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Career</h1> <ol type="a"> <li><a href="#a">Titles and changes to her royal image over time</a></li> <li><a href="#b">Foreign policy: military campaigns and expedition to Punt</a></li> <li><a href="#c">Building program: Deir el Bahri, Karnak, Beni Hasan (Speos Artemidos) and her tombs</a></li> <li><a href="#d">Religious policy: devotion to Amun and promotion of other cults</a></li> <li><a href="#e">Relationship with the Amun priesthood, officials and nobles including Senenmut</a></li> <li><a href="#f">Relationship with Thutmose III; co-regency and later defacement of her monuments</a></li> </ol> <h3><a name="a" id="a"></a>a. Titles and changes to her royal image over time</h3> <p>During Hatshepsut’s reign titles emphasized Amun-Re, Maat and her ka. Her main throne name was Maat-ka-re (Truth is the spirit of Ra). She also had her personal name <em>Khenemet-Amun</em> (one united with Amun), <em>Two Ladies Flourishing of Years and Divine of Diadems</em>. Her Horus title did not use the bull like Thutmose II (Mighty-Bull-Beloved-of-Truth) and Thutmose III (Strong-Bull-arisen-in-Thebes). Instead Hatshepsut’s Horus name was <em>Wesert Kau</em> (Mighty-of-kas).</p> <p>As there were no feminine words for a pharaoh, in most of her inscriptions Hatshepsut was referred to in both masculine and feminine forms – <em>Her Majesty, King Maat-ka-re</em>. It is interesting to note however that whenever military matters were recorded Hatshepsut’s name was only ever put in a masculine form. A graffito written by Tiy found on the island of Sehel for instance says: ‘I saw when he overthrew the Nubian bowmen….I saw when he razed Nubia’ (adapted from Habachi).</p> <p>In most images Hatshepsut is shown as a male with all the attributes of a traditional king of Egypt. She is shown wearing the royal kilt, ceremonial false beard, folded striped head cloth or nemes and various crowns such as the khepresh, the red and white crown or the double crown. Examples include a red granite sphinx and the colossal striding statue both from Deir el Bahri. Colossal kneeling statues showing her offering two vases to Amen are almost identical to later statues made by Thutmose III.</p> <p>Despite this, it appears Hatshepsut experimented with the way she depicted herself in images during her reign. Tefnin believes that Hatshepsut’s images gradually went from a woman to take on characteristics of a male pharaoh. Her first images showed only feminine characteristics. Then images started to contain both feminine characteristics and regalia of a traditional king. Lastly Hatshepsut was depicted as a man with full kingly attire.</p> <p>Images containing feminine characteristics include a black diorite statue showing Hatshepsut as having a slender body and wearing a tight fitting dress. Titles associated with a king and symbols of Egypt’s enemies are inscribed below her feet. A red granite statue and limestone statue from Deir el Bahri both depict Hatshepsut with slender body and breasts wearing the nemes with ureaus. Finally according to W.C. Hayes a headless statue from Deir el Bahri showing her wearing the nemes and kilt reveals ‘something of a feminine quality in its slenderness and softly rounded forms’.</p> <p>M. Hayes believes her emphasis on her ka in titles meant Hatshepsut could overcome the fact she was female. The royal ka was a life force which survived death. As it was depicted as being masculine in her Divine Birth scenes, Hatshepsut could be seen and written about as both a male and female. According to M. Hayes, by emphasising the <em>ka</em> Hatshepsut ‘could be a woman and a king simultaneously’.</p> <p>Gardiner argued that while some statues showing feminine qualities indicate hesitation on Hatshepsut’s part, her reign was different to previous female rulers in that she deliberately posed and dressed as a man. Hatshepsut was a usurper who had to be seen as a man to justify her rule. Most historians dispute an argument that she was somehow trying to fool her subjects. Keller says it must be remembered that almost all her inscriptions on statues contained an indication of her true gender.</p> <p>Tyldesley and Bradley also argue Hatshepsut was not trying to fool her subjects into thinking that their king was a man or liked impersonating one. In their opinion Hatshepsut showed herself in statues as both a man and woman because of tradition. Most ancient Egyptians could not read and write. They demanded to see their pharaoh in reliefs as a king. Hatshepsut had to depict herself as a traditional pharaoh for this reason.</p> <p>Dorman also says that she ‘was not pretending to be a man’. Her ‘experimentation with iconography was prompted by the necessity of effective rule’ and the ‘strictures of functioning solely as a queen were inconsistent with that role’. Robins believes Hatshepsut rejected the female image because she needed to play the ‘male gender role’ to be easily recognised as a king by ancient viewers.</p> <h4>Review questions</h4> <ol> <li>What was Hatshepsut’s throne name and what did it mean?</li> <li>How was Hatshepsut referred to in written documents?</li> <li>Outline Tefnin’s theory concerning Hatshepsut’s images using primary evidence from the information above.</li> <li>Why do historians believe Hatshepsut decided eventually to be depicted as a man?</li> </ol> <a href="#top"><img src="/web/20140714224620im_/http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/images/navigation/lineup.jpg" alt="Go To Top" height="22" width="455" border="0"/></a> <h3><a name="b" id="b"></a>b. Foreign policy: military campaigns and expedition to Punt</h3> <p>Gardiner and Wilson believed that there were no military activities during Hatshepsut’s reign. These views were based on a lack of evidence from monuments at the time and perhaps a sexist belief that as a woman she would have been incapable of leading an army. To counter this idea that the lack of obvious monumental evidence suggests Hatshepsut was not involved in war, one could argue that Hatshepsut may have regarded her Punt expedition shown at Deir el Bahri equal to a military success. Also, since Gardiner and Wilson made their claim that Hatshepsut was not a military ruler, new evidence has emerged of at least four military operations during Hatshepsut’s reign.