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vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">versteek</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Inleiding</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etimologie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etimologie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Etimologie </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etimologie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geskiedenis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geskiedenis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Geskiedenis </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geskiedenis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Wissel Geskiedenis subafdeling </button> <ul id="toc-Geskiedenis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rewolusie_en_stigting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rewolusie_en_stigting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Rewolusie en stigting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rewolusie_en_stigting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vereniging_van_republieke" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vereniging_van_republieke"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Vereniging van republieke </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vereniging_van_republieke-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stalin-era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stalin-era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Stalin-era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stalin-era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1930's" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1930's"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 1930's </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1930's-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tweede_Wêreldoorlog" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tweede_Wêreldoorlog"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Tweede Wêreldoorlog </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tweede_Wêreldoorlog-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Koue_Oorlog" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Koue_Oorlog"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 Koue Oorlog </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Koue_Oorlog-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chroesjtsjof-era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chroesjtsjof-era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Chroesjtsjof-era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chroesjtsjof-era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tydperk_van_stagnasie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tydperk_van_stagnasie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Tydperk van stagnasie </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tydperk_van_stagnasie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gorbatsjof-era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gorbatsjof-era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Gorbatsjof-era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gorbatsjof-era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ontbinding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ontbinding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Ontbinding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ontbinding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leiers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leiers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Leiers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leiers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geografie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geografie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Geografie </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geografie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regering_en_politiek" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regering_en_politiek"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Regering en politiek </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Regering_en_politiek-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Wissel Regering en politiek subafdeling </button> <ul id="toc-Regering_en_politiek-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kommunistiese_Party" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kommunistiese_Party"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Kommunistiese Party </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kommunistiese_Party-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Regering </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skeiding_van_mag_en_hervorming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skeiding_van_mag_en_hervorming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Skeiding van mag en hervorming </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skeiding_van_mag_en_hervorming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Menseregte" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Menseregte"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Menseregte </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Menseregte-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administratiewe_verdelings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administratiewe_verdelings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Administratiewe verdelings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administratiewe_verdelings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weermag" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weermag"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Weermag </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weermag-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ekonomie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ekonomie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Ekonomie </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ekonomie-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Wissel Ekonomie subafdeling </button> <ul id="toc-Ekonomie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wetenskap_en_tegnologie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wetenskap_en_tegnologie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Wetenskap en tegnologie </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wetenskap_en_tegnologie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ruimteprogram" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ruimteprogram"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Ruimteprogram </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ruimteprogram-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vervoer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vervoer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Vervoer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vervoer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demografie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demografie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Demografie </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demografie-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Wissel Demografie subafdeling </button> <ul id="toc-Demografie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Etniese_groepe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etniese_groepe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Etniese groepe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etniese_groepe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Taal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Taal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Godsdiens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Godsdiens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Godsdiens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Godsdiens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kultuur" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kultuur"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Kultuur </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kultuur-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Sport </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verwysings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verwysings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Verwysings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verwysings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliografie" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliografie"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Bibliografie </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliografie-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skakels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skakels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Skakels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skakels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Inhoud" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Inhoudsopgawe" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Wissel die inhoudsopgawe" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Wissel die inhoudsopgawe </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Sowjetunie</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Gaan na 'n artikel in 'n ander taal. Beskikbaar in 217 tale" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-217" aria-hidden="true" > 217 tale </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82%D3%99_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%82%D3%99_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D2%9B%D3%99%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B3%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Асоветтә Социалисттә Республикақәа Реидгыла – Abkasies" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Асоветтә Социалисттә Республикақәа Реидгыла" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkasies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_Soviet" title="Uni Soviet – Atsjenees" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Uni Soviet" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Atsjenees" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunion" title="Sowjetunion – Switserse Duits" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Sowjetunion" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Switserse Duits" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B6%E1%89%AA%E1%8B%AC%E1%89%B5_%E1%88%95%E1%89%A5%E1%88%A8%E1%89%B5" title="ሶቪዬት ሕብረት – Amharies" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሶቪዬት ሕብረት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharies" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_de_Republicas_Socialistas_Sovieticas" title="Unión de Republicas Socialistas Sovieticas – Aragonees" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Unión de Republicas Socialistas Sovieticas" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonees" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofiet_Gesamnung" title="Sofiet Gesamnung – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Sofiet Gesamnung" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="الاتحاد السوفيتي – Arabies" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الاتحاد السوفيتي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabies" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%DA%A4%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="لإتحاد السوڤياتي – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لإتحاد السوڤياتي" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D9%88%DA%A4%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%89" title="اتحاد سوڤيتى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="اتحاد سوڤيتى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9B%27%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%98" title="ছ'ভিয়েট সংঘ – Assamees" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ছ'ভিয়েট সংঘ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamees" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuni%C3%B3n_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="Xunión Soviética – Asturies" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xunión Soviética" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%B1_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8A%D1%83%D0%BB_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8A%D1%83%D0%BB_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8" title="Советияб Союзалъул Социялизмаялъул Республикаби – Avaries" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Советияб Союзалъул Социялизмаялъул Республикаби" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaries" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSSS" title="TSSS – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="TSSS" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kotava</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSR%C4%B0" title="SSRİ – Azerbeidjans" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="SSRİ" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbeidjans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C" title="شوروی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="شوروی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D1%8B" title="Совет Социалистик Республикалар Союзы – Baskir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Совет Социалистик Республикалар Союзы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Baskir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_Soviet" title="Uni Soviet – Balinees" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Uni Soviet" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinees" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunion" title="Sowjetunion – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Sowjetunion" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar%C4%ABbu_S%C4%81jonga" title="Tarību Sājonga – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Tarību Sājonga" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Саюз Савецкіх Сацыялістычных Рэспублік – Belarussies" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Саюз Савецкіх Сацыялістычных Рэспублік" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarussies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%A0%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Саюз Савецкіх Сацыялістычных Рэспублік – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Саюз Савецкіх Сацыялістычных Рэспублік" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8A%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%8A%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Съюз на съветските социалистически републики – Bulgaars" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Съюз на съветските социалистически републики" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgaars" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8" title="सोवियत यूनियन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सोवियत यूनियन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8" title="সোভিয়েত ইউনিয়ন – Bengaals" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সোভিয়েত