, such as hyperpartisan news, the latter being a particular source of political polarization.<a href="#cite_note-lazer-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-pennycook-70">[70]</a> Therefore, researchers are beginning to favour information disorder as a more neutral and informative term. For example, the Commission of Inquiry by the <a href="/wiki/Aspen_Institute" title="Aspen Institute">Aspen Institute</a> (2021) has adopted the term Information Disorder in its investigative report.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Identification">Identification</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:How_to_Spot_Fake_News.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/How_to_Spot_Fake_News.pdf/page1-220px-How_to_Spot_Fake_News.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/How_to_Spot_Fake_News.pdf/page1-330px-How_to_Spot_Fake_News.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/How_to_Spot_Fake_News.pdf/page1-440px-How_to_Spot_Fake_News.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1575" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>Infographic How to spot fake news published by the <a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Library_Associations_and_Institutions" title="International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions">International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions</a></figcaption></figure> According to an academic library guide, a number of specific aspects of fake news may help to identify it and thus avoid being unduly influenced.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> These include: <a href="/wiki/Clickbait" title="Clickbait">clickbait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satire</a>/<a href="/wiki/Parody" title="Parody">parody</a>, sloppy <a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">journalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Misleading" class="mw-redirect" title="Misleading">misleading</a> headings, <a href="/wiki/Manipulation_(psychology)" title="Manipulation (psychology)">manipulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rumor" title="Rumor">rumor</a> mill, <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">misinformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">media bias</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Audience_bias&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Audience bias (page does not exist)">audience bias</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Content_farm" title="Content farm">content farms</a>. The <a href="/wiki/International_Federation_of_Library_Associations_and_Institutions" title="International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions">International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions</a> (IFLA) published a summary in diagram form (pictured at right) to assist people in recognizing fake news.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Its main points are: <ol><li>Consider the source (to understand its mission and purpose)</li> <li>Read beyond the headline (to understand the whole story)</li> <li>Check the authors (to see if they are real and credible)</li> <li>Assess the supporting sources (to ensure they support the claims)</li> <li>Check the date of publication (to see if the story is relevant and up to date)</li> <li>Ask if it is a joke (to determine if it is meant to be <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satire</a>)</li> <li>Review your own biases (to see if they are affecting your judgment)</li> <li>Ask experts (to get confirmation from independent people with knowledge).<a href="#cite_note-spotfake-74">[74]</a></li></ol> The International Fact-Checking Network (IFCN), launched by the Poynter Institute in 2015, supports international collaborative efforts in fact-checking, provides training, and has published a code of principles.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> In 2017 it introduced an application and vetting process for journalistic organisations.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> One of IFCN's verified signatories, the independent, not-for-profit media journal <a href="/wiki/The_Conversation_(website)" title="The Conversation (website)">The Conversation</a>, created a short animation explaining its fact checking process, which involves "extra checks and balances, including <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">blind peer review</a> by a second academic expert, additional scrutiny and editorial oversight".<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Beginning in the 2017 school year, children in Taiwan study a new curriculum designed to teach critical reading of propaganda and the evaluation of sources. Called "media literacy", the course provides training in journalism in the new information society.<a href="#cite_note-Time-Smith-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Online_identification">Online identification</h3></div> Fake news has become increasingly prevalent over the last few years, with over 100 misleading articles and rumors spread regarding the <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016 United States presidential election</a> alone.<a href="#cite_note-Allcott-2017-18">[18]</a> These fake news articles tend to come from satirical news websites or individual websites with an incentive to propagate false information, either as clickbait or to serve a purpose.<a href="#cite_note-Allcott-2017-18">[18]</a> Since they typically hope to intentionally promote incorrect information, such articles are quite difficult to detect.<a href="#cite_note-Shu-2017-79">[79]</a> When identifying a source of information, one must look at many attributes, including but not limited to the content of the email and social media engagements. Specifically, the language is typically more inflammatory in fake news than real articles, in part because the purpose is to confuse and generate clicks.<a href="#cite_note-Shu-2017-79">[79]</a> Furthermore, modeling techniques such as <a href="/wiki/N-gram" title="N-gram">n-gram</a> encodings and <a href="/wiki/Bag-of-words_model" title="Bag-of-words model">bag of words</a> have served as other linguistic techniques to determine the legitimacy of a news source.<a href="#cite_note-Shu-2017-79">[79]</a> On top of that, researchers have determined that visual-based cues also play a factor in categorizing an article, specifically some features can be designed to assess if a picture was legitimate and provides more clarity on the news.<a href="#cite_note-Shu-2017-79">[79]</a> There is also many social context features that can play a role, as well as the model of spreading the news. Websites such as <a href="/wiki/Snopes" title="Snopes">Snopes</a> try to detect this information manually, while certain universities are trying to build mathematical models to do this themselves.<a href="#cite_note-Allcott-2017-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tackling_and_suppression_strategies">Tackling and suppression strategies</h2></div> Considerable research is underway regarding strategies for confronting and suppressing fake news of all types, in particular <a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">disinformation</a>, which is the deliberate spreading of false narratives for political purposes, or for destabilising <a href="/wiki/Social_cohesion" class="mw-redirect" title="Social cohesion">social cohesion</a> in targeted communities. Multiple strategies need to be tailored to individual types of fake news, depending for example on whether the fake news is deliberately produced, or rather unintentionally or unconsciously produced. Considerable <a href="#Resources:_External_links">resources</a> are available to combat fake news. Regular summaries of current events and research are available on the websites and email newsletters of a number of support organisations. Particularly notable are the First Draft Archive,<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> the Information Futures Lab, School of Public Health, Brown University<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> and the Nieman Foundation for Journalism (Harvard University).<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Journalist Bernard Keane, in his book on misinformation in Australia, classifies strategies for dealing with fake news into three categories: (1) the liar (the perpetrator of fake news), (2) the conduit (the method of carriage of the fake news), and (3) the lied-to (the recipient of the fake news).<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategies_regarding_the_perpetrator">Strategies regarding the perpetrator</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Promotion_of_facts_over_emotions">Promotion of facts over emotions</h4></div> American philosopher of science Lee McIntyre, who has researched the scientific attitude and <a href="/wiki/Post-truth" title="Post-truth">post-truth</a>, has explained the importance of factual basis of society, in preference to one in which emotions replace facts. One modern example is the symbiotic relationship that developed between President Donald Trump and <a href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a>, in which the conspiracy beliefs of Fox hosts were repeated shortly after by Trump (and vice versa) in a continuous feedback loop. This served to promote outrage, and thus to condition and radicalise conservative Republican Fox listeners into cult-like Trump supporters, and to demonise and gaslight Democratic opponents, the mainstream media, and elites generally.<a href="#cite_note-stelter-49">[49]</a> A key strategy to counter fake news based on emotions rather than facts is to flood the information space, particularly social media and web browser search results with factual news, thus drowning out misinformation.<a href="#cite_note-mcintyre-84">[84]</a> A key factor in establishing facts is the role of critical thinking, the principles of which should be imbedded more comprehensively within all school and university education courses.<a href="#cite_note-harrison-85">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a> is a style of thinking in which citizens, prior to subsequent <a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">problem solving</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a>, have learned to pay attention to the content of written words, and to judge their accuracy and fairness, among other worthy attributes. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Technique_rebuttal">Technique rebuttal</h4></div> Because content rebuttal (presenting true facts to refute false information) does not always work, Lee McIntyre suggests the better method of technique rebuttal, in which faulty reasoning by deniers is exposed, such as cherry-picking data, and relying too much on fake experts. Deniers have a lot of information, but a deficit of trust in mainstream sources. McIntyre first builds trust by respectful exchange, listening carefully to their explanation without interrupting. Then he asks questions such as "What evidence would make you change your mind?" and "Why do you trust that source?" McIntyre has used his technique to talk to <a href="/wiki/Flat_earthers" class="mw-redirect" title="Flat earthers">flat earthers</a>, though he admits it may not work with hard-core deniers.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Individual_counteraction">Individual counteraction</h4></div> Individuals should confront misinformation when spotted in online blogs, even if briefly, otherwise they fester and proliferate. The person being responded to is probably resistant to change, but many other bloggers may read and learn from an evidence-based reply.<a href="#cite_note-mcintyre-84">[84]</a> A brutal example was learned by John Kerry during the US 2004 Presidential election campaign against George W. Bush. The right-wing <a href="/wiki/Swift_Vets_and_POWs_for_Truth" title="Swift Vets and POWs for Truth">Swift Boat Veterans for Truth</a> falsely claimed that Kerry showed cowardice during the Vietnam War. Kerry refused to dignify the claims with a response for two weeks, despite being pummeled in the media, and this action contributed to his marginal loss to Bush. We should never assume any claim is too outrageous to be believed.<a href="#cite_note-mcintyre-84">[84]</a>: 154–155  However, caution applies regarding over-zealous debunking of fake news. It is often unwise to draw attention to fake news published on a low-impact website or blog (one that has few followers). If this fake news is debunked by a journalist in a high-profile place such as <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, knowledge of the false claim <a href="/wiki/Streisand_effect" title="Streisand effect">spreads widely</a>, and more people overall will end up believing it, ignoring or denying the debunk.<a href="#cite_note-backfire-87">[a]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Backfire_effect">Backfire effect</h4></div> A widely reported paper by Brendan Nyhan and Jason Riefler in 2010 found that when persons with a firm belief are presented with corrective information, their mistaken political beliefs were reinforced rather than reduced in two of their five studies. The researchers called this a <a href="/wiki/Backfire_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Backfire effect">backfire effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> However, this finding was widely misreported as that corrective information was the sole cause of reinforced misinformation. Later studies, including by Nyhan and colleagues, failed to support a backfire effect. Instead, Nyhan now accepts that the reinforced beliefs are largely controlled by cues from high-profile elites and media that spread misinformation.<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategies_regarding_carriers">Strategies regarding carriers</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Regulation_of_social_media">Regulation of social media</h4></div> Internet companies with threatened credibility have developed new responses to limit fake news and reduce financial incentives for its proliferation.<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-wingfield-91">[90]</a> A valid criticism of social media companies is that users are <a href="/wiki/Filter_bubble" title="Filter bubble">presented with content that they will like</a>, based on previous viewing preferences. An undesirable side-effect is that <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a> is enhanced in users, which in turn enhances the acceptance of fake news. To reduce this bias, effective self-regulation and legally-enforced regulation of social media (notably Facebook and Twitter) and web search engines (notably Google) need to become more effective and innovative.<a href="#cite_note-wingfield-91">[90]</a> Financial disincentives to tackle fake news also apply to some mainstream media. Brian Stelter, the anchor of Reliable Sources at CNN, has provided a substantial critique of the symbiotic but damaging relationship that developed between President Donald Trump and Fox News, which has proved an extraordinarily successful money-spinner for the Murdoch-owned TV network, despite it being a super-spreader of fake news.<a href="#cite_note-stelter-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="General_strategy">General strategy</h4></div> The general approach by these tech companies is the detection of problematic news via human fact-checking and automated artificial intelligence (machine learning, natural language processing and network analysis). Tech companies have utilized two basic counter-strategies: down-ranking fake news and warning messages.<a href="#cite_note-pennycook-70">[70]</a> In the first approach, problematic content is down-ranked by the search algorithm, for example, to the second or later pages on a Google search, so that users are less likely to see it (most users just scan the first page of search results). However, two problems arise. One is that truth is not black-and-white, and fact-checkers often disagree on how to classify the content included in computer training sets, running the risk of false positives and unjustified censorship. Also, fake news often evolves rapidly, and therefore identifiers of misinformation may be ineffective in the future.<a href="#cite_note-pennycook-70">[70]</a> The second approach involves attaching warnings to content that professional fact-checkers have found to be false. Much evidence indicates that corrections and warnings do produce reduced misperceptions and sharing. Despite some early evidence that fact-checking could backfire, recent research has shown that these backfire effects are extremely uncommon. But an important problem is that professional fact-checking is not scalable – it can take substantial time and effort to investigate each particular claim. Thus, many (if not most) false claims never get fact-checked. Also, the process is slow, and a warning may miss the period of peak viral spreading. Further, warnings are typically only attached to blatantly false news, rather than to biased coverage of events that actually occurred.<a href="#cite_note-pennycook-70">[70]</a> A third approach is to place more emphasis on reliable sources such as <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, as well as mainstream media (for example, <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a>), and science communication publications (for example, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Conversation_(website)" title="The Conversation (website)">The Conversation</a>). However, this approach has led to mixed results, as hyperpartisan commentary and <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a> is found even in these sources (the media has both news and opinion pages). In addition, some sections of the community completely reject scientific commentary.<a href="#cite_note-pennycook-70">[70]</a> A fourth approach is to ban or specifically target so-called super-spreaders of fake news from social media.<a href="#cite_note-stelter-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fact-checking">Fact-checking</h4></div> During the 2016 United States presidential election, the creation and <a href="/wiki/Fake_news_websites_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news websites in the United States">coverage of fake news</a> increased substantially.<a href="#cite_note-lie2016-33">[33]</a> This resulted in a widespread <a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website#Response" title="Fake news website">response</a> to combat the spread of fake news.<a href="#cite_note-Snopes-92">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-Forbes-93">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYTimes-94">[93]</a> The volume and reluctance of fake news websites to respond to fact-checking organizations has posed a problem to inhibiting the spread of fake news through fact checking alone.<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> In an effort to reduce the effects of fake news, fact-checking websites, including <a href="/wiki/Snopes.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Snopes.com">Snopes.com</a> and <a href="/wiki/FactCheck.org" title="FactCheck.org">FactCheck.org</a>, have posted guides to spotting and avoiding fake news websites.<a href="#cite_note-Snopes-92">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-spotfake-74">[74]</a> Social media sites and search engines, such as <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> and <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a>, received criticism for facilitating the spread of fake news. Both of these corporations have taken measures to explicitly prevent the spread of fake news; critics, however, believe more action is needed.<a href="#cite_note-NYTimes-94">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Facebook">Facebook</h4></div> After the 2016 American election and the run-up to the German election, Facebook began labeling and warning of inaccurate news<a href="#cite_note-Stelter-2017-96">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Owen-2016-97">[96]</a> and partnered with independent <a href="/wiki/Fact_checking" class="mw-redirect" title="Fact checking">fact-checkers</a> to label inaccurate news, warning readers before sharing it.<a href="#cite_note-Stelter-2017-96">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Owen-2016-97">[96]</a> After a story is flagged as disputed, it will be reviewed by the third-party fact-checkers. Then, if it has been proven to be a fake news story, the post cannot be turned into an ad or promoted.<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> Artificial intelligence is one of the more recent technologies being developed in the United States and Europe to recognize and eliminate fake news through algorithms.<a href="#cite_note-Forbes-93">[92]</a> In 2017, Facebook targeted 30,000 accounts related to the spread of misinformation regarding the <a href="/wiki/2017_French_presidential_election" title="2017 French presidential election">French presidential election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> In 2020, during the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>, Facebook found that <a href="/wiki/Troll_farm" title="Troll farm">troll farms</a> from <a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia" title="North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> pushed coronavirus disinformation. The publishers that used contents from these farms were banned from the platform.<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Google">Google</h4></div> In March 2018, <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> launched <a href="/wiki/Google_News_Initiative" class="mw-redirect" title="Google News Initiative">Google News Initiative</a> (GNI) to fight the spread of fake news. It launched GNI under the belief that quality <a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">journalism</a> and identifying truth online is crucial. GNI has three goals: "to elevate and strengthen quality journalism, evolve business models to drive sustainable growth and empower news organizations through technological innovation".<a href="#cite_note-Engadget-2018-101">[100]</a> To achieve the first goal, Google created the Disinfo Lab, which combats the spread of fake news during crucial times such as elections or breaking news. The company is also working to adjust its systems to display more trustworthy content during times of breaking news. To make it easier for users to subscribe to media publishers, Google created Subscribe with Google. Additionally, they have created a dashboard, News Consumer Insights that allows news organizations to better understand their audiences using data and analytics. Google will spend $300 million through 2021 on these efforts, among others, to combat fake news.<a href="#cite_note-Engadget-2018-101">[100]</a> In November 2020, <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> (owned by Google) suspended news outlet <a href="/wiki/One_America_News_Network" title="One America News Network">One America News Network</a> (OANN) for a week for spreading misinformation on coronavirus. The outlet has violated YouTube's policy multiple times. A video that falsely promoted a guaranteed cure to the virus has been deleted from the channel.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legal_and_criminal_sanctions_in_general">Legal and criminal sanctions in general</h4></div> The use of anonymously hosted <a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">fake news websites</a> has made it difficult to prosecute sources of fake news for <a href="/wiki/Libel" class="mw-redirect" title="Libel">libel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wired.com-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a> Numerous countries have created laws in an attempt to regulate or prosecute harmful misinformation more generally than just with a focus on tech companies. In numerous countries, people have been arrested for allegedly spreading <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">fake news about the COVID-19 pandemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bans-131">[b]</a> <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algerian</a> lawmakers passed a law criminalising "fake news" deemed harmful to "public order and state security".<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Interior_(Turkey)" title="Ministry of the Interior (Turkey)">Turkish Interior Ministry</a> has been <a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Turkey" title="Censorship in Turkey">arresting</a> social media users whose posts were "targeting officials and spreading panic and fear by suggesting the virus had spread widely in Turkey and that officials had taken insufficient measures".<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran">Iran's military</a> said 3600 people have been arrested for "spreading rumors" about COVID-19 in the country.<a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, some individuals who expressed concerns about the spread of COVID-19 have been arrested on fake news charges.<a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> have introduced criminal penalties for the spread of misinformation and rumours related to the outbreak.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategies_regarding_the_recipient">Strategies regarding the recipient</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cognitive_biases_of_recipient">Cognitive biases of recipient</h4></div> The vast proliferation of online information, such as in blogs and tweets, has inundated the online marketplace. Because of the resulting <a href="/wiki/Information_overload" title="Information overload">information overload</a>, humans cannot process all these information units (called <a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">memes</a>), so <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a> and other cognitive biases decide which ones to pay attention to, thus enhancing the spread of fake news. Moreover, these cognitive vulnerabilities are easily exploited by both computer algorithms that present information one may like (based on previous social media use) and by individual manipulators who create social media bots to deliberately spread disinformation.<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> A recent study by Randy Stein and colleagues shows that conservatives value personal stories (non-scientific, intuitive or experiential evidence) more than do liberals (progressives), and therefore perhaps may be less swayed by scientific evidence. This study, however, only tested responses to apolitical messages.<a href="#cite_note-stein-139">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-stein1-140">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nudges_as_reflection_prompts">Nudges as reflection prompts</h4></div> People tend to react hastily and share fake news without thinking carefully about what they have read or heard, and without checking or verifying the information. "Nudging" people to consider the accuracy of incoming information has been shown to prompt people to think about it, to improve the accuracy of their judgement, and to reduce the likelihood that incorrect information is unreflectively shared.<a href="#cite_note-Larson-141">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pennycook-142">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bago-143">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a> An example of a technology-based nudge is Twitter's "read before you retweet" prompt, which prompts readers to read an article and consider its contents before retweeting it.<a href="#cite_note-Vincent-145">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Media_critical_thinking_skills">Media critical thinking skills</h4></div> Critical <a href="/wiki/Media_literacy" title="Media literacy">media literacy</a> skills, for both printed and digital media, are essential for recipients to self-evaluate the accuracy of the media content. Media scholar Nolan Higdon argues that a critical media literacy education focused on teaching critical thinking about how to detect fake news is the most effective way for mitigating the pernicious influence of propaganda. Higdon offers a ten-step guide for detecting fake news.<a href="#cite_note-Higdon-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mental_immune_health,_inoculation_and_prebunking">Mental immune health, inoculation and prebunking</h4></div> American philosopher Andy Norman, in his book Mental Immunity, argues for a new science of cognitive immunology as a practical guide to resisting bad ideas (such as <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theories">conspiracy theories</a>), as well as transcending petty <a href="/wiki/Tribalism" title="Tribalism">tribalism</a>. He argues that reasoned argument, the scientific method, fact-checking and critical thinking skills alone are insufficient to counter the broad scope of false information. Overlooked is the power of <a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">confirmation bias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motivated_reasoning" title="Motivated reasoning">motivated reasoning</a>, and other cognitive biases that can seriously distort the many facets of mental 'immunity' (public resilience to fake news), particularly in dysfunctional societies.<a href="#cite_note-norman-146">[144]</a> One problem identified by Susan A. Nolan, Ph.D., and Michael Kimball, writing for <a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_today&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Psychology today (page does not exist)">Psychology today</a>, is that new misinformation, including intentional disinformation, is constantly emerging. The pair cited research suggesting that this could be addressed by inoculating the population against misinformation, rather than to continually having to debunk each new claim at a later time, explaining that this inoculation builds public resilience and creates the conditions for psychological '<a href="/wiki/Herd_immunity" title="Herd immunity">herd immunity</a>'. The general term for this process is prebunking, defined as the process of debunking lies, tactics or sources before they strike. The research they cited included studies of free online games shown to provide tools to fight fake news, leading to healthy skepticism when consuming news.<a href="#cite_note-PsychologyToday-15">[15]</a> As of 2023<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fake_news&action=edit">[update]</a>, Google implemented novel prebunking video adverts, which have been shown to be effective in countering misinformation during trials in Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Fortune-147">[145]</a> Most current research is based on <a href="/wiki/Inoculation_theory" title="Inoculation theory">inoculation theory</a>, a social psychological and communication theory that explains how an attitude or belief can be protected against persuasion or influence in much the same way a body can be protected against disease – for example, through pre-exposure to weakened versions of a stronger, future threat. The theory uses inoculation as its explanatory analogy—applied to attitudes (or beliefs) much like a vaccine is applied to an infectious disease. It has great potential for building public resilience ('immunity') against misinformation and fake news, for example, in tackling <a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">science denialism</a>, risky health behaviours, and emotionally manipulative marketing and political messaging.<a href="#cite_note-vanderlinden-148">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-compton2013-149">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[149]</a> For example, John Cook and colleagues have shown that inoculation theory shows promise in countering <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change denialism">climate change denialism</a>. This involves a two-step process. Firstly, the 50 or so most common myths about climate change are listed and deconstructed by identifying the reasoning errors and <a href="/wiki/Logical_fallacies" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical fallacies">logical fallacies</a> of each one. Secondly, the concept of parallel argumentation is used to explain the flaw in the argument by transplanting the same logic into a parallel situation, often an extreme or absurd one. Adding appropriate humour can be particularly effective.<a href="#cite_note-cook1-152">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-cook2-154">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient">Ancient</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marcus_Antonius_marble_bust_in_the_Vatican_Museums.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="stone sculpture of a man's head and neck" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Marcus_Antonius_marble_bust_in_the_Vatican_Museums.jpg/220px-Marcus_Antonius_marble_bust_in_the_Vatican_Museums.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Marcus_Antonius_marble_bust_in_the_Vatican_Museums.jpg/330px-Marcus_Antonius_marble_bust_in_the_Vatican_Museums.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Marcus_Antonius_marble_bust_in_the_Vatican_Museums.jpg/440px-Marcus_Antonius_marble_bust_in_the_Vatican_Museums.jpg 2x" data-file-width="966" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Roman politician and general <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a> killed himself because of misinformation.<a href="#cite_note-MarcAntonysuicide-155">[153]</a></figcaption></figure> In the 13th century BC, <a href="/wiki/Rameses_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Rameses the Great">Rameses the Great</a> spread lies and propaganda portraying the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kadesh" title="Battle of Kadesh">Battle of Kadesh</a> as a stunning victory for the Egyptians; he depicted scenes of himself smiting his foes during the battle on the walls of nearly all his temples. The <a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Hittite_peace_treaty" title="Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty">treaty</a> between the Egyptians and the <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a>, however, reveals that the battle was actually a <a href="/wiki/Stalemate" title="Stalemate">stalemate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[154]</a> During the first century BC, <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Octavian</a> ran a campaign of misinformation against his rival <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>, portraying him as a drunkard, a womanizer, and a mere puppet of the Egyptian queen <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a>.