</p> <p>The evidence for one military exploit shows that Hatshepsut led or was at the scene of a campaign in Nubia early in her reign. A graffito written by Tiy says ‘I followed the good god…may she live! I saw when he overthrew the Nubian bowman’ (adapted from Habachi). A stela erected by the scribe Djehuty at Dra abu el-Naga says ‘I saw the collection of booty…from the vile Kush…the female sovereign’ (adapted from Sethe). Also, Hatshepsut is shown on the Lower Colonnade at Deir el Bahri as a sphinx trampling Egypt’s enemies next to a fragmentary text which says ‘as was done by her victorious father…a slaughter was made among them’ (adapted from Redford). Finally Bradley gives details of a broken block at Karnak which refers to ‘the land of Nubia being in submission’ to Hatshepsut.</p> <p>In other recent evidence, Hatshepsut appears to have conducted a mopping up operation in <em>Retjenu</em> (Syria/Palestine). At Deir el Bahri a text says ‘her arrows are among the northerners’ (adapted from Breasted). The coronation inscription, in the form of a prediction, refers to both of Hatshepsut’s campaigns when it says ‘you smite with your mace the Nubians….you take hold of the chiefs of Retenu’ (adapted from Naville).</p> <p>Also, it appears that Hatshepsut allowed Thutmose III to gain valuable military experience by leading at least two campaigns during their co-regency. According to Redford, a rock inscription at Tombos describes Thutmose III as ‘the good god who overthrows him who has attacked him’. It seems he led a campaign late in the co-regency that captured Gaza. A Gaza inscription reads ‘the town which the ruler had taken’ (adapted from Redford).</p> <p>Thutmose III also conducted a campaign in Nubia just before Hatshepsut’s death (year 22). According to Mond and Meyers, a stela says he journeyed to Maw to ‘seek him who rebelled against him in that land’. A statue of the noble Enebni refers to Thutmose III making journeys against both ‘the south country [Nubia] and north country [Retjenu including Gaza]’ (adapted from Breasted).</p> <p>Further evidence which suggests Hatshepsut was an effective warrior pharaoh includes:</p> <ul> <li>Relief scenes depicting her in a khepresh (the blue war crown) with Amun-Re on the Karnak obelisk.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>The presence of the army and reference to the Puntites’ goods as tribute and Egyptian items as offerings to Hathor in the Punt Reliefs. The inscriptions also refer to her having chiefs from the southerners and northerners bowing down to her with a ‘heart full of fear’ and bringing tribute (adapted from Naville).<br/> <br/> </li> <li>The Speos Artemidos inscription where Hatshepsut refers to having kept her army ready for war. She says ‘my troops which were formerly unequipped are now well paid since I appeared as king’ (adapted from Breasted).<br/> <br/> </li> <li>A speech from the Goddess Pakhet in a Speos Artemidos inscription which says ‘I gave you all strength…all lands and every hill country crushed beneath your sandals like Re’ (adapted from Fairman and Grdseloff).</li> </ul> <p>As suggested above, her expedition to Punt was regarded by Hatshepsut as being equal to a successful military campaign and therefore one of her greatest achievements. She recorded the details on the southern half of the Middle Colonnade at Deir el Bahri. The expedition took place in year 9, Punt being probably located in present day Somalia. Trading expeditions were sent here during the Old and Middle Kingdoms but no record of these journeys remain.</p> <p>This expedition was conducted to:</p> <ul> <li>Obtain myrrh and frankincense trees: thirty one trees provided resin and incense needed for temple ceremonies and everyday use (e.g. mummification, medicinal aids and perfumed oils).<br/> <br/> </li> <li>Establish a trade route: Punt was rich in exotic products (ivory used for making amulets, inlays for furniture and headrests; woods such as ebony for temples and tomb furniture; live animals such as the sacred baboon, monkeys and apes; animal skins; and metals such as gold used for making electrum and jewellery).<br/> <br/> </li> <li>Honour the god Amun: Hatshepsut claimed Amun commanded her to ‘establish for him a Punt in his house’ (adapted from Breasted). The products obtained were dedicated to Amun.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>Maintain support of the priesthood, especially Hapusoneb and Senenmut.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>Ultimately to recreate divine order and uphold maat: The expedition to Punt allowed Hatshepsut to uphold maat by showing she was a successful warrior and religious leader.</li> </ul> <p>The scenes at Deir el Bahri are broken into five main parts. Five fully loaded ships under the command of Nehsi are seen departing with a small contingent of soldiers. The ships arrive at Punt. The Puntites, led by their king Parahu and his obese wife Eti, greet the Egyptians fearfully with their hands uplifted. The people are shown to be living in small conical huts close to shore. Tables are set up covered with daggers, axes, bangles, necklaces and rings. The Puntites bring forward monkeys, panthers and resin. Trade seems brisk and definitely in the Egyptians’ favour. The inscription refers to the Egyptian items as offerings to Hathor and the Puntites’ goods as tribute.