ইউনিয়ন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bengaals" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%B4%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B" title="སུའུ་ལེན་ – Tibettaans" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="སུའུ་ལེན་" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibettaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8" title="সোভিয়েত ইউনিয়ন – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="সোভিয়েত ইউনিয়ন" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target">বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unaniezh_ar_Republiko%C3%B9_Sokialour_Soviedel" title="Unaniezh ar Republikoù Sokialour Soviedel – Bretons" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Unaniezh ar Republikoù Sokialour Soviedel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Bretons" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetski_Savez" title="Sovjetski Savez – Bosnies" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sovjetski Savez" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D2%AF%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%8D_%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Зүблэлтэ холбоото улас – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Зүблэлтэ холбоото улас" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3_de_Rep%C3%BAbliques_Socialistes_Sovi%C3%A8tiques" title="Unió de Repúbliques Socialistes Soviètiques – Katalaans" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Unió de Repúbliques Socialistes Soviètiques" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Katalaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%AD-li%C3%A8ng" title="Sŭ-lièng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sŭ-lièng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7" title="Советийн Социалистийн Республикийн Союз – Tsjetsjeens" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Советийн Социалистийн Республикийн Союз" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Tsjetsjeens" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unyong_Sobyet" title="Unyong Sobyet – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Unyong Sobyet" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%90%E1%8E%A1%E1%8F%B0_%E1%8F%8D%E1%8E%A6%E1%8F%9A%E1%8E%A9" title="ᏐᎡᏰ ᏍᎦᏚᎩ – Cherokees" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏐᎡᏰ ᏍᎦᏚᎩ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokees" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%DB%8E%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%86%DA%A4%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA" title="یەکێتیی سۆڤیەت – Sorani" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="یەکێتیی سۆڤیەت" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Sorani" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Euralar_Sotsialistik_Cumhuriyetleri_Birligi" title="Şuralar Sotsialistik Cumhuriyetleri Birligi – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Şuralar Sotsialistik Cumhuriyetleri Birligi" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sov%C4%9Btsk%C3%BD_svaz" title="Sovětský svaz – Tsjeggies" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sovětský svaz" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Tsjeggies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8A%D0%B2%D1%A3%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8A_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8A_%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%97%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D1%8A%D0%B2%D1%AB%EA%99%81%D1%8A" title="Съвѣтьскъ Социалистичьскъ Димократїи Съвѫꙁъ – Kerkslawies" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Съвѣтьскъ Социалистичьскъ Димократїи Съвѫꙁъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Kerkslawies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%9F%C4%95%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%88%C4%95%D0%B2%C4%95" title="Совет Социализм Республикисен Пĕрлешĕвĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Совет Социализм Республикисен Пĕрлешĕвĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Undeb_Sofietaidd" title="Yr Undeb Sofietaidd – Wallies" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Undeb Sofietaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Wallies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetunionen" title="Sovjetunionen – Deens" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sovjetunionen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Deens" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunion" title="Sowjetunion – Duits" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sowjetunion" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="Duits" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yewiya_Sovyetan" title="Yewiya Sovyetan – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Yewiya Sovyetan" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetski_zw%C4%9Bzk" title="Sowjetski zwězk – Nedersorbies" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Sowjetski zwězk" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Nedersorbies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koisaan_Soviet" title="Koisaan Soviet – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Koisaan Soviet" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kadazandusun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%90%DE%AF%DE%88%DE%A8%DE%87%DE%AC%DE%93%DE%B0_%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%87%DE%B0%DE%8C%DE%A8%DE%80%DE%A7%DE%8B%DE%AA" title="ސޯވިއެޓް އިއްތިހާދު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ސޯވިއެޓް އިއްތިހާދު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%88%CE%BD%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7_%CE%A3%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD_%CE%A3%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8E%CE%BD_%CE%94%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Ένωση Σοβιετικών Σοσιαλιστικών Δημοκρατιών – Grieks" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ένωση Σοβιετικών Σοσιαλιστικών Δημοκρατιών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Grieks" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union – Engels" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Soviet Union" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="Engels" class="interlanguage-link-target">English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovetunio" title="Sovetunio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sovetunio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="Unión Soviética – Spaans" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Unión Soviética" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B5ukogude_Liit" title="Nõukogude Liit – Estnies" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Nõukogude Liit" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estnies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sobietar_Errepublika_Sozialisten_Batasuna" title="Sobietar Errepublika Sozialisten Batasuna – Baskies" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sobietar Errepublika Sozialisten Batasuna" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Baskies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="Unión Soviética – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Unión Soviética" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C" title="اتحاد جماهیر شوروی – Persies" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اتحاد جماهیر شوروی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persies" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuvostoliitto" title="Neuvostoliitto – Fins" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Neuvostoliitto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Fins" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B5vvokogoliit" title="Nõvvokogoliit – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Nõvvokogoliit" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetsamveldi%C3%B0" title="Sovjetsamveldið – Faroëes" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Sovjetsamveldið" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroëes" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_des_r%C3%A9publiques_socialistes_sovi%C3%A9tiques" title="Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques – Frans" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="Frans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunioon" title="Sowjetunioon – Noord-Fries" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Sowjetunioon" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Noord-Fries" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovietiche" title="Union Sovietiche – Friuliaans" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Union Sovietiche" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friuliaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet-Uny" title="Sovjet-Uny – Fries" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Sovjet-Uny" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Fries" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_tAontas_S%C3%B3iv%C3%A9adach" title="An tAontas Sóivéadach – Iers" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An tAontas Sóivéadach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Iers" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%98%87%E8%81%AF" title="蘇聯 – Gan-Sjinees" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="蘇聯" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan-Sjinees" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inyon_di_s%C3%A9_r%C3%A9piblik_sosyalis_sovy%C3%A9tik" title="Inyon di sé répiblik sosyalis sovyétik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Inyon di sé répiblik sosyalis sovyétik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_t-Aonadh_Sobhiatach" title="An t-Aonadh Sobhiatach – Skotse Gallies" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="An t-Aonadh Sobhiatach" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Skotse Gallies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%B3n_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="Unión Soviética – Galisies" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Unión Soviética" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galisies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A4%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%8A" title="شؤروي – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="شؤروي" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joaty_Sovi%C3%A9tiko" title="Joaty Soviétiko – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Joaty Soviétiko" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%B2%F0%90%8C%B2%F0%90%8C%B2%F0%90%8C%B8" title="𐌲𐌲𐌲𐌸 – Goties" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌲𐌲𐌲𐌸" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Goties" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%A4_%E0%AA%AF%E0%AB%81%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%A8" title="સોવિયેત યુનિયન – Goedjarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સોવિયેત યુનિયન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Goedjarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unnaneys_ny_Pobblaghtyn_Soveidjagh_Soshiallagh" title="Unnaneys ny Pobblaghtyn Soveidjagh Soshiallagh – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Unnaneys ny Pobblaghtyn Soveidjagh Soshiallagh" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarayyar_Sobiyet" title="Tarayyar Sobiyet – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Tarayyar Sobiyet" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BB-li%C3%A8n" title="Sû-lièn – Hakka-Sjinees" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sû-lièn" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka-Sjinees" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA" title="ברית המועצות – Hebreeus" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ברית המועצות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebreeus" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%98" title="सोवियत संघ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सोवियत संघ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Soviet Union" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetski_Savez" title="Sovjetski Savez – Kroaties" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Sovjetski Savez" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Kroaties" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetski_zwjazk" title="Sowjetski zwjazk – Oppersorbies" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Sowjetski zwjazk" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Oppersorbies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inyon_Repiblik_Sosyalis_Sovyetik" title="Inyon Repiblik Sosyalis Sovyetik – Haïtiaans" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Inyon Repiblik Sosyalis Sovyetik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haïtiaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szovjetuni%C3%B3" title="Szovjetunió – Hongaars" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szovjetunió" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hongaars" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BD%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B0%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%8D%D5%B8%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Խորհրդային Սոցիալիստական Հանրապետությունների Միություն – Armeens" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Խորհրդային Սոցիալիստական Հանրապետությունների Միություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armeens" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BD%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B0%D6%80%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Խորհրդային Միութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Խորհրդային Միութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovietic" title="Union Sovietic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Union Sovietic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_Soviet" title="Uni Soviet – Indonesies" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Uni Soviet" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet-Union" title="Soviet-Union – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Soviet-Union" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingue</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suviatam_Nunaa" title="Suviatam Nunaa – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Suviatam Nunaa" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Iñupiatun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kappon_ti_Sobiet" title="Kappon ti Sobiet – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Kappon ti Sobiet" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7" title="Советий Социализма Республикай Союз – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Советий Социализма Республикай Союз" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet-Uniono" title="Soviet-Uniono – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Soviet-Uniono" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sov%C3%A9tr%C3%ADkin" title="Sovétríkin – Yslands" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sovétríkin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Yslands" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unione_Sovietica" title="Unione