<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a> He published a document purporting to be Mark Antony's will, which claimed that Mark Antony, upon his death, wished to be entombed in the mausoleum of the Ptolemaic pharaohs. Although the document may have been forged, it invoked outrage from the Roman populace.<a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> Mark Antony ultimately killed himself after his defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Battle of Actium</a> upon hearing false rumors propagated by Cleopatra herself claiming that she had committed suicide.<a href="#cite_note-MarcAntonysuicide-155">[153]</a> During the second and third centuries AD, false rumors were spread about Christians claiming that they engaged in ritual <a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">cannibalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">incest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> In the late third century AD, the <a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">Christian apologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a> invented and exaggerated stories about pagans engaging in acts of immorality and cruelty,<a href="#cite_note-161">[159]</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">anti-Christian</a> writer <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a> invented similar stories about Christians.<a href="#cite_note-162">[160]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval">Medieval</h3></div> In 1475, a fake news story in <a href="/wiki/Trento" title="Trento">Trent</a> claimed that the Jewish community had murdered a two-and-a-half-year-old Christian infant named <a href="/wiki/Simon_of_Trent" title="Simon of Trent">Simonino</a>.<a href="#cite_note-politico-6">[6]</a> The story resulted in all the Jews in the city being arrested and tortured; 15 of them were burned at the stake.<a href="#cite_note-politico-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_IV" title="Pope Sixtus IV">Pope Sixtus IV</a> himself attempted to stamp out the story; however, by that point, it had already spread beyond anyone's control.<a href="#cite_note-politico-6">[6]</a> Stories of this kind were known as "<a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">blood libel</a>"; they claimed that Jews purposely killed Christians, especially Christian children, and used their blood for religious or ritual purposes.<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern">Early modern</h3></div> After the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> in 1439, publications became widespread but there was no standard of journalistic ethics to follow. By the 17th century, historians began the practice of citing their sources in <a href="/wiki/Note_(typography)" title="Note (typography)">footnotes</a>. In 1610 when <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a> went on trial, the demand for verifiable news increased.<a href="#cite_note-politico-6">[6]</a> During the 18th century publishers of fake news were fined and banned in the Netherlands; one man, Gerard Lodewijk van der Macht, was banned four times by Dutch authorities—and four times he moved and restarted his press.<a href="#cite_note-FiveThirtyEight-164">[162]</a> In the American colonies, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> wrote fake news about murderous "scalping" Indians working with King <a href="/wiki/George_III_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="George III of the United Kingdom">George III</a> in an effort to sway public opinion in favor of the American Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-politico-6">[6]</a> Canards, the successors of the 16th-century <a href="/wiki/Pasquinade" title="Pasquinade">pasquinade</a>, were sold in Paris on the street for two centuries, starting in the 17th century. In 1793, <a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette</a> was executed in part because of popular hatred engendered by a canard on which her face had been printed.<a href="#cite_note-Darnton-165">[163]</a> During the era of slave-owning in the United States, supporters of slavery propagated fake news stories about African Americans, whom white people considered to have lower status.<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> Violence occurred in reaction to the spread of some fake news events. In one instance, stories of African Americans spontaneously turning white spread through the south and struck fear into the hearts of many people.<a href="#cite_note-politico-6">[6]</a> Rumors and anxieties about slave rebellions were common in Virginia from the beginning of the colonial period, despite the only major uprising occurring in the 19th century. One particular instance of fake news regarding revolts occurred in 1730. The serving governor of Virginia at the time, Governor William Gooch, reported that a slave rebellion had occurred but was effectively put down—although this never happened. After Gooch discovered the falsehood, he ordered slaves found off plantations to be punished, tortured and made prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1836_the-great-moon-hoax-new-inhabitants-of-the-moon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="b&w drawing of a man with large bat-wings reaching from over his head to mid-thigh" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/1836_the-great-moon-hoax-new-inhabitants-of-the-moon.png/180px-1836_the-great-moon-hoax-new-inhabitants-of-the-moon.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/1836_the-great-moon-hoax-new-inhabitants-of-the-moon.png/270px-1836_the-great-moon-hoax-new-inhabitants-of-the-moon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/1836_the-great-moon-hoax-new-inhabitants-of-the-moon.png/360px-1836_the-great-moon-hoax-new-inhabitants-of-the-moon.png 2x" data-file-width="1153" data-file-height="1423" /></a><figcaption>A "lunar animal" said to have been discovered by <a href="/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">John Herschel</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a></figcaption></figure> From 1800 to 1810, James Cheetham made use of fictional stories to advocate politically against Aaron Burr.<a href="#cite_note-Nine_letters-168">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-A_view-169">[167]</a> His stories were often defamatory and he was frequently sued for libel.<a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> One instance of fake news was the <a href="/wiki/Great_Moon_Hoax" title="Great Moon Hoax">Great Moon Hoax</a> of 1835. <a href="/wiki/The_Sun_(New_York_City)" title="The Sun (New York City)">The Sun</a> newspaper of New York published articles about a real-life astronomer and a made-up colleague who, according to the hoax, had observed bizarre life on the Moon. The fictionalized articles successfully attracted new subscribers, and the penny paper suffered very little backlash after it admitted the next month that the series had been a hoax.<a href="#cite_note-politico-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> Such stories were intended to entertain readers and not to mislead them.<a href="#cite_note-FiveThirtyEight-164">[162]</a> <a href="/wiki/Yellow_journalism" title="Yellow journalism">Yellow journalism</a> peaked in the mid-1890s characterizing the sensationalist journalism that arose in the circulation war between <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pulitzer" title="Joseph Pulitzer">Joseph Pulitzer</a>'s New York World and <a href="/wiki/William_Randolph_Hearst" title="William Randolph Hearst">William Randolph Hearst</a>'s New York Journal. Pulitzer and other yellow journalism publishers goaded the United States into the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a>, which was precipitated when the <a href="/wiki/USS_Maine_(1889)" title="USS Maine (1889)">USS Maine</a> exploded in the harbor of <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> The term fake news itself was apparently first used in the 1890s during this era of sensationalist news reporting.<a href="#cite_note-webster-5">[5]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PulitzerHearstWarYellowKids.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="two men dressed as the Yellow Kid pushing on opposite sides of oversize building blocks bearing the letters W A R"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/PulitzerHearstWarYellowKids.jpg/220px-PulitzerHearstWarYellowKids.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/PulitzerHearstWarYellowKids.jpg/330px-PulitzerHearstWarYellowKids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/PulitzerHearstWarYellowKids.jpg/440px-PulitzerHearstWarYellowKids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2502" data-file-height="1698" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pulitzer" title="Joseph Pulitzer">Joseph Pulitzer</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Randolph_Hearst" title="William Randolph Hearst">William Randolph Hearst</a> caricatured as they urged the U.S. into the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3></div> Fake news became popular and spread quickly in the 1900s. Media like newspapers, articles, and magazines were in high demand because of technology.<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> Author <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Churchwell" title="Sarah Churchwell">Sarah Churchwell</a> shows that when The New York Times reprinted the 1915 speech by Woodrow Wilson that popularized the phrase <a href="/wiki/America_First_(policy)" title="America First (policy)">America First</a>, they also used the subheading "Fake News Condemned" to describe a section of his speech warning against propaganda and misinformation, although Wilson himself had not used the phrase fake news. In his speech, Wilson warned of a growing problem with news that "turn[s] out to be falsehood," warning the country it "could not afford 'to let the rumors of irresponsible persons and origins get into the United States'" as that would undermine democracy and the principle of a free and accurate press.<a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a> Following a claim by CNN that "Trump was... the first US President to deploy [the term "fake news"] against his opponents",<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a> Sarah Churchwell's work was cited to claim that "it was Woodrow Wilson who popularized the phrase 'fake news' in 1915" without reference,<a href="#cite_note-178">[176]</a> forcing her to counter this claim, saying that "the phrase 'fake news' was very much NOT popularized (or even used) by Wilson. The NY Times used it in passing but it didn't catch on. Trump was the first to popularize it."<a href="#cite_note-179">[177]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Peace_rumor,_New_York._Crowd_at_Times_Square_holding_up_Extras_telling_about_the_signing_of_the_Armistice._The..._-_NARA_-_533477.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Peace_rumor%2C_New_York._Crowd_at_Times_Square_holding_up_Extras_telling_about_the_signing_of_the_Armistice._The..._-_NARA_-_533477.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Peace_rumor%2C_New_York._Crowd_at_Times_Square_holding_up_Extras_telling_about_the_signing_of_the_Armistice._The..._-_NARA_-_533477.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Peace_rumor%2C_New_York._Crowd_at_Times_Square_holding_up_Extras_telling_about_the_signing_of_the_Armistice._The..._-_NARA_-_533477.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Peace_rumor%2C_New_York._Crowd_at_Times_Square_holding_up_Extras_telling_about_the_signing_of_the_Armistice._The..._-_NARA_-_533477.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Peace_rumor%2C_New_York._Crowd_at_Times_Square_holding_up_Extras_telling_about_the_signing_of_the_Armistice._The..._-_NARA_-_533477.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Peace_rumor%2C_New_York._Crowd_at_Times_Square_holding_up_Extras_telling_about_the_signing_of_the_Armistice._The..._-_NARA_-_533477.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption>Residents of <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> celebrate the news of the <a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">Armistice of 11 November 1918</a>.</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>, an example of fake news was the <a href="/wiki/Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">anti-German</a> <a href="/wiki/Atrocity_propaganda" title="Atrocity propaganda">atrocity propaganda</a> regarding an alleged "<a href="/wiki/German_Corpse_Factory" title="German Corpse Factory">German Corpse Factory</a>" in which the German battlefield dead were supposedly rendered down for fats used to make <a href="/wiki/Nitroglycerine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitroglycerine">nitroglycerine</a>, candles, lubricants, <a href="/wiki/Soap_made_from_human_corpses" title="Soap made from human corpses">human soap</a> and boot dubbing. Unfounded rumors regarding such a factory circulated in the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied</a> press starting in 1915, and by 1917 the English-language publication <a href="/wiki/North_China_Daily_News" title="North China Daily News">North China Daily News</a> presented these allegations as true at a time when Britain was trying to convince China to join the Allied war effort; this was based on new, allegedly true stories from <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a> and the <a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Mail" class="mw-redirect" title="The Daily Mail">Daily Mail</a> that turned out to be forgeries. These false allegations became known as such after the war, and in the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a> used the story in order to <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">deny the ongoing massacre of Jews</a> as British propaganda. According to <a href="/wiki/Joachim_Neander" title="Joachim Neander">Joachim Neander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Randal_Marlin" title="Randal Marlin">Randal Marlin</a>, the story also "encouraged later disbelief" when reports about the Holocaust surfaced after the liberation of <a href="/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp" title="Auschwitz concentration camp">Auschwitz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" title="Dachau concentration camp">Dachau concentration camps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-BBC_fake_news-180">[178]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Hitler</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> rose to power in Germany in 1933, they established the <a href="/wiki/Reich_Ministry_of_Public_Enlightenment_and_Propaganda" title="Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda">Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda</a> under the control of Propaganda Minister <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Goebbels" title="Joseph Goebbels">Joseph Goebbels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-American_Experience-2006-181">[179]</a> The Nazis used both print and broadcast journalism to promote their agendas, either by obtaining ownership of those media or exerting political influence.<a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a> The expression <a href="/wiki/Big_lie" title="Big lie">big lie</a> (German: große Lüge) was coined by Adolf Hitler, when he dictated his 1925 book <a href="/wiki/Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a>. Throughout <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, both the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> employed fake news in the form of propaganda to persuade the public at home and in enemy countries.<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[182]</a> The British <a href="/wiki/Political_Warfare_Executive" title="Political Warfare Executive">Political Warfare Executive</a> used radio broadcasts and distributed leaflets to discourage German troops.<a href="#cite_note-American_Experience-2006-181">[179]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace" title="Carnegie Endowment for International Peace">Carnegie Endowment for International Peace</a> claimed that <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> printed fake news "depicting Russia as a socialist paradise."<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a> During 1932–1933, The New York Times published numerous articles by its Moscow bureau chief, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Duranty" title="Walter Duranty">Walter Duranty</a>, who won a <a href="/wiki/Pulitzer_prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulitzer prize">Pulitzer prize</a> for a series of reports about the Soviet Union. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm/220px--Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="50" data-mwtitle="Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9c/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9c/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9c/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9c/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9c/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9c/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/9c/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm/Dictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ADictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm&lang=de-formal&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="de-x-formal" label="Deutsch (Sie-Form) ‪(de-formal)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ADictators_-_Kim_Jong-Un_by_RepresentUs.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>Deep fakes</figcaption></figure> In the 21st century, both the impact of fake news and the use of the term became widespread.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20170623-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a> The increasing openness, access and prevalence of the Internet resulted in its growth. New information and stories are published constantly and at a faster rate than ever, often lacking in verification, which may be consumed by anyone with an Internet connection.<a href="#cite_note-spotfake-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a> Fake news has grown from being sent via emails to attacking social media.<a href="#cite_note-spotfake-74">[74]</a> Besides referring to made-up stories designed to deceive readers into clicking on links, maximizing traffic and profit, the term has also referred to satirical news, whose purpose is not to mislead but rather to inform viewers and share humorous commentary about real news and the <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_media" title="Mainstream media">mainstream media</a>.<a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a> United States examples of satire include the newspaper <a href="/wiki/The_Onion" title="The Onion">The Onion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saturday_Night_Live" title="Saturday Night Live">Saturday Night Live</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Weekend_Update" title="Weekend Update">Weekend Update</a>, and the television shows <a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Show" title="The Daily Show">The Daily Show</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Colbert_Report" title="The Colbert Report">The Colbert Report</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Late_Show_with_Stephen_Colbert" title="The Late Show with Stephen Colbert">The Late Show with Stephen Colbert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a> 21st-century fake news is often intended to increase the financial profits of the news outlet. In an interview with <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a>, Jestin Coler, former CEO of the fake media conglomerate <a href="/wiki/Denver_Guardian" title="Denver Guardian">Disinfomedia</a>, told who writes fake news articles, who funds these articles, and why fake news creators create and distribute false information. Coler, who has since left his role as a fake news creator, said that his company employed 20 to 25 writers at a time and made $10,000 to $30,000 monthly from advertisements. Coler began his career in journalism as a magazine salesman before working as a freelance writer. He said he entered the fake news industry to prove to himself and others just how rapidly fake news can spread.<a href="#cite_note-193">[191]</a> Disinfomedia is not the only outlet responsible for the distribution of fake news; Facebook users play a major role in feeding into fake news stories by making sensationalized stories "trend", according to <a href="/wiki/BuzzFeed" title="BuzzFeed">BuzzFeed</a> media editor Craig Silverman, and the individuals behind Google AdSense basically fund fake news websites and their content.<a href="#cite_note-194">[192]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mark_Zuckerberg" title="Mark Zuckerberg">Mark Zuckerberg</a>, CEO of Facebook, said, "I think the idea that fake news on Facebook influenced the election in any way, I think is a pretty crazy idea" and then a few days later he blogged that Facebook was looking for ways to flag fake news stories.<a href="#cite_note-CBSNews20161117-195">[193]</a> Many online pro-<a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a> fake news stories have been sourced out of <a href="/wiki/Veles,_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Veles, Macedonia">Veles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Macedonia">Macedonia</a>, where approximately seven different fake news organizations employ hundreds of teenagers to rapidly produce and plagiarize sensationalist stories for different U.S. based companies and parties.<a href="#cite_note-196">[194]</a> Kim LaCapria of the fact checking website <a href="/wiki/Snopes.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Snopes.com">Snopes.com</a> has stated that, in America, fake news is a bipartisan phenomenon, saying that "[t]here has always been a sincerely held yet erroneous belief misinformation is more <a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">red than blue in America</a>, and that has never been true."<a href="#cite_note-197">[195]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jeff_Green_(businessman)" title="Jeff Green (businessman)">Jeff Green</a> of <a href="/wiki/Trade_Desk" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade Desk">Trade Desk</a> agrees the phenomenon affects both sides. Green's company found that affluent and well-educated persons in their 40s and 50s are the primary consumers of fake news. He told <a href="/wiki/Scott_Pelley" title="Scott Pelley">Scott Pelley</a> of <a href="/wiki/60_Minutes" title="60 Minutes">60 Minutes</a> that this audience tends to live in an "<a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">echo chamber</a>" and that these are the people who vote.<a href="#cite_note-60Minutes-57">[57]</a> In 2014, the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Government">Russian Government</a> used disinformation via networks such as <a href="/wiki/RT_(TV_network)" title="RT (TV network)">RT</a> to create a counter-narrative after Russian-backed Ukrainian rebels shot down <a href="/wiki/Malaysia_Airlines_Flight_17" title="Malaysia Airlines Flight 17">Malaysia Airlines Flight 17</a>.<a href="#cite_note-198">[196]</a> In 2016, <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> claimed it had seen a significant rise in Russian propaganda and fake news stories since the invasion of Crimea in 2014.<a href="#cite_note-199">[197]</a> Fake news stories originating from Russian government officials were also circulated internationally by <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a> news agency and published in the most popular news websites in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-200">[198]</a> A 2018 study at Oxford University found that Trump's supporters consumed the "largest volume of 'junk news' on Facebook and Twitter":<a href="#cite_note-Narayanan_Barash_2/8/2018-201">[199]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">On Twitter, a network of Trump supporters consumes the largest volume of junk news, and junk news is the largest proportion of news links they share," the researchers concluded. On Facebook, the skew was even greater. There, "extreme hard right pages—distinct from Republican pages—share more junk news than all the other audiences put together.<a href="#cite_note-Hern_2/6/2018-202">[200]</a></blockquote> In 2018,<a href="#cite_note-Guess_Nyhan_Reifler_1/9/2018-203">[201]</a> researchers from <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_College" title="Dartmouth College">Dartmouth College</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Exeter" title="University of Exeter">University of Exeter</a> examined the consumption of fake news during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign. Their findings showed that Trump supporters and older Americans (over 60) were far more likely to consume fake news than Clinton supporters. Those most likely to visit fake news websites were the 10% of Americans who consumed the most <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservative</a> information. There was a very large difference (800%) in the consumption of fake news stories as related to total news consumption between Trump supporters (6%) and Clinton supporters (1%).<a href="#cite_note-Guess_Nyhan_Reifler_1/9/2018-203">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sarlin_1/14/2018-204">[202]</a> The study also showed that fake pro-Trump and fake pro-Clinton news stories were read by their supporters, but with a significant difference: Trump supporters consumed far more (40%) than Clinton supporters (15%). Facebook was by far the key "gateway" website where these fake stories were spread and which led people to then go to the fake news websites. <a href="/wiki/Fact_checking" class="mw-redirect" title="Fact checking">Fact checks</a> of fake news were rarely seen by consumers,<a href="#cite_note-Guess_Nyhan_Reifler_1/9/2018-203">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sarlin_1/14/2018-204">[202]</a> with none of those who saw a fake news story being reached by a related fact check.<a href="#cite_note-Poynter_1/3/2018-205">[203]</a> <a href="/wiki/Brendan_Nyhan" title="Brendan Nyhan">Brendan Nyhan</a>, one of the researchers, emphatically stated in an interview on NBC News: "People got vastly more misinformation from Donald Trump than they did from fake news websites—full stop."<a href="#cite_note-Sarlin_1/14/2018-204">[202]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">NBC NEWS: "It feels like there's a connection between having an active portion of a party that's prone to seeking false stories and conspiracies and a president who has famously spread conspiracies and false claims. In many ways, demographically and ideologically, the president fits the profile of the fake news users that you're describing." NYHAN: "It's worrisome if fake news websites further weaken the norm against false and misleading information in our politics, which unfortunately has eroded. But it's also important to put the content provided by fake news websites in perspective. People got vastly more misinformation from Donald Trump than they did from fake news websites—full stop."<a href="#cite_note-Sarlin_1/14/2018-204">[202]</a></blockquote> A 2019 study by researchers at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_University" title="New York University">New York University</a> found that a person's likelihood of sharing fake-news articles correlated more strongly with age than it did education, sex, or political views. 11% of users older than 65 shared an article consistent with the study's definition of fake news. Just 3% of users ages 18 to 29 did the same.<a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a> Another issue in mainstream media is the usage of the <a href="/wiki/Filter_bubble" title="Filter bubble">filter bubble</a>, a "bubble" that has been created that gives the viewer, on social media platforms, a specific piece of the information knowing they will like it. Thus creating fake news and biased news because only half the story is being shared, the portion the viewer liked. "In 1996, Nicolas Negroponte predicted a world where information technologies become increasingly customizable."<a href="#cite_note-207">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Special_topics">Special topics</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deepfakes_and_shallowfakes">Deepfakes and shallowfakes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Deepfakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Deepfakes">Deepfakes</a></div> Deepfakes (a <a href="/wiki/Portmanteau" class="mw-redirect" title="Portmanteau">portmanteau</a> of <a href="/wiki/Deep_learning" title="Deep learning">deep learning</a> and fake) are <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_media" title="Synthetic media">synthetic media</a> (AI-generated media)<a href="#cite_note-208">[206]</a> in which a person in an existing image or video is replaced with someone else's likeness.<a href="#cite_note-Waldrop-209">[207]</a> Because a picture often has a greater impact than the corresponding words, deepfakes – which leverage powerful techniques from <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> to manipulate or generate visual and audio content – have a particularly high potential to deceive.<a href="#cite_note-Kietzmann-2020-210">[208]</a> The main machine-learning methods used to create deepfakes are based on deep learning and involve training generative <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">neural network</a> architectures, such as <a href="/wiki/Autoencoder" title="Autoencoder">autoencoders</a><a href="#cite_note-Kietzmann-2020-210">[208]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Generative_adversarial_network" title="Generative adversarial network">generative adversarial networks</a> (GANs).<a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-211">[209]</a> Deepfakes have garnered widespread attention for their uses in creating fake news (notably political), but also child sexual abuse material, <a href="/wiki/Celebrity_sex_tape" title="Celebrity sex tape">celebrity pornographic videos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Revenge_porn" title="Revenge porn">revenge porn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">hoaxes</a>, bullying, and <a href="/wiki/Accounting_scandals" title="Accounting scandals">financial fraud</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HighSnobiety2018-212">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[212]</a> This has elicited responses from both industry and government to detect and limit their use.<a href="#cite_note-Ghoshal-2018-215">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-Santos_Calderon-2019-216">[214]</a> Deepfakes generally require specialist software or knowledge, but much the same effect can be achieved quickly by anyone using standard video editing software on most modern computers. These videos (termed shallowfakes) have obvious flaws, but nevertheless can still be widely believed as real, or at least have entertainment value that reinforces beliefs. One of the first to go viral, "The Hillary Song", watched over 3 million times by Donald Trump supporters, shows Hillary Clinton being humiliated on stage by <a href="/wiki/Dwayne_Johnson" title="Dwayne Johnson">The Rock</a>, a former wrestling champion. The surprised creator (who hates all politicians), pasted images of Clinton into a genuine video of The Rock humiliating a wrestling official.<a href="#cite_note-217">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bots_on_social_media">Bots on social media</h3></div> In the mid-1990s, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Negroponte" title="Nicholas Negroponte">Nicolas Negroponte</a> anticipated a world where news through technology become progressively personalized. In his 1996 book Being Digital he predicted a digital life where news consumption becomes an extremely personalized experience and newspapers adapted content to reader preferences. This prediction has since been reflected in modern-day news and social media feeds.<a href="#cite_note-218">[216]</a> Bots have the potential to increase the spread of fake news, as they use algorithms to decide what articles and information specific users like, without taking into account the authenticity of an article. Bots mass-produce and spread articles, regardless of the credibility of the sources, allowing them to play an essential role in the mass spread of fake news, as bots are capable of creating fake accounts and personalities on the web that are then gaining followers, recognition, and authority. Additionally, almost 30% of the spam and content spread on the Internet originates from these software bots.<a href="#cite_note-219">[217]</a> In the 21st century, the capacity to mislead was enhanced by the widespread use of social media. For example, one 21st century website that enabled fake news' proliferation was the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Facebook_features" title="List of Facebook features">Facebook newsfeed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-isaac-220">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-FinancialTimes-221">[219]</a> In late 2016 fake news gained notoriety following the uptick in news content by this means, and its prevalence on the <a href="/wiki/Microblogging" title="Microblogging">micro-blogging</a> site <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian11.11.16-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-politico-6">[6]</a> In the United States, 62% of Americans use social media to receive news.<a href="#cite_note-pew2-43">[43]</a> Many people use their Facebook News Feed to get news, despite Facebook not being considered a news site.<a href="#cite_note-222">[220]</a> According to Craig McClain, over 66% of Facebook users obtain news from the site.<a href="#cite_note-223">[221]</a> This, in combination with increased political polarization and <a href="/wiki/Filter_bubble" title="Filter bubble">filter bubbles</a>, led to a tendency for readers to mainly read headlines.<a href="#cite_note-224">[222]</a> Numerous individuals and news outlets have stated that fake news may have influenced the outcome of the <a href="/wiki/2016_American_Presidential_Election" class="mw-redirect" title="2016 American Presidential Election">2016 American Presidential Election</a>.<a href="#cite_note-225">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-226">[224]</a> Fake news saw higher sharing on Facebook than legitimate news stories,<a href="#cite_note-Silverman_11/16/2016-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a><a href="#cite_note-PCWorld-228">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[227]</a> which analysts explained was because fake news often panders to expectations or is otherwise more exciting than legitimate news.