</p> <p>The products are then carried into the ships. The ships return to Thebes. Native chieftains present themselves to Hatshepsut along with the products of Punt. Incense is weighed and recorded by treasurer Thutiy for Hatshepsut and Thoth on behalf of Amun-Re. Hatshepsut, followed by her ka, dedicates the products to Amun. She then announces to her court the success of the expedition and her fulfilment of Amun’s commands. She orders to plant the thirty one myrrh trees in Amun’s temple precinct.</p> <p>According to the tomb biography of Thutiy and inscriptions at Wadi Maghera and Serabit el Khadim, Hatshepsut also conducted trading missions to Nubia, Lebanon and Sinai obtaining gold, silver, precious stones, cedar, copper and turquoise for the Egyptian empire.</p> <h4>Review questions</h4> <ol start="5"> <li>Why do Wilson and Gardiner believe Hatshepsut did not conduct military campaigns?</li> <li>List evidence which suggests Hatshepsut conducted a campaign to (a) Nubia and (b) Retjenu.</li> <li>What evidence is there for Thutmose III being able to conduct two campaigns during the co-regency?</li> <li>Outline why Hatshepsut would have considered the Punt expedition to have been a major achievement.</li> </ol> <a href="#top"><img src="/web/20140714224620im_/http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/images/navigation/lineup.jpg" alt="Go To Top" height="22" width="455" border="0"/></a> <h3><a name="c" id="c"></a>c. Building program: Deir el Bahri, Karnak, Beni Hasan (Speos Artemidos) and her tombs</h3> <p>An outline of Hatshepsut’s building program is recorded on the façade of the temple at Beni-Hassan or Speos Artemidos. Her building program involved:</p> <ul> <li>Repairing buildings: Many monuments were destroyed or neglected during the occupation of the Hyksos. Hatshepsut claims to have ‘restored that which is in ruins’ (adapted from Breasted). She repaired the temple of Hathor at Cusae claiming to have ‘adorned it’ and built it ‘anew’ (adapted from Breasted). At the temple of Thoth at Hermopolis she re-established regular worship and festivals and doubled the god’s offerings. She also made repairs to a fortress of the necropolis of western Thebes, restored the temples of Hwor, Uni and She and may have rebuilt the great temple for Min.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>Constructing new monuments: Hatshepsut’s most famous building is her mortuary temple at Deir el Bahri. She also added to Amun’s Karnak complex by building the Red Chapel, four obelisks and the 8th pylon. Hatshepsut also built the barque sanctuary at Luxor, the temple of Buhen in Nubia and a temple to Pakhet at Speos Artemidos not to mention her new tomb in the Valley of the Kings. She also began construction of a temple at Medinet Habu.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>Completing some of the buildings which were begun during the reign of Thutmose II. This included renovating structures at Karnak and the development of early terrace construction at Deir el Bahri.</li> </ul> <p>Hatshepsut’s stated goal as a pharaoh was to uphold maat and recreate divine order. She believed that this could be achieved by conducting an extensive building program which would demonstrate:</p> <ul> <li>demonstrate how she honoured the gods and therefore was a successful religious leader</li> <li>demonstrate the stability and prosperity her leadership brought Egypt</li> <li>highlight her achievements and right to rule on monuments.</li> </ul> <p><strong>Deir el Bahri</strong><br/> The temple at Deir el Bahri was called Djeser-djeseru or holy-of-holies. Hatshepsut separated her tomb from her mortuary temple in the Valley of the Kings. Her original plan may have been to link the two by a long underground passage through the mountain so that her burial chamber could be located beneath the sanctuary to Amen at Deir el Bahri.</p> <p>Hatshepsut built the temple for several reasons. Firstly it was a place where the ancient Egyptians could carry out daily offerings to Hatshepsut after her death without disturbing her private tomb. Secondly it was designed as a dedication to Amun and to a lesser extent the gods Hathor, Anubis and Re-Horakhte. Thirdly the building was constructed as a mortuary temple for her father Thutmose I. Lastly and probably most importantly, it became a place where Hatshepsut had the opportunity to justify her claims to the throne and advertise her major achievements.</p> <p>The main architectural features are:</p> <ul> <li>A processional avenue lined with sphinxes leading to a forecourt. The forecourt would have been filled with trees and pools.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>A ramp connected the forecourt to the second court. The ramp was designed to be located directly opposite the main entrance to the temple of Karnak across the Nile River. The ramp contained human faced limestone lions as guardians to the underworld.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>The second or middle court contained on each side three colossal red granite sphinxes. The walls of this court contained reliefs depicting the Punt expedition and Hatshepsut’s Divine Birth and Coronation accounts. On the sides of the court were chapels to Hathor and Anubis. Hatshepsut seems to have had an especially close relationship with Hathor. She was shown being suckled from her in the Divine Birth and Conception reliefs and was the mistress of Punt in the Punt reliefs. Hathor’s chapel featured many Hathor-headed statues and a relief depicting a suckling Hatshepsut.