Sovietica – Italiaans" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Unione Sovietica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italiaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BD%E3%83%93%E3%82%A8%E3%83%88%E9%80%A3%E9%82%A6" title="ソビエト連邦 – Japannees" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ソビエト連邦" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japannees" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suoviet_Yuunian" title="Suoviet Yuunian – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Suoviet Yuunian" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/sofygu%27e" title="sofygu'e – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="sofygu'e" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_Sovy%C3%A8t" title="Uni Sovyèt – Javaans" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Uni Sovyèt" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%AD%E1%83%9D%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%A8%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="საბჭოთა სოციალისტური რესპუბლიკების კავშირი – Georgies" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საბჭოთა სოციალისტური რესპუბლიკების კავშირი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgies" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadukli_n_Tegdudiwin_Tinemlayin_Tisuvyitiyin" title="Tadukli n Tegdudiwin Tinemlayin Tisuvyitiyin – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tadukli n Tegdudiwin Tinemlayin Tisuvyitiyin" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%8D_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D0%97%D1%8D%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%85%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Республикэ Совет Социал Зэгуэтхэр – Kabardiaans" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Республикэ Совет Социал Зэгуэтхэр" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardiaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muna%CC%B1pyia%CC%B1_Soviyet" title="Muna̱pyia̱ Soviyet – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Muna̱pyia̱ Soviyet" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D2%A3%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%9E%D0%B4%D0%B0%D2%93%D1%8B" title="Кеңестік Социалистік Республикалар Одағы – Kazaks" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кеңестік Социалистік Республикалар Одағы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazaks" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%A0%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%8F" title="សហភាពសូវៀត – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សហភាពសូវៀត" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%92%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%9F" title="ಸೊವಿಯೆಟ್ ಒಕ್ಕೂಟ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸೊವಿಯೆಟ್ ಒಕ್ಕೂಟ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-knc mw-list-item"><a href="https://knc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union – Central Kanuri" lang="knc" hreflang="knc" data-title="Soviet Union" data-language-autonym="Yerwa Kanuri" data-language-local-name="Central Kanuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yerwa Kanuri</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%86%8C%EB%A0%A8" title="소련 – Koreaans" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="소련" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Koreaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%88%D0%B8%D1%83" title="Совет Социалист Республикаланы Бирлешиу – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Совет Социалист Республикаланы Бирлешиу" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%A4%D9%88%D9%90%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%90%D8%AA%D9%90%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%82" title="صؤوِت اِتِفاق – Kasjmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="صؤوِت اِتِفاق" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kasjmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yek%C3%AEtiya_Komar%C3%AAn_Sovyet_%C3%AAn_Sosyal%C3%AEst" title="Yekîtiya Komarên Sovyet ên Sosyalîst – Koerdies" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Yekîtiya Komarên Sovyet ên Sosyalîst" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Koerdies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D3%A7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D3%A7%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D3%A7%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%BB%D3%A7%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7" title="Сӧветскӧй Социалистическӧй Республикаяслӧн Союз – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Сӧветскӧй Социалистическӧй Республикаяслӧн Союз" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/URSS" title="URSS – Kornies" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="URSS" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Kornies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D2%A3%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%91%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Кеңештер Бирлиги – Kirgisies" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кеңештер Бирлиги" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kirgisies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unio_Rerum_Publicarum_Sovieticarum_Socialisticarum" title="Unio Rerum Publicarum Sovieticarum Socialisticarum – Latyn" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Unio Rerum Publicarum Sovieticarum Socialisticarum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovyetika" title="Union Sovyetika – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Union Sovyetika" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunioun" title="Sowjetunioun – Luxemburgs" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Sowjetunioun" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxemburgs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D3%80" title="Советрин Социализмдин Республикайрин ГалкӀ – Lezghies" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Советрин Социализмдин Республикайрин ГалкӀ" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_de_Republicas_Sosialiste_Soviet" title="Uni de Republicas Sosialiste Soviet – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Uni de Republicas Sosialiste Soviet" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet-Unie" title="Sovjet-Unie – Limburgs" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Sovjet-Unie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovietica" title="Union Sovietica – Liguries" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Union Sovietica" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Liguries" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovietica" title="Union Sovietica – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Union Sovietica" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="voorbladartikel"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_di_Republegh_Socialista_Sovietegh" title="Union di Republegh Socialista Sovietegh – Lombardies" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Union di Republegh Socialista Sovietegh" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombardies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%AB%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%9A%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%BD%E0%BA%94" title="ສະຫະພາບໂຊວຽດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ສະຫະພາບໂຊວຽດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%C5%B3_S%C4%85junga" title="Sovietų Sąjunga – Litaus" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sovietų Sąjunga" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Litaus" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padomju_Savien%C4%ABba" title="Padomju Savienība – Letties" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Padomju Savienība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Letties" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98" title="सोभियत सङ्घ – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="सोभियत सङ्घ" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Советонь Соткс – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Советонь Соткс" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firaisan%27_ny_Repoblika_S%C3%B4sialista_S%C3%B4vietika" title="Firaisan' ny Repoblika Sôsialista Sôvietika – Malgassies" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Firaisan' ny Repoblika Sôsialista Sôvietika" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malgassies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA-%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA_%D0%A3%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Совет Социализм Республик-влак Ушем – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Совет Социализм Республик-влак Ушем" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Олык марий</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hononga_Howete" title="Hononga Howete – Maori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Hononga Howete" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Maori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_Soviet" title="Uni Soviet – Minangkabaus" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Uni Soviet" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabaus" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%98%D1%83%D0%B7" title="Советски Сојуз – Masedonies" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Советски Сојуз" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Masedonies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB" title="സോവിയറ്റ് യൂണിയൻ – Malabaars" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സോവിയറ്റ് യൂണിയൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malabaars" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="voorbladartikel"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D3%A9%D0%B2%D0%BB%D3%A9%D0%BB%D1%82_%D0%A5%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%82_%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Зөвлөлт Холбоот Улс – Mongools" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Зөвлөлт Холбоот Улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongools" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%98" title="सोव्हिएत संघ – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सोव्हिएत संघ" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesatuan_Soviet" title="Kesatuan Soviet – Maleis" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kesatuan Soviet" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Maleis" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unjoni_Sovjetika" title="Unjoni Sovjetika – Maltees" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Unjoni Sovjetika" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltees" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ounion_Sobi%C3%A9tica" title="Ounion Sobiética – Mirandees" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Ounion Sobiética" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandees" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%97%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%91%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%AF_%E1%80%9E%E1%80%99%E1%80%B9%E1%80%99%E1%80%90%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%B6" title="ဆိုဗီယက်ပြည်ထောင်စု သမ္မတနိုင်ငံ – Birmaans" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆိုဗီယက်ပြည်ထောင်စု သမ္မတနိုင်ငံ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Birmaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C" title="شوروی – Masanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="شوروی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Masanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aunione_Sovieteca" title="Aunione Sovieteca – Neapolitaans" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Aunione Sovieteca" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunion" title="Sowjetunion – Nederduits" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Sowjetunion" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Nederduits" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetuny" title="Sovjetuny – Nedersaksies" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Sovjetuny" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Nedersaksies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98" title="सोभियत सङ्घ – Nepalees" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सोभियत सङ्घ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepalees" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet-Unie" title="Sovjet-Unie – Nederlands" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sovjet-Unie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Nederlands" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetunionen" title="Sovjetunionen – Nuwe Noors" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sovjetunionen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Nuwe Noors" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="voorbladartikel"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetunionen" title="Sovjetunionen – Boeknoors" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sovjetunionen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Boeknoors" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unnion_Sovi%C3%A9tique" title="Unnion Soviétique – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Unnion Soviétique" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_de_las_Republicas_Socialistas_Sovieticas" title="Union de las Republicas Socialistas Sovieticas – Oksitaans" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Union de las Republicas Socialistas Sovieticas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Oksitaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevvostoliitto" title="Nevvostoliitto – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Nevvostoliitto" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A6%C3%A6%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81" title="Советон Цæдис – Osseties" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Советон Цæдис" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Osseties" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A4_%E0%A8%AF%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A8" title="ਸੋਵੀਅਤ ਯੂਨੀਅਨ – Pandjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੋਵੀਅਤ ਯੂਨੀਅਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Pandjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovietiko" title="Union Sovietiko – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Union Sovietiko" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/URSS" title="URSS – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="URSS" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Soviet Union" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deitsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwi%C4%85zek_Socjalistycznych_Republik_Radzieckich" title="Związek Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich – Pools" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Związek Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Pools" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="Union Soviética – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Union Soviética" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="سویت یونین – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سویت یونین" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="شوروي اتحاد – Pasjtoe" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="شوروي اتحاد" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pasjtoe" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni%C3%A3o_Sovi%C3%A9tica" title="União Soviética – Portugees" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="União Soviética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portugees" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susyalista_Suwit_Ripuwlikakunap_Hu%C3%B1un" title="Susyalista Suwit Ripuwlikakunap Huñun – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Susyalista Suwit Ripuwlikakunap Huñun" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniun_sovietica" title="Uniun sovietica – Reto-Romaans" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Uniun sovietica" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Reto-Romaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniunea_Republicilor_Sovietice_Socialiste" title="Uniunea Republicilor Sovietice Socialiste – Roemeens" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Uniunea Republicilor Sovietice Socialiste" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Roemeens" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Союз Советских Социалистических Республик – Russies" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Союз Советских Социалистических Республик" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Союз Совітскых Соціалістічных Републик – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Союз Совітскых Соціалістічных Републик" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8D%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%8D%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8D%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%8B_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%83%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Сэбиэскэй Социалистыы Республикалар Сойуустара – Jakoeties" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Сэбиэскэй Социалистыы Республикалар Сойуустара" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Jakoeties" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%B4_%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B6%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%9F" title="ᱥᱚᱵᱷᱤᱭᱮᱴ ᱥᱟᱶᱛᱟ – Santalies" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱚᱵᱷᱤᱭᱮᱴ ᱥᱟᱶᱛᱟ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santalies" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unione_Sovietica" title="Unione Sovietica – Sardinies" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Unione Sovietica" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unioni_Suvi%C3%A8tica" title="Unioni Suviètica – Sisiliaans" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Unioni Suviètica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sisiliaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union – Skots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Soviet Union" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Skots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%86" title="سوويت يونين – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سوويت يونين" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetlihttu" title="Sovjetlihttu – Noord-Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Sovjetlihttu" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Noord-Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetski_Savez" title="Sovjetski Savez – Serwo-Kroaties" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sovjetski Savez" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serwo-Kroaties" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item"><a href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%B0%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%82%81%E1%80%B0%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%82%88%E1%80%90%E1%80%AF%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B0%E1%80%9D%E1%80%BA%E1%82%87%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AE%E1%82%87%E1%80%9A%E1%82%85%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%82%89" title="မိူင်းႁူမ်ႈတုမ် သူဝ်ႇဝီႇယႅတ်ႉ – Shan" lang="shn" hreflang="shn" data-title="မိူင်းႁူမ်ႈတုမ် သူဝ်ႇဝီႇယႅတ်ႉ" data-language-autonym="တႆး" data-language-local-name="Shan" class="interlanguage-link-target">တႆး</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%9D%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA" title="සෝවියට් සංගමය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සෝවියට් සංගමය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Soviet Union" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovietsky_zv%C3%A4z" title="Sovietsky zväz – Slowaaks" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Sovietsky zväz" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slowaaks" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA_%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="سوویت یونین – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="سوویت یونین" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetska_zveza" title="Sovjetska zveza – Sloweens" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sovjetska zveza" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Sloweens" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetlitto" title="Sovjetlitto – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Sovjetlitto" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midowga_Sofiyet" title="Midowga Sofiyet – Somalies" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Midowga Sofiyet" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somalies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashkimi_Sovjetik" title="Bashkimi Sovjetik – Albanees" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Bashkimi Sovjetik" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanees" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%98%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Совјетски Савез – Serwies" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Совјетски Савез" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serwies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowjetunion" title="Sowjetunion – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Sowjetunion" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uni_Sovi%C3%A9t" title="Uni Soviét – Sundanees" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Uni Soviét" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanees" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjetunionen" title="Sovjetunionen – Sweeds" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sovjetunionen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Sweeds" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umoja_wa_Kisovyeti" title="Umoja wa Kisovyeti – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Umoja wa Kisovyeti" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sojusz_Socjalistycznych_Sowjeckich_Republik" title="Sojusz Socjalistycznych Sowjeckich Republik – Silesies" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Sojusz Socjalistycznych Sowjeckich Republik" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="சோவியத் ஒன்றியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சோவியத் ஒன்றியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="సోవియట్ యూనియన్ – Teloegoe" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సోవియట్ యూనియన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Teloegoe" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B8%D2%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8_%D0%A8%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D3%A3" title="Иттиҳоди Шуравӣ – Tadjiks" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Иттиҳоди Шуравӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tadjiks" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%95" title="สหภาพโซเวียต – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สหภาพโซเวียต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unyong_Sobyetiko" title="Unyong Sobyetiko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Unyong Sobyetiko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovet_Sosialist_Respublikon_Ibemon" title="Sovet Sosialist Respublikon Ibemon – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Sovet Sosialist Respublikon Ibemon" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovyetler_Birli%C4%9Fi" title="Sovyetler Birliği – Turks" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sovyetler Birliği" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turks" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5" title="Совет Социалистик Республикалар Берлеге – Tataars" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Совет Социалистик Республикалар Берлеге" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tataars" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0%D0%AD" title="ССРЭ – Tuvinees" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="ССРЭ" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinees" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B7%D1%8B" title="Советской Социалистической Республикаослэн Союззы – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Советской Социалистической Республикаослэн Союззы" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%DB%8B%DB%90%D8%AA_%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%89%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%89%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%83_%D8%AC%DB%87%D9%85%DA%BE%DB%87%D8%B1%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95%D8%AA%D9%84%DB%95%D8%B1_%D8%A6%D9%89%D8%AA%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%89" title="سوۋېت سوتسىيالىستىك جۇمھۇرىيەتلەر ئىتتىپاقى – Uighur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="سوۋېت سوتسىيالىستىك جۇمھۇرىيەتلەر ئىتتىپاقى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uighur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Союз Радянських Соціалістичних Республік – Oekraïens" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Союз Радянських Соціалістичних Республік" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Oekraïens" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="سوویت اتحاد – Oerdoe" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سوویت اتحاد" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Oerdoe" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovet_Sotsialistik_Respublikalari_Ittifoqi" title="Sovet Sotsialistik Respublikalari Ittifoqi – Oesbekies" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sovet Sotsialistik Respublikalari Ittifoqi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Oesbekies" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Sovi%C3%A8tega" title="Union Soviètega – Venesiaans" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Union Soviètega" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venesiaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevondkundali%C5%BEiden_Socialisti%C5%BEiden_Tazovaldkundoiden_%C3%9Chti%C5%A1tuz" title="Nevondkundaližiden Socialistižiden Tazovaldkundoiden Ühtištuz – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Nevondkundaližiden Socialistižiden Tazovaldkundoiden Ühtištuz" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C3%AAn_X%C3%B4" title="Liên Xô – Viëtnamees" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Liên Xô" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Viëtnamees" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovjet-Unie" title="Sovjet-Unie – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Sovjet-Unie" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovy%C3%A4tabalatam" title="Sovyätabalatam – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Sovyätabalatam" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.R.S.S." title="U.R.S.S. – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="U.R.S.S." data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unyon_Sovyetika" title="Unyon Sovyetika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Unyon Sovyetika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Yi_Benno" title="Soviet Yi Benno – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Soviet Yi Benno" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wolof</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E8%81%94" title="苏联 – Wu-Sjinees" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="苏联" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu-Sjinees" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoviet_Union" title="Isoviet Union – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Isoviet Union" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiXhosa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%AE%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A3%E1%83%91%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A1%E1%83%AE%E1%83%A3" title="სხუნუეფიშ სოციალისტური რესპუბლიკეფიშ რსხუ – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სხუნუეფიშ სოციალისტური რესპუბლიკეფიშ რსხუ" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%98%D7%9F_%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%93" title="סאוועטן פארבאנד – Jiddisj" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="סאוועטן פארבאנד" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Jiddisj" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cs%E1%BB%8D%CC%80kan_S%C3%B3f%C3%AC%E1%BA%B9%CC%80t%C3%AC" title="Ìsọ̀kan Sófìẹ̀tì – Joroeba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìsọ̀kan Sófìẹ̀tì" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Joroeba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suhlienz" title="Suhlienz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Suhlienz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%8B%8F%E8%81%94" title="苏联 – Chinees" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="苏联" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinees" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%98%87%E8%81%AF" title="蘇聯 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="蘇聯" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/So%CD%98-li%C3%A2n" title="So͘-liân – Min Nan-Sjinees" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="So͘-liân" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Min Nan-Sjinees" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%98%87%E8%81%AF" title="蘇聯 – Kantonees" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="蘇聯" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Kantonees" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q15180#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Wysig skakels tussen tale" class="wbc-editpage">Wysig skakels</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Naamruimtes"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sowjetunie" title="Bekyk die inhoudbladsy [c]" accesskey="c">Bladsy</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Bespreking:Sowjetunie" rel="discussion" title="Bespreking oor die inhoudbladsy [t]" accesskey="t">Bespreking</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Verander taalvariant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Afrikaans </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Weergawes"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sowjetunie">Lees</a></li><li id="ca-ve-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit" title="Redigeer hierdie bladsy [v]" accesskey="v">Wysig</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="collapsible vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit" title="Wysig die bladsy se bonkode [e]" accesskey="e">Wysig bron</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=history" title="Ouer weergawes van hierdie bladsy [h]" accesskey="h">Wys geskiedenis</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Gereedskap" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Gereedskap </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Gereedskap</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">skuif na kantbalk</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">versteek</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Sowjetunie">Lees</a></li><li id="ca-more-ve-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit" title="Redigeer hierdie bladsy [v]" accesskey="v">Wysig</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="collapsible vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit" title="Wysig die bladsy se bonkode [e]" accesskey="e">Wysig bron</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=history">Wys geskiedenis</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Algemeen </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Skakels_hierheen/Sowjetunie" title="'n Lys bladsye wat hierheen skakel [j]" accesskey="j">Skakels hierheen</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:OnlangseVeranderingsMetSkakels/Sowjetunie" rel="nofollow" title="Onlangse wysigings aan bladsye wat vanaf hierdie bladsy geskakel is [k]" accesskey="k">Verwante veranderings</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&oldid=2739445" title="'n Permanente skakel na hierdie weergawe van die bladsy">Permanente skakel</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=info" title="More information about this page">Bladinligting</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:CiteThisPage&page=Sowjetunie&id=2739445&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Inligting oor hoe u hierdie bladsy kan verwys">Haal dié blad aan</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Faf.