<a href="#cite_note-LATimes-230">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-PCWorld-228">[226]</a> <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> itself initially denied this characterization.<a href="#cite_note-FinancialTimes-221">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-isaac-220">[218]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Pew_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Pew Research">Pew Research</a> poll conducted in December 2016 found that 64% of U.S. adults believed completely made-up news had caused "a great deal of confusion" about the basic facts of current events, while 24% claimed it had caused "some confusion" and 11% said it had caused "not much or no confusion".<a href="#cite_note-pew1-39">[39]</a> Additionally, 23% of those polled admitted they had personally shared fake news, whether knowingly or not. Researchers from <a href="/wiki/Stanford" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanford">Stanford</a> assessed that only 8% of readers of fake news recalled and believed in the content they were reading, though the same share of readers also recalled and believed in "placebos"—stories they did not actually read, but that were produced by the authors of the study. In comparison, over 50% of the participants recalled reading and believed in true news stories.<a href="#cite_note-Allcott-2017-18">[18]</a> By August 2017 Facebook stopped using the term fake news and used false news in its place instead. Will Oremus of <a href="/wiki/Slate_(magazine)" title="Slate (magazine)">Slate</a> wrote that because supporters of <a href="/wiki/U.S._President" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. President">U.S. President</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> had redefined the word fake news to refer to mainstream media opposed to them, "it makes sense for Facebook—and others—to cede the term to the right-wing trolls who have claimed it as their own."<a href="#cite_note-231">[229]</a> Research from <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_University" title="Northwestern University">Northwestern University</a> concluded that 30% of all fake news traffic, as opposed to only 8% of real news traffic, could be linked back to Facebook. The research concluded fake news consumers do not exist in a filter bubble; many of them also consume real news from established news sources. The fake news audience is only 10 percent of the real news audience, and most fake news consumers spent a relatively similar amount of time on fake news compared with real news consumers—with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Drudge_Report" title="Drudge Report">Drudge Report</a> readers, who spent more than 11 times longer reading the website than other users.<a href="#cite_note-ColumbiaJReview-232">[230]</a> In the wake of western events, China's Ren Xianling of the <a href="/wiki/Cyberspace_Administration_of_China" title="Cyberspace Administration of China">Cyberspace Administration of China</a> suggested a "reward and punish" system be implemented to avoid fake news.<a href="#cite_note-233">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet_trolls">Internet trolls</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Internet_trolls" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet trolls">Internet trolls</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Internet_slang" title="Internet slang">Internet slang</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Internet_troll" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet troll">troll</a> is a person who sows discord on the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> by starting arguments or upsetting people, by posting inflammatory, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Extraneous#Adjective" class="extiw" title="wikt:Extraneous">extraneous</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Off-topic" class="mw-redirect" title="Off-topic">off-topic</a> messages in an online community (such as a <a href="/wiki/Newsgroup" class="mw-redirect" title="Newsgroup">newsgroup</a>, forum, <a href="/wiki/Chat_room" title="Chat room">chat room</a>, or blog) with the intent of provoking readers into an <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotional</a> response or off-topic discussion, often for the troll's amusement. Internet trolls also feed on attention.<a href="#cite_note-time1-234">[232]</a> The idea of Internet trolls gained popularity in the 1990s, though its meaning shifted in 2011. Whereas it once denoted provocation, it is a term now widely used to signify the abuse and misuse of the Internet. Trolling comes in various forms, and can be dissected into abuse trolling, entertainment trolling, classical trolling, flame trolling, anonymous trolling, and kudos trolling. It is closely linked to fake news, as Internet trolls are now largely interpreted as perpetrators of false information, information that can often be passed along unwittingly by reporters and the public alike.<a href="#cite_note-235">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-236">[234]</a> When interacting with each other, trolls often share misleading information that contributes to the fake news circulated on sites like <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>.<a href="#cite_note-time1-234">[232]</a> In the 2016 American election, Russia paid over 1,000 Internet trolls to circulate fake news and disinformation about <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a>; they also created social media accounts that resembled voters in important swing states, spreading influential political standpoints.<a href="#cite_note-237">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[236]</a> In February 2019, <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Greenwald" title="Glenn Greenwald">Glenn Greenwald</a> wrote that cybersecurity company New Knowledge "was caught just six weeks ago engaging in a massive scam to create fictitious Russian troll accounts on Facebook and Twitter in order to claim that the Kremlin was working to defeat Democratic Senate nominee <a href="/wiki/Doug_Jones_(politician)" title="Doug Jones (politician)">Doug Jones</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a>."<a href="#cite_note-239">[237]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fake_news_hoaxes">Fake news hoaxes</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Horner" title="Paul Horner">Paul Horner</a> is perhaps the best known example of a person who deliberately creates fake news for a purpose. He has been referred to as a "hoax artist" by the <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Tribune" title="Chicago Tribune">Chicago Tribune</a>.<a href="#cite_note-240">[238]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Huffington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="The Huffington Post">The Huffington Post</a> called Horner a "performance artist".<a href="#cite_note-241">[239]</a> Horner was behind several widespread hoaxes such as: (1) that the graffiti artist <a href="/wiki/Banksy" title="Banksy">Banksy</a> had been arrested;<a href="#cite_note-242">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[241]</a> and (2) that he had an "enormous impact" on the <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016 U.S. presidential election</a>, according to <a href="/wiki/CBS_News" title="CBS News">CBS News</a>.<a href="#cite_note-244">[242]</a> These stories consistently appeared in <a href="/wiki/Google_Search" title="Google Search">Google</a>'s top news search results, were shared widely on <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>, were taken seriously and shared by third parties such as <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump_presidential_campaign,_2016" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Trump presidential campaign, 2016">Trump presidential campaign</a> manager <a href="/wiki/Corey_Lewandowski" title="Corey Lewandowski">Corey Lewandowski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eric_Trump" title="Eric Trump">Eric Trump</a>, <a href="/wiki/ABC_News_(United_States)" title="ABC News (United States)">ABC News</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fox_News_Channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Fox News Channel">Fox News Channel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-politfact-245">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[245]</a> Horner later claimed that the intention was "to make Trump's supporters look like idiots for sharing my stories".<a href="#cite_note-bratu-248">[246]</a> In a November 2016 interview with <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>, Horner expressed regret for the role his fake news stories played in the election and surprise at how gullible people were in treating his stories as news.<a href="#cite_note-hedegaard-249">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-252">[250]</a> In February 2017 Horner said, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I truly regret my comment that I think Donald Trump is in the White House because of me. I know all I did was attack him and his supporters and got people not to vote for him. When I said that comment it was because I was confused how this evil man got elected President and I thought maybe instead of hurting his campaign, maybe I had helped it. My intention was to get his supporters NOT to vote for him and I know for a fact that I accomplished that goal. The far right, a lot of the Bible thumpers and <a href="/wiki/Alt-right" title="Alt-right">alt-right</a> were going to vote him regardless, but I know I swayed so many that were on the fence.<a href="#cite_note-253">[251]</a></blockquote> In 2017, Horner stated that a fake story of his about a rape festival in India helped generate over $250,000 in donations to GiveIndia, a site that helps rape victims in India.<a href="#cite_note-254">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[254]</a> Horner said he dislikes being grouped with people who write fake news solely to be misleading. "They just write it just to write fake news, like there's no purpose, there's no satire, there's nothing clever. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Donald_Trump's_misuse_of_term">Donald Trump's misuse of term</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/False_or_misleading_statements_by_Donald_Trump" title="False or misleading statements by Donald Trump">False or misleading statements by Donald Trump</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Donald_Trump_official_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Donald_Trump_official_portrait.jpg/170px-Donald_Trump_official_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Donald_Trump_official_portrait.jpg/255px-Donald_Trump_official_portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Donald_Trump_official_portrait.jpg/340px-Donald_Trump_official_portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2250" data-file-height="2850" /></a><figcaption>Donald Trump frequently mentioned fake news on Twitter to criticize the media in the United States, including <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.</figcaption></figure> The term fake news has at times been used to cast doubt upon credible news. Throughout his campaign and presidency, former U.S. president <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> has misused the term numerous times, using it to describe any negative press coverage of himself he personally dislikes rather than actual false news.<a href="#cite_note-Lind_5/9/2018-257">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-260">[258]</a> Trump has claimed that the mainstream American media (which he calls the "<a href="/wiki/Lying_press" title="Lying press">lying press</a>") regularly reports "fake news" or "hoax news", despite the fact that he generated considerable false and inaccurate or misleading statements himself.<a href="#cite_note-261">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20170623-16">[16]</a> According to The Washington Post's Fact Checker's database, Trump made 30,573 false or misleading claims during his four years in office, though the number of unique false claims is much lower because many of his major false claims were repeated hundreds of times each. A searchable online database is available for each documented false claim, and a datafile is available for download for use in academic studies of misinformation and lying.<a href="#cite_note-WaPo_1/20/2021-262">[260]</a> An analysis of the first 16,000 false claims is available as a book.<a href="#cite_note-263">[261]</a> Trump has often attacked mainstream news reporting publications, deeming them "fake news" and the "<a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">enemy of the people</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Pak_Seyler_7/19/2018-264">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-Atkins_2/27/2017-265">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-Felsenthal_3/2/2017-266">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-Massie_2/7/2017-267">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-Page_2/7/2017-268">[266]</a> Every few days, Trump would issue a threat against the press due to his claims of "fake news". There have been many instances in which norms that protect press freedom have been pushed or even upended during the Trump-era.<a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a> According to Jeff Hemsley, a <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University" title="Syracuse University">Syracuse University</a> professor who studies social media, Trump uses this term for any news that is not favorable to him or which he simply dislikes.<a href="#cite_note-Gendreau_2/25/2017-65">[65]</a> Trump provided a widely cited<a href="#cite_note-Cillizza_5/9/2018-270">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lind_5/9/2018-257">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chait_5/9/2018-271">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bump_5/9/2018-272">[270]</a> example of this interpretation in a tweet on May 9, 2018: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote" style="width:500px; ; margin:1rem 40px;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <table role="presentation" style="line-height: normal; width: 100%; background: transparent; color: inherit; display: table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align: left; white-space: nowrap;">Donald J. Trump <div style="color: var(--color-subtle, #54595d); white-space: nowrap;">@realDonaldTrump</div></td> <td style="text-align: right; color: var(--color-subtle, #54595d); vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter"><img alt="Twitter logo, a stylized blue bird" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Logo_of_Twitter.svg/18px-Logo_of_Twitter.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Logo_of_Twitter.svg/27px-Logo_of_Twitter.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Logo_of_Twitter.svg/36px-Logo_of_Twitter.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="421" /></a></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <div style="text-align: left"> The Fake News is working overtime. Just reported that, despite the tremendous success we are having with the economy & all things else, 91% of the Network News about me is negative (Fake). Why do we work so hard in working with the media when it is corrupt? Take away credentials? </div> <div style="color: var(--color-subtle, #54595d);">May 9, 2018<a href="#cite_note-TweetrealDonaldTrump-273">[271]</a> </div> </blockquote> </div> <a href="/wiki/Chris_Cillizza" title="Chris Cillizza">Chris Cillizza</a> described the tweet on CNN as an "accidental" revelation about Trump's "'fake news' attacks", and wrote: "The point can be summed up in these two words from Trump: 'negative (Fake).' To Trump, those words mean the same thing. Negative news coverage is fake news. Fake news is negative news coverage."<a href="#cite_note-Cillizza_5/9/2018-270">[268]</a> Other writers made similar comments about the tweet. Dara Lind wrote in <a href="/wiki/Vox_(website)" title="Vox (website)">Vox</a>: "It's nice of Trump to admit, explicitly, what many skeptics have suspected all along: When he complains about 'fake news,' he doesn't actually mean 'news that is untrue'; he means news that is personally inconvenient to Donald Trump."<a href="#cite_note-Lind_5/9/2018-257">[255]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Chait" title="Jonathan Chait">Jonathan Chait</a> wrote in <a href="/wiki/New_York_(magazine)" title="New York (magazine)">New York</a> magazine: "Trump admits he calls all negative news 'fake'.": "In a tweet this morning, Trump casually opened a window into the source code for his method of identifying liberal media bias. Anything that's negative is, by definition, fake."<a href="#cite_note-Chait_5/9/2018-271">[269]</a> Philip Bump wrote in <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>: "The important thing in that tweet ... is that he makes explicit his view of what constitutes fake news. It's negative news. Negative. (Fake.)"<a href="#cite_note-Bump_5/9/2018-272">[270]</a> In an interview with <a href="/wiki/Lesley_Stahl" title="Lesley Stahl">Lesley Stahl</a>, before the cameras were turned on, Trump explained why he attacks the press: "You know why I do it? I do it to discredit you all and demean you all so that when you write negative stories about me no one will believe you."<a href="#cite_note-Mangan_5/22/2018-274">[272]</a> Author and literary critic <a href="/wiki/Michiko_Kakutani" title="Michiko Kakutani">Michiko Kakutani</a> has described developments in the right-wing media and websites: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style=";"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "Fox News and the planetary system of right-wing news sites that would orbit it and, later, <a href="/wiki/Breitbart" class="mw-redirect" title="Breitbart">Breitbart</a>, were particularly adept at weaponizing such arguments and exploiting the increasingly partisan fervor animating the Republican base: They accused the media establishment of 'liberal bias', and substituted their own right-wing views as 'fair and balanced'—a redefinition of terms that was a harbinger of Trump's hijacking of 'fake news' to refer not to alt-right conspiracy theories and Russian troll posts, but to real news that he perceived as inconvenient or a threat to himself."<a href="#cite_note-Woods_6/20/2018-275">[273]</a> </blockquote> </div> In September 2018, <a href="/wiki/National_Public_Radio" class="mw-redirect" title="National Public Radio">National Public Radio</a> noted that Trump has expanded his use of the terms fake and phony to "an increasingly wide variety of things he doesn't like": "The range of things Trump is declaring fake is growing too. Last month he tweeted about "fake books," "the fake dossier," "fake CNN," and he added a new claim—that Google search results are "RIGGED" to mostly show only negative stories about him." They graphed his expanding use in columns labeled: "Fake news", "Fake (other) and "Phony".<a href="#cite_note-Keith_9/4/2018-276">[274]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_country">By country</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Austria">Austria</h4></div> Politicians in Austria dealt with the impact of fake news and its spread on social media after the 2016 presidential campaign in the country. In December 2016, a court in Austria issued an injunction on Facebook Europe, mandating it block negative postings related to <a href="/wiki/Eva_Glawischnig-Piesczek" title="Eva Glawischnig-Piesczek">Eva Glawischnig-Piesczek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Green_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian Green Party">Austrian Green Party</a> Chairwoman. According to The Washington Post the postings to Facebook about her "appeared to have been spread via a fake profile" and directed derogatory epithets towards the Austrian politician.<a href="#cite_note-Kirchner-2016-277">[275]</a> The derogatory postings were likely created by the identical fake profile that had previously been utilized to attack <a href="/wiki/Alexander_van_der_Bellen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander van der Bellen">Alexander van der Bellen</a>, who won the election for <a href="/wiki/President_of_Austria" title="President of Austria">President of Austria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kirchner-2016-277">[275]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Belgium">Belgium</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Flemish_Secession_hoax" title="Flemish Secession hoax">Flemish Secession hoax</a></div> In 2006, French-speaking broadcaster <a href="/wiki/RTBF" title="RTBF">RTBF</a> showed a fictional breaking special news report that Belgium's <a href="/wiki/Flemish_Region" title="Flemish Region">Flemish Region</a> had proclaimed independence. Staged footage of the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_royal_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgian royal family">royal family</a> evacuating and the Belgian flag being lowered from a pole were made to add credence to the report. It was not until 30 minutes into the report that a sign stating "Fiction" appeared on screen. The RTBF journalist that created the hoax said the purpose was to demonstrate the magnitude of the country's situation and if a partition of Belgium was to really happen.<a href="#cite_note-278">[276]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Czech_Republic">Czech Republic</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Centre_Against_Terrorism_and_Hybrid_Threats" title="Centre Against Terrorism and Hybrid Threats">Centre Against Terrorism and Hybrid Threats</a></div> Fake news outlets in the Czech Republic redistribute news in Czech and English originally produced by Russian sources. Czech president <a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Zeman" title="Miloš Zeman">Miloš Zeman</a> has been supporting media outlets accused of spreading fake news.<a href="#cite_note-279">[277]</a> The Centre Against Terrorism and Hybrid Threats (CTHH) is unit of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_the_Interior_(Czech_Republic)" title="Ministry of the Interior (Czech Republic)">Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic</a> primarily aimed at countering disinformation, fake news, <a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">hoaxes</a> and foreign <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>. The CTHH started operations on January 1, 2017. The CTHH has been criticized by Czech President <a href="/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Zeman" title="Miloš Zeman">Miloš Zeman</a>, who said: "We don't need censorship. We don't need thought police. We don't need a new agency for press and information as long as we want to live in a free and democratic society."<a href="#cite_note-280">[278]</a> In 2017 media activists started a website, Konspiratori.cz, maintaining a list of conspiracy and fake news outlets in Czech.<a href="#cite_note-281">[279]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="European_Union">European Union</h4></div> In 2018 the <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> introduced a first voluntary <a href="/wiki/EU_Code_of_Practice_on_Disinformation" title="EU Code of Practice on Disinformation">code of practice on disinformation</a>. In 2022 this will become a strengthen co-regulation scheme, with responsibility shared between the regulators and companies signatory to the code. It will complement the earlier <a href="/wiki/Digital_Services_Act" title="Digital Services Act">Digital Services Act</a> agreed on by the 27-country European Union, which already includes a section on combating disinformation.<a href="#cite_note-282">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[281]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Finland">Finland</h4></div> Officials from 11 countries met in <a href="/wiki/Helsinki" title="Helsinki">Helsinki</a> in November 2016 and planned the formation of a center to combat disinformation cyber-warfare, which includes the spread of fake news on social media. The center is planned to be located in Helsinki and combine efforts from 10 countries, including Sweden, Germany, Finland and the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Juha_Sipil%C3%A4" title="Juha Sipilä">Juha Sipilä</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Finland" title="Prime Minister of Finland">Prime Minister of Finland</a> from 2015 to 2019, planned to address the topic of the center in Spring 2017 with a motion before <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Finland" title="Parliament of Finland">Parliament</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] Deputy Secretary of State for EU Affairs Jori Arvonen said cyber-warfare, such as hybrid cyber-warfare intrusions into Finland from Russia and the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant">Islamic State</a>, became an increasing problem in 2016. Arvonen cited examples including online fake news, disinformation, and the "<a href="/wiki/Little_green_men_(Russo-Ukrainian_War)" title="Little green men (Russo-Ukrainian War)">little green men</a>" of the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-284">[282]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="France">France</h4></div> During the ten-year period preceding 2016, France was witness to an increase in popularity of <a href="/wiki/Far-right" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-right">far-right</a> alternative news sources called the fachosphere (facho referring to <a href="/wiki/Fascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist">fascist</a>); known as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Extreme_right_on_the_Internet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Extreme right on the Internet (page does not exist)">extreme right on the Internet</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extr%C3%AAme_droite_sur_Internet" class="extiw" title="fr:Extrême droite sur Internet">fr</a>].<a href="#cite_note-Guardian12.2.16-285">[283]</a> According to sociologist Antoine Bevort, citing data from <a href="/wiki/Alexa_Internet" title="Alexa Internet">Alexa Internet</a> rankings, the most consulted political websites in France in 2016 included <a href="/wiki/%C3%89galit%C3%A9_et_R%C3%A9conciliation" class="mw-redirect" title="Égalité et Réconciliation">Égalité et Réconciliation</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fran%C3%A7ois_Desouche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="François Desouche (page does not exist)">François Desouche</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Desouche" class="extiw" title="fr:François Desouche">fr</a>], and Les Moutons Enragés.<a href="#cite_note-286">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-287">[285]</a> These sites increased skepticism towards <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_media" title="Mainstream media">mainstream media</a> from both left and right perspectives. In September 2016, the country faced controversy regarding fake websites providing false information about <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a>. The <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_(France)" title="National Assembly (France)">National Assembly</a> moved forward with intentions to ban such fake sites. <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Rossignol" title="Laurence Rossignol">Laurence Rossignol</a>, women's minister for France, informed parliament though the fake sites look neutral, in actuality their intentions were specifically targeted to give women fake information. 2017 presidential election. France saw an uptick in amounts of disinformation and propaganda, primarily in the midst of election cycles. A study looking at the diffusion of political news during the 2017 presidential election cycle suggests that one in four links shared in social media comes from sources that actively contest traditional media narratives.<a href="#cite_note-288">[286]</a> <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> corporate deleted 30,000 Facebook accounts in France associated with fake political information.<a href="#cite_note-indepfr-289">[287]</a> In April 2017, <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Emmanuel Macron</a>'s presidential campaign was attacked by the fake news articles more than the campaigns of conservative candidate <a href="/wiki/Marine_Le_Pen" title="Marine Le Pen">Marine Le Pen</a> and socialist candidate <a href="/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_Hamon" title="Benoît Hamon">Benoît Hamon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-290">[288]</a> One of the fake articles even announced that Le Pen won the presidency before the people of France had even voted.<a href="#cite_note-indepfr-289">[287]</a> Macron's professional and private emails, as well as memos, contracts and accounting documents were posted on a file-sharing website. The leaked documents were mixed with fake ones in social media in an attempt to sway the upcoming presidential election.<a href="#cite_note-291">[289]</a> Macron said he would combat fake news of the sort that had been spread during his election campaign.<a href="#cite_note-292">[290]</a> Initially, the leak was attributed to <a href="/wiki/Fancy_Bear" title="Fancy Bear">APT28</a>, a group tied to Russia's GRU military intelligence directorate.<a href="#cite_note-293">[291]</a> However, the head of the French cyber-security agency, <a href="/wiki/Agence_nationale_de_la_s%C3%A9curit%C3%A9_des_syst%C3%A8mes_d%27information" title="Agence nationale de la sécurité des systèmes d'information">ANSSI</a>, later said that there was no evidence that the hack leading to the leaks had anything to do with Russia, saying that the attack was so simple, that "we can imagine that it was a person who did this alone. They could be in any country."<a href="#cite_note-294">[292]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Germany">Germany</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">German Chancellor</a> <a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a> lamented the problem of fraudulent news reports in a November 2016 speech, days after announcing her campaign for a fourth term as leader of her country. In a speech to the German parliament, Merkel was critical of such fake sites, saying they harmed political discussion. Merkel called attention to the need of government to deal with <a href="/wiki/Internet_troll" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet troll">Internet trolls</a>, bots, and fake news websites. She warned that such fraudulent news websites were a force increasing the power of <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populist</a> extremism. Merkel called fraudulent news a growing phenomenon that might need to be regulated in the future. The head of Germany's foreign intelligence agency <a href="/wiki/Federal_Intelligence_Service_(Germany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Intelligence Service (Germany)">Federal Intelligence Service</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Kahl" title="Bruno Kahl">Bruno Kahl</a>, warned of the potential for <a href="/wiki/Cyberattacks" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyberattacks">cyberattacks</a> by Russia in the <a href="/wiki/2017_German_federal_election" title="2017 German federal election">2017 German election</a>. He said the cyberattacks would take the form of the intentional spread of disinformation. Kahl said the goal is to increase chaos in political debates. Germany's domestic intelligence agency <a href="/wiki/Federal_Office_for_the_Protection_of_the_Constitution" title="Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution">Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution</a> Chief, <a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Maassen" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans-Georg Maassen">Hans-Georg Maassen</a>, said sabotage by Russian intelligence was a present threat to German <a href="/wiki/Information_security" title="Information security">information security</a>.<a href="#cite_note-295">[293]</a> German government officials and security experts later said there was no Russian interference during the 2017 German federal election.<a href="#cite_note-296">[294]</a> The German term Lügenpresse, or <a href="/wiki/Lying_press" title="Lying press">lying press</a>, has been used since the 19th century and specifically during World War One as a strategy to attack news spread by political opponents in the 19th and 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-297">[295]</a> The award-winning German journalist <a href="/wiki/Claas_Relotius" title="Claas Relotius">Claas Relotius</a> resigned from <a href="/wiki/Der_Spiegel" title="Der Spiegel">Der Spiegel</a> in 2018 after admitting numerous instances of <a href="/wiki/Journalistic_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Journalistic fraud">journalistic fraud</a>.<a href="#cite_note-298">[296]</a> In early April 2020, Berlin politician <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Geisel" title="Andreas Geisel">Andreas Geisel</a> alleged that a shipment of 200,000 N95 masks that it had ordered from American producer <a href="/wiki/3M" title="3M">3M</a>'s China facility were intercepted in <a href="/wiki/Bangkok" title="Bangkok">Bangkok</a> and diverted to the United States during the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>. <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Police" title="Berlin Police">Berlin police</a> president <a href="/w/index.php?title=Barbara_Slowik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barbara Slowik (page does not exist)">Barbara Slowik</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Slowik" class="extiw" title="de:Barbara Slowik">de</a>] stated that she believed "this is related to the US government's export ban."<a href="#cite_note-299">[297]</a> However, Berlin police confirmed that the shipment was not seized by U.S. authorities, but was said to have simply been bought at a better price, widely believed to be from a German dealer or China.<a href="#cite_note-GWFWD-300">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-301">[299]</a> This revelation outraged the Berlin opposition, whose <a href="/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany" title="Christian Democratic Union of Germany">CDU</a> parliamentary group leader Burkard Dregger accused Geisel of "deliberately misleading Berliners" in order "to cover up its own inability to obtain protective equipment". <a href="/wiki/Free_Democratic_Party_(Germany)" title="Free Democratic Party (Germany)">FDP</a> interior expert Marcel Luthe said "Big names in international politics like Berlin's senator Geisel are blaming others and telling US piracy to serve anti-American clichés."