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>A second ramp led to the upper court and colonnade. The court contains huge limestone statues of Osiris, twenty seven red granite statues of Hatshepsut as a male figure in traditional kingly regalia, huge statues of Hatshepsut as Osiris and eight colossal kneeling statues depicting her making offerings. The central sanctuary at the back of the temple was cut into the rock of the cliffs and was dedicated to Amun. Re-Horakhte also had a shrine located on one side of the upper court. The other side contained chapels to Hatshepsut and Thutmose I. These chapels contain Hatshepsut’s Divine Birth and Coronation scenes, the Punt expedition and the transportation and erection of obelisks at Karnak.</li> </ul> <p>Tyldesley says Deir el Bahri is one of Hatshepsut’s main achievements and ‘a building which is still regarded as one of the most beautiful in the world’.</p> <p><strong>Karnak</strong><br/> Hatshepsut extended Amun’s temple at Karnak by repairing the Middle Kingdom temple, adding the 8th pylon (monumental gateway), constructing the Red Chapel (or Chapelle Rouge) and erecting four obelisks.</p> <p>An obelisk is a tall free-standing stone shaft with a pyramid shaped top called a pyramidion. They weighed over 450 tonnes. They were supposed to represent the benben mound on which the creator god, Re-Atum, was believed to have first come out of the waters of chaos.</p> <p>Hatshepsut’s first two obelisks were commissioned just before proclaiming herself a pharaoh. Senenmut was responsible for the quarrying and transporting of these monuments. Their construction is recorded at Deir el Bahri. The other pair of obelisks were dedicated at the time of Hatshepsut’s heb-sed festival in year 15 (remember she ignored the reign of Thutmose II). Amenhotep controlled the construction of these obelisks.</p> <p>One of Hatshepsut’s obelisks is still standing at Karnak at a height of 29.7 metres while its companion lies on its side nearby. The other pair of obelisks has disappeared, although the pyramidion of one of them is in the Cairo Museum. Obelisk inscriptions focused on Hatshepsut’s right to the throne, honouring Amun and emphasising Hatshepsut’s relationship with Thutmose I.</p> <p>To construct an obelisk stone had to be first cut in one block from bedrock. Then it had to be dragged to the river and loaded onto a specially built ship bound for Thebes. The boat carrying the obelisks had to be towed by three rows of nine barges with each row headed by a pilot boat. Temple personnel responsible for carrying out religious rites were transported in three separate boats.</p> <p>Once at Thebes young recruits unloaded the obelisks while soldiers, priests and officials celebrated their arrival. The pyramidions were then covered with electrum (an alloy of gold and silver). This meant once the sun’s rays hit the monuments beams of light would penetrate the landscape for miles. Historians are not totally sure how but the 450 tonne obelisks were then erected. Blocks from the Red Chapel indicate that Hatshepsut dedicated them to Amun.</p> <p><strong>Her tombs</strong><br/> During the reign of Thutmose II, Hatshepsut had a tomb constructed in the Valley of the Queens. Howard Carter discovered the unfinished tomb which consisted of a seventeen metre long entrance corridor, several chambers, a hall and a burial chamber.</p> <p>There is some dispute about the construction of Hatshepsut’s larger, more elaborate tomb in the Valley of the Kings. Roehrig argues that Thutmose II may have originally built both this tomb and Deir el Bahri. It must be noted however that a statue of Hapusoneb has been discovered giving details of Hatshepsut commanding him to construct the tomb.</p> <p>It is believed that Hatshepsut originally wanted a series of sloping passages and stairways cut through the Theban cliffs towards her mortuary temple so that her sarcophagus could lie beneath the sanctuary of Amun. Workmen however found faults in the rock and were forced to abandon her plan.</p> <p>Hatshepsut’s tomb, later named KV20, is the longest and deepest tomb in the Valley of the Kings. It was excavated by Howard Carter in 1903-04. Four curved passages led to a burial chamber ninety seven metres deep. Scenes from The <em>Book of the Dead</em> were found on slabs of stone along with two impressive yellow quartzite sarcophagi discovered in the burial chamber. They were meant for Hatshepsut and her father Thutmose I. Neither mummy was found in the tomb.</p> <h4>Review questions</h4> <ol start="9"> <li>Why was it important for Hatshepsut to conduct an extensive building program?</li> <li>In what ways was Deir el Bahri designed to honour the gods and provide an area for political propaganda?</li> <li>How did Hatshepsut add to the Karnak complex? Why would the construction of obelisks be considered important to place on the walls at Deir el Bahri?</li> <li>In relation to her Valley of the Kings tomb, how did Hatshepsut seek to honour Amun in death?</li> </ol> <a href="#top"><img src="/web/20140714224620im_/http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/images/navigation/lineup.jpg" alt="Go To Top" height="22" width="455" border="0"/></a> <h3><a name="d" id="d"></a>d. Religious policy: devotion to Amun and promotion of other cults</h3> <p>Hatshepsut was a good religious leader. She did more to worship Amun than any of her predecessors. Hatshepsut:</p> <ul> <li>Accredited her position as pharaoh to Amun through the Divine Birth and Conception and Coronation reliefs at Deir el Bahri.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>Followed the god’s command. The Punt reliefs for example recorded that she followed Amun’s command in commissioning the expedition.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>Made offerings to Amun. The Punt reliefs detail her planting myrrh trees in his garden. The Amun-Re complex at Deir el Bahri and her colossal kneeling statues are further examples of Hatshepsut dedicating offerings to Amun.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>Attributed her empire and military victories to Amun. Bradley says Hatshepsut attributed the successful Nubian campaign to Amun at Deir el Bahri.