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSowjetunie">Kry verkorte URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Faf.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FSowjetunie">Laai QR-kode af</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Druk/uitvoer </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-create_a_book" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:Boek&bookcmd=book_creator&referer=Sowjetunie">Skep boek</a></li><li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spesiaal:DownloadAsPdf&page=Sowjetunie&action=show-download-screen">Laai af as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&printable=yes" title="Drukbare weergawe van hierdie bladsy [p]" accesskey="p">Drukbare weergawe</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Ander projekte </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q15180" title="Skakel na gekonnekteerde databank item [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata-item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">versteek</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">in Wikipedia, die vrye ensiklopedie</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="af" dir="ltr"><div style="background: var(--background-color-base); color: var(--color-base); float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width: auto; text-align: center; font-size: 90%; line-height: 1.4em;"> <div style="border:1px solid #ccd2d9; width:24.5em; background: var(--background-color-base); color: var(--color-base); text-align:left; padding:0.5em 1em 0.5em 1em; text-align:center;"> <table style="v.C.transparent; text-align:left; table-layout:auto; border-collapse:collapse; padding:0; font-size:100%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"> <caption style="margin-left:inherit; font-size:135%; padding-bottom:0.5em; line-height:1.1em;"> Unie van Sosialistiese Sowjetrepublieke Союз Советских Социалистических Республик Sojoez Sowjetskich Sotsialistitsjeskich Respoeblik </caption> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9"> <table width="275" style="text-align:center; margin:0 auto; background:var(--background-color-base); color:inherit;"> <tbody><tr> <td width="50px" style="border:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/Russiese_Sosialistiese_Federale_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Russiese Sosialistiese Federale Sowjetrepubliek">←</a> <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_(1918%E2%80%931925).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Oekra%C3%AFense_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Oekraïense Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">←</a> <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1929%E2%80%931937).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281929%E2%80%931937%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281929%E2%80%931937%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281929%E2%80%931937%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281929%E2%80%931937%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Wit-Russiese_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Wit-Russiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">←</a> <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1919-1927).gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1927%29.gif/40px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1927%29.gif" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1927%29.gif/60px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1927%29.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="960" /></a> </td> <td style="background: var(--background-color-base); color: var(--color-base); vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; font-size:105%;"><a href="/wiki/1922" title="1922">1922</a> – <a href="/wiki/1991" title="1991">1991</a> </td> <td width="50px" style="border:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="#before-after">↓</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9"> <table width="100%" style="text-align:center; margin:0 auto; background:var(--background-color-base); color:inherit;"> <tbody><tr> <td width="50%" style="border:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vlag"><img alt="Vlag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/125px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/188px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> </td> <td width="50%" style="border:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1956%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wapenskild"><img alt="Wapenskild" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/100px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/150px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg/200px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union_%281956%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="605" /></a> </td></tr> <tr style="font-size: 95%;"> <td style="border:0; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vlag" title="Vlag">Vlag</a> </td> <td style="border:0; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Wapen_(heraldiek)" title="Wapen (heraldiek)">Wapen</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:center; font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Leuse" title="Leuse">Leuse</a>: Пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь! Proletarii fsech stran, sojedinjaites'! (<a href="/wiki/Russies" title="Russies">Russies</a> vir: "Werkers van die wêreld, verenig!") </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:center; font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Volkslied" title="Volkslied">Volkslied</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Die_Internasionale&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Die Internasionale (bladsy bestaan nie)">Die Internasionale</a> (1922–1944) <center><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="239" data-mwtitle="Internationale-ru.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Internationale-ru.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/69/Internationale-ru.ogg/Internationale-ru.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=de&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="de" label="Deutsch ‪(de)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=es&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=lzh&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="lzh" label="文言 ‪(lzh)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=nl&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="nl" label="Nederlands ‪(nl)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=pt-br&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt-BR" label="português do Brasil ‪(pt-br)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=pt&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt" label="português ‪(pt)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=ru&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ru" label="русский ‪(ru)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=sr-ec&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="sr-Cyrl" label="српски (ћирилица) ‪(sr-ec)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=tr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="tr" label="Türkçe ‪(tr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=uk&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="uk" label="українська ‪(uk)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=vi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="vi" label="Tiếng Việt ‪(vi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=zh-cn&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans-CN" label="中文（中国大陆） ‪(zh-cn)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=zh-hans&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans" label="中文（简体） ‪(zh-hans)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AInternationale-ru.ogg&lang=zh-hant&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant" label="中文（繁體） ‪(zh-hant)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></center> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Volkslied_van_die_Sowjetunie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Volkslied van die Sowjetunie (bladsy bestaan nie)">Госуда́рственный гимн Сове́тского Сою́за</a> (1944–1991) <center><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="82" data-mwtitle="Soviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Soviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/55/Soviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg/Soviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg&lang=az&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="az" label="azərbaycanca ‪(az)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg&lang=es&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg&lang=fi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fi" label="suomi ‪(fi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg&lang=gl&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="gl" label="galego ‪(gl)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg&lang=id&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="id" label="Bahasa Indonesia ‪(id)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg&lang=ko&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ko" label="한국어 ‪(ko)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg&lang=nl&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="nl" label="Nederlands ‪(nl)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg&lang=pt-br&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt-BR" label="português do Brasil ‪(pt-br)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg&lang=pt&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt" label="português ‪(pt)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg&lang=ru&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ru" label="русский ‪(ru)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASoviet_Anthem_Instrumental_1955.ogg&lang=vi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="vi" label="Tiếng Việt ‪(vi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></center>(<a href="/wiki/Transliterasie" title="Transliterasie">tr.</a>: Gosoedarstwenni gimn Sowjetskowo Sojoeza) (<a href="/wiki/Russies" title="Russies">Russies</a> vir: "Volkslied van die Sowjetunie") </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; vertical-align:top; text-align:center; font-size:95%; padding:0.4em 0 0.4em 0"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ligging of Sowjetunie"><img alt="Ligging of Sowjetunie" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/250px-Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/375px-Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/500px-Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a><figcaption>Ligging of Sowjetunie</figcaption></figure>Die Sowjetunie op sy grootste tydens die <a href="/wiki/Koue_Oorlog" title="Koue Oorlog">Koue Oorlog</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td width="50%" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top"><a href="/wiki/Hoofstad" title="Hoofstad">Hoofstad</a> </td> <td width="50%" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top"><a href="/wiki/Moskou" title="Moskou">Moskou</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;">Taal/Tale </td> <td style="border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top"><a href="/wiki/Russies" title="Russies">Russies</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Regering" title="Regering">Regering</a> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Republiek" title="Republiek">Republiek</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"><a href="/wiki/Staatshoof" title="Staatshoof">Staatshoof</a> </td> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"> - 1917–1924 </td> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"><a href="/wiki/Wladimir_Lenin" title="Wladimir Lenin">Wladimir Lenin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"> - 1924–1953 </td> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"><a href="/wiki/Josef_Stalin" title="Josef Stalin">Josef Stalin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"> - 1953 </td> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"><a href="/wiki/Georgi_Malenkof" title="Georgi Malenkof">Georgi Malenkof</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"> - 1953–1964 </td> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Chroesjtsjof" title="Nikita Chroesjtsjof">Nikita Chroesjtsjof</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"> - 1964–1982 </td> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezjnef" title="Leonid Brezjnef">Leonid Brezjnef</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"> - 1982–1984 </td> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"><a href="/wiki/Joeri_Andropof" title="Joeri Andropof">Joeri Andropof</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"> - 1984–1985 </td> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Tsjernenko" title="Konstantin Tsjernenko">Konstantin Tsjernenko</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"> - 1985–1991 </td> <td style="padding:0 1em 