<a href="#cite_note-GWFWD-300">[298]</a> <a href="/wiki/Politico_Europe" title="Politico Europe">Politico Europe</a> reported that "the Berliners are taking a page straight out of the Trump playbook and not letting facts get in the way of a good story."<a href="#cite_note-302">[300]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hungary">Hungary</h4></div> Hungary's illiberal and populist prime minister <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n" title="Viktor Orbán">Viktor Orbán</a> has cast <a href="/wiki/George_Soros" title="George Soros">George Soros</a>, financier and philanthropist, a Hungarian-born Holocaust survivor, as the mastermind of a plot to undermine the country's sovereignty, replace native Hungarians with immigrants and destroy traditional values. This propaganda technique, together with <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">anti-Semitism</a> still present in the country, seems to appeal to his right-wing voters, as it mobilizes them by seeding fear in society, creating an enemy image and enabling Orbán to present himself as the protector of the nation from the illusion of this enemy.<a href="#cite_note-303">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[302]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italy">Italy</h4></div> Journalists must be registered with the Ordine Dei Giornalisti (ODG) ('Order of Journalists') and respect its disciplinary and training obligations, to guarantee "correct and truthful information, intended as right of individuals and of the community".<a href="#cite_note-305">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-306">[304]</a> Under certain circumstances, spreading fake news may constitute a criminal offence under the Italian penal code.<a href="#cite_note-307">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-308">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-309">[307]</a> Since 2018 it is possible to report fake news directly on the <a href="/wiki/Polizia_di_Stato" title="Polizia di Stato">Polizia di Stato</a> website.<a href="#cite_note-310">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-311">[309]</a> The phenomenon is monitored by the <a href="/wiki/Dipartimento_delle_Informazioni_per_la_Sicurezza" title="Dipartimento delle Informazioni per la Sicurezza">DIS</a>, supported by <a href="/wiki/AISE" class="mw-redirect" title="AISE">AISE</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agenzia_Informazioni_e_Sicurezza_Interna" title="Agenzia Informazioni e Sicurezza Interna">AISI</a>.<a href="#cite_note-312">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-313">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-314">[312]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Malta">Malta</h4></div> In response to the growing concern over the spread of disinformation, Malta has introduced legal provisions to address the issue within its <a href="/wiki/Criminal_code" title="Criminal code">Criminal Code.</a>.<a href="#cite_note-315">[313]</a> Article 82 of Malta’s Criminal Code specifically targets the malicious dissemination of fake news. The law stipulates that anyone who deliberately spreads false information likely to alarm the public, disturb public order, or create commotion among certain classes of the public can be sentenced to <a href="/wiki/Imprisonment" title="Imprisonment">imprisonment</a> for a term of one to three months. If the dissemination of false news results in a <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">disturbance</a>, the penalty increases to imprisonment for a term of one to six months, along with a possible fine of up to €1,000.<a href="#cite_note-316">[314]</a> In February and March 2024, the <a href="/wiki/Times_of_Malta" title="Times of Malta">Times of Malta</a> published a series of articles alleging that <a href="/w/index.php?title=Papaya_Ltd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Papaya Ltd (page does not exist)">Papaya Ltd</a> was involved in money laundering activities and had criminal connections with <a href="/wiki/Russian_mafia" title="Russian mafia">Russian organized crime</a>.<a href="#cite_note-317">[315]</a> These allegations led to public alarm and concern. However, subsequent investigations by British journalists from <a href="/wiki/Western_Morning_News" title="Western Morning News">Western Morning News</a><a href="#cite_note-318">[316]</a> and Financial Monthly<a href="#cite_note-319">[317]</a> revealed that the accusations were baseless. It was found that Papaya Ltd. had been conducting routine inspections as part of its anti-money laundering (<a href="/wiki/Anti-money_laundering" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-money laundering">AML</a>) procedures due to suspicious activities by one of its clients, which turned out to be linked to the financial <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_scheme" title="Pyramid scheme">pyramid scheme</a>. The inspections were not targeted at Papaya Ltd. itself but were part of a broader investigation. These investigative reports clarified that no governmental authorities had made any allegations against Papaya Ltd., and the initial reports by the Times of Malta were determined to be false. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Netherlands">Netherlands</h4></div> In March 2018, the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>'s <a href="/wiki/East_StratCom_Task_Force" title="East StratCom Task Force">East StratCom Task Force</a> compiled a list dubbed a "hall of shame" of articles with suspected <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Kremlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Kremlin">Kremlin</a> attempts to influence political decisions.<a href="#cite_note-Birnbaum-2018-320">[318]</a> However, controversy arose when three Dutch media outlets claimed they had been wrongfully singled out because of quotes attributed to people with non-mainstream views.<a href="#cite_note-Birnbaum-2018-320">[318]</a> The news outlets included <a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThePostOnline" class="extiw" title="nl:ThePostOnline">ThePostOnline</a>, <a href="/wiki/GeenStijl" title="GeenStijl">GeenStijl</a>, and <a href="/wiki/De_Gelderlander" title="De Gelderlander">De Gelderlander</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Birnbaum-2018-320">[318]</a> All three were flagged for publishing articles critical of <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> policies, and none received any forewarning or opportunity to appeal beforehand.<a href="#cite_note-Birnbaum-2018-320">[318]</a> This incident has contributed to the growing issue of what defines news as fake, and how freedoms of press and speech can be protected during attempts to curb the spread of false news. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Poland">Poland</h4></div> Polish historian Jerzy Targalski noted fake news websites had infiltrated Poland through <a href="/wiki/Anti-establishment" title="Anti-establishment">anti-establishment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Right-wing" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-wing">right-wing</a> sources that copied content from <a href="/wiki/Russia_Today" class="mw-redirect" title="Russia Today">Russia Today</a>. Targalski observed there existed about 20 specific fake news websites in Poland that spread Russian disinformation in the form of fake news. One example cited was fake news that <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> announced the Polish city of <a href="/wiki/Przemy%C5%9Bl" title="Przemyśl">Przemyśl</a> as occupied Polish land.<a href="#cite_note-321">[319]</a> <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>'s anti-EU <a href="/wiki/Law_and_Justice_(Poland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Law and Justice (Poland)">Law and Justice</a> (PiS) government has been accused of spreading "illiberal disinformation" to undermine public confidence in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fp-322">[320]</a> Maria Snegovaya of Columbia University said: "The true origins of this phenomenon are local. The policies of Fidesz and Law and Justice have a lot in common with Putin's own policies."<a href="#cite_note-fp-322">[320]</a> Some mainstream outlets have long been accused of fabricating half-true or outright false information. In 2010 one popular TV station, TVN, attributed to Jarosław Kaczyński (then an opposition leader) the quote that "there will be times when true Poles will come to power".<a href="#cite_note-jktvn-323">[321]</a> However, Kaczyński has never uttered those words in the commented speech. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Romania">Romania</h4></div> On March 16, 2020, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romanian</a> President <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Iohannis" title="Klaus Iohannis">Klaus Iohannis</a> signed an emergency decree, giving authorities the power to remove, report or close websites spreading "fake news" about the COVID-19 pandemic, with no opportunity to appeal.<a href="#cite_note-324">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-325">[323]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russia">Russia</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_fake_news_laws" title="Russian fake news laws">Russian fake news laws</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Russian_2019_Fake_News_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian 2019 Fake News Law">Russian 2019 Fake News Law</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Russian_2020_COVID-19_Fake_News_Law" title="Russian 2020 COVID-19 Fake News Law">Russian 2020 COVID-19 Fake News Law</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Russian_2022_war_censorship_laws" title="Russian 2022 war censorship laws">Russian 2022 war censorship laws</a></div> In March 2019, Russia passed a <a href="/wiki/Russian_2019_Fake_News_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian 2019 Fake News Law">new bill</a> to ban websites from spreading false information.<a href="#cite_note-326">[324]</a> In addition to tackling fake news, the <a href="/wiki/Russian_2019_Disrespect_to_Authorities_Law" title="Russian 2019 Disrespect to Authorities Law">new legislation</a> specifically punishes any sources or websites for publishing materials that insult the state, the symbol of the government or other political figures. For repeated offenders, they would receive a 15-day jail sentence.<a href="#cite_note-327">[325]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a>, the Russian government <a href="/wiki/Russian_2022_war_censorship_laws" title="Russian 2022 war censorship laws">passed a law prohibiting "fake news"</a> regarding the Russian military, which was broadly defined as any information that is deemed by the Russian government to be false, including the use of the terms invasion and war to refer to the invasion.<a href="#cite_note-328">[326]</a><a href="#cite_note-329">[327]</a> Violations of the law are punishable with up to 15 years of imprisonment. International news organizations in multiple countries ceased operating in Russia and journalists emigrated from Russia en masse after the law was passed, while some domestic non-state news organizations were blocked by the Russian government.<a href="#cite_note-330">[328]</a><a href="#cite_note-331">[329]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Serbia">Serbia</h4></div> In 2018, the <a href="/wiki/International_Research_%26_Exchanges_Board" title="International Research & Exchanges Board">International Research & Exchanges Board</a> described the situation in Serbian media as the worst in recent history and stated that the <a href="/wiki/Media_Sustainability_Index" title="Media Sustainability Index">Media Sustainability Index</a> has dropped due to the most polarized media in almost 20 years, an increase in fake news and editorial pressure on media.<a href="#cite_note-IREX-332">[330]</a> According to Serbian investigative journalism portal Crime and Corruption Reporting Network, more than 700 fake news articles were published on the front pages of pro-government tabloids in 2018.<a href="#cite_note-333">[331]</a><a href="#cite_note-KRIK-334">[332]</a> Many of them were about alleged attacks on president <a href="/wiki/Aleksandar_Vu%C4%8Di%C4%87" title="Aleksandar Vučić">Aleksandar Vučić</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup</a> attempts, as well as messages of support to him by <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-KRIK-334">[332]</a> The best-selling newspaper in Serbia is the pro-government tabloid <a href="/wiki/Informer_(newspaper)" title="Informer (newspaper)">Informer</a>, which most often presents Vučić as a powerful person under constant attack, and also features <a href="/wiki/Euroscepticism" title="Euroscepticism">anti-European</a> content and <a href="/wiki/Pro-war_rhetoric" title="Pro-war rhetoric">pro-war rhetoric</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JovanovicSrdjanMladenov-335">[333]</a><a href="#cite_note-336">[334]</a><a href="#cite_note-337">[335]</a> Since Vučić's party came to power, Serbia has seen a surge of <a href="/wiki/Internet_trolls" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet trolls">Internet trolls</a> and pages on social networks praising the government and attacking its critics, free media and the opposition in general.<a href="#cite_note-Breitbart-338">[336]</a> It includes a handful of dedicated employee-run fake accounts as well as the Facebook page associated with a Serbian franchise of the far-right <a href="/wiki/Breitbart_News" title="Breitbart News">Breitbart News</a> website, which has disputed accuracy.<a href="#cite_note-trolls-339">[337]</a><a href="#cite_note-Breitbart-338">[336]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spain">Spain</h4></div> Fake news in Spain has become much more prevalent in the 2010s, but has been prominent throughout Spain's history. The United States government published a fake article in regards to the purchase of the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> from Spain, which they had already purchased.<a href="#cite_note-340">[338]</a> Despite this, the topic of fake news has traditionally not been given much attention in Spain until the newspaper <a href="/wiki/El_Pa%C3%ADs" title="El País">El País</a> launched a blog dedicated strictly to truthful news, entitled Hechos, meaning 'facts'. David Alandete, the managing editor of El País, stated that many people misinterpret fake news as real because the sites "have similar names, typography, layouts and are deliberately confusing".<a href="#cite_note-Digiday-2017-341">[339]</a> Alandete made it the new mission of El País "to respond to fake news".<a href="#cite_note-342">[340]</a> María Ramírez of <a href="/wiki/Univision_Communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Univision Communications">Univision Communications</a> has stated that much of the political fake news circulating in Spain is due to the lack of investigative journalism on the topics. Most recently El País has created a fact-checking position for five employees, to try and debunk the fake news released.<a href="#cite_note-Digiday-2017-341">[339]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sweden">Sweden</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Security_Service" title="Swedish Security Service">Swedish Security Service</a> issued a report in 2015 identifying propaganda from Russia infiltrating Sweden with the objective to amplify pro-Russian propaganda and inflame societal conflicts. The <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Civil_Contingencies_Agency" title="Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency">Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency</a> (MSB), part of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(Sweden)" title="Ministry of Defence (Sweden)">Ministry of Defence of Sweden</a>, identified fake news reports targeting <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> in 2016 that originated from Russia. Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency official Mikael Tofvesson stated a pattern emerged where views critical of Sweden were constantly repeated. <a href="/wiki/The_Local" title="The Local">The Local</a> identified these tactics as a form of <a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">psychological warfare</a>. The newspaper reported the MSB identified <a href="/wiki/Russia_Today" class="mw-redirect" title="Russia Today">Russia Today</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_News" class="mw-redirect" title="Sputnik News">Sputnik News</a> as significant fake news purveyors. As a result of growth in this propaganda in Sweden, the MSB planned to hire six additional security officials to fight back against the campaign of fraudulent information.<a href="#cite_note-343">[341]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Internet_Institute" title="Oxford Internet Institute">Oxford Internet Institute</a>, eight of the top 10 "junk news" sources during the <a href="/wiki/2018_Swedish_general_election" title="2018 Swedish general election">2018 Swedish general election</a> campaign were Swedish, and "Russian sources comprised less than 1% of the total number of URLs shared in the data sample."<a href="#cite_note-344">[342]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ukraine">Ukraine</h4></div> Since <a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">Euromaidan</a> and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/War_in_Donbas_(2014%E2%80%932022)" class="mw-redirect" title="War in Donbas (2014–2022)">Ukrainian crisis</a> in 2014, the Ukrainian media circulated several fake news stories and misleading images, including a photograph of a dead rebel with a <a href="/wiki/Photoshopped" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoshopped">Photoshopped</a> tattoo which allegedly indicated that he belonged to Russian Special Forces<a href="#cite_note-345">[343]</a> and the threat of a Russian nuclear attack against Ukrainian troops.<a href="#cite_note-BlackJohns-346">[344]</a> The recurring theme of these fake news stories was that Russia was solely to blame for the crisis and the war in Donbass.<a href="#cite_note-BlackJohns-346">[344]</a> In 2015 the <a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe</a> published a report criticizing Russian disinformation campaigns to disrupt relations between Europe and Ukraine after the ouster of <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Yanukovych" title="Viktor Yanukovych">Viktor Yanukovych</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Welle" title="Deutsche Welle">Deutsche Welle</a>, similar tactics were used by fake news websites during the U.S. elections. A website, <a href="/wiki/StopFake" title="StopFake">StopFake</a>, was created by Ukrainian activists in 2014 to debunk fake news in Ukraine, including <a href="/wiki/Media_portrayal_of_the_Ukrainian_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Media portrayal of the Ukrainian crisis">media portrayal of the Ukrainian crisis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-347">[345]</a> On May 29, 2018, the Ukrainian media and state officials announced that the Russian journalist <a href="/wiki/Arkady_Babchenko" title="Arkady Babchenko">Arkady Babchenko</a> was assassinated in his apartment in Kyiv. Later, Babchenko appeared to be alive, and the <a href="/wiki/Security_Service_of_Ukraine" title="Security Service of Ukraine">Security Service of Ukraine</a> claimed that the staged assassination was needed to arrest a person who allegedly was planning a real assassination. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Baunov" title="Alexander Baunov">Alexander Baunov</a>, writing for Carnegie.ru, mentioned that the staged assassination of Babchenko was the first instance of fake news delivered directly by the highest officials of a state.<a href="#cite_note-348">[346]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4></div> Under King <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I of England</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1272–1307) "a statute was passed which made it a grave offence to devise or tell any false news of prelates, dukes, earls, barons, or nobles of the realm."<a href="#cite_note-349">[347]</a> In 1702 <a href="/wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain" title="Anne, Queen of Great Britain">Queen Anne of England</a> issued a proclamation "for restraining the spreading false news, and printing and publishing of irreligious and seditious papers and libels".<a href="#cite_note-350">[348]</a> On December 8, 2016, <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_Secret_Intelligence_Service" title="Chief of the Secret Intelligence Service">Chief of the Secret Intelligence Service</a> (MI6) <a href="/wiki/Alex_Younger" title="Alex Younger">Alex Younger</a> delivered a speech to journalists at the <a href="/wiki/SIS_Building" title="SIS Building">MI6 headquarters</a> where he called fake news and propaganda damaging to democracy. Younger said the mission of MI6 was to combat propaganda and fake news in order to deliver to his government a strategic advantage in the <a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">information-warfare</a> arena, and to assist other nations including Europe. He called such methods of fake-news propaganda online a "fundamental threat to our sovereignty". Younger said all nations that hold democratic values should feel the same worry over fake news.<a href="#cite_note-351">[349]</a> However, definitions of fake news have been controversial in the UK.<a href="#cite_note-352">[350]</a> Dr Claire Wardle advised some UK Members of Parliament against using the term in certain circumstances "when describing the complexity of information disorder", as the term fake news is "woefully inadequate": <blockquote>Neither the words 'fake' nor 'news' effectively capture this polluted information ecosystem. Much of the content used as examples in debates on this topic are not fake, they are genuine but used out of context or manipulated. Similarly, to understand the entire ecosystem of polluted information, we need to consider far more than content that mimics 'news'.<a href="#cite_note-353">[351]</a></blockquote> In October 2020, a hoax claim made by a spoof <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a> account, about the supposed reopening of <a href="/wiki/Woolworths_Group_(United_Kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="Woolworths Group (United Kingdom)">Woolworths</a> stores, was repeated without verification by news sites including the <a href="/wiki/Daily_Mail" title="Daily Mail">Daily Mail</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daily_Mirror" title="Daily Mirror">Daily Mirror</a> (and the latter's regional sister titles).<a href="#cite_note-354">[352]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship_in_China" title="Internet censorship in China">Internet censorship in China</a> and <a href="/wiki/50_Cent_Party" title="50 Cent Party">50 Cent Party</a></div> Fake news during the 2016 U.S. election spread to China. Articles popularized within the United States were translated into Chinese and spread within China.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian12.2.16-285">[283]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Government_of_China" title="Government of China">government of China</a> used the growing problem of fake news as a rationale for increasing <a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship_in_China" title="Internet censorship in China">Internet censorship in China</a> in November 2016.<a href="#cite_note-355">[353]</a> China then published an editorial in its <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Party">Communist Party</a> newspaper <a href="/wiki/The_Global_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="The Global Times">The Global Times</a> called "Western media's crusade against Facebook", and criticized "unpredictable" political problems posed by freedoms enjoyed by users of <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a>. China government leaders meeting in <a href="/wiki/Wuzhen" title="Wuzhen">Wuzhen</a> at the third <a href="/wiki/World_Internet_Conference" title="World Internet Conference">World Internet Conference</a> in November 2016 said fake news in the U.S. election justified adding more curbs to free and open use of the Internet. China Deputy Minister Ren Xianliang, official at the <a href="/wiki/Cyberspace_Administration_of_China" title="Cyberspace Administration of China">Cyberspace Administration of China</a>, said increasing online participation led to "harmful information" and fraud.<a href="#cite_note-356">[354]</a> Kam Chow Wong, a former <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> law enforcement official and criminal justice professor at <a href="/wiki/Xavier_University" title="Xavier University">Xavier University</a>, praised attempts in the U.S. to patrol social media.<a href="#cite_note-357">[355]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a> noted China's themes of <a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">Internet censorship</a> became more relevant at the World Internet Conference due to the outgrowth of fake news.<a href="#cite_note-358">[356]</a> The issue of fake news in the 2016 United States election gave the Chinese Government a reason to further criticize Western democracy and press freedom. The Chinese government accused Western media organisations of bias, in a move apparently inspired by Trump.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Hernandez_2017-05-07-359">[357]</a> In March 2017, the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Daily" title="People's Daily">People's Daily</a>, a newspaper run by the ruling <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a>, denounced news coverage of the torture of Chinese lawyer and human rights advocate Xie Yang, claiming it to be fake news.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Hernandez_2017-05-07-359">[357]</a> The newspaper published a <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a> post declaring that "Foreign media reports that police tortured a detained lawyer is FAKE NEWS, fabricated to tarnish China's image". The state-owned <a href="/wiki/Xinhua_News_Agency" title="Xinhua News Agency">Xinhua News Agency</a> claimed that "the stories were essentially fake news". The Chinese government often accused Western news organizations of being biased and dishonest.<a href="#cite_note-360">[358]</a> The Chinese government also claimed that there were people who posed as journalists who spread negative information on social media in order to extort payment from their victims to stop doing so. David Bandurski of University of Hong Kong's China Media Project said that this issue continued to worsen.<a href="#cite_note-361">[359]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Hong_Kong">Hong Kong</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reactions_to_the_2019%E2%80%9320_Hong_Kong_protests#Internet_activities" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactions to the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests">Reactions to the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests § Internet activities</a></div> During the <a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Hong_Kong_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2019–20 Hong Kong protests">2019–20 Hong Kong protests</a>, the Chinese government has been accused for using fake news to spread misinformation regarding the protests. It includes describing protests as "riots", and "radicals" seeking independence for the city. Due to the <a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_China" title="Censorship in China">online censorship in China</a>, citizens inside mainland China could not read news reports from some media outlets.<a href="#cite_note-362">[360]</a><a href="#cite_note-363">[361]</a> It was also found by Facebook, Twitter and YouTube that misinformation was spread with fake accounts and advertisements by state-backed media. Large amount of accounts were suspended.<a href="#cite_note-364">[362]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dot_Dot_News" title="Dot Dot News">Dot Dot News</a>, a pro-Beijing online media located in Hong Kong, has been banned by Facebook for distributing fake news and hate speech.<a href="#cite_note-365">[363]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="India">India</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_India" title="Fake news in India">Fake news in India</a></div> Fake news in India has led to violent incidents between <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">castes</a> and religions, interfering with public policies. It often spreads through the <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphone</a> <a href="/wiki/Instant_messaging" title="Instant messaging">instant messenger</a> <a href="/wiki/WhatsApp" title="WhatsApp">WhatsApp</a>,<a href="#cite_note-wapo-366">[364]</a> which had 200 million <a href="/wiki/Monthly_active_users" class="mw-redirect" title="Monthly active users">monthly active users</a> in the country as of February 2017<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fake_news&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a href="#cite_note-367">[365]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indonesia">Indonesia</h4></div> Indonesia is reported to have the fourth-highest number of Facebook users in the world.<a href="#cite_note-BBC2019-368">[366]</a> Indonesia has seen an increase in the amount of fake news and hoaxes on social media, particularly around elections in 2014 and 2019.<a href="#cite_note-Hui-369">[367]</a><a href="#cite_note-Paterson-370">[368]</a> This has been accompanied by increased polarization within the country.<a href="#cite_note-Warburton-371">[369]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/2014_Indonesian_presidential_election" title="2014 Indonesian presidential election">2014 presidential election</a>, the eventual winning candidate <a href="/wiki/Joko_Widodo" title="Joko Widodo">Joko Widodo</a> became a target of a smear campaign by <a href="/wiki/Prabowo_Subianto" title="Prabowo Subianto">Prabowo Subianto</a>'s supporters that falsely claimed he was the child of <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Indonesia" title="Communist Party of Indonesia">Indonesian Communist Party</a> members, of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Indonesians" title="Chinese Indonesians">Chinese descent</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kwok-2017-372">[370]</a> After Widodo won, Subianto challenged the results, making claims of widespread fraud that were not upheld. Observers found that the election was carried out fairly.<a href="#cite_note-BBC2014-373">[371]</a> According to Mafindo, which tracks fake news in Indonesia, political disinformation increased by 61% between December 2018 and January 2019, leading up to the <a href="/wiki/2019_Indonesian_general_election" title="2019 Indonesian general election">2019 presidential election</a>. Both political candidates and electoral institutions were targeted.<a href="#cite_note-BBC2019-368">[366]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lamb-374">[372]</a> Both sides formed dedicated anti-hoax groups to counterattacks on social media.<a href="#cite_note-antihoaxprabowo-375">[373]</a><a href="#cite_note-376">[374]</a> The Indonesian government held weekly fake news briefings.<a href="#cite_note-377">[375]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hui-369">[367]</a> Once again, the losing candidate refused to accept the result and claimed that there had been fraud, without presenting any supporting evidence. Protests, rioting, and deaths of protestors were reported.<a href="#cite_note-378">[376]</a> Fake news in Indonesia frequently tends to be related to alleged <a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Chinese imperialism</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">Sinicization</a>), <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Suryadinata-379">[377]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communization" title="Communization">communization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Varagur-380">[378]</a> Inflaming ethnic and political tensions is potentially deadly in Indonesia, with its recent incidences of domestic terrorism, and its long and bloody history of <a href="/wiki/Anti-communism" title="Anti-communism">anti-communist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_modern_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Persecution of Christians in the modern era">anti-Christian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sinophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">anti-Chinese</a> pogroms cultivated by <a href="/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a>'s <a href="/wiki/New_Order_(Indonesia)" title="New Order (Indonesia)">U.S.-backed right-wing dictatorship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-381">[379]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kwok-2017-372">[370]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beech-382">[380]</a> The Indonesian government, watchdog groups, and even religious organizations have taken steps to prevent the spreading of disinformation, through steps such as blocking certain websites and creating fact-check apps. The largest Islamic mass organization in Indonesia, <a href="/wiki/Nahdlatul_Ulama" title="Nahdlatul Ulama">Nahdlatul Ulama</a>, has created an anti-fake news campaign called #TurnBackHoax, while other Islamic groups have defined such propagation as tantamount to sin.<a href="#cite_note-Kwok-2017-372">[370]</a> While the government currently views criminal punishment as the last resort, officials are working hard to guarantee law enforcement will respect the freedom of expression. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Malaysia">Malaysia</h4></div> In April 2018, Malaysia implemented the Anti-Fake News Bill 2018, a controversial law that deemed publishing and circulating misleading information a crime punishable by up to six years in prison and/or fines of up to 500,000 ringgit.<a href="#cite_note-malaysia-383">[381]</a> At implementation, the country's prime minister was <a href="/wiki/Najib_Razak" title="Najib Razak">Najib Razak</a>, whose associates were connected to the mishandling of at least $3.5 billion by a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">United States Department of Justice</a> report.<a href="#cite_note-Paddock-2016-384">[382]</a><a href="#cite_note-malaysia-383">[381]</a> Of that sum of money, $731 million was deposited into bank accounts controlled by Razak.