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>Constructed building to worship Amun. She conducted several works at Karnak (the Red Chapel, 8th Pylon and obelisks) and constructed a chapel to Amun in the most significant position (the back of the temple) at Deir el Bahri.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>Maintained religious festivals. Red Chapel reliefs show that both the <em>Opet</em> and <em>Beautiful Festival of the Valley</em> festivals to Amun were conducted by Hatshepsut during her reign.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>Portrayed a close relationship to Amun on reliefs. At the Red Chapel Amun is shown embracing Hatshepsut.<br/> <br/> </li> <li>Gave great prestige and influence to the Amun priesthood. Senenmut was given the titles <em>chief steward of Amun, conductor of festivals, overseer of the gardens and fields of Amun </em>and<em> overseer of the cattle of Amun</em>. He was also commanded to construct most of the monuments Hatshepsut dedicated to Amun including Deir el Bahri, buildings at Karnak and a pair of obelisks. No wonder he described himself as ‘the greatest of the great’ (adapted from Breasted). Hapusoneb, the high priest of Amun, was also showered with additional prestigious titles such as <em>chief of the prophets of south and north, overseer of Upper and Lower Egypt</em> and <em>overseer of temples</em>. These titles not only allowed him to administer the Amun cult but also control cults and temples associated with all the other gods of Egypt. He was also given the important government position of vizier and constructed Hatshepsut’s tomb in the Valley of the Kings and Deir el Bahri. In return both officials supported Hatshepsut throughout her reign.</li> </ul> <p>It is important to note however that while there is little doubt Hatshepsut gave the lion’s share of worship to Amun this does not mean she neglected the other gods. In the Speos Artemidos inscription she mentions that she restored their temples and festivals and doubled offerings to gods. Hatshepsut constructed chapels to Anubis, Hathor and Re-Horakhte and is seen in reliefs making offerings to Hathor, Anubis, Sokar, Horus and Nekhbet at Deir el Bahri. On her first sarcophagus, Hatshepsut seeks the protection of a number of gods involved with the afterlife including Nut, Isis, Nephthys, Osiris, Thoth, Anubis and Horus. Remember she also repaired the temples of Hathor at Cusae and Thoth at Hermopolis.</p> <p>Various gods and goddesses played essential roles in her Divine Birth and Coronation reliefs. Hathor, Khnum, Heket, Bes and Tawaret played a role in her Divine Conception and Birth account. The Coronation Reliefs give details of Hatshepsut visiting the temples of Hathor, Buto, Tum, Mentu and Khnum while journeying with her father through Egypt.</p> <h4>Review question</h4> <ol start="13"> <li>Construct a mind map using the information above titled Hatshepsut: Religious Leader.</li> </ol> <a href="#top"><img src="/web/20140714224620im_/http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/images/navigation/lineup.jpg" alt="Go To Top" height="22" width="455" border="0"/></a> <h3><a name="e" id="e"></a>e. Relationship with the Amun priesthood, officials and nobles including Senenmut</h3> <p>At first Hatshepsut received support from officials who served her father and husband. This would have included Ineni who served Thutmose I and became Hatshepsut’s <em>Overseer of the Granary of Amun</em>. Such men however would have died early in her reign.</p> <p>Hapusoneb became Hatshepsut’s most influential supporter. As previously discussed he held the positions of high priest of Amun, the prophet in charge of all the other cults and viziers. This meant he had important roles within both the religious and civil bureaucracy.</p> <p>Other high ranking officials included Nehsi the chancellor who led the expedition to Punt and Puemre, the second prophet of Amun who also helped build Deir el Bahri. Treasurers during her reign included Thutmose, Tiy and Thutiy. Thutiy was also one of her architects at Karnak and <em>Overseer of the double gold and silver houses</em>. Inebni was Viceroy of Kush and as such controlled the important region of Nubia on behalf of Hatshepsut.</p> <p>Much of Hatshepsut’s success however is considered to have come as a result of the loyal support of Senenmut. His career seems to mirror Hatshepsut’s own rise to power. Senenmut came from a humble background. His parents, Ramose and Hatnofer, were commoners and some of his relatives were from the middle class. This is indicated by the burials of his family. </p> <p>His father and six other members of the family died before Senenmut was awarded his first influential post with Hatshepsut. Their bodies were placed inside Hatnofer’s tomb. They were not well preserved exhibiting many broken and dislocated bones. Traces of mud and stones in the wrappings suggested movement from another location. Ramose ended up being placed in a painted anthropoid coffin and the others in plain ones.</p> <p>In contrast, Hatnofer’s body was carefully embalmed and wrapped. She was buried within an anthropoid coffin containing a gold death mask, a magnificent gold heart scarab, three papyrus funerary rolls and several silver jugs and bowls. Clearly Senenmut had become more influential by the time his mother died allowing him to give her a much more elaborate burial.</p> <p>Senenmut spent time in the army and served at the temple of Amun at Karnak before being given his first important job as the tutor or great nurse to Hatshepsut’s daughter, Neferure. It was during Hatshepsut’s reign however that Senenmut enjoyed a dramatic rise. Although he was never a vizier, the amount and type of positions he held indicated he was a highly competent administrator.