0.2em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top"><a href="/wiki/Michail_Gorbatsjof" title="Michail Gorbatsjof">Michail Gorbatsjof</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Wetgewer" title="Wetgewer">Wetgewer</a> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Opperste_Sowjet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Opperste Sowjet (bladsy bestaan nie)">Opperste Sowjet</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;">Historiese tydperk </td> <td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/20ste_eeu" title="20ste eeu">20ste eeu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top"> - Stigting</td> <td><a href="/wiki/30_Desember" title="30 Desember">30 Desember</a> <a href="/wiki/1922" title="1922">1922</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top"> - Ontbinding</td> <td><a href="/wiki/26_Desember" title="26 Desember">26 Desember</a> <a href="/wiki/1991" title="1991">1991</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;">Oppervlakte </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"> - 1991</td> <td>22 402 200 km2 8 649 538 sq mi </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;">Bevolking </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0em 1em 0.2em 0; vertical-align:top"> - 1991 skatting</td> <td>293 047 571  </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0em 1em 0.4em 0; text-align:left; vertical-align:top">     <a href="/wiki/Bevolkingsdigtheid" title="Bevolkingsdigtheid">Digtheid</a></td> <td>13,1 /km²  33,9 /sq mi </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Geldeenheid" title="Geldeenheid">Geldeenheid</a> </td> <td style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding:0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align:top;"><a href="/wiki/Russiese_roebel" title="Russiese roebel">Russiese roebel</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 1px #ccd2d9"> <table width="100%" style="text-align:center; margin:0 auto; background:var(--background-color-base); color:inherit;"> <tbody><tr> <td align="center"><div id="before-after"></div> Voorafgegaan deur</td> <td align="center">Opgevolg deur </td></tr> <tr> <td valign="top" align="center"> <table width="100%" style="text-align:center; margin:0 auto; background:var(--background-color-base); color:inherit;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_(1918%E2%80%931925).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281918%E2%80%931925%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="300" /></a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Russiese_Sosialistiese_Federale_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Russiese Sosialistiese Federale Sowjetrepubliek">Russiese Sosialistiese Federale Sowjetrepubliek</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Transcaucasian_SFSR.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_the_Transcaucasian_SFSR.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Transcaucasian_SFSR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_the_Transcaucasian_SFSR.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Transcaucasian_SFSR.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;">Transkaukasiese Sosialistiese Federale Sowjetrepubliek </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1929%E2%80%931937).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281929%E2%80%931937%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281929%E2%80%931937%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281929%E2%80%931937%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281929%E2%80%931937%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="300" /></a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Oekra%C3%AFense_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Oekraïense Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Oekraïense Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1919-1927).gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1927%29.gif/20px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1927%29.gif" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1927%29.gif/40px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281919-1927%29.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="960" /></a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Wit-Russiese_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Wit-Russiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Wit-Russiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td valign="top" align="center"> <table width="100%" style="text-align:center; margin:0 auto; background:var(--background-color-base); color:inherit;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Armeni%C3%AB" title="Armenië">Armenië</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_Armenia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/20px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Armenia.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Azerbeidjan" title="Azerbeidjan">Azerbeidjan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/20px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Azerbaijan.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Estland" title="Estland">Estland</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_Estonia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/20px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="630" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Georgi%C3%AB" title="Georgië">Georgië</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_Georgia_(1990%E2%80%932004).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_Georgia_%281990%E2%80%932004%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kasakstan" title="Kasakstan">Kasakstan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/20px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/40px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> </tbody></table></div> </div> Die Sowjetunie (Сове́тский Сою́з, Sowjetski Sojoez, <a href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Ru-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7.ogg" class="internal" title="Ru-Советский Союз.ogg">luister</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Mediahulp" title="Wikipedia:Mediahulp">hulp</a>·<a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Ru-%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7.ogg" title="Lêer:Ru-Советский Союз.ogg">inligting</a>)), amptelik die Unie van Sosialistiese Sowjetrepublieke (USSR) (Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик (СССР), Sojoez Sowjetskich Sotsialistitsjeskich Respoeblik (SSSR), <a href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Ru-CCCP.ogg" class="internal" title="Ru-CCCP.ogg">luister</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Mediahulp" title="Wikipedia:Mediahulp">hulp</a>·<a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Ru-CCCP.ogg" title="Lêer:Ru-CCCP.ogg">inligting</a>)), was 'n <a href="/wiki/Staat" title="Staat">staat</a> wat van 1922 tot 1991 bestaan en 'n groot deel van <a href="/wiki/Eurasi%C3%AB" title="Eurasië">Eurasië</a> beslaan het. Dit was 'n vlagskip- <a href="/wiki/Kommunisme" title="Kommunisme">kommunistiese land</a> en het teen die einde uit <a href="/wiki/Republieke_van_die_Sowjetunie" title="Republieke van die Sowjetunie">15 nasionale republieke</a> bestaan; in die praktyk was sy <a href="/wiki/Regering" title="Regering">regering</a> en <a href="/wiki/Ekonomie" title="Ekonomie">ekonomie</a> tot met sy laaste jare in 'n groot mate gesentraliseer. Dit was 'n eenpartystaat wat deur die <a href="/wiki/Kommunistiese_Party_van_die_Sowjetunie" title="Kommunistiese Party van die Sowjetunie">Kommunistiese Party van die Sowjetunie</a> regeer is, met <a href="/wiki/Moskou" title="Moskou">Moskou</a> as sy hoofstad en ook dié van die grootste republiek met die grootste bevolking: die <a href="/wiki/Russiese_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russiese SFSR">Russiese SFSR</a>. Ander groot stede het ingesluit <a href="/wiki/Leningrad" class="mw-redirect" title="Leningrad">Leningrad</a> (Russiese SFSR), <a href="/wiki/Ki%C3%ABf" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiëf">Kiëf</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oekra%C3%AFense_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Oekraïense SSR">Oekraïense SSR</a>), <a href="/wiki/Minsk" title="Minsk">Minsk</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wit-Russiese_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Wit-Russiese SSR">Wit-Russiese SSR</a>), <a href="/wiki/Tasjkent" title="Tasjkent">Tasjkent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oezbekistanse_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Oezbekistanse Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Oezbekistanse SSR</a>), <a href="/wiki/Almati" title="Almati">Alma-Ata</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kazachstanse_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Kazachstanse Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Kazachstanse SSR</a>) en <a href="/wiki/Nowosibirsk" title="Nowosibirsk">Nowosibirsk</a> (Russiese SFSR). Dit was die grootste land ter wêreld, met 'n oppervlakte van 22 402 200 km2 oor 11 <a href="/wiki/Tydsone" title="Tydsone">tydsones</a>. Die land se oorsprong lê in die <a href="/wiki/Oktober-rewolusie" class="mw-redirect" title="Oktober-rewolusie">Oktober-rewolusie</a> van 1917. Die <a href="/wiki/Bolsjewis" title="Bolsjewis">Bolsjewiste</a> het die tussentydse regering omvergewerp wat vroeër dié jaar gestig is ná die <a href="/wiki/Februarie-rewolusie" title="Februarie-rewolusie">Februarie-rewolusie</a> en die abdikasie van <a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_II_van_Rusland" title="Nikolaas II van Rusland">tsaar Nikolaas II</a>. Dit het die einde van die <a href="/wiki/Russiese_Ryk" title="Russiese Ryk">Russiese Ryk</a> ingelui. Die nuwe regering, onder <a href="/wiki/Wladimir_Lenin" title="Wladimir Lenin">Wladimir Lenin</a>, het die Russiese SFSR gestig, wat die wêreld se eerste <a href="/wiki/Sosialisme" title="Sosialisme">sosialistiese staat</a> was wat in die grondwet gewaarborg is. Volgehoue interne spanning het tot die wrede Russiese Burgeroorlog gelei. Namate die oorlog in die Bolsjewiste se guns beklink is, het die RSFSR begin om grond wat in die oorlog verower is in te sluit in nominaal onafhanklike state, wat in Desember 1922 in die Sowjetunie verenig is. <div class="thumb tleft" style="width: 192px;"> <div class="thumbinner"> <div style="margin: 1px; width: 182px"> <div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="'n Sowjetseël van 1957 wat Spoetnik 1 se wentelbaan toon."><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg/250px-Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg/330px-Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg/500px-Sputnik-stamp-ussr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1267" data-file-height="1836" /></a> </div> <div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">'n Sowjetseël van 1957 wat <a href="/wiki/Spoetnik_1" title="Spoetnik 1">Spoetnik 1</a> se wentelbaan toon. </div> </div><div style="margin: 1px; width: 182px"> <div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:1987_CPA_5896.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="'n Seël van 1987 ter viering van 'n kernverdrag tussen die USSR en VSA."><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/1987_CPA_5896.jpg/250px-1987_CPA_5896.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/1987_CPA_5896.jpg/330px-1987_CPA_5896.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/1987_CPA_5896.jpg/500px-1987_CPA_5896.jpg 2x" data-file-width="564" data-file-height="800" /></a> </div><div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">'n Seël van 1987 ter viering van 'n kernverdrag tussen die USSR en VSA. </div> </div> </div> </div> Ná Lenin se dood in 1924 het <a href="/wiki/Josef_Stalin" title="Josef Stalin">Josef Stalin</a> aan die mag gekom. Stalin het 'n tydperk van vinnige <a href="/wiki/Nywerheid" title="Nywerheid">industrialisasie</a> en gedwonge <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kollektivisme&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kollektivisme (bladsy bestaan nie)">kollektivisme</a> begin wat tot aansienlike ekonomiese groei gelei het, maar ook tot 'n <a href="/wiki/Hongersnood" title="Hongersnood">hongersnood</a> in 1930-1933 waarin miljoene dood is. Die strafkampstelsel <a href="/wiki/Goelag" title="Goelag">Goelag</a> is ook in dié tyd uitgebrei. Stalin het die <a href="/wiki/Groot_Suiwering" title="Groot Suiwering">Groot Suiwering</a> begin om sy werklike en denkbeeldige teenstanders uit die weg te ruim. Ná die uitbreek van die <a href="/wiki/Tweede_W%C3%AAreldoorlog" title="Tweede Wêreldoorlog">Tweede Wêreldoorlog</a> het <a href="/wiki/Duitsland" title="Duitsland">Duitsland</a> die Sowjetunie binnegeval. Die gesamentlike burgerlike en militêre sterftes van die Sowjetunie – wat op sowat 20 miljoen geraam is – was die grootste verlies van die <a href="/wiki/Geallieerdes_van_die_Tweede_W%C3%AAreldoorlog" title="Geallieerdes van die Tweede Wêreldoorlog">Geallieerde magte</a>. Ná die oorlog het die gebied wat deur die <a href="/wiki/Rooi_Le%C3%ABr" title="Rooi Leër">Rooi Leër</a> beset is, verskeie Sowjet-satellietstate gevorm. In die daaropvolgende <a href="/wiki/Koue_Oorlog" title="Koue Oorlog">Koue Oorlog</a> het die Oosblok van die Sowjetunie die Wesblok van die <a href="/wiki/Verenigde_State_van_Amerika" title="Verenigde State van Amerika">Verenigde State van Amerika</a> gekonfronteer, met laasgenoemde groepering wat in 1949 onder <a href="/wiki/Navo" class="mw-redirect" title="Navo">Navo</a> grootliks verenig is, en eersgenoemde in 1955 onder die <a href="/wiki/Warskouverdrag" title="Warskouverdrag">Warskouverdrag</a>. Daar was geen regstreekse militêre konfrontasie tussen die twee organisasies nie; die konflik het eerder op 'n <a href="/wiki/Ideologie" title="Ideologie">ideologiese</a> grondslag en deur oorlog by volmag plaasgevind. Beide Navo en die Warskouverdrag het gelei tot die uitbreiding van militêre magte en hulle integrasie by die respektiewelike blokke. Die Warskouverdrag se grootste militêre operasie was die inval in <a href="/wiki/Tsjeggo-Slowakye" title="Tsjeggo-Slowakye">Tsjeggo-Slowakye</a>, sy eie lidland, in Augustus 1968 (met die deelname van al die ander lidlande buiten <a href="/wiki/Albani%C3%AB" title="Albanië">Albanië</a> en <a href="/wiki/Roemeni%C3%AB" title="Roemenië">Roemenië</a>). Die gevolg was dat Albanië minder as 'n maand later aan die verdrag onttrek het. Ná Stalin se dood in 1953 het 'n tydperk van de-Stalinisasie plaasgevind onder die leierskap van <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Chroesjtsjof" title="Nikita Chroesjtsjof">Nikita Chroesjtsjof</a>. Die Sowjetunie het die voortou geneem in die vroeë <a href="/wiki/Ruimtewedloop" title="Ruimtewedloop">ruimtewedloop</a> met die lansering van die eerste kunsmatige satelliet, <a href="/wiki/Spoetnik_1" title="Spoetnik 1">Spoetnik 1</a>; die eerste bemande ruimtevlug, <a href="/wiki/Wostok-ruimteprogram" title="Wostok-ruimteprogram">Wostok 1</a>; en die eerste tuig wat op 'n ander planeet (<a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>) geland het, <a href="/wiki/Wenera_7" title="Wenera 7">Wenera 7</a>. In die 1970's was daar 'n kort <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">détente</a> in die verhouding tussen