<a href="#cite_note-malaysia-383">[381]</a><a href="#cite_note-Paddock-2016-384">[382]</a> The convergence between the fake news law and Razak's connection to scandal was made clear by the Malaysian minister of communications and multimedia, <a href="/wiki/Salleh_Said_Keruak" title="Salleh Said Keruak">Salleh Said Keruak</a>, who said that tying Razak to a specific dollar amount could be a prosecutable offense.<a href="#cite_note-malaysia-383">[381]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/2018_Malaysian_general_election" title="2018 Malaysian general election">2018 Malaysian general election</a>, Najib Razak lost his seat as prime minister to <a href="/wiki/Mahathir_Mohamad" title="Mahathir Mohamad">Mahatir Mohammad</a>, who vowed to abolish the fake news law in his campaign, as the law was used to target him.<a href="#cite_note-BBC_News-2018-385">[383]</a><a href="#cite_note-CNET-2018-386">[384]</a> After winning the election, the newly elected prime minister Mohammad has said, "Even though we support freedom of press and freedom of speech, there are limits."<a href="#cite_note-BBC_News-2018-385">[383]</a><a href="#cite_note-CNET-2018-386">[384]</a> As of May 2018<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fake_news&action=edit">[update]</a>, Mohammad has supported amending the law, rather than a full abolition.<a href="#cite_note-CNET-2018-386">[384]</a> Paul Bernal, a lecturer in information and technology, fears that the fake news epidemic is a "Trojan horse" for countries like Malaysia to "control uncomfortable stories".<a href="#cite_note-387">[385]</a> The vagueness of this law means that satirists, opinion writers, and journalists who make errors could face persecution. The law also makes it illegal to share fake news stories. In one instance, a Danish man and Malaysian citizen were arrested for posting false news stories online and were sentenced to serve a month in jail.<a href="#cite_note-388">[386]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Myanmar_(Burma)">Myanmar (Burma)</h4></div> In 2015, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a> reported on fake stories, using unrelated photographs and fraudulent captions, shared online in support of the <a href="/wiki/Rohingya" class="mw-redirect" title="Rohingya">Rohingya</a>.<a href="#cite_note-389">[387]</a> Fake news negatively affected individuals in <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a>, leading to a rise in <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_in_Myanmar" title="Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar">violence against Muslims in the country</a>. Online participation surged from one percent to 20 percent of Myanmar's total populace from 2014 to 2016. Fake stories from Facebook were reprinted in paper periodicals called Facebook and The Internet. False reporting related to practitioners of Islam in the country was directly correlated with increased attacks on <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Myanmar" title="Islam in Myanmar">Muslims in Myanmar</a>. <a href="/wiki/BuzzFeed" title="BuzzFeed">BuzzFeed</a> journalist Sheera Frenkel reported fake news fictitiously stated believers in Islam acted out in violence at Buddhist locations. She documented a direct relationship between the fake news and violence against Muslim people. Frenkel noted countries that were relatively newer to Internet exposure were more vulnerable to the problems of fake news and fraud. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pakistan">Pakistan</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Khawaja_Muhammad_Asif" class="mw-redirect" title="Khawaja Muhammad Asif">Khawaja Muhammad Asif</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Minister_of_Defence" class="mw-redirect" title="Pakistan Minister of Defence">Minister of Defence</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, threatened on <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a> to attack <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> with nuclear weapons after a false story claiming that <a href="/wiki/Avigdor_Lieberman" title="Avigdor Lieberman">Avigdor Lieberman</a>, the Israeli <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_(Israel)" title="Ministry of Defense (Israel)">Ministry of Defense</a>, said "If Pakistan send ground troops into Syria on any pretext, we will destroy this country with a nuclear attack."<a href="#cite_note-390">[388]</a><a href="#cite_note-391">[389]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philippines">Philippines</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_the_Philippines" title="Fake news in the Philippines">Fake news in the Philippines</a></div> Fake news sites have become rampant for Philippine audiences, especially being shared on social media.<a href="#cite_note-cnnPhilippinesCBCPFightFakeNews-392">[390]</a> Politicians have started filing laws to combat fake news<a href="#cite_note-inquirerPangilinanSocMedFakeNews-393">[391]</a><a href="#cite_note-cnnPhilippinesBillFiledFakeNews-394">[392]</a> and three Senate hearings have been held on the topic.<a href="#cite_note-senateTacklesFakeNewsPh-395">[393]</a><a href="#cite_note-senateHolds2ndHearingPh-396">[394]</a><a href="#cite_note-liveSenateHearing3Ph-397">[395]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_Philippines" title="Catholic Church in the Philippines">Catholic Church in the Philippines</a> has also released a missive speaking out against it.<a href="#cite_note-stopFakeNewsFilipinoBishops-398">[396]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vera_Files" title="Vera Files">Vera Files</a> research at the end of 2017 and 2018 show that the most shared fake news in the Philippines appeared to benefit two people the most: President <a href="/wiki/Rodrigo_Duterte" title="Rodrigo Duterte">Rodrigo Duterte</a> (as well as his allies) and politician <a href="/wiki/Bongbong_Marcos" title="Bongbong Marcos">Bongbong Marcos</a>, with the most viral news driven by shares on networks of Facebook pages.<a href="#cite_note-veraYearEnderBenefitedMostFakeNews-399">[397]</a> Most Philippine-audience Facebook pages and groups spreading online disinformation also bear Duterte, Marcos or News in their names and are pro-Duterte.<a href="#cite_note-veraAdsRevealLinks-400">[398]</a> Online disinformation in the Philippines is overwhelmingly political as well, with most attacking groups or individuals critical of the Duterte administration.<a href="#cite_note-veraDuterteAlliesMostBenefitsDisinformation-401">[399]</a> Many Philippine-audience fake news websites also appear to be controlled by the same operators as they share common <a href="/wiki/Google_AdSense" title="Google AdSense">Google AdSense</a> and <a href="/wiki/Google_Analytics" title="Google Analytics">Google Analytics</a> IDs.<a href="#cite_note-veraAdsRevealLinks-400">[398]</a> According to media scholar Jonathan Corpus Ong, Duterte's presidential campaign is regarded as the <a href="/wiki/Index_case" title="Index case">patient zero</a> in the <a href="#21st_century">current era of disinformation</a>, having preceded widespread global coverage of the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Analytica" title="Cambridge Analytica">Cambridge Analytica</a> scandal and <a href="/wiki/Internet_Research_Agency" title="Internet Research Agency">Russian trolls</a>.<a href="#cite_note-trollsForSale-402">[400]</a> Fake news is so established and severe in the Philippines that Facebook's Global Politics and Government Outreach Director <a href="/wiki/Katie_Harbath" title="Katie Harbath">Katie Harbath</a> also calls it "patient zero"<a href="#cite_note-facebookKatieHarbath-403">[401]</a> in the global misinformation epidemic, having happened before <a href="/wiki/Brexit" title="Brexit">Brexit</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a> nomination and the <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016 US Elections</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nytSoldiersFacebookWarFakeNews-404">[402]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Singapore">Singapore</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Protection_from_Online_Falsehoods_and_Manipulation_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act">Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> criminalizes the propagation of fake news. Under existing law, "Any person who transmits or causes to be transmitted a message which he knows to be false or fabricated shall be guilty of an offense".<a href="#cite_note-405">[403]</a> On March 18, 2015, a doctored screenshot of the Prime Minister's Office website claiming the demise of <a href="/wiki/Lee_Kuan_Yew" title="Lee Kuan Yew">Lee Kuan Yew</a> went viral, and several international news agencies such as <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a> and <a href="/wiki/China_Central_Television" title="China Central Television">China Central Television</a> initially reported it as news, until corrected by the Prime Minister's Office. The image was created by a student to demonstrate to his classmates how fake news could be easily created and propagated.<a href="#cite_note-406">[404]</a> In 2017, Singaporean news website Mothership was criticized by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Singapore)" title="Ministry of Education (Singapore)">Ministry of Education</a> (MOE) for propagating remarks falsely attributed to a MOE official.<a href="#cite_note-407">[405]</a> In addition, Minister of Law <a href="/wiki/K._Shanmugam" title="K. Shanmugam">K. Shanmugam</a> also singled out online news website The States Times Review as an example of a source of fake news, as it once claimed a near-zero turnout at the state funeral of President <a href="/wiki/S._R._Nathan" title="S. R. Nathan">S. R. Nathan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-408">[406]</a> Following these incidents, Shanmugam stated that the existing legalization is limited and ineffective<a href="#cite_note-409">[407]</a> and indicated that the government intends to introduce legislation to combat fake news in 2018.<a href="#cite_note-410">[408]</a> In 2017, the Ministry of Communications and Information set up Factually, a website intended to debunk false rumors regarding issues of public interest such as the environment, housing and transport,<a href="#cite_note-411">[409]</a> while in 2018, the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Singapore" title="Parliament of Singapore">Parliament of Singapore</a> formed a <a href="/wiki/Select_Committee_on_Deliberate_Online_Falsehoods" title="Select Committee on Deliberate Online Falsehoods">Select Committee on Deliberate Online Falsehoods</a> to consider new legislation to tackle fake news.<a href="#cite_note-412">[410]</a> On recommendations from the select committee, the Singapore government introduced the <a href="/wiki/Protection_from_Online_Falsehoods_and_Manipulation_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act">Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Bill</a> (POFMA) in April 2019.<a href="#cite_note-413">[411]</a> Critics had pointed out that this bill could introduce government self-censorship and increase government control over social media.<a href="#cite_note-414">[412]</a> Activist platform <a href="/wiki/The_Online_Citizen" title="The Online Citizen">The Online Citizen</a> regarded legislation against fake news as an attempt by the government to curb the free flow of information so that only information approved by the government is disseminated to the public.<a href="#cite_note-415">[413]</a> In an online essay, activist and historian <a href="/wiki/Thum_Ping_Tjin" title="Thum Ping Tjin">Thum Ping Tjin</a> denied that fake news was a problem in Singapore, and accused the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Action_Party" title="People's Action Party">People's Action Party</a> government as the only major source of fake news, claiming that detentions made without trial during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Coldstore" title="Operation Coldstore">Operation Coldstore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Spectrum" title="Operation Spectrum">Operation Spectrum</a> were based on fake news for party political gain.<a href="#cite_note-416">[414]</a> Facebook and Google had opposed the introduction of the law to combat fake news, claiming that existing legislation was adequate to address the problem and that an effective way of combating misinformation is through educating citizens on how to distinguish reliable from unreliable information.<a href="#cite_note-417">[415]</a> The bill was passed June 3, 2019. Commencing on October 2, 2019, the law is designed specifically to allow authorities to respond to fake news or false information through a graduated process of enforcing links to fact-checking statements, censorship of website or assets on social media platforms, and criminal charges.<a href="#cite_note-418">[416]</a> There have been 75 recorded instances of POFMA's usage since the law's introduction, with the latest[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">as of?</a>] occurring on May 7, 2021.<a href="#cite_note-419">[417]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_Korea">South Korea</h4></div> South Korean journalists and media experts lament political hostility between South and North Korea which distorts <a href="/wiki/Media_coverage_of_North_Korea" title="Media coverage of North Korea">media coverage of North Korea</a><a href="#cite_note-420">[418]</a> and North Korea has attributed erroneous reporting to South Korea and United States with being critical to media organization <a href="/wiki/The_Chosun_Ilbo" title="The Chosun Ilbo">Chosun Ilbo</a><a href="#cite_note-lareviewofbooks.org-421">[419]</a> while American journalist <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Demick" title="Barbara Demick">Barbara Demick</a> had also made similar criticisms on media coverage of North.<a href="#cite_note-lareviewofbooks.org-421">[419]</a> On November 27, 2018, prosecutors raided the house of <a href="/wiki/Gyeonggi_Province" title="Gyeonggi Province">Gyeonggi Province</a> governor <a href="/wiki/Lee_Jae-myung" title="Lee Jae-myung">Lee Jae-myung</a> amid suspicions that his wife used a pseudonymous Twitter handle to spread fake news about <a href="/wiki/President_of_South_Korea" title="President of South Korea">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Moon_Jae-in" title="Moon Jae-in">Moon Jae-in</a> and other political rivals of her husband.<a href="#cite_note-422">[420]</a><a href="#cite_note-423">[421]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>'s leaders, including President <a href="/wiki/Tsai_Ing-wen" title="Tsai Ing-wen">Tsai Ing-wen</a> and Premier <a href="/wiki/William_Lai" class="mw-redirect" title="William Lai">William Lai</a>, accused <a href="/wiki/50_Cent_Party" title="50 Cent Party">China's troll army</a> of spreading "fake news" via social media to support candidates more sympathetic to Beijing ahead of the <a href="/wiki/2018_Taiwanese_local_elections" title="2018 Taiwanese local elections">2018 Taiwanese local elections</a>.<a href="#cite_note-424">[422]</a><a href="#cite_note-425">[423]</a><a href="#cite_note-426">[424]</a> In a report in December 2015 by <a href="/wiki/The_China_Post" title="The China Post">The China Post</a>, a fake video shared online showed people a light show purportedly made at the <a href="/wiki/Shihmen_Reservoir" class="mw-redirect" title="Shihmen Reservoir">Shihmen Reservoir</a>. The Northern Region Water Resources Office confirmed there was no light show at the reservoir and the event had been fabricated. The fraud led to an increase in tourist visits to the actual attraction. According to the news updated paper from the Time World in regards the global threat to free speech, the Taiwanese government has reformed its policy on education and it will include "media literacy" as one part of school curriculum for the students. It will be included to develop the <a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">critical-thinking</a> skills needed while using social media. Further, the work of media literacy will also include the skills needed to analyze propaganda and sources, so students can clarify what is fake news.<a href="#cite_note-427">[425]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Americas">Americas</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brazil">Brazil</h4></div> Brazil faced increasing influence from fake news after the <a href="/wiki/2014_Brazilian_general_election" title="2014 Brazilian general election">2014 re-election</a> of President <a href="/wiki/Dilma_Rousseff" title="Dilma Rousseff">Dilma Rousseff</a> and <a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Dilma_Rousseff" title="Impeachment of Dilma Rousseff">Rousseff's subsequent impeachment</a> in August 2016. BBC Brazil reported in April 2016 that in the week surrounding one of the impeachment votes, three out of the five most-shared articles on Facebook in Brazil were fake. In 2015, reporter Tai Nalon resigned from her position at Brazilian newspaper <a href="/wiki/Folha_de_S_Paulo" class="mw-redirect" title="Folha de S Paulo">Folha de S Paulo</a> in order to start the first fact-checking website in Brazil, called Aos Fatos ('To The Facts'). Nalon told <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a> there was a great deal of fake news, and hesitated to compare the problem to that experienced in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian12.2.16-285">[283]</a> Brazil also has a problem with fake news, and according to a survey, a greater number of people that believe fake news influenced the outcome of their elections (69%) than in the United States (47%).<a href="#cite_note-Reuters-2017-58">[58]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jair_Bolsonaro_em_maio_de_2019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Jair_Bolsonaro_em_maio_de_2019.jpg/220px-Jair_Bolsonaro_em_maio_de_2019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Jair_Bolsonaro_em_maio_de_2019.jpg/330px-Jair_Bolsonaro_em_maio_de_2019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Jair_Bolsonaro_em_maio_de_2019.jpg/440px-Jair_Bolsonaro_em_maio_de_2019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3505" data-file-height="2629" /></a><figcaption>Jair Bolsonaro</figcaption></figure> President of Brazil <a href="/wiki/Jair_Bolsonaro" title="Jair Bolsonaro">Jair Bolsonaro</a> has claimed that he will not allow his government to use any of its 1.8 billion <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_real" title="Brazilian real">reais</a> (US$487 million) media budget on purchases from fake news media (that is, media that does not support him).<a href="#cite_note-428">[426]</a> The <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> reported that Bolsonaro's campaign declared media associating his campaign to the "extreme right" were themselves fake news.<a href="#cite_note-429">[427]</a> In 2020, <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Federal_Court" title="Supreme Federal Court">Brazil's Supreme Court</a> began an investigation into a purported disinformation campaign by Bolsonaro supporters.<a href="#cite_note-430">[428]</a> The Brazilian President claimed the investigation was "unconstitutional", and any restriction of fake news was an act of censorship.<a href="#cite_note-431">[429]</a> After an order by the Brazilian Supreme Court, Facebook had removed "dozens" of fake accounts that were directly linked to Bolsonaro's offices and his sons, and which were directed against politicians and media that opposed the President.<a href="#cite_note-432">[430]</a><a href="#cite_note-433">[431]</a> A video of Bolsonaro falsely claiming that the anti-malarial drug <a href="/wiki/Hydroxychloroquine" title="Hydroxychloroquine">hydroxychloroquine</a> has been working everywhere against the coronavirus was also taken down by Facebook and Twitter.<a href="#cite_note-434">[432]</a> In regards to the COVID-19 pandemic, he has accused his political opponents of exaggerating the severity of the virus. He gave a speech in 2021 in which he claimed that the virus was not as bad as the media made it out to be, and it was "fantasy" created by the media.<a href="#cite_note-435">[433]</a> In the wake of the uptick in Amazon fires of 2019, it became clear that many of the forest fire photos that went viral were fake news.<a href="#cite_note-436">[434]</a><a href="#cite_note-afp.com-437">[435]</a> Emmanuel Macron, president of France, tweeted a picture taken by a photographer who died in 2003, for example.<a href="#cite_note-NYTMacronDeadPhotographer-438">[436]</a><a href="#cite_note-afp.com-437">[435]</a><a href="#cite_note-439">[437]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4></div> Fake news online was brought to the attention of Canadian politicians in November 2016, as they debated helping assist local newspapers. Member of <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada" title="Parliament of Canada">Parliament</a> for <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Vancouver Centre">Vancouver Centre</a> <a href="/wiki/Hedy_Fry" title="Hedy Fry">Hedy Fry</a> specifically discussed fake news as an example of ways in which publishers on the Internet are less accountable than print media. Discussion in parliament contrasted the increase of fake news online with the downsizing of Canadian newspapers and the impact on democracy in Canada. Representatives from Facebook Canada attended the meeting and told members of Parliament they felt it was their duty to assist individuals in gathering data online.<a href="#cite_note-440">[438]</a> In January 2017, the <a href="/wiki/2017_Conservative_Party_of_Canada_leadership_election" title="2017 Conservative Party of Canada leadership election">Conservative leadership campaign</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kellie_Leitch" title="Kellie Leitch">Kellie Leitch</a> admitted to spreading fake news, including false claims that <a href="/wiki/Justin_Trudeau" title="Justin Trudeau">Justin Trudeau</a> was financing <a href="/wiki/Hamas" title="Hamas">Hamas</a>. The campaign manager claimed he spread the news in order to provoke negative reactions so that he could determine those who "aren't real Conservatives".<a href="#cite_note-441">[439]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colombia">Colombia</h4></div> In the fall of 2016, WhatsApp spread fake news that impacted votes critical to Colombian history.<a href="#cite_note-Uribe-2018-442">[440]</a> One of the lies spreading rapidly through WhatsApp was that Colombian citizens would receive less pension so former guerrilla fighters would get money.<a href="#cite_note-Uribe-2018-442">[440]</a> The misinformation initially began in a question as to whether WhatsApp users approved of the peace accord deal between the national government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) or not. The peace accord would end five decades of war between paramilitary groups (rebel forces) and the Colombian government that resulted in millions of deaths and displaced citizens throughout the country. A powerful influence of votes was the "no" campaign; the "no" campaign was to convince citizens of Colombia to not accept the peace accord because it would be letting the rebel group off "too easily."<a href="#cite_note-Garavito-2016-443">[441]</a> Uribe, former president of Colombia and of the democratic party, led the "no" campaign. Santos, president in 2016, took liberal approaches during his presidency. Santos won a Nobel Peace Prize in 2016 for his efforts towards a peace accord with rebel forces.<a href="#cite_note-Santos_Calderon-2019-216">[214]</a> In addition, Uribe naturally had opposing views to those of Santos.<a href="#cite_note-Santos_Calderon-2019-216">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-Uribe-2018-442">[440]</a> Furthermore, other news spread through WhatsApp were easily misinterpreted by the public, including that Santo's scheme was to put Colombia under harsh rule like Cuba and chaos like Venezuela (under Hugo Chávez), though the logistics were never explained.<a href="#cite_note-Uribe-2018-442">[440]</a> In an interview with Juan Carlos Vélez, the "no" campaign manager, he says their strategy was that "We discovered the viral power of social networks."<a href="#cite_note-Uribe-2018-442">[440]</a> In addition, the "yes" campaign also took part in spreading fake news through WhatsApp. For instance, a photoshopped image of democratic senator Everth Bustamante him holding a sign reading "I don't want guerrillas in congress" spread to show hypocrisy. This would be seen as hypocritical because he was a former left-wing M-19 guerrilla.<a href="#cite_note-Uribe-2018-442">[440]</a> The "no" campaign strongly influenced votes throughout Colombia. "Yes" votes were strong in areas with the highest number of victims and "no" votes in areas influenced by Uribe. As a result, "no" votes totaled 50.2%, compared to 49.8% "yes" votes.<a href="#cite_note-Garavito-2016-443">[441]</a> The result of fake news spreading on WhatsApp included changes to the app by journalist <a href="/wiki/Juanita_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juanita León">Juanita León</a>, who invented the WhatsApp "lie detector" in January 2017 to fight fake news within the app.<a href="#cite_note-Uribe-2018-442">[440]</a> Although the accord was eventually signed, the WhatsApp incident further prolonged the accord and spread controversial views among citizens. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mexico">Mexico</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1abot" title="Peñabot">Peñabot</a></div> In Mexico, people tend to rely heavily on social media and direct social contact as news sources, over television and print.<a href="#cite_note-Reuters2023-444">[442]</a> Usage of and trust in all types of news sources (including social media) declined from 2017 to 2023. As of 2023, the most-used media companies in Mexico were <a href="/wiki/TV_Azteca" title="TV Azteca">TV Azteca</a> news and <a href="/wiki/Televisa" title="Televisa">Televisa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Reuters2023-444">[442]</a> Televisa is both Mexico's largest television network and the largest media network in the Spanish-speaking world.<a href="#cite_note-Moore-445">[443]</a> The three most frequently used social media platforms were Facebook, YouTube, and WhatsApp.<a href="#cite_note-Reuters2023-444">[442]</a> Prior to 2012, the country's major television networks were central to <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Mexico" title="Politics of Mexico">political communication</a> in Mexico. They were also closely connected to the long-dominant <a href="/wiki/Institutional_Revolutionary_Party" title="Institutional Revolutionary Party">PRI</a> political party.<a href="#cite_note-Gámiz-446">[444]</a> Televiso has been criticized by journalists and academics for misrepresentation and manipulation of information, and attacks on opponents.<a href="#cite_note-Lara-447">[445]</a> Televiso shaped the campaign of <a href="/wiki/Enrique_Pe%C3%B1a_Nieto" title="Enrique Peña Nieto">Enrique Peña Nieto</a><a href="#cite_note-Meikle-448">[446]</a> whose Presidency from 2012 to 2018 was marked by scandals and decreased trust in television and print media.<a href="#cite_note-Gámiz-446">[444]</a> By the <a href="/wiki/2012_Mexican_general_election" title="2012 Mexican general election">2012 Mexican general election</a>, coordinated online disinformation campaigns were part of an "explosion of digital politics" in Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-Meikle-448">[446]</a><a href="#cite_note-Watts-449">[447]</a><a href="#cite_note-Armstrong-450">[448]</a> Mexican politicians used digital strategies and algorithms to boost their apparent popularity and undermine or overwhelm opposing messages.<a href="#cite_note-Meikle-448">[446]</a> Attempts to "hack" the "<a href="/wiki/Attention_economy" title="Attention economy">attention economy</a>" were made to amplify false narratives, capture attention and dominate discourse.<a href="#cite_note-Goldhaber-451">[449]</a><a href="#cite_note-boyd-452">[450]</a> A network of trolls was formed as early as 2009, to be activated as needed in support of Peña Nieto. Estimates of the number of people involved, and how many were paid, vary widely from 20,000 to 100,000 people. Bots were also used to amplify messages and create "false universes of followers".<a href="#cite_note-Meikle-448">[446]</a> Opposing voices were drowned out by generating large volumes of meaningless responses from "ghost followers".<a href="#cite_note-Meikle-448">[446]</a> In one incident that was analyzed, 50 spam accounts generated 1,000 tweets per day.<a href="#cite_note-Verkamp-453">[451]</a> Government activities following Peña Nieto's election included the amplification of support for controversial government initiatives.<a href="#cite_note-Meikle-448">[446]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Iguala_mass_kidnapping" title="Iguala mass kidnapping">killing or disappearance of a group of activist students</a> in 2014, algorithms were used to sabotage trending hashtags on Twitter such as #YaMeCanse 'IHaveHadEnough'.<a href="#cite_note-Meikle-448">[446]</a> Bots and trolls have also been used for threats and personal attacks.<a href="#cite_note-Meikle-448">[446]</a> Between 2017 and 2019, the hashtag #SalarioRosa 'Pink Salary for Vulnerability' was associated with political figure <a href="/wiki/Alfredo_del_Mazo_Maza" title="Alfredo del Mazo Maza">Alfredo del Mazo Maza</a> and pushed to the top of Twitter's trending list through <a href="/wiki/Astroturfing" title="Astroturfing">astroturfing</a>, creating an appearance of grassroots support. Photographs of women were associated with fake accounts to create the impression that women were engaged in the discussion, "mimicking conversation".<a href="#cite_note-Espinoza-454">[452]</a> As of 2018, 76–80% of people surveyed in Mexico worried about false information or fake news being used as a weapon, the highest rate of any country in the world.<a href="#cite_note-455">[453]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/2018_Mexican_general_election" title="2018 Mexican general election">2018 election</a>, bot battles between candidates drowned out conversations by posting attacks, rumors, unsubstantiated claims, and <a href="/wiki/Deepfake" title="Deepfake">deepfaked</a> videos.<a href="#cite_note-Armstrong-450">[448]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bandeira-456">[454]</a> Forty percent of the election-related tweets on Twitter mentioned <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Manuel_L%C3%B3pez_Obrador" title="Andrés Manuel López Obrador">Andrés Manuel López Obrador</a> (AMLO). None of his opponents reached twenty percent of the tweets.<a href="#cite_note-Bandeira-456">[454]</a>: 21  Automation and artificial amplification used both commercial and political bot services. At one point at least ten pro- and anti-AMLO bots posted over a thousand tweets in a matter of hours using the hashtag #AMLOFest.<a href="#cite_note-Bandeira-456">[454]</a>: 24  The collaborative journalism project Verificado 2018 was established to address misinformation during the 2018 presidential election. It involved at least eighty organizations, including local and national media outlets, universities and civil society and advocacy groups. The group researched online claims and political statements and published joint verifications. During the course of the election, they produced over 400 notes and 50 videos documenting false claims and suspect sites, and tracked instances where fake news went viral.<a href="#cite_note-Armstrong-450">[448]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bandeira-456">[454]</a>: 23  Verificado.mx received 5.4 million visits during the election, with its partner organizations registering millions more.<a href="#cite_note-Bandeira-456">[454]</a>: 25  One of the tactics they observed was the promotion of fabricated polls that exaggerated the support for various candidates. The fake polls were claimed to have been carried out by sources such as <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> and <a href="/wiki/El_Universal_(Mexico_City)" title="El Universal (Mexico City)">El Universal</a>, one of Mexico's top newspapers.<a href="#cite_note-Armstrong-450">[448]</a> Another tactic was to share encrypted messages via WhatsApp, In response, Verificado set up a hotline where WhatsApp users could submit messages for verification and debunking. Over 10,000 users subscribed to Verificado's hotline.<a href="#cite_note-Armstrong-450">[448]</a> Fake messages included false information about where and how to vote.<a href="#cite_note-Armstrong-450">[448]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bandeira-456">[454]</a>: 25  One campaign urged anti-AMLO voters to check boxes for both of his opponents – an action that would result in disqualification of the vote.<a href="#cite_note-Armstrong-450">[448]</a> Since being elected president in 2018, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO)'s behavior toward the media has been adversarial. He has used his morning addresses or mañaneras to target journalists such as <a href="/wiki/Carmen_Aristegui" title="Carmen Aristegui">Carmen Aristegui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Loret_de_Mola" title="Carlos Loret de Mola">Carlos Loret de Mola</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Victor_Trujillo" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Trujillo">Victor Trujillo</a>. <a href="/wiki/Article_19" title="Article 19">Article 19</a>, an international human rights organization, considers the Mexican government to be using a "strategy of disinformation" while limiting access to public sources of information. Article 19 estimates that 26.5% of the public information provided by the Mexican government is false.<a href="#cite_note-Reuters2023-444">[442]</a> As of 2019, Mexico became the most dangerous country in the world for journalists,<a href="#cite_note-Carrie-457">[455]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bandeira-456">[454]</a> with a higher death toll than active war zones.<a href="#cite_note-Kahn-458">[456]</a> During the pandemic, use of social media platforms such as WhatsApp and Facebook increased. In Mexico, the user base of the video app TikTok tripled from 2019 to 2021, reaching 17 million viewers.