</p> <p>Senenmut became Hatshepsut’s most favoured official describing himself on a black diorite statue dedicated to Mut as the ‘greatest of the great’ and the ‘one who heard the hearing alone in the privy council’ (adapted from Breasted). The statue was presented by Hatshepsut and Thutmose III as a token of honour. On the statue it provides details Senenmut’s work on buildings at Karnak, Deir el Bahri, the temple of Mut and Luxor.</p> <p>Additional inscriptions containing evidence of his high status include the walls and funerary stelae of his tombs, the rocks at Aswan commemorating his construction of two giant obelisks, fragments of his smashed quartzite sarcophagus and funerary cones and name stones from his tombs. His monuments detail a total of eighty titles (20 official and 60 honorary).</p> <p>Senenmut’s two main titles were <em>chief steward of Amun </em>and <em>chief steward of the king</em>. With these positions he controlled the estate of Amun, the royal household and the king’s estate. As <em>controller of works</em> he also organised and supervised Hatshepsut’s building program. As overseer of the <em>storehouse of Amun</em> he would have been directly involved in the collection and storage of products brought back from Punt. Given these positions it was no wonder he was able to claim on his black diorite statue that ‘I was one of whom the affairs of the Two Lands were reported’ (adapted from Breasted).</p> <p>Meyer maintains that there are several pieces of evidence for Senenmut being a childless, single man all his life. Firstly he is shown with his parents on the funerary stelae in his tombs. Secondly he is shown alone in scenes from The <em>Book of the Dead</em> in his second tomb. Lastly one of his brothers, rather than a son, carried out funeral rituals.</p> <p>Given his meteoric rise from humble beginnings and the indications that he never married, it has been suggested that Senenmut had an intimate relationship with Hatshepsut and that he was Hatshepsut’s lover and may have even been the father of Neferure. These views are based on several pieces of evidence.</p> <p>Of the 25 statues of Senenmut most were given as a gift from Hatshepsut and several show him embracing Neferure. An intimate relationship can also be suggested from the presence of his name in out of the way places at Deir el Bahri. It appears Senenmut was also given permission to construct a long unfinished sloping corridor tomb under the forecourt of Deir el Bahri and use for his own burial Hatshepsut’s quartzite sarcophagus from the time of Thutmose II. This theory is also fuelled by numerous examples of graffiti found showing Hatshepsut and Senenmut having sex. Despite this, there is no firm evidence to prove this theory with Dorman concluding that she was the victim of speculation and gossip and Callender writing that ‘on balance the liaison is unlikely’.</p> <p>Another controversy surrounding Senenmut is his disappearance from the records after year 16 of Hatshepsut’s reign. There is debate about whether he fell out of favour or if he just simply died. Some scholars such as Meyer believe he had a falling out with Hatshepsut after having the audacity to place over 60 portrayals of himself at Deir el Bahri.</p> <p>There seem to be several pieces of evidence which support a falling out. Senenmut never occupied the tomb under Deir el Bahri and his sarcophagus ended up being smashed. His name was taken off some statues within his tomb and most of the images of him at Deir el Bahri were hacked out including his whole figure in the Punt reliefs.</p> <p>Historians such as Dorman however disagree with this assessment of Senenmut’s death. He maintains that there is evidence of Hatshepsut giving Senenmut permission to place images of himself at Deir el Bahri and other temples throughout Egypt. A badly damaged text from the mortuary temple reads ‘with a favour of the King’s bounty which was extended this servant in letting his name be established on every wall’ (adapted from W.C. Hayes).</p> <p>Dorman goes on to suggest that Senenmut’s monuments were damaged by different people over an extended period of time.</p> <p>Steindorff supports Dorman’s theory by suggesting that Thutmose III resented Senenmut’s influence during the co-regency and carried out a campaign to eradicate his name at Deir el Bahri. How or when Senenmut died is still unknown but it must be remembered that he was probably an old man by Egyptian standards by year 16.</p> <p>In the past some historians, who today would be regarded as holding very sexist views, have argued that Hatshepsut was incapable of ruling Egypt without her male officials, particularly Senenmut. Gardiner for instance wrote ‘that even a woman of the most virile character could have attained such a pinnacle of power without masculine support’. It must be remembered however that every pharaoh, regardless of their gender, would have needed the support of officials to create a stable empire. It has also been shown that many male pharaohs needed the support of their queens during the early 17th and 18th dynasty.</p> <h4>Review questions</h4> <ol start="14"> <li>In what ways was Hapusoneb an important official during the co-regency? (use information on previous work as well)</li> <li>How do historians know Senenmut came from a humble background?</li> <li>Explain why Senenmut was justified in being able to claim he was the ‘greatest of the great’.</li> <li>What evidence is there for an intimate relationship between Senenmut and Hatshepsut?</li> <li>Draw a table with two columns. Label one column ‘Senenmut had a falling out’ and label the other ‘Senenmut didn’t have a falling out’. Use the information above to fill in each column.</li> <li>What is Gardiner’s theory? Why is it flawed?