die Sowjetunie en die VSA, maar spanning het in 1979 weer toegeneem met die Sowjetinval in <a href="/wiki/Afganistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Afganistan">Afganistan</a>. In die middel 1980's het die Sowjetleier, <a href="/wiki/Michail_Gorbatsjof" title="Michail Gorbatsjof">Michail Gorbatsjof</a>, die land probeer hervorm deur sy beleide van <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a> en <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a>. In 1989, in die laaste fases van die Koue Oorlog, het verskeie lande van die Warskouverdrag hulle <a href="/wiki/Marxisme" title="Marxisme">Marxisties</a>-<a href="/wiki/Leninisme" title="Leninisme">Leninistiese</a> regerings omvergewerp, en dit het gepaard gegaan met die ontstaan van sterk <a href="/wiki/Nasionalisme" title="Nasionalisme">nasionalistiese</a> en <a href="/wiki/Separatisme" title="Separatisme">separatistiese</a> bewegings oor die hele Sowjetunie. In 1991 het Gorbatsjof 'n nasionale referendum uitgeroep, wat geboikot is deur die Sowjetrepublieke <a href="/wiki/Litause_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Litause Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Litaue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lettiese_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Lettiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Letland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estniese_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Estniese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Estland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armeense_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Armeense Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Armenië</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgiese_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Georgiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Georgië</a> en <a href="/wiki/Moldawiese_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Moldawiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Moldawië</a>. Dit het daartoe gelei dat die meeste deelnemende burgers gestem het vir die behoud van die land as 'n hernude federasie. In Augustus 1991 het onbuigsame lede van die Kommunistiese Party 'n staatsgreep teen Gorbatsjof gelei. Die poging het misluk, met <a href="/wiki/Boris_Jeltsin" title="Boris Jeltsin">Boris Jeltsin</a> wat 'n groot rol daarin gespeel het, en die Kommunistiese Party is daarna verbied. Die <a href="/wiki/Russiese_Federasie" class="mw-redirect" title="Russiese Federasie">Russiese Federasie</a> het die opvolgerstaat van die Sowjetunie geword, terwyl die ander republieke almal onafhanklik geword het. Die Sowjetunie het baie sosiale en tegnologiese prestasies behaal: Dit het die tweede grootste ekonomie in die wêreld gehad en sy weermag was die grootste op aarde. Dit het die grootste arsenaal <a href="/wiki/Kernwapen" title="Kernwapen">kernwapens</a> gehad. Dit was 'n stigterslid van die <a href="/wiki/Verenigde_Nasies" title="Verenigde Nasies">Verenigde Nasies</a> en een van die vyf permanente lede van die VN se <a href="/wiki/Veiligheidsraad" title="Veiligheidsraad">Veiligheidsraad</a>. Voor sy verbrokkeling het die land sy status as een van die wêreld se twee <a href="/wiki/Supermoondheid" title="Supermoondheid">supermoondhede</a> gehandhaaf met sy leierskap in <a href="/wiki/Oos-Europa" title="Oos-Europa">Oos-Europa</a>, sy militêre en ekonomiese krag en sy wetenskaplike navorsing. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etimologie">Etimologie</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=1" title="Wysig afdeling: Etimologie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Etimologie">wysig bron</a>]</div> Die woord "sowjet" is afgelei van die <a href="/wiki/Russies" title="Russies">Russiese</a> woord совет, sowjet; "raad", "vergadering", "advies"). Die woord sowjetnik beteken "raadgewer".<a href="#cite_note-americana-1">[1]</a> Die sowjets as werkersrade het die eerste keer tydens die <a href="/wiki/Russiese_Rewolusie_(1905)" title="Russiese Rewolusie (1905)">Russiese Rewolusie van 1905</a> ontstaan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPonsService2010763-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMccauley2014487-3">[3]</a> Hoewel hulle vinnig deur die keiserlike weermag onderdruk is, het werkers en soldate se sowjets ná die <a href="/wiki/Februarie-rewolusie" title="Februarie-rewolusie">Februarie-rewolusie</a> deur die hele land verskyn, en hulle het mag met die tussentydse regering gedeel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPonsService2010763-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-br1-4">[4]</a> Die Bolsjewiste, wat deur Lenin gelei is, het geëis dat alle mag na die sowjets oorgedra word en hulle het die steun van die werkers en soldate geniet.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Ná die Oktober-rewolusie, waarin die Bolsjewiste die mag van die oorgangsregering in die naam van die sowjets oorgeneem het,<a href="#cite_note-br1-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBC1-6">[6]</a> het Lenin die stigting van die RSFSR aangekondig.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200584-7">[7]</a> In 1922 het Lenin 'n beroep gedoen vir die stigting van ander nasionale sowjetrepublieke om 'n groter unie te stig wat hy aanvanklik die Unie van Sowjetrepublieke van Europa en Asië (Russies: Союз Советских Республик Европы и Азии, Sojoez Sowjetskich Respoeblik Ewropi i Aziji) genoem het. Stalin het aanvanklik Lenin se voorstel teengestaan, maar dit eindelik aanvaar. Met Lenin se toestemming het hy die naam verander na die Unie van Sosialistiese Sowjetrepublieke (USSR). СССР (in die <a href="/wiki/Latynse_alfabet" title="Latynse alfabet">Latynse alfabet</a> "SSSR") is die afkorting van die Russiese naam vir die Sowjetunie in die <a href="/wiki/Cyrilliese_skrif" title="Cyrilliese skrif">Cyrilliese skrif</a>. Die Sowjette het die afkorting so dikwels gebruik dat mense wêreldwyd met die betekenis vertroud was. Verder word die Russiese naam Советский Союз (Sowjetski Sojoez, letterlik "Sowjetunie") net so algemeen gebruik, maar net in 'n onafgekorte vorm. In <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> is die staat die Sowjetunie of die USSR genoem. Dit is in Engels Soviet Union (USSR) genoem, in <a href="/wiki/Frans" title="Frans">Frans</a> Union soviétique (URSS) en in <a href="/wiki/Duits" title="Duits">Duits</a> Union der Sozialistischen Sowjetrepubliken (UdSSR). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geskiedenis">Geskiedenis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=2" title="Wysig afdeling: Geskiedenis" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Geskiedenis">wysig bron</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rewolusie_en_stigting">Rewolusie en stigting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=3" title="Wysig afdeling: Rewolusie en stigting" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Rewolusie en stigting">wysig bron</a>]</div> Moderne rewolusionêre bydrywighede in die <a href="/wiki/Russiese_Ryk" title="Russiese Ryk">Russiese Ryk</a> het begin met die <a href="/wiki/Desembriste" class="mw-redirect" title="Desembriste">Desembriste</a>-opstand van 1825. Hoewel <a href="/wiki/Lyfeienskap" title="Lyfeienskap">lyfeienskap</a> in Rusland in 1861 afgeskaf is, was die terme daarvan ongunstig vir die kleinboere en het dit rewolusionêre aangemoedig. ’n Parlement, die <a href="/wiki/Staatsdoema" title="Staatsdoema">Staatsdoema</a>, is in 1906 gestig ná die <a href="/wiki/Russiese_Rewolusie_(1905)" title="Russiese Rewolusie (1905)">Russiese Rewolusie van 1905</a>, maar <a href="/wiki/Tsaar" title="Tsaar">tsaar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_II_van_Rusland" title="Nikolaas II van Rusland">Nikolaas II</a> het pogings teengestaan om van ’n <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monargie" title="Absolute monargie">absolute monargie</a> na ’n konstitusionele monargie oor te slaan. Maatskaplike onrus is in die <a href="/wiki/Eerste_W%C3%AAreldoorlog" title="Eerste Wêreldoorlog">Eerste Wêreldoorlog</a> vererger deur militêre terugslae en voedseltekorte in groot stede. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg/250px-19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg/500px-19191107-lenin_second_anniversary_october_revolution_moscow.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2528" data-file-height="1820" /></a><figcaption>Lenin, Trotsky en Kamenef vier die tweede herdenking van die Oktoberrewolusie.</figcaption></figure> ’n Spontane opstand in <a href="/wiki/Petrograd" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrograd">Petrograd</a> weens Rusland se ekonomiese en morele agteruitgang tydens die oorlog het gelei tot die <a href="/wiki/Februarie-rewolusie" title="Februarie-rewolusie">Februarie-rewolusie</a> en die omverwerping van die keiserlike regering in Maart 1917. Die tsaristiese <a href="/wiki/Outokrasie" title="Outokrasie">outokrasie</a> is vervang met die Russiese Voorlopige Regering, wat <a href="/wiki/Verkiesing" title="Verkiesing">verkiesings</a> sou hou vir die Russiese Grondwetgewende Vergadering en sou aanhou veg in die oorlog aan die kant van die <a href="/wiki/Drievoudige_Entente" title="Drievoudige Entente">Drievoudige Entente</a>. Terselfdertyd het werkersrade, in <a href="/wiki/Russies" title="Russies">Russies</a> bekend as "sowjets" (советы, sowjeti), dwarsoor die land ontstaan. Die <a href="/wiki/Bolsjewis" title="Bolsjewis">Bolsjewiste</a>, onder leiding van <a href="/wiki/Wladimir_Lenin" title="Wladimir Lenin">Wladimir Lenin</a>, het in die sowjets en op straat voorspraak gemaak vir ’n sosialistiese rewolusie. Op <a href="/wiki/25_Oktober" title="25 Oktober">25 Oktober</a> (7 November volgens die <a href="/wiki/Gregoriaanse_kalender" title="Gregoriaanse kalender">Gregoriaanse kalender</a>) 1917 het die Bolsjewiste die belangrikste regeringsgeboue in Petrograd sonder veel teenstand beset. Ook die <a href="/wiki/Winterpaleis" title="Winterpaleis">Winterpaleis</a> in Petrograd is oorgeneem en die bewind van die Voorlopige Regering is so beëindig. Alle mag was nou in die hande van die sowjets. Hierdie gebeure sou later amptelik in die Sowjetunie bekend word as die <a href="/wiki/Oktober-rewolusie" class="mw-redirect" title="Oktober-rewolusie">Groot Sosialistiese Oktober-rewolusie</a>. In Desember het die Bolsjewiste ’n wapenstilstandsooreenkoms met die <a href="/wiki/Sentrale_Moondhede" title="Sentrale Moondhede">Sentrale Moondhede</a> onderteken, hoewel gevegte teen Februarie 1918 hervat is. In Maart het Sowjet-Rusland sy betrokkenheid in die oorlog finaal beëindig en die <a href="/w/index.php?title=Verdrag_van_Brest-Litofsk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Verdrag van Brest-Litofsk (bladsy bestaan nie)">Verdrag van Brest-Litofsk</a> onderteken. ’n Lang en bloedige <a href="/wiki/Burgeroorlog" title="Burgeroorlog">burgeroorlog</a> het hierop gevolg tussen die <a href="/wiki/Rooi_Le%C3%ABr" title="Rooi Leër">Rooi Leër</a> en die <a href="/wiki/Wit_Le%C3%ABr" class="mw-redirect" title="Wit Leër">Wit Leër</a>. Dit het in 1917 begin en in 1923 geëindig met die Rooi Leër se oorwinning. Die oorlog het ingesluit buitelandse inmenging, die moord op die tsaar en sy gesin en die <a href="/wiki/Hongersnood" title="Hongersnood">hongersnood</a> van 1921, waarin sowat vyf miljoen mense dood is.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> In Maart 1921, ná ’n verwante konflik met <a href="/wiki/Pole" title="Pole">Pole</a>, is die <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vrede_van_Riga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vrede van Riga (bladsy bestaan nie)">Vrede van Riga</a> onderteken, waarvolgens betwiste gebiede in die huidige <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> en <a href="/wiki/Oekra%C3%AFne" title="Oekraïne">Oekraïne</a> tussen Pole en Sowjet-Rusland verdeel is. Laasgenoemde moes ook soortgelyke konflikte in die nuwe republieke <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estland" title="Estland">Estland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Letland" title="Letland">Letland</a> en <a href="/wiki/Litaue" title="Litaue">Litaue</a> oplos. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vereniging_van_republieke">Vereniging van republieke</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=4" title="Wysig afdeling: Vereniging van republieke" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Vereniging van republieke">wysig bron</a>]</div> Op 28 Desember 1922 is ’n konferensie van gevolmagtigde afgevaardigdes van die <a href="/wiki/Russiese_Sosialistiese_Federale_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Russiese Sosialistiese Federale Sowjetrepubliek">Russiese SFSR</a>, die Transkaukasiese SFSR, die <a href="/wiki/Oekra%C3%AFense_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Oekraïense Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Oekraïense SSR</a> en die <a href="/wiki/Wit-Russiese_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Wit-Russiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Wit-Russiese SSR</a> gehou waar die verdrag vir die stigting van die Sowjetunie<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> en die verklaring van die stigting van die USSR onderteken is, en daarmee is die Unie van Sosialistiese Sowjetrepublieke gestig.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Op 1 Februarie 1924 het die <a href="/wiki/Verenigde_Koninkryk" title="Verenigde Koninkryk">Verenigde Koninkryk</a> die USSR erken. In dieselfde jaar is die Sowjetgrondwet aanvaar, wat die Desember 1922-vereniging gewettig het. ’n Intensiewe restrukturering van die land se <a href="/wiki/Ekonomie" title="Ekonomie">ekonomie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nywerheid" title="Nywerheid">nywerheid</a> en <a href="/wiki/Politiek" title="Politiek">politiek</a> het in die vroeë dae van Sowjetmag in 1917 begin. ’n Groot deel daarvan is gedoen volgens die Bolsjewistiese Aanvanklike Verordenings, regeringsdokumente wat deur Lenin onderteken is. Een van die prominentste deurbrake was die groot restrukturering van die Sowjetekonomie gebaseer op die totale elektrifisering van die land. Die plan is in 1920 ontwikkel en het ’n tydperk van 10 tot 15 jaar behels. ’n Netwerk van 30 kragstasies, insluitende 10 groot hidroëlektriese kragaanlegte, en verskeie nywerheidsprojekte is aangepak.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Dit het die prototipe geword van daaropvolgende vyfjaarplanne en is teen 1931 voltooi.