<a href="#cite_note-Piña-García-459">[457]</a> Patterns of Twitter activity during the pandemic suggest that astroturfing was used to create an appearance of widespread grassroots support for AMLO and for <a href="/wiki/Hugo_L%C3%B3pez-Gatell" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugo López-Gatell">Hugo López-Gatell</a> at a time when both men were being criticized for their handling of the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Mexico" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico">COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Piña-García-459">[457]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news in the United States">Fake news in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fake_news_websites_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news websites in the United States">Fake news websites in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_the_United_States" title="Media bias in the United States">Media bias in the United States</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_East_and_Africa">Middle East and Africa</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Armenia">Armenia</h4></div> According to a report by <a href="/wiki/OpenDemocracy" title="OpenDemocracy">openDemocracy</a> in 2020, the Armenian website Medmedia.am was spreading disinformation about the coronavirus pandemic, calling <a href="/wiki/Coronavirus_disease_2019" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronavirus disease 2019">COVID-19</a> a "fake pandemic" and warning Armenians to refuse future vaccine programmes. The website is led by Gevorg Grigoryan, a doctor who has been critical of the Armenian government's health ministry and its vaccine programmes, and has a history of anti-LGBT statements, including remarks posted on Facebook in which he called for gay people to be burned. The Guardian said the site was launched with the unwitting help of a US State Department grant intended to promote democracy.<a href="#cite_note-460">[458]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Israel_and_Palestinian_territories">Israel and Palestinian territories</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pallywood" title="Pallywood">Pallywood</a></div> In 1996, people were killed in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Wall_Tunnel_riots" title="Western Wall Tunnel riots">Western Wall Tunnel riots</a> in reaction to fake news accounts.<a href="#cite_note-461">[459]</a> In April 2018, Palestinian-Israeli football team <a href="/wiki/Bnei_Sakhnin_F.C." title="Bnei Sakhnin F.C.">Bnei Sakhnin</a> threatened to sue Israeli Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Netanyahu" title="Benjamin Netanyahu">Benjamin Netanyahu</a> for libel after he claimed fans booed during a minute of silence for Israeli flash-flood victims. In a social media post, Netanyahu blasted various Israeli news critical of him, as fake news including <a href="/wiki/Channel_2_(Israel)" title="Channel 2 (Israel)">Channel 2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Channel_Ten_(Israel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Channel Ten (Israel)">Channel 10</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haaretz" title="Haaretz">Haaretz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ynetnews" class="mw-redirect" title="Ynetnews">Ynet</a> the same day U.S. President Trump decried "fake news". The Palestinian Islamist political organization <a href="/wiki/Hamas" title="Hamas">Hamas</a> published a political program in 2017 intended to ease its position on Israel. Among other things, this charter accepted the borders of the Palestinian state circa the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a> of 1967.<a href="#cite_note-Dewan-2017-462">[460]</a> Although this document is an advancement from their previous 1988 charter, which called for the destruction of the State of Israel, it still does not recognize Israel as a legitimate independent nation.<a href="#cite_note-Dewan-2017-462">[460]</a> In a May 2017 video, Prime Minister of Israel, Benjamin Netanyahu responded to the coverage of this event by news outlets such as <a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network" title="Al Jazeera Media Network">Al Jazeera</a>, <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>, labeling their reporting "fake news".<a href="#cite_note-463">[461]</a> He specifically disagreed with the notion that Hamas had accepted the state of Israel within their new charter, and called this "a complete distortion of the truth". Instead he said, "The new Hamas document says Israel has no right to exist." Haaretz fact-checked the video, stating, "Netanyahu, following in the footsteps of Trump, is deliberately twisting the definition of 'fake news' to serve his own needs."<a href="#cite_note-464">[462]</a> In a later speech, addressed to his supporters, Netanyahu responded to allegations against him: "The fake news industry is at its peak ... Look, for example, how they cover with unlimited enthusiasm, every week, the left-wing demonstration. The same demonstrations whose goal is to apply improper pressure on law enforcement authorities so they will file an indictment at any price." <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> likened his use of the term fake news for describing left-wing media to Donald Trump's similar statements during the <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_elections" title="2016 United States elections">2016 United States election</a> cycle.<a href="#cite_note-465">[463]</a> In studies conducted by Yifat Media Check Ltd. and Hamashrokit ('The Whistle', a fact-checking organization), they found that over 70% of statements made by Israeli political leaders were not accurate.<a href="#cite_note-466">[464]</a> Some of the fake news Israel has been the victim of includes <a href="/wiki/Israel-related_animal_conspiracy_theories" title="Israel-related animal conspiracy theories">Israel-related animal conspiracy theories</a>, which claim Israel is using various animals to spy on or attack others with.<a href="#cite_note-467">[465]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Saudi_Arabia">Saudi Arabia</h4></div> According to the Global News, <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>'s state-owned television spread fake news about <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>. In August 2018, Canada's Global News reported that state-owned television <a href="/wiki/Al_Arabiya" title="Al Arabiya">Al Arabiya</a>, "has suggested that Canada is the worst country in the world for women, that it has the highest suicide rate and that it treats its Indigenous people the way Myanmar treats the Rohingya—a Muslim minority massacred and driven out of Myanmar en masse last year."<a href="#cite_note-468">[466]</a> In October 2018, <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a> has suspended a number of <a href="/wiki/Internet_bot" title="Internet bot">bot accounts</a> that appeared to be spreading pro-Saudi rhetoric about the disappearance of Saudi opposition journalist <a href="/wiki/Jamal_Khashoggi" title="Jamal Khashoggi">Jamal Khashoggi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-469">[467]</a><a href="#cite_note-470">[468]</a> According to Newsweek, Saudi Arabia's Office of Public Prosecution tweeted that "producing rumors or fake news [that Saudi Arabia's government was involved in the disappearance of Khashoggi] that would affect the public order or public security or sending or resending it via social media or any technical means" is punishable "by five years and a fine of 3 million <a href="/wiki/Saudi_riyal" title="Saudi riyal">riyals</a>".<a href="#cite_note-471">[469]</a> <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iranian</a>-backed Twitter accounts have spread sensational fake news and rumours about Saudi Arabia.<a href="#cite_note-472">[470]</a> On August 1, 2019, Facebook identified hundreds of accounts that were running a covert network on behalf of government of the <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Kingdom of Saudi Arabia</a> to spread fake news and attack regional rivals. The social media giant removed more than 350 accounts, pages and groups with nearly 1.4 million followers.<a href="#cite_note-473">[471]</a> Along with Facebook, these accounts were involved in "coordinated inauthentic behavior" on <a href="/wiki/Instagram" title="Instagram">Instagram</a> as well. According to a Facebook blog post, the network was running two different political agendas, one on behalf of Saudi Arabia and the other for the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-474">[472]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Syria">Syria</h4></div> In February 2017, <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> reported that up to 13,000 people had been hanged in a Syrian prison as part of an "extermination" campaign. Syrian president <a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a> questioned the credibility of Amnesty International and called the report "fake news" fabricated to undermine the government. "You can forge anything these days—we are living in a fake news era."<a href="#cite_note-475">[473]</a> Russia ran a disinformation campaign during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a> to discredit the humanitarian rescue organisation <a href="/wiki/White_Helmets_(Syrian_Civil_War)" class="mw-redirect" title="White Helmets (Syrian Civil War)">White Helmets</a>, and to discredit reports and images of children and other civilian bombing victims. This was done to weaken criticism of Russia's involvement in the war.<a href="#cite_note-476">[474]</a> The United Nations and international chemical inspectors found Bashar al-Assad responsible for use of chemical weapons,<a href="#cite_note-477">[475]</a> which was called "fake news" by Russia. Russia promoted various contradictory claims that no chemicals were present, or attributing the chemical attacks to other countries or groups.<a href="#cite_note-478">[476]</a><a href="#cite_note-479">[477]</a><a href="#cite_note-480">[478]</a><a href="#cite_note-481">[479]</a><a href="#cite_note-482">[480]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Arab_Emirates">United Arab Emirates</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> (UAE) had been funding <a href="/wiki/Non-profit_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-profit organizations">non-profit organizations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Think_tanks" class="mw-redirect" title="Think tanks">think tanks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Freelancer" title="Freelancer">contributors</a> of <a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">journalism</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Defense_of_Democracies" title="Foundation for Defense of Democracies">Foundation for Defense of Democracies</a> (FDD) and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East_Forum" title="Middle East Forum">Middle East Forum</a> (MEF), which further paid journalists spreading fake information to defame countries like <a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a>. In 2020, a researcher at FDD, Benjamin Weinthal, and fellow at MEF, <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Spyer" title="Jonathan Spyer">Jonathan Spyer</a>, contributed an article on <a href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a> to promote a negative image of Qatar, in an attempt to stain its <a href="/wiki/Qatar%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Qatar–United States relations">diplomatic relations with the United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-483">[481]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Egypt">Egypt</h4></div> According to <a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a>, an Egyptian official suggested in 2010 that the Israeli spy agency <a href="/wiki/Mossad" title="Mossad">Mossad</a> could have been behind a fatal shark attack in <a href="/wiki/Sharm_el-Sheikh" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharm el-Sheikh">Sharm el-Sheikh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-484">[482]</a> It was estimated by the Egyptian Parliament's Communication and Information Technology Committee that in 2017, 53,000 false rumors had been spread primarily through social media in 60 days.<a href="#cite_note-485">[483]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h4></div> A wide range of South African media sources have reported fake news as a growing problem and tool to both increase distrust in the media, discredit political opponents, and divert attention from corruption.<a href="#cite_note-486">[484]</a> Media outlets owned by the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_family" title="Gupta family">Gupta family</a> have been noted by other South African media organisations such as <a href="/wiki/The_Huffington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="The Huffington Post">The Huffington Post</a> (South Africa), <a href="/wiki/The_Sunday_Times_(South_Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Sunday Times (South Africa)">Sunday Times</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio_702" title="Radio 702">Radio 702</a>, and <a href="/wiki/City_Press_(South_Africa)" title="City Press (South Africa)">City Press</a> for targeting them.<a href="#cite_note-487">[485]</a> Individuals targeted include Finance Minister <a href="/wiki/Pravin_Gordhan" title="Pravin Gordhan">Pravin Gordhan</a> who was seen as blocking Gupta attempts at <a href="/wiki/State_capture" title="State capture">state capture</a> with accusations levelled against Gordhan of promoting state capture for "<a href="/wiki/White_monopoly_capital" title="White monopoly capital">white monopoly capital</a>".<a href="#cite_note-488">[486]</a><a href="#cite_note-489">[487]</a> The <a href="/wiki/African_National_Congress" title="African National Congress">African National Congress</a> (ANC) was taken to court by Sihle Bolani for unpaid work she did during the election on the ANC's behalf. In court papers Bolani stated that the ANC used her to launch and run a covert R50 million fake news and <a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">disinformation</a> campaign during the <a href="/wiki/2016_South_African_municipal_elections" title="2016 South African municipal elections">2016 municipal elections</a> with the intention of discrediting opposition parties.<a href="#cite_note-490">[488]</a><a href="#cite_note-491">[489]</a><a href="#cite_note-492">[490]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania">Oceania</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australia">Australia</h4></div> The Australian Parliament initiated investigation into "fake news" regarding issues surrounding fake news that occurred during the 2016 United States election. The inquiry looked at several major areas in Australia to find audiences most vulnerable to fake news, by considering the impact on traditional journalism, and by evaluating the liability of online advertisers and by regulating the spreading the hoaxes. This act of parliament is meant to combat the threat of social media spreading fake news.<a href="#cite_note-493">[491]</a> The Australian Code of Practice on Disinformation and Misinformation commenced on 22 February 2021, around 12 months after the Australian Government asked digital platforms to develop a voluntary code to address disinformation and misinformation and assist users of their services to more easily identify the reliability, trustworthiness and source of news content. The request is part of a broader Australian Government strategy to reform the technology and information dissemination landscape. The Australian Communications and Media (ACMA) oversaw the development of the code. The Government will then consider the need for further measures including mandatory regulation.<a href="#cite_note-494">[492]</a> A well-known case of fabricated news in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> happened in 2009 when a report, Deception detection across Australian populations, by a "Levitt Institute" was widely cited on news websites across the country, claiming that <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a> was the most naive city, despite the fact that the report itself contained a clue: amidst the mathematical gibberish, there was a statement: "These results were completely made up to be fictitious material through a process of modified truth and credibility nodes."<a href="#cite_note-495">[493]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/28px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/42px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg/56px-Crystal_Clear_app_linneighborhood.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="407" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Internet" title="Portal:Internet">Internet portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Newspaper_nicu_buculei_01.svg/28px-Newspaper_nicu_buculei_01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Newspaper_nicu_buculei_01.svg/42px-Newspaper_nicu_buculei_01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Newspaper_nicu_buculei_01.svg/56px-Newspaper_nicu_buculei_01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Journalism" title="Portal:Journalism">Journalism portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/28px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/42px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/56px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/28px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/42px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/56px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alarmism" title="Alarmism">Alarmism</a> – Excessive or exaggerated alarm about a real or imagined threat</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_facts" title="Alternative facts">Alternative facts</a> – Expression associated with political misinformation established in 2017</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_lie" title="Big lie">Big lie</a> – Propaganda technique</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chequebook_journalism" title="Chequebook journalism">Chequebook journalism</a> – Practice of news reporters paying sources for information</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_journalism" title="Citizen journalism">Citizen journalism</a> – Journalism genre</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clickbait" title="Clickbait">Clickbait</a> – Web content intended to entice users to click on a link</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation bias</a> – Bias confirming existing attitudes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demoralization_(warfare)" title="Demoralization (warfare)">Demoralization (warfare)</a> – Warfare tactic used to erode morale</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a> – Deliberately deceptive false information</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doomscrolling" title="Doomscrolling">Doomscrolling</a> – Compulsive consumption of negative online news</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">Echo chamber (media)</a> – Situation that reinforces beliefs by repetition inside a closed system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromyth" title="Euromyth">Euromyth</a> – Exaggerated or invented story about the European Union</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a> – Datum or structured component of reality</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact-checking" title="Fact-checking">Fact-checking</a> – Process of verifying information in non-fictional text</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factoid" title="Factoid">Factoid</a> – Invented claim or trivial fact</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">Fake news website</a> – Website that deliberately publishes hoaxes and disinformation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy_of_composition" title="Fallacy of composition">Fallacy of composition</a> – Fallacy of inferring on the whole from a part</li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_equivalence" title="False equivalence">False equivalence</a> – Logical fallacy of inconsistency</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fearmongering" title="Fearmongering">Fearmongering</a> – Deliberate use of fear-based tactics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filter_bubble" title="Filter bubble">Filter bubble</a> – Intellectual isolation through internet algorithms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firehose_of_falsehood" title="Firehose of falsehood">Firehose of falsehood</a> – Propaganda technique</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Freedom of the press</a> – Freedom of communication and expression through various media</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_quality" title="Information quality">Information quality</a> – term to describe the quality of the content of information systemsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_silo" title="Information silo">Information silo</a> – Insular information management system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_meme" title="Internet meme">Internet meme</a> – Cultural item spread via the Internet</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism_ethics_and_standards" title="Journalism ethics and standards">Journalism ethics and standards</a> – Principles of ethics and of good practice in journalism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_falsification" title="Knowledge falsification">Knowledge falsification</a> – Deliberate misrepresentation of knowledge</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamestream_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamestream media">Lamestream media</a> – Mass news media that influence many peoplePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fake_news_websites" title="List of fake news websites">List of fake news websites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muckraker" title="Muckraker">Muckraker</a> – Progressive-Era reform-minded investigative journalist in the US</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_bias" title="Political bias">Political bias</a> – Bias towards a political side in supposedly-objective information</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-truth_politics" title="Post-truth politics">Post-truth politics</a> – Political culture where facts are considered irrelevant</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a> – Pseudoscholarship that attempts to distort historical record</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_exposure_theory" title="Selective exposure theory">Selective exposure theory</a> – Theory within the practice of psychology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Networks">Social Networks</a> – journalPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallbackPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_of_silence" title="Spiral of silence">Spiral of silence</a> – Political science and mass communication theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabloid_journalism" title="Tabloid journalism">Tabloid journalism</a> – Style of largely sensationalist journalism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Internet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribe (Internet)">Tribe (Internet)</a> – Slang for an unofficial community of people who share a common interestPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troll_farm" title="Troll farm">Troll farm</a> – People employed to post divisive content</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthiness" title="Truthiness">Truthiness</a> – Quality of preferring concepts or facts one wishes to be true, rather than actual truth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_journalism" title="Yellow journalism">Yellow journalism</a> – Sensationalistic news</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-backfire-87"><a href="#cite_ref-backfire_87-0">^</a> Research is needed to establish the prevalence of this effect, as well as its relation to similar constructs: <a href="/wiki/Backfire_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Backfire effect">backfire effect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Streisand_effect" title="Streisand effect">Streisand effect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boomerang_effect_(psychology)" title="Boomerang effect (psychology)">boomerang effect</a>, backlash effect, and - more broadly - <a href="/wiki/Psychological_reactance" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological reactance">psychological reactance</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-bans-131"><a href="#cite_ref-bans_131-0">^</a> People have been arrested for allegedly spreading fake news about the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-straitstimes-105">[104]</a> Some examples: In the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>,<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>,<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>,<a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-straitstimes-105">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>,<a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>,<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>,<a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>,<a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>,<a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a>,<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>,<a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a> <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-straitstimes-105">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-straitstimes-105">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>,<a href="#cite_note-straitstimes-105">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>,<a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>,<a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cote_d%27Ivoire" class="mw-redirect" title="Cote d'Ivoire">Cote d'Ivoire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a> <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>,<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>,<a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>,<a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a> <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>,<a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Guardian12.17.16-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian12.17.16_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian12.17.16_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian12.17.16_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian12.17.16_1-3">d</a> <style 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no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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April 7, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Globe+and+Mail&rft.atitle=Arrests+mount+as+Africa+battles+a+destructive+wave+of+COVID-19+disinformation&rft.date=2020-04-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theglobeandmail.com%2Fworld%2Farticle-arrests-mount-as-africa-battles-a-destructive-wave-of-covid-1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200521204841/https://www.marketwatch.com/press-release/coronavirus-law-used-to-arrest-nigerian-journalist-over-health-story-2020-04-20?mod=mw_more_headlines&tesla=y">"Coronavirus Law Used to Arrest Nigerian Journalist Over Health Story"</a>. Market Watch. April 20, 2020. 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Retrieved May 17, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Market+Watch&rft.atitle=Coronavirus+Law+Used+to+Arrest+Nigerian+Journalist+Over+Health+Story&rft.date=2020-04-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marketwatch.com%2Fpress-release%2Fcoronavirus-law-used-to-arrest-nigerian-journalist-over-health-story-2020-04-20%3Fmod%3Dmw_more_headlines%26tesla%3Dy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/05/06/ethiopia-free-speech-risk-amid-covid-19">"Ethiopia: Free Speech at Risk Amid Covid-19"</a>. Human Rights Watch. May 6, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.atitle=Ethiopia%3A+Free+Speech+at+Risk+Amid+Covid-19&rft.date=2020-05-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fnews%2F2020%2F05%2F06%2Fethiopia-free-speech-risk-amid-covid-19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifex.org/authorities-across-west-africa-attacking-journalists-covering-covid-19-pandemic/">"Authorities across West Africa attacking journalists covering COVID-19 pandemic"</a>. <a href="/wiki/IFEX_(organization)" title="IFEX (organization)">IFEX</a>. 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April 18, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=VOA+News&rft.atitle=Somali+Journalists+Arrested%2C+Intimidated+While+Covering+COVID-19&rft.date=2020-04-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.voanews.com%2Fextremism-watch%2Fsomali-journalists-arrested-intimidated-while-covering-covid-19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/controls-to-manage-fake-news-in-africa-are-affecting-freedom-of-expression-137808">"Controls to manage fake news in Africa are affecting freedom of expression"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Conversation_(website)" title="The Conversation (website)">The Conversation</a>. May 11, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=Controls+to+manage+fake+news+in+Africa+are+affecting+freedom+of+expression&rft.date=2020-05-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fcontrols-to-manage-fake-news-in-africa-are-affecting-freedom-of-expression-137808&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rfi.fr/en/africa/20200414-press-freedom-violations-throughout-african-continent-linked-to-covid-19-coverage">"Press freedom violations throughout Africa linked to Covid-19 coverage"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Radio_France_Internationale" title="Radio France Internationale">Radio France Internationale</a>. 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April 16, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=Some+leaders+use+pandemic+to+sharpen+tools+against+critics&rft.date=2020-04-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FInternational%2FwireStory%2Fcoronavirus-crisis-excuses-curbs-free-speech-70177977&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-suraev-opposition-activist-detained-false-information-toqaev/30563253.html">"Kazakh Opposition Activist Detained For 'Spreading False Information'"</a>. Human Rights Watch. April 18, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Rights+Watch&rft.atitle=Kazakh+Opposition+Activist+Detained+For+%27Spreading+False+Information%27&rft.date=2020-04-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rferl.org%2Fa%2Fkazakhstan-suraev-opposition-activist-detained-false-information-toqaev%2F30563253.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/16/azerbaijan-crackdown-critics-amid-pandemic">"Azerbaijan: Crackdown on Critics Amid Pandemic"</a>. Human Rights Watch. 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April 4, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=VOA+News&rft.atitle=Malaysia+arrests+thousands+amid+coronavirus+lockdown&rft.date=2020-04-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.voanews.com%2Fscience-health%2Fcoronavirus-outbreak%2Fmalaysia-arrests-thousands-amid-coronavirus-lockdown&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts-crime/civil-servant-arrested-for-leaking-info-on-number-of-virus-cases">"Civil servant arrested for leaking info on number of virus cases"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Straits_Times" title="The Straits Times">The Straits Times</a>. 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November 23, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al-Jazeera&rft.atitle=%27Fake+news%27+rattles+Taiwan+ahead+of+elections&rft.date=2018-11-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2018%2F11%2Fnews-rattles-taiwan-elections-181123005140173.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-425"><a href="#cite_ref-425">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://monitoring.bbc.co.uk/product/c200fqlq">"Analysis: 'Fake news' fears grip Taiwan ahead of local polls"</a>. BBC Monitoring. November 21, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Analysis%3A+%27Fake+news%27+fears+grip+Taiwan+ahead+of+local+polls&rft.date=2018-11-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmonitoring.bbc.co.uk%2Fproduct%2Fc200fqlq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-426"><a href="#cite_ref-426">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3580979">"Fake news: How China is interfering in Taiwanese democracy and what to do about it"</a>. Taiwan News. November 23, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Taiwan+News&rft.atitle=Fake+news%3A+How+China+is+interfering+in+Taiwanese+democracy+and+what+to+do+about+it&rft.date=2018-11-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taiwannews.com.tw%2Fen%2Fnews%2F3580979&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-427"><a href="#cite_ref-427">^</a> Smith, N. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://time.com/4730440/taiwan-fake-news-education/">":Taiwan Is Leading the Way in Tackling Fake News"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a>. Retrieved April 28, 2017. </li> <li id="cite_note-428"><a href="#cite_ref-428">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony_BoadleGram_Slattery2018" class="citation news cs1">Anthony Boadle; Gram Slattery (November 4, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazil-politics-media/brazils-next-president-declares-war-on-fake-news-media-idUSKCN1N90NN">"Brazil's next president declares war on 'fake news' media"</a>. Reuters. Retrieved November 5, 2018. <q>That newspaper is done", Bolsonaro said in a tense TV Globo interview. "As far as I'm concerned with government advertising—press that acts like that, lying shamelessly, won't have any support from the federal government.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Brazil%27s+next+president+declares+war+on+%27fake+news%27+media&rft.date=2018-11-04&rft.au=Anthony+Boadle&rft.au=Gram+Slattery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-brazil-politics-media%2Fbrazils-next-president-declares-war-on-fake-news-media-idUSKCN1N90NN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-429"><a href="#cite_ref-429">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicardo_Senra2018" class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Ricardo Senra (September 6, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/portuguese/brasil-41179877">"In tour in the U.S., Bolsonaro to say that to associate him to the extreme right is "fake news""</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> (in Portuguese). Retrieved November 5, 2018. <q>Muitos jornalistas internacionais repetem bordões falsos, como este da extrema-direita, e o Jair vai mostrar que isso não é verdade. Não gosto muito do termo, mas vamos mostrar que isso é fake news (ou notícia falsa, em tradução literal).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=In+tour+in+the+U.S.%2C+Bolsonaro+to+say+that+to+associate+him+to+the+extreme+right+is+%22fake+news%22&rft.date=2018-09-06&rft.au=Ricardo+Senra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fportuguese%2Fbrasil-41179877&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-430"><a href="#cite_ref-430">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCoy" class="citation news cs1">McCoy, Terrence. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/the_americas/brazil-bolsonaro-fake-news-coronavirus/2020/06/03/60194428-a4de-11ea-898e-b21b9a83f792_story.html">"An investigation into fake news targets Brazil's Bolsonaros, and critics fear a constitutional crisis"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. 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Retrieved January 29, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=enca.com&rft.atitle=ANC+spent+millions+on+dirty+tricks%3A+Cope&rft.date=2017-01-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.enca.com%2Fsouth-africa%2Fanc-spent-millions-on-dirty-tricks-cope&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-492"><a href="#cite_ref-492">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mg.co.za/article/2017-01-24-shaka-sisulu-on-anc-election-accuations-its-fake-news">"It's fake news, says Shaka Sisulu of ANC election accusations"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mail_and_Guardian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mail and Guardian">Mail and Guardian</a>. January 24, 2017. Retrieved January 29, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mail+and+Guardian&rft.atitle=It%27s+fake+news%2C+says+Shaka+Sisulu+of+ANC+election+accusations&rft.date=2017-01-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmg.co.za%2Farticle%2F2017-01-24-shaka-sisulu-on-anc-election-accuations-its-fake-news&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-493"><a href="#cite_ref-493">^</a> Remeikis, A. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/parliament-to-launch-inquiry-into-fake-news-in-australia-20170330-gv9xwz.html">"Parliament to launch inquiry into 'fake news' in Australia"</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Sydney_Morning_Herald" title="The Sydney Morning Herald">The Sydney Morning Herald</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-494"><a href="#cite_ref-494">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gtlaw.com.au/insights/fake-news-look-australian-code-practice-disinformation-misinformation">"Fake News: the Australian Code of Practice on Disinformation and Misinformation | G+T"</a>. www.gtlaw.com.au. Retrieved October 29, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gtlaw.com.au&rft.atitle=Fake+News%3A+the+Australian+Code+of+Practice+on+Disinformation+and+Misinformation+%26%23124%3B+G%2BT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gtlaw.com.au%2Finsights%2Ffake-news-look-australian-code-practice-disinformation-misinformation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-495"><a href="#cite_ref-495">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/mediawatch/transcripts/s2698835.htm">"Deception detection deficiency"</a>, Media Watch, episode 34, September 28, 2009, <a href="/wiki/ABC_(Australian_TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC (Australian TV channel)">ABC TV</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/12px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/18px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/24px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="218" /></a> This article incorporates text from a <a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">free content</a> work. Licensed under CC BY SA 3.0 IGO (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=261065&set=005B2A1A4F_2_135&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1">license statement/permission</a>). Text taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0026/002610/261065e.pdf">World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018</a>, 202, University of Oxford, UNESCO. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPosettiMatthews" class="citation web cs1">Posetti, Julie; Matthews, Alice. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.icfj.org/sites/default/files/2018-07/A%20Short%20Guide%20to%20History%20of%20Fake%20News%20and%20Disinformation_ICFJ%20Final.pdf">"A short guide to the history of 'fake news' and disinformation"</a> (PDF). International Center for Journalists.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Center+for+Journalists&rft.atitle=A+short+guide+to+the+history+of+%27fake+news%27+and+disinformation&rft.aulast=Posetti&rft.aufirst=Julie&rft.au=Matthews%2C+Alice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.icfj.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2018-07%2FA%2520Short%2520Guide%2520to%2520History%2520of%2520Fake%2520News%2520and%2520Disinformation_ICFJ%2520Final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaturvedi2019" class="citation web cs1">Chaturvedi, Anumeha (December 20, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/fake-news-still-a-menace-despite-government-crackdown-fact-checkers/articleshow/72895472.cms">"2019 - The year of fake news"</a>. The Economic Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+Times&rft.atitle=2019+-+The+year+of+fake+news&rft.date=2019-12-20&rft.aulast=Chaturvedi&rft.aufirst=Anumeha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feconomictimes.indiatimes.com%2Fnews%2Fpolitics-and-nation%2Ffake-news-still-a-menace-despite-government-crackdown-fact-checkers%2Farticleshow%2F72895472.cms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Malik, Shahnawaz Ahmed, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3660324">Fake news: Legal analysis of false and misleading news and cyber propaganda</a> (February 5, 2019). AD VALOREM- Journal of Law: Volume 6: Issue II: Part-III: April–June 2019: ISSN : 2348–5485.</li> <li>Arun, Chinmayi, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3336127">On WhatsApp, rumours, lynchings, and the Indian Government</a> (January 3, 2019). Economic & Political Weekly vol. lIV no. 6.</li> <li>Nagar, Itisha and Gill, Simran, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=3651297">Head is where the herd is: Fake news and effect of online social conformity on Islamophobia in Indians</a>. SSHO-D-20-00611, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.3651297">10.2139/ssrn.3651297</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBounegruGrayVenturiniMauri2018" class="citation book cs1">Bounegru, Liliana; Gray, Jonathan; Venturini, Tommaso; Mauri, Michele (January 8, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fakenews.publicdatalab.org/">A field guide to "fake news" and other information disorders</a>. Amsterdam: Public Data Lab.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+field+guide+to+%22fake+news%22+and+other+information+disorders&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=Public+Data+Lab&rft.date=2018-01-08&rft.aulast=Bounegru&rft.aufirst=Liliana&rft.au=Gray%2C+Jonathan&rft.au=Venturini%2C+Tommaso&rft.au=Mauri%2C+Michele&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffakenews.publicdatalab.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"> An open access guide exploring the use of digital methods to study false viral news, political memes, trolling practices and their social life online.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrotherton2020" class="citation book cs1">Brotherton, Rob (2020). Bad News: Why We Fall for Fake News. Bloomsbury Sigma. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472962881" title="Special:BookSources/9781472962881"><bdi>9781472962881</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bad+News%3A+Why+We+Fall+for+Fake+News&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Sigma&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781472962881&rft.aulast=Brotherton&rft.aufirst=Rob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Cortada, James W. and William Aspray. Fake news nation: The long history of lies and misinterpretations in America (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=55213">online review</a>; also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Fake-News-Nation-History-Misinterpretations/dp/1538131102/">excerpt of book</a></li> <li>Higgins, Andrew et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/25/world/europe/fake-news-donald-trump-hillary-clinton-georgia.html">"Inside a fake news sausage factory: 'This is all about income'"</a> <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> November 25, 2016</li> <li>Horner, Paul (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170426081655/http://newsexaminer.net/paul-horner-news/paul-horner-news-internet-news-satirist-writer-news-examiner/">An online journal by satirist Paul Horner, listing all of his best hoaxes and fake news over the past 20 years. However, his satire was often spread far and wide by uncritical people believing it was true.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobson,_David2019" class="citation news cs1">Robson, David (April 1, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/apr/01/why-smart-people-are-more-likely-to-believe-fake-news">"Why smart people are more likely to believe fake news"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Why+smart+people+are+more+likely+to+believe+fake+news&rft.date=2019-04-01&rft.au=Robson%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fbooks%2F2019%2Fapr%2F01%2Fwhy-smart-people-are-more-likely-to-believe-fake-news&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchumacher2018" class="citation news cs1">Schumacher, Elizabeth (January 4, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dw.com/en/fake-news-casts-wide-net-but-has-little-effect/a-42029486">"Fake news 'casts wide net but has little effect'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Welle" title="Deutsche Welle">Deutsche Welle</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Fake+news+%27casts+wide+net+but+has+little+effect%27&rft.date=2018-01-04&rft.aulast=Schumacher&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Ffake-news-casts-wide-net-but-has-little-effect%2Fa-42029486&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSirota2022" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Sirota" title="David Sirota">Sirota, David</a> (February 9, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jacobinmag.com/2022/02/corporations-propoaganda-misinformation-cnn-cuomo-rogan">"The Real Fake News Crisis in America Comes From Corporate Media"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(magazine)" title="Jacobin (magazine)">Jacobin</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jacobin&rft.atitle=The+Real+Fake+News+Crisis+in+America+Comes+From+Corporate+Media&rft.date=2022-02-09&rft.aulast=Sirota&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjacobinmag.com%2F2022%2F02%2Fcorporations-propoaganda-misinformation-cnn-cuomo-rogan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucher2022" class="citation book cs1">Tucher, Andie (2022). Not Exactly Lying: Fake News and Fake Journalism in American History. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231186353" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231186353"><bdi>978-0231186353</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Not+Exactly+Lying%3A+Fake+News+and+Fake+Journalism+in+American+History&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0231186353&rft.aulast=Tucher&rft.aufirst=Andie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung2017" class="citation book cs1">Young, Kevin (2017). Bunk: The rise of hoaxes, humbug, plagiarists, phonies, post-facts, and fake news. Graywolf Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1555977917" title="Special:BookSources/978-1555977917"><bdi>978-1555977917</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bunk%3A+The+rise+of+hoaxes%2C+humbug%2C+plagiarists%2C+phonies%2C+post-facts%2C+and+fake+news&rft.pub=Graywolf+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1555977917&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFake+news" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Fake_news" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Fake news">Fake news</a> at Wikiquote</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aspeninstitute.org/publications/commission-on-information-disorder-final-report">Aspen Institute Commission on Information Disorder Final Report (2021). </a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/NotRealNews">Associated Press. AP Not Real News</a>: A weekly roundup of the most popular, but completely untrue, headlines of the week.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edition.cnn.com/specials/reliable-sources-signup">CNN Reliable Sources.</a> A much watched email newsletter four times a week, edited by Oliver Darcy, about trends and events in the media, mainly United States. Contains a valuable section "Info Wars". This replaces a previous longrunning CNN interview program hosted by Brian Stelter.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://firstdraftnews.org/en/education/curriculum-resources">First Draft Guide to Online Resources that Target Misinformation. </a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210122160217/https://firstdraftnews.org/en/education/curriculum-resources/">Archived</a> January 22, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> For example: Google Reverse Image Search (to identity the source of fake photos).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yk5IWzTfWeM">Fry, Stephen (narrator). How to spot fake news. "How do we know what is true?" (animated video; 2:52)</a>. One video in the series That's Humanism, all narrated by Stephen Fry.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/">HKS Misinformation Review. </a> Harvard Kennedy School, Shorenstein Center on Media, Politics, and Public Policy. A peer-reviewed, open-source scholarly publication with a fast review process and an emphasis on real-world situations. All content is targeted towards a specialized audience of researchers, journalists, fact-checkers, educators, policy makers, and other practitioners working in the information, media, and platform landscape fields.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.isdglobal.org">Institute for Strategic Dialogue, London.</a> Powering solutions to extremism, hate and disinformation.</li> <li>Scientific American (2020). Truth vs lies (Special edition), volume 29, no 4, Fall 2020. Contains 26 essays on understanding the science of misinformation and deception, and how to know what is real. Published later as an e-book. Plus: Revised edition, volume 32. no 5, Fall 2022.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.snopes.com">Snopes</a>. The largest and oldest fact-checking website, founded in 1994.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.truthorfiction.com">TruthorFiction</a> Seeking truth and exposing fiction since 1999.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Disinformation_and_misinformation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Disinformation_and_misinformation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">misinformation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_radicalization" title="Algorithmic radicalization">Algorithmic radicalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_facts" title="Alternative facts">Alternative facts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_lie" title="Big lie">Big lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reporting" title="Circular reporting">Circular reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive bias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">List of cognitive biases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theory</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_conspiracy_theories" title="List of conspiracy theories">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">Denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_attack" title="Disinformation attack">Disinformation attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublespeak" title="Doublespeak">Doublespeak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphemistic_misspeaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphemistic misspeaking">Euphemistic misspeaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factoid" title="Factoid">Factoid</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fake news</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fake_news_websites" title="List of fake news websites">list of websites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lying_press" title="Lying press">Lying press</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_accusation" title="False accusation">False accusation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear,_uncertainty,_and_doubt" title="Fear, uncertainty, and doubt">Fear, uncertainty, and doubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firehose_of_falsehood" title="Firehose of falsehood">Firehose of falsehood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgery_as_covert_operation" title="Forgery as covert operation">Forgery as covert operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">Gaslighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-truth" title="Half-truth">Half-truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">Hoax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infodemic" title="Infodemic">Infodemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_manipulation" title="Internet manipulation">Internet manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipulation_(psychology)" title="Manipulation (psychology)">Manipulation (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">Media culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potemkin_village" title="Potemkin village">Potemkin village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-truth_politics" title="Post-truth politics">Post-truth politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memetic_warfare" title="Memetic warfare">Memetic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Military deception</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_propaganda" title="Black propaganda">black propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterpropaganda" title="Counterpropaganda">counterpropaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-sponsored_Internet_propaganda" title="State-sponsored Internet propaganda">State-sponsored Internet propaganda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quote mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabrication_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabrication (science)">Scientific fabrication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smear_campaign" title="Smear campaign">Smearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_bot" title="Social bot">Social bot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthiness" title="Truthiness">Truthiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legends_and_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban legends and myths">Urban legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_journalism" title="Yellow journalism">Yellow journalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Books_and_documentaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Books and documentaries</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_(book)" title="Disinformation (book)">Disinformation by Ion Mihai Pacepa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dezinformatsia_(book)" title="Dezinformatsia (book)">Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_KGB_and_Soviet_Disinformation" title="The KGB and Soviet Disinformation">The KGB and Soviet Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who%27s_Who_in_the_CIA" title="Who's Who in the CIA">Who's Who in the CIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchants_of_Doubt" title="Merchants of Doubt">Merchants of Doubt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Truth:_Disinformation_and_the_Cost_of_Fake_News" title="After Truth: Disinformation and the Cost of Fake News">After Truth: Disinformation and the Cost of Fake News</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Examples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Examples</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Triangle" title="Bermuda Triangle">Bermuda Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State_propaganda_war" title="Congo Free State propaganda war">Congo Free State propaganda war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_energy_suppression_conspiracy_theory" title="Free energy suppression conspiracy theory">Free energy suppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Genocide denial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminati" title="Illuminati">Illuminati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_conspiracy" title="International Jewish conspiracy">International Jewish conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_in_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Misinformation in the Israel–Hamas war">Misinformation in the Israel–Hamas war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_Order_(conspiracy_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="New World Order (conspiracy theory)">New World Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_mercury" title="Red mercury">Red mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reptilian_conspiracy_theory" title="Reptilian conspiracy theory">Reptilians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rothschild_family#Conspiracy_theories" title="Rothschild family">Rothschilds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_tension" title="Strategy of tension">Strategy of tension</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Health" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_related_to_5G_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Misinformation related to 5G technology">5G</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_governments" title="COVID-19 misinformation by governments">by governments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebola_misinformation" title="Ebola misinformation">Ebola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_illness_denial" title="Mental illness denial">Mental illness denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misinformation_related_to_abortion" title="Misinformation related to abortion">Misinformation related to abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_misinformation" title="Vaccine misinformation">Vaccines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccine_activism" title="Anti-vaccine activism">anti-vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism" title="Vaccines and autism">autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine_misinformation_and_hesitancy" title="COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy">COVID-19</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation_controversy" title="Water fluoridation controversy">Water fluoridation controversy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Operations_and_events_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Operations and events by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Canada</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Jihadunspun.com" title="Jihadunspun.com">Jihadunspun.com</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">China</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_information_operations_and_information_warfare" title="Chinese information operations and information warfare">Chinese information operations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/50_Cent_Party" title="50 Cent Party">50 Cent Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_by_China" title="Cyberwarfare by China">cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Pink" title="Little Pink">Little Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Water_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Water Army">Internet Water Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PLA_Unit_61398" title="PLA Unit 61398">PLA Unit 61398</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spamouflage" title="Spamouflage">Spamouflage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_China" title="COVID-19 misinformation by China">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Times" title="Global Times">Global Times</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Czechoslovakia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Operation_Neptune_(espionage)" title="Operation Neptune (espionage)">Operation Neptune</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germany</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funkspiel" title="Funkspiel">Funkspiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Propaganda in Nazi Germany">Propaganda in Nazi Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_of_the_clean_Wehrmacht" title="Myth of the clean Wehrmacht">Myth of the clean Wehrmacht</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">India</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_India" title="Fake news in India">Fake news in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godi-media" class="mw-redirect" title="Godi-media">Godi-media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paid_news_in_India" title="Paid news in India">Paid news in India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpIndia" title="OpIndia">OpIndia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Israel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Team_Jorge" title="Team Jorge">Team Jorge</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Korea</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Agency_Network_of_Korea" title="Voluntary Agency Network of Korea">Voluntary Agency Network of Korea</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kuwait</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Fintas_Group" title="Fintas Group">Fintas Group</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mexico</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1abot" title="Peñabot">Peñabots</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philippines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_in_the_Philippines" title="COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines">COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines</a> (<a href="/wiki/ChinaAngVirus_disinformation_campaign" title="ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign">ChinaAngVirus disinformation campaign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_the_Philippines" title="Fake news in the Philippines">Fake news in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_distortion_regarding_Ferdinand_Marcos" title="Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos">Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation" title="Russian disinformation">Russia</a> / Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_disinformation" title="Soviet disinformation">Soviet era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active Measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-1000_battleship" title="K-1000 battleship">K-1000 battleship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_INFEKTION" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation INFEKTION">Operation INFEKTION</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Toucan_(KGB)" title="Operation Toucan (KGB)">Operation Toucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seat_12" title="Seat 12">Seat 12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_influence_on_the_peace_movement" title="Soviet influence on the peace movement">Soviet influence on the peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Field_Manual_30-31B" title="U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B">U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Useful_idiot" title="Useful idiot">Useful idiot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Russian_disinformation_in_the_post-Soviet_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian disinformation in the post-Soviet era">Post-Soviet era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_by_Russia" title="Cyberwarfare by Russia">Cyberwarfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2007_cyberattacks_on_Estonia" title="2007 cyberattacks on Estonia">on Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberattacks_during_the_Russo-Georgian_War" title="Cyberattacks during the Russo-Georgian War">during the Russo-Georgian War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_information_war_against_Ukraine" title="Russian information war against Ukraine">Information war against Ukraine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li>On US elections <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2018_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2018 United States elections">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2020_United_States_elections" title="Russian interference in the 2020 United States elections">2020</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_interference_in_the_2016_Brexit_referendum" title="Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum">2016 Brexit referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Institute_for_Strategic_Studies" title="Russian Institute for Strategic Studies">Russian Institute for Strategic Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Research_Agency" title="Internet Research Agency">Trolls from Olgino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_web_brigades" title="Russian web brigades">Web brigades</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism_in_South_Africa" title="HIV/AIDS denialism in South Africa">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turkey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_Turkey" title="Conspiracy theories in Turkey">Conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_censorship_and_disinformation_during_the_Gezi_Park_protests" title="Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests">Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AK_Trolls" title="AK Trolls">AK Trolls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Pottinger" title="Bell Pottinger">Bell Pottinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-Cross_System" title="Double-Cross System">Double-Cross System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clockwork_Orange_(plot)" title="Clockwork Orange (plot)">Clockwork Orange plot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euromyth" title="Euromyth">Euromyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancet_MMR_autism_fraud" title="Lancet MMR autism fraud">Lancet MMR autism fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Mass_Appeal" title="Operation Mass Appeal">Operation Mass Appeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_Warfare_Division" title="Psychological Warfare Division">Psychological Warfare Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinoviev_letter" title="Zinoviev letter">Zinoviev letter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1995_CIA_disinformation_controversy" title="1995 CIA disinformation controversy">1995 CIA disinformation controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempts_to_overturn_the_2020_United_States_presidential_election" title="Attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election">Attempts to overturn the 2020 election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories_in_United_States_politics" title="Conspiracy theories in United States politics">Conspiracy theories</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CIA_Kennedy_assassination_conspiracy_theory" title="CIA Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory">CIA Kennedy assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QAnon" title="QAnon">QAnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Hook_Elementary_School_shooting_conspiracy_theories" title="Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories">Sandy Hook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation_by_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 misinformation by the United States">COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news in the United States">Fake news</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_websites_in_the_United_States" title="Fake news websites in the United States">online</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_denial_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Election denial movement in the United States">Election denial movement in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Fighter%27s_Manual" title="The Freedom Fighter's Manual">The Freedom Fighter's Manual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habbush_letter" title="Habbush letter">Habbush letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Operations_Roadmap" title="Information Operations Roadmap">Information Operations Roadmap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter_boxes_in_schools_hoax" title="Litter boxes in schools hoax">Litter boxes in schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_Atta%27s_alleged_Prague_connection" title="Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection">Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_uranium_forgeries" title="Niger uranium forgeries">Niger uranium forgeries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_industry_playbook" title="Tobacco industry playbook">Tobacco industry playbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Shocker" title="Operation Shocker">Operation Shocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_rain" title="Yellow rain">Yellow rain</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Venezuela</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Bolivarian_Army_of_Trolls" title="Bolivarian Army of Trolls">Bolivarian Army of Trolls</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vietnam</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion_brigades" title="Public opinion brigades">Public opinion brigades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_47" class="mw-redirect" title="Force 47">Force 47</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Opposition" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Opposition</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fact-checking" title="Fact-checking">Fact-checking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fact-checking_website" class="mw-redirect" title="Fact-checking website">Fact-checking website</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_Measures_Working_Group" title="Active Measures Working Group">Active Measures Working Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_disinformation_unit" title="Counter disinformation unit">Counter disinformation unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_Misinformation_Team" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter Misinformation Team">Counter Misinformation Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countering_Foreign_Propaganda_and_Disinformation_Act" title="Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act">Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Disinformation_Project" title="The Disinformation Project">The Disinformation Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_StratCom_Task_Force" title="East StratCom Task Force">East StratCom Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FactCheck.org" title="FactCheck.org">FactCheck.org</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Fact" title="Full Fact">Full Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logically_(company)" title="Logically (company)">Logically</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NewsGuard" title="NewsGuard">NewsGuard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PolitiFact" title="PolitiFact">PolitiFact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snopes" title="Snopes">Snopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/StopFake" title="StopFake">StopFake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Information_Agency" title="United States Information Agency">United States Information Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USAFacts" title="USAFacts">USAFacts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Media_manipulation" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Media_manipulation" title="Template:Media manipulation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Media_manipulation" title="Template talk:Media manipulation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Media_manipulation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Media manipulation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Media_manipulation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Context</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_psychology" title="Crowd psychology">Crowd psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumbing_down" title="Dumbing down">Dumbing down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-truth" title="Half-truth">Half-truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obfuscation" title="Obfuscation">Obfuscation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orwellian" title="Orwellian">Orwellian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">Persuasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipulation_(psychology)" title="Manipulation (psychology)">Manipulation (psychology)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Activism" title="Activism">Activism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advocacy" title="Advocacy">Advocacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advocacy_group" title="Advocacy group">group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_media" title="Alternative media">Alternative media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">Boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call-out_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Call-out culture">Call-out culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_jamming" title="Culture jamming">Culture jamming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deplatforming" title="Deplatforming">Deplatforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grassroots" title="Grassroots">Grassroots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_communication" title="Guerrilla communication">Guerrilla communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hacktivism" title="Hacktivism">Hacktivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_activism" title="Internet activism">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_activism" title="Media activism">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_(protest)" title="Occupation (protest)">Occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petition" title="Petition">Petitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_activism" title="Youth activism">Youth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">Advertising</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Billboard" title="Billboard">Billboards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_advertising" title="False advertising">False</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infomercial" title="Infomercial">Infomercials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_marketing" title="Mobile marketing">Mobiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promotional_model" title="Promotional model">Modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_advertisement" title="Radio advertisement">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_in_advertising" title="Sex in advertising">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_slogan" title="Advertising slogan">Slogans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testimonial" title="Testimonial">Testimonials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_advertisement" title="Television advertisement">TV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_advertising" title="Criticism of advertising">Criticism of advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annoyance_factor" title="Annoyance factor">Annoyance factor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Media_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Media regulation">Media regulation</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_censorship" title="Book censorship">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_law" title="Broadcast law">Broadcast law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_of_books_and_burying_of_scholars" title="Burning of books and burying of scholars">Burying of scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catch_and_kill" title="Catch and kill">Catch and kill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_censorship" title="Corporate censorship">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cover-up" title="Cover-up">Cover-ups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphemism" title="Euphemism">Euphemism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_censorship" title="Film censorship">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_censorship" title="Internet censorship">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_censorship" title="Political censorship">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_censorship" title="Religious censorship">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-censorship" title="Self-censorship">Self</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hoax" title="Hoax">Hoaxing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_facts" title="Alternative facts">Alternative facts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_Fools%27_Day" title="April Fools' Day">April Fools'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepfake" title="Deepfake">Deepfake</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fake news</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fake_news_website" title="Fake news website">websites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakelore" class="mw-redirect" title="Fakelore">Fakelore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_document" title="False document">False document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictitious_entry" title="Fictitious entry">Fictitious entries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firehose_of_falsehood" title="Firehose of falsehood">Firehose of falsehood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forgery" title="Forgery">Forgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaslighting" title="Gaslighting">Gaslighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hoaxes" title="List of hoaxes">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_forgery" title="Literary forgery">Literary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lying_press" title="Lying press">Lying press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph_manipulation" title="Photograph manipulation">Photograph manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_hoax" title="Racial hoax">Racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_legends_and_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban legends and myths">Urban legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus_hoax" title="Virus hoax">Virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_manipulation" title="Video manipulation">Video manipulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">Marketing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brand" title="Brand">Branding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty_marketing" title="Loyalty marketing">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_marketing" title="Product marketing">Product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_placement" title="Product placement">Product placement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publicity" title="Publicity">Publicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_research" title="Market research">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word-of-mouth_marketing" title="Word-of-mouth marketing">Word of mouth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/News_media" title="News media">News media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agenda-setting_theory" title="Agenda-setting theory">Agenda-setting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_broadcasting" title="News broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_circus" title="Media circus">Circus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/24-hour_news_cycle" title="24-hour news cycle">Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotive_conjugation" title="Emotive conjugation">Emotive conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infotainment" title="Infotainment">Infotainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managing_the_news" title="Managing the news">Managing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcotizing_dysfunction" title="Narcotizing dysfunction">Narcotizing dysfunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newspeak" title="Newspeak">Newspeak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_event" title="Media event">Pseudo-event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_scrum" title="Media scrum">Scrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensationalism" title="Sensationalism">Sensationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabloid_journalism" title="Tabloid journalism">Tabloid journalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_campaign" title="Political campaign">Political campaigning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_advertising" title="Campaign advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astroturfing" title="Astroturfing">Astroturfing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_ad" title="Attack ad">Attack ad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canvassing" title="Canvassing">Canvassing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Character_assassination" title="Character assassination">Character assassination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_promise" title="Election promise">Election promises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawn_sign" title="Lawn sign">Lawn signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_platform" title="Party platform">Party platforms (or manifestos)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_recognition" title="Name recognition">Name recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_campaigning" title="Negative campaigning">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Push_poll" title="Push poll">Push polling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smear_campaign" title="Smear campaign">Smear campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge_issue" title="Wedge issue">Wedge issue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_lie" title="Big lie">Big lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_manipulation" title="Crowd manipulation">Crowd manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fearmongering" title="Fearmongering">Fearmongering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(social_sciences)" title="Framing (social sciences)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">Indoctrination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loaded_language" title="Loaded language">Loaded language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_myth" title="National myth">National mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rally_%27round_the_flag_effect" title="Rally 'round the flag effect">Rally 'round the flag effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_techniques" title="Propaganda techniques">Techniques</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_leaflet_propaganda" title="Airborne leaflet propaganda">Airborne leaflets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_flag" title="False flag">False flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">Fifth column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information (IT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawfare" title="Lawfare">Lawfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_warfare" title="Political warfare">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_diplomacy" title="Public diplomacy">Public diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">Sedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subversion" title="Subversion">Subversion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublespeak" title="Doublespeak">Doublespeak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-apology_apology" title="Non-apology apology">Non-apology apology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reputation_management" title="Reputation management">Reputation management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slogan" title="Slogan">Slogans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_bite" title="Sound bite">Sound bites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_(propaganda)" title="Transfer (propaganda)">Transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understatement" title="Understatement">Understatement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weasel_word" title="Weasel word">Weasel words</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_propaganda" title="Corporate propaganda">Corporate propaganda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sales" title="Sales">Sales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_calling" title="Cold calling">Cold calling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Door-to-door" title="Door-to-door">Door-to-door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pricing" title="Pricing">Pricing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_demonstration" title="Product demonstration">Product demonstrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sales_promotion" title="Sales promotion">Promotion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spaving" title="Spaving">Spaving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promotional_merchandise" title="Promotional merchandise">Promotional merchandise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telemarketing" title="Telemarketing">Telemarketing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Influence-for-hire" title="Influence-for-hire">Influence-for-hire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media bias</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias_in_the_United_States" title="Media bias in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_of_media_ownership" title="Concentration of media ownership">Media concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_democracy" title="Media democracy">Media democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ecology" title="Media ecology">Media ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_franchise" title="Media franchise">Media franchise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_mass_media" title="Influence of mass media">Media influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_proprietor" title="Media proprietor">Media proprietor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Journalism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Journalism" title="Template:Journalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Journalism" title="Template talk:Journalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Journalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Journalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Journalism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journalist" title="Journalist">Journalists (reporters)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columnist" title="Columnist">Columnist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">Blogger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Editing" title="Editing">Editor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copy_editing" title="Copy editing">Copy editor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorologist" title="Meteorologist">Meteorologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_presenter" title="News presenter">News presenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photojournalism" title="Photojournalism">Photographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pundit" title="Pundit">Pundit / commentator</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Profession</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/News" title="News">News</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_style" title="News style">Writing style</a> (<a href="/wiki/Five_Ws" title="Five Ws">Five Ws</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism_ethics_and_standards" title="Journalism ethics and standards">Ethics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Code_of_ethics_in_media" title="Code of ethics in media">code of ethics</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism_culture" title="Journalism culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalistic_objectivity" title="Journalistic objectivity">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_values" title="News values">News values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_(journalism)" title="Source (journalism)">Attribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensationalism" title="Sensationalism">Sensationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Editorial_independence" title="Editorial independence">Editorial independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism_school" title="Journalism school">Journalism school</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts_journalism" title="Arts journalism">Arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_journalism" title="Business journalism">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_journalism" title="Data journalism">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_journalism" title="Entertainment journalism">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_journalism" title="Environmental journalism">Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_journalism" title="Fashion journalism">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_journalism" title="Medical journalism">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_journalism" title="Music journalism">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_journalism" title="Political journalism">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_journalism" title="Science journalism">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_journalism" title="Sports journalism">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_journalism" title="Technology journalism">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_reporting" title="Traffic reporting">Traffic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_journalism" title="Video game journalism">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_correspondent" title="War correspondent">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_forecasting" title="Weather forecasting">Weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_news" title="World news">World</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Journalism_genres" title="Journalism genres">Genres</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Adversarial_journalism" title="Adversarial journalism">Adversarial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advocacy_journalism" title="Advocacy journalism">Advocacy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Journalistic_interventionism" title="Journalistic interventionism">Interventionism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_journalism" title="Analytic journalism">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blog" title="Blog">Blogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_journalism" title="Broadcast journalism">Broadcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Churnalism" title="Churnalism">Churnalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_journalism" title="Citizen journalism">Citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_journalism" title="Civic journalism">Civic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_journalism" title="Collaborative journalism">Collaborative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comics_journalism" title="Comics journalism">Comics-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_journalism" title="Community journalism">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_journalism" title="Data journalism">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database_journalism" title="Database journalism">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_journalism" title="Digital journalism">Digital/Online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_journalism" title="Explanatory journalism">Explanatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact-checking" title="Fact-checking">Fact-checking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzo_journalism" title="Gonzo journalism">Gonzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human-interest_story" title="Human-interest story">Human-interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_journalism" title="Immersion journalism">Immersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretive_journalism" title="Interpretive journalism">Interpretive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investigative_journalism" title="Investigative journalism">Investigative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia_journalism" title="Multimedia journalism">Multimedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_journalism" title="Narrative journalism">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Journalism" title="New Journalism">New Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-profit_journalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-profit journalism">Non-profit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion_journalism" title="Opinion journalism">Opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_journalism" title="Peace journalism">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photojournalism" title="Photojournalism">Photojournalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Press_release" title="Press release">Press release</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensor_journalism" title="Sensor journalism">Sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabloid_journalism" title="Tabloid journalism">Tabloid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_press" title="Underground press">Underground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_journalism" title="Video journalism">Video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_journalism" title="Visual journalism">Visual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchdog_journalism" title="Watchdog journalism">Watchdog</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social impact</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li>Fake news</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Estate" title="Fourth Estate">Fourth Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Estate" title="Fifth Estate">Fifth Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Freedom of the press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infotainment" title="Infotainment">Infotainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_race_journalism" title="Horse race journalism">Horse race journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media bias</a> (<a href="/wiki/False_balance" title="False balance">False balance</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink-slime_journalism" title="Pink-slime journalism">Pink-slime journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_model" title="Propaganda model">Propaganda model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_journalism" title="Yellow journalism">Yellow journalism</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">News media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <li><a href="/wiki/Newspaper" title="Newspaper">Newspapers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Newspaper_of_record" title="Newspaper of record">Newspaper of record</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magazine" title="Magazine">Magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_broadcasting" title="News broadcasting">TV and radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_newspaper" title="Online newspaper">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_agency" title="News agency">News agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_media" title="Alternative media">Alternative media</a></li></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Index_of_journalism_articles" title="Index of journalism articles">List of journalism articles</a> – <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_journalism" title="Outline of journalism">Outline</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Media_culture" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Media_culture" title="Template:Media culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Media_culture" title="Template talk:Media culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Media_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Media culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Media_culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">Media culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/24-hour_news_cycle" title="24-hour news cycle">24-hour news cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_media" title="Alternative media">Alternative media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_media" title="Electronic media">Electronic media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_media" title="Independent media">Independent media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_media" title="Lost media">Lost media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainstream_media" title="Mainstream media">Mainstream media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_media" title="New media">New media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_broadcasting" title="News broadcasting">News broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/News_media" title="News media">News media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_media" title="Old media">Old media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">Social media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_media" title="State media">State media</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Media_development" title="Media development">Media development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_policy" title="Media policy">Media policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Media independence">Media independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information" title="Freedom of information">Freedom of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_pluralism" title="Media pluralism">Media pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_transparency" title="Media transparency">Media transparency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_capitalism" title="Advanced capitalism">Advanced capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipartisanship_as_an_ideology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipartisanship as an ideology">Bipartisanship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">Consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pens%C3%A9e_unique" title="Pensée unique">Pensée unique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Deception</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising" title="Advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Fake news</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabloid_journalism" title="Tabloid journalism">Tabloid journalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cult_of_personality" title="Cult of personality">Cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumbing_down" title="Dumbing down">Dumbing down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(social_sciences)" title="Framing (social sciences)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_circus" title="Media circus">Media circus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_event" title="Media event">Media event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcotizing_dysfunction" title="Narcotizing dysfunction">Narcotizing dysfunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recuperation_(politics)" title="Recuperation (politics)">Recuperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensationalism" title="Sensationalism">Sensationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_phenomenon" title="Viral phenomenon">Viral phenomenon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catch_and_kill" title="Catch and kill">Catch and kill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_manipulation" title="Crowd manipulation">Crowd manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managing_the_news" title="Managing the news">Managing the news</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Jean Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bernays" title="Edward Bernays">Edward Bernays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Guy Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Lippmann" title="Walter Lippmann">Walter Lippmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">Marshall McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Jacques Rancière</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counterculture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">Boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call-out_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Call-out culture">Call-out culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">Civil disobedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_jamming" title="Culture jamming">Culture jamming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_demonstration" title="Political demonstration">Demonstration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">Graffiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_(protest)" title="Occupation (protest)">Occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_satire" title="Political satire">Political satire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">Protest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punk_subculture" title="Punk subculture">Punk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Review_bomb" title="Review bomb">Review bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_mass_media" title="Influence of mass media">Influence of mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediatization_(media)" title="Mediatization (media)">Mediatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_democracy" title="Semiotic democracy">Semiotic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Lonely_Crowd" title="The Lonely Crowd">The Lonely Crowd</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anonymity" title="Anonymity">Anonymity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_of_media_ownership" title="Concentration of media ownership">Concentration of media ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_women_in_mass_media" title="Exploitation of women in mass media">Exploitation of women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">Privacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">Social influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_transparency" title="Media transparency">Transparency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_violence_in_mass_media" title="Effects of violence in mass media">Violence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synonyms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_capitalism" title="Advanced capitalism">Advanced capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_industry" title="Culture industry">Culture industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_society" title="Mass society">Mass society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_franchise" title="Media franchise">Media franchise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Fordism" title="Post-Fordism">Post-Fordism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacle_(critical_theory)" title="Spectacle (critical theory)">Society of the Spectacle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4294308-5">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2017004659">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb17726404p">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb17726404p">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph981589&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000263682&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007395604705171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fake_news&oldid=1258473321">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fake_news&oldid=1258473321</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fake_news" title="Category:Fake news">Fake news</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-intellectualism" title="Category:Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li><li><a 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