</li> </ol> <a href="#top"><img src="/web/20140714224620im_/http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/images/navigation/lineup.jpg" alt="Go To Top" height="22" width="455" border="0"/></a> <h3><a name="f" id="f"></a>f. Relationship with Thutmose III; co-regency and later defacement of her monuments</h3> <p>Hatshepsut died in year 22 of the co-regency. Historians have always debated what type of relationship she had with Thutmose III given his status as one of the greatest warrior pharaohs of the New Kingdom period and the fact he would have been over 30 years of age at the time of her death.</p> <p>Some early scholars such as Winlock, W.C. Hayes, Steindorff, Seele, Mertz, Wilson and Gardener insist that Hatshepsut was an evil, power hungry step mother. They believe Thutmose III did not like the co-regency but was incapable of doing anything about it because she controlled the treasury and had the full support of the civil service. W.C Hayes wrote that Thutmose III developed a ‘loathing’ for Hatshepsut, the ‘vilest type of usurper’. Mertz writes that an inevitable collision would occur as a result of the ‘resentment of the young king and the waning powers of the queen’. Steindorff and Seele said that the ‘high-handed rule of the pharaoh Hatshepsut and the chancellorship of the upstart Senenmut’ was ‘much against his will’.</p> <p>This theory relied heavily on the fate of Hatshepsut and her monuments. They maintain that Hatshepsut met an unnatural end during a coup led by Thutmose III. Steindorff and Seele write ‘she came to what we may well believe was an unnatural end’. Mertz says ‘Thutmose did away with Hatshepsut’.</p> <p>After killing Hatshepsut the same writers believe Thutmose III enacted a deliberate campaign to deface and destroy any monument which could serve as a memory of her existence. Steindorff and Seele wrote that ‘wherever the names or representations of Hatshepsut occurred, they were chiselled away’. Gardiner says ‘it was not long before Thutmose III began to expunge her name’. According to Mertz Thutmose III destroyed ‘anything Hatshepsut had ever touched’. Winlock wrote that Thutmose III could ‘scarcely wait’ to enact his revenge on the dead Hatshepsut.</p> <p>Many of Hatshepsut’s names, titles and images were in fact damaged throughout Egypt and replaced by the names of Thutmose I, Thutmose II and Thutmose III. She was absent from all later king’s lists and dozens of her statues were also smashed and dumped at Deir el Bahri. There was even a failed attempt to use a wall to hide her massive obelisks at Karnak. Her name and titles from the west wall at Karnak were hidden by Thutmose III’s Annals. Wilson sums up the destruction saying the ‘vindictive fury of Thutmose III is clear’.</p> <p>More recent investigations however have revealed a lot of evidence that Thutmose III may have had a good relationship with his step mother. There are many examples for instance of them sharing monuments and stelae. The Punt reliefs depict Thutmose standing behind Hatshepsut while dedicating myrrh to Amun. Likewise a building inscription in western Thebes shows both kings worshipping Amun-Re together. The Deir el Bahri reliefs mention both kings in relation to the transportation of the obelisks to Karnak. Officials also make reference to both kings as seen in a statue of Enebni and the tomb of Thutiy. Finally Senenmut’s Mut statue was presented to him jointly by both kings.</p> <p>A stela in Wadi Maghera also suggests that Hatshepsut allowed Thutmose III to have a prominent role in public affairs. The stela was inscribed year 16. It shows the two kings standing side by side with Thutmose III make an offering to Hathor and Hatshepsut to Sopdu. It must also be noted that Thutmose III conducted campaigns to Gaza and Nubia during the co-regency. It is doubtful Hatshepsut would have given an army to Thutmose III if he posed a threat to her rule.</p> <p>A good relationship may also be indicated by the recent discovery of Hatshepsut’s mummy showing no evidence of foul play. The tomb of Hatshepsut’s nurse In-sitre (called KV60) contained two female mummies when discovered by Howard Carter in 1903. One of the mummies was located within a coffin and moved to Cairo. The other was left abandoned on the floor. The tomb was reopened by the archaeologist Donald Ryan in 1990. The second body was placed in a wooden coffin and left.</p> <p>In 2007 Dr Hawass exhumed the body so that an investigation could be conducted to identify the remains. DNA analysis and CT-scans were conducted on both mummies together with the already identified remains of Thutmose II and III. The second mummy had the characteristic overbite of the Thutmosid family. A box labelled with Hatshepsut’s name and titles had previously been discovered containing some internal organs and a molar tooth. The tooth from this box fitted exactly into a cavity within the second mummy’s mouth. Given this evidence the mummy found on the floor of tomb KV60 is now believed to be Hatshepsut.</p> <p>The mummy was 159 centimetres tall. From the condition of the body she was obese, had long hair and was between 50-60 years of age at death. She would have suffered from many debilitating medical conditions including diabetes, osteoporosis, tooth decay, possibly bone cancer, arthritis of the spinal column and a slipped disk. This evidence suggests Hatshepsut lived to a relative old age by ancient Egyptian standards and probably died naturally. DNA analysis however is required to compare Hatshepsut to Queen Ahmose-Nefertari to conclusively prove this was the case.</p> <p>There is also some doubt concerning the theory that Thutmose III supposedly conducted a vicious campaign to destroy Hatshepsut’s monuments. Nims maintains that the damage at Karnak took place at least twenty years after Hatshepsut’s death. This is considered too long for Thutmose III to have held a grudge against Hatshepsut.