<a href="#cite_note-Kuzbassenergo-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stalin-era">Stalin-era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=5" title="Wysig afdeling: Stalin-era" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Stalin-era">wysig bron</a>]</div> Van sy stigting af was die regering van die Sowjetunie geskoei op die eenpartyregering van die <a href="/wiki/Kommunistiese_Party_van_die_Sowjetunie" title="Kommunistiese Party van die Sowjetunie">Kommunistiese Party (Bolsjewiste)</a>. Ná die ekonomiese beleid van "oorlogskommunisme" tydens die burgeroorlog, as ’n voorspel tot die volle ontwikkeling van <a href="/wiki/Sosialisme" title="Sosialisme">sosialisme</a> in die land, het die Sowjetregering in die 1920's sommige privaat ondernemings toegelaat om saam met die genasionaliseerde nywerheid te bestaan volgens die <a href="/wiki/Nuwe_Ekonomiese_Beleid" title="Nuwe Ekonomiese Beleid">Nuwe Ekonomiese Beleid</a>. Die verklaarde doel van die eenpartystaat was om te verseker <a href="/wiki/Kapitalisme" title="Kapitalisme">kapitalistiese</a> uitbuiting vind nooit weer in die land plaas nie en dat die beginsels van demokratiese sentralisme die doeltreffendste manier sou wees om die wense van die volk op ’n praktiese manier te verteenwoordig. Debatte oor die toekoms van die ekonomie het die agtergrond verskaf vir ’n magstryd in die jare ná Lenin se dood in 1924. Aanvanklik sou Lenin vervang word deur ’n driemanskap bestaande uit <a href="/wiki/Grigori_Zinowijef" title="Grigori Zinowijef">Grigori Zinowijef</a> van die Oekraïense SSR, <a href="/wiki/Lef_Kamenef" title="Lef Kamenef">Lef Kamenef</a> van die Russiese SFSR en <a href="/wiki/Josef_Stalin" title="Josef Stalin">Josef Stalin</a> van die Transkaukasiese SFSR. Op 3 April 1922 is Stalin aangewys as hoofsekretaris van die Kommunistiese Party. Lenin het Stalin aangestel as hoof van die Werkers- en Boere-inspektoraat en dit het Stalin aansienlike mag gegee. Deur sy invloed stelselmatig te konsolideer en sy mededingers in die party te uitoorlê het Stalin die onbetwiste leier van die Sowjetunie geword en, teen die einde van die 1920's, ’n <a href="/wiki/Totalitarisme" title="Totalitarisme">totalitaristiese bewind</a> gevestig. In Oktober 1927 is Zinowijef en Trotsky uit die Sentrale Komitee geskop en verban. <div class="thumbinner" style="width:200px; float:right; clear:right; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:1em;"> <div><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Soviet_Union_-_Russian_SFSR_(1922).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Soviet_Union_-_Russian_SFSR_%281922%29.svg/200px-Soviet_Union_-_Russian_SFSR_%281922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Soviet_Union_-_Russian_SFSR_%281922%29.svg/300px-Soviet_Union_-_Russian_SFSR_%281922%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Soviet_Union_-_Russian_SFSR_%281922%29.svg/400px-Soviet_Union_-_Russian_SFSR_%281922%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="592" data-file-height="376" /></a></div> <div class="thumbcaption"></div> <div><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Soviet_Union_-_Russian_SFSR_(1936).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Soviet_Union_-_Russian_SFSR_%281936%29.svg/250px-Soviet_Union_-_Russian_SFSR_%281936%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Soviet_Union_-_Russian_SFSR_%281936%29.svg/330px-Soviet_Union_-_Russian_SFSR_%281936%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Soviet_Union_-_Russian_SFSR_%281936%29.svg/500px-Soviet_Union_-_Russian_SFSR_%281936%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="592" data-file-height="376" /></a></div> <div class="thumbcaption">Die USSR in 1922 en 1936 (in rooi - <a href="/wiki/Russiese_Sosialistiese_Federale_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Russiese Sosialistiese Federale Sowjetrepubliek">Russiese SFSR</a>).</div></div> In 1928 het Stalin die eerste vyfjaarplan in werking gestel om die sosialistiese ekonomie op te bou. In die nywerheid het die staat beheer oor alle bestaande ondernemings oorgeneem en ’n intensiewe industrialiseringsprogram onderneem. In die <a href="/wiki/Landbou" title="Landbou">landbou</a> is die gedwonge kollektivisering van plase oor die hele land ingestel. Droogtes en hongersnood het ontstaan en die dood van miljoene mense veroorsaak; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Koelak&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Koelak (bladsy bestaan nie)">koelakke</a> (groot grondbesitters) wat oorleef het, is vervolg en baie is na die <a href="/wiki/Goelag" title="Goelag">Goelag</a> gestuur vir gedwonge arbeid.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Gemeenskaplike opstuwing het in die middel 1930's voortgeduur. Stalin se <a href="/wiki/Groot_Suiwering" title="Groot Suiwering">Groot Suiwering</a> het gelei tot die teregstelling of aanhouding van baie "ou Bolsjewiste" wat saam met Lenin aan die Oktober-rewolusie deelgeneem het. Volgens gedeklassifiseerde dokumente het die <a href="/wiki/FSB" title="FSB">NKGB</a> in 1937 en 1938 meer as een en ’n half miljoen mense in hegtenis geneem, van wie 681 692 geskiet is.<a href="#cite_note-Thurston-14">[14]</a> Oor dié twee jaar was daar gemiddeld meer as duisend teregstellings per dag.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Volgens die historikus Geoffrey Hosking is sowat 10 miljoen tot 11 miljoen mense in die 1930's vermoor,<a href="#cite_note-1930s-16">[16]</a> hoewel die historikus Timothy D. Snyder beweer volgens argiefbewyse is hoogstens 9 miljoen mense gedurende die hele Stalin-era dood.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Volgens die leerstelling van staatsateïsme was daar ’n regeringsgesteunde program om almal tot <a href="/wiki/Ate%C3%AFsme" title="Ateïsme">ateïsme</a> te dwing.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adappur2000-20">[20]</a> Die regering het <a href="/wiki/Godsdiens" title="Godsdiens">godsdienste</a> geteiken op grond van staatsbelang, en hoewel die meeste georganiseerde godsdienste nooit verbied is nie, is beslag op kerkeiendomme gelê, gelowiges lastig geval en godsdiens bespot terwyl ateïsme in skole verkondig is.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Die regering het die <a href="/wiki/Russies-Ortodokse_Kerk" title="Russies-Ortodokse Kerk">Russies-Ortodokse Kerk</a> probeer beheer en, in tye van nasionale krisis, uitgebuit vir die staat se eie doeleindes. Hulle eindelike doel was egter om dit uit die weg te ruim. In die eerste vyf jaar van die Sowjetbewind het die Bolsjewiste duisende biskoppe en priesters tereggestel. Baie ander is gevange geneem en verban. Die meeste kweekskole is gesluit en die publikasie van die meeste godsdiensmateriaal is verbied. Teen 1941 was nog net 500 van die duisende kerke oop. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1930's">1930's</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=6" title="Wysig afdeling: 1930's" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: 1930's">wysig bron</a>]</div> Nouer samewerking tussen die Sowjetunie en die <a href="/wiki/Weste" title="Weste">Weste</a> het in die vroeë 1930's ontwikkel. Van 1932 tot 1934 het die Sowjetunie aan die Wêreldontwapeningskonferensie deelgeneem. In 1933 is diplomatieke betrekkinge tussen die land en die <a href="/wiki/Verenigde_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Verenigde State">Verenigde State</a> aangeknoop nadat die nuutverkose Amerikaanse president <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> in November Stalin se Kommunistiese regering amptelik erken en ’n nuwe handelsooreenkoms tussen die twee lande aangegaan het.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> In September 1934 het die Sowjet by die <a href="/wiki/Volkebond" title="Volkebond">Volkebond</a> aangesluit. Nadat die <a href="/wiki/Spanje" title="Spanje">Spaanse</a> Burgeroorlog in 1936 uitgebreek het, het die USSR die republikeinse magte teen die nasionaliste gesteun, terwyl laasgenoemde deur <a href="/wiki/Koninkryk_van_Itali%C3%AB" title="Koninkryk van Italië">Fascistiese Italië</a> en <a href="/wiki/Nazi-Duitsland" title="Nazi-Duitsland">Nazi-Duitsland</a> gesteun is. In Desember 1936 het Stalin ’n nuwe grondwet afgekondig wat wêreldwyd as die mees demokratiese grondwet denkbaar geprys is. Volgens die historikus J. Arch Getty was baie mense later spyt oor hulle ondersteuning daarvan. "Die burgerregte, persoonlike vryhede en demokratiese vorme wat in Stalin se grondwet verkondig is, is feitlik onmiddellik vertrap en het lank ná Stalin se dood steeds leë beloftes gebly."<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> In 1939 het die Sowjetunie voelers na Nazi-Duitsland uitgesteek. Byna ’n jaar nadat Brittanje en <a href="/wiki/Frankryk" title="Frankryk">Frankryk</a> die <a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnchen-ooreenkoms" title="München-ooreenkoms">München-ooreenkoms</a> met Duitsland aangegaan het, het die Sowjetunie ook ooreenkomste met dié land aangegaan. In Augustus 1939 het die twee lande die <a href="/wiki/Molotof-Ribbentrop-verdrag" title="Molotof-Ribbentrop-verdrag">Molotof-Ribbentrop-verdrag</a> onderteken. Die nieaanvalsverdrag het die Sowjetunie in staat gestel om die <a href="/wiki/Baltiese_lande" title="Baltiese lande">Baltiese lande</a> (<a href="/wiki/Litaue" title="Litaue">Litaue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Letland" title="Letland">Letland</a> en <a href="/wiki/Estland" title="Estland">Estland</a>), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bessarabi%C3%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bessarabië (bladsy bestaan nie)">Bessarabië</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boekowina" title="Boekowina">Noord-Boekowina</a> en <a href="/wiki/Pole" title="Pole">Oos-Pole</a> te beset. Laat in November, toe die Sowjetunie nie <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> langs diplomatieke weë kon oorreed om sy grens 25 km weg van Leningrad te skuif nie, het Stalin opdrag gegee vir die inval van Finland. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tweede_Wêreldoorlog">Tweede Wêreldoorlog</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=7" title="Wysig afdeling: Tweede Wêreldoorlog" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Tweede Wêreldoorlog">wysig bron</a>]</div> <dl><dd><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Die hoofartikel vir hierdie afdeling is: <a href="/wiki/Tweede_W%C3%AAreldoorlog" title="Tweede Wêreldoorlog">Tweede Wêreldoorlog</a>.</div></dd></dl> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg/300px-RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg/450px-RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg/600px-RIAN_archive_44732_Soviet_soldiers_attack_house.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2163" data-file-height="776" /></a><figcaption>Baie historici beskou die <a href="/wiki/Slag_van_Stalingrad" title="Slag van Stalingrad">Slag van Stalingrad</a> as ’n keerpunt in die Tweede Wêreldoorlog.</figcaption></figure> Duitsland het die Molotof-Ribbentrop-verdrag verbreek en die Sowjetunie op 22 Junie 1941 binnegeval. Dit was die begin van die stryd aan die oostelike front, wat in die USSR bekend was as die Groot Patriotiese Oorlog. Die Rooi Leër het die skynbaar onoorwinlike Duitse weermag in die <a href="/w/index.php?title=Slag_van_Moskou&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Slag van Moskou (bladsy bestaan nie)">Slag van Moskou</a> gestuit, deels danksy ’n besonder strawwe winter. In die <a href="/wiki/Slag_van_Stalingrad" title="Slag van Stalingrad">Slag van Stalingrad</a>, wat van laat in 1942 tot vroeg in 1943 geduur het, is die Duitsers ’n terugslag toegedien waarvan hulle nooit heeltemal herstel het nie en dit het ’n keerpunt in die oorlog geword. Ná Stalingrad het die Sowjetmagte deur <a href="/wiki/Oos-Europa" title="Oos-Europa">Oos-Europa</a> na <a href="/wiki/Berlyn" title="Berlyn">Berlyn</a> beweeg voordat Duitsland in 1945 oorgegee het. Die Duitse weermag het 80% van sy militêre lewensverliese aan die oostelike front gely.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Teheran_conference-1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Teheran_conference-1943.jpg/250px-Teheran_conference-1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Teheran_conference-1943.jpg/330px-Teheran_conference-1943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Teheran_conference-1943.jpg/500px-Teheran_conference-1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5680" data-file-height="4544" /></a><figcaption>Van links Stalin, Roosevelt en die Britse premier, <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, in 1943 by die Teheran-konferensie.</figcaption></figure> Die Sowjetunie het ook groot verliese in die Tweede Wêreldoorlog gely – sowat 27 miljoen van die land se mense het gesterf.<a href="#cite_note-Geoffrey_A._Hosking_2006_242-25">[25]</a> Sowat 2,8 miljoen Sowjetse oorlogsgevangenes is in net agt maande van 1941 tot 1942 weens Nazi-mishandeling dood as gevolg van verhongering en teregstellings.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Tydens die oorlog was die Sowjetunie, Amerika, Brittanje en <a href="/wiki/China" class="mw-disambig" title="China">China</a> bekend as die Groot Vier Geallieerde moondhede,<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> en hulle het later die "Vier Polisiemanne" geword wat die grondslag van die <a href="/wiki/Verenigde_Nasies" title="Verenigde Nasies">Verenigde Nasies</a> se Veiligheidsraad gevorm het.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Die Sowjetunie het as ’n supermoondheid uit die oorlog getree. Nadat die Westerse wêreld eers geweier het om dit te erken, het die land teen die laat 1940's amptelike betrekkinge met feitlik elke land gehad. Dit was ’n stigterslid van die Verenigde Nasies in 1945 en het een van die vyf permanente lede van die Veiligheidsraad geword; dit het die land die reg gegee om enige van die raad se besluite te veto. Die Sowjetunie het sy status as een van die wêreld se twee supermoondhede behou vanweë sy oorheersing in Oos-Europa, militêre krag, ekonomiese krag, hulp aan <a href="/wiki/Ontwikkelende_land" title="Ontwikkelende land">ontwikkelende lande</a> en wetenskaplike navorsing, veral in ruimtetegnologie en wapens.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Koue_Oorlog">Koue Oorlog</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=8" title="Wysig afdeling: Koue Oorlog" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Koue Oorlog">wysig bron</a>]</div> <dl><dd><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Die hoofartikel vir hierdie afdeling is: <a href="/wiki/Koue_Oorlog" title="Koue Oorlog">Koue Oorlog</a>.</div></dd></dl> Die <a href="/wiki/Koue_Oorlog" title="Koue Oorlog">Koue Oorlog</a> was ’n langdurige toestand van politieke konflik, militêre spanning en ekonomiese mededinging wat ná die Tweede Wêreldoorlog ontstaan het, hoofsaaklik tussen die Sowjetunie en sy satellietstate aan die een kant en die Westerse wêreld, veral die Verenigde State, aan die ander kant. Hoewel die twee belangrikste magte amptelik nooit regstreeks gebots het nie, het die konflik gelei tot militêre bondgenootskappe, die strategiese ontplooiing van wapens, uitgebreide hulp aan swakker lande, spioenasie, propaganda, ’n <a href="/wiki/Wapenwedloop" title="Wapenwedloop">wapenwedloop</a>, mededinging op internasionale <a href="/wiki/Sport" title="Sport">sportgeleenthede</a> en <a href="/wiki/Tegnologie" title="Tegnologie">tegnologiese</a> mededinging soos die <a href="/wiki/Ruimtewedloop" title="Ruimtewedloop">ruimtewedloop</a>. Net ná die oorlog het die Sowjetunie sy ekonomie uitgebrei, terwyl dit steeds streng sentrale beheer gehandhaaf het. Dit het beheer oor die meeste lande in Oos-Europa geneem en hulle in satellietstate omskep. Die land het dié state in 1955 in ’n militêre bondgenootskap, die <a href="/wiki/Warskouverdrag" title="Warskouverdrag">Warskouverdrag</a>, verenig en van 1949 tot 1991 in ’n ekonomiese organisasie, die Raad vir Wedersydse Ekonomiese Bystand.<a href="#cite_note-fas.org-31">[31]</a> Die Sowjetunie het op sy eie herstel gekonsentreer en beslag op die meeste van Duitsland se nywerheidsfabrieke gelê. Dit het oorlogsvergoeding van <a href="/wiki/Oos-Duitsland" class="mw-redirect" title="