</p> <p>It also appears many inscriptions were left either fully or partially intact at Karnak. Sometimes her names were chiselled out in hidden places but left in visible, accessible parts of the temple complex. Images of her ka and her role as a queen to Thutmose II were however untouched.</p> <p>Given this information, many contemporary historians suggest that Thutmose III destroyed Hatshepsut’s monuments not out of vengeance but because she was simply a female ruler. Robins argues that Thutmose III reluctantly removed Hatshepsut’s name from monuments as time passed, due to ‘political expediency’. He had to remove ‘all traces of the unnatural female king’. Dorman supports this theory by maintaining that the destruction occurred due to Thutmose III’s need to ‘eradicate the possibility of another powerful female ever inserting herself into the long line of Egyptian male kings’. He says it was ‘not necessarily a personal condemnation of the queen herself’.</p> <p>Tyldesley also supports these arguments. She maintains that the early queens of the 17th and 18th Dynasty culminating in Hatshepsut posed a ‘temporary threat to both established custom and to the conservative interpretation of maat’. As a result Hatshepsut’s monuments were destroyed because Thutmose III may have felt the need to ‘reinforce the tradition of male succession before he died’ so that ‘future generations of potentially strong female kings might remain content with their traditional lot as wife, sister and eventual mother of a king’.</p> <p>Redford suggests it was not genuine hatred of Hatshepsut but ‘political necessity’ which made Thutmose III erase her images and names. Thutmose III needed to emphasise his relationship with the great Thutmose I and prevent any comparisons with Hatshepsut’s reign. According to Redford however he also made sure not all Hatshepsut’s images and cartouches were removed because he appreciated her looking after him when he was young and wanted to prevent her from having a second death in the afterlife.</p> <p>Another theory is that Thutmose III eradicated images and references to Hatshepsut in monuments to give legitimacy to his son’s (Amenhotep II) succession. Petty believes Hatshepsut helped Thutmose III keep the throne by becoming a pharaoh herself. She was able to silence members of the royal household with Taosid blood who may have felt they had greater right to the throne than Thutmose III. Thutmose III had to help his son in the same way as he also was not a Taosid. It was not vengeance that motivated the destruction. Thutmose III was growing old by year 42 of his reign and needed to erase evidence that Hatshepsut was a part of the Taosid linage to help legitimise his own son’s rise to the throne. </p> <p>It is also interesting to note that all New Kingdom rulers including Hatshepsut are implicated in destroying previous pharaohs’ buildings. At Karnak she destroyed the original purpose of Thutmose I’s Hypostyle Hall by inserting obelisks between the 4th and 5th pylons. She also reused some of Thutmose II’s blocks and dismantled a sanctuary of Amenhotep I and Ahmose-Nefertari at Deir el Bahri. Thutmose III’s actions were not motivated by hatred. He was simply repeating what others had done before him.</p> <p>Furthermore much of the damage to Hatshepsut’s monuments cannot be attributed to Thutmose III. Many reliefs showing her with Amun have been totally erased. The only pharaoh who attacked the worship of Amun during the New Kingdom was Akhenaten who tried to elevate the Aten above all other cults. Naville maintains that Ramesses II ordered the destruction of Hatshepsut’s inscriptions as well.</p> <p>Given all this evidence concerning shared monuments, Thutmose III’s role with the army, Hatshepsut’s body and doubt behind vengeance causing the destruction of monuments, some historians such as Nims believe there should be a ‘thorough re-examination’ of theories suggesting a poor relationship between the two co-rulers. Thutmose III may have welcomed Hatshepsut’s guidance when he was too young to make decisions for himself and showed his appreciation by waiting for her death. After all, he would have expected to outlive Hatshepsut and rule in his own right anyway.</p> <h4>Review questions</h4> <ol start="20"> <li>Why did early historians believe Hatshepsut had a bad relationship with Thutmose III?</li> <li>Outline evidence which suggests Hatshepsut had a good relationship with Thutmose III?</li> <li>Write information on the following explanations for Hatshepsut’s monuments being destroyed given that it took over twenty years for Thutmose III to start his ‘campaign’: <ul> <li>An unnatural kingship – Robins, Dorman & Tyldesley</li> <li>Political necessity – Redford</li> <li>Give legitimacy to Amenhotep II – Petty</li> <li>Thutmose following tradition of destruction</li> </li><li>Damage done by other Pharaohs – Naville</li> </li></ul></li> </ol> <p align="right"><a href="hapshetsut_index.htm">Back</a></p> <a href="#top"><img src="/web/20140714224620im_/http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/images/navigation/lineup.jpg" alt="Go To Top" height="22" width="455" border="0"/></a>  <br/> <div id="yellowfooter"> <hr/> <img src="/web/20140714224620im_/http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/images/neals_sm.jpg" alt="Neals logo" width="50" height="20" align="middle"/> | <a href="/web/20140714224620/http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/copyright/index.htm">Copyright</a> | <a href="/web/20140714224620/http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/disclaimer/index.htm">Disclaimer</a> | <a href="/web/20140714224620/http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/contact/index.htm">Contact Us</a> | <a href="/web/20140714224620/http://www.hsc.csu.edu.au/help/index.htm">Help</a>    <script type="text/javascript"> var gaJsHost = (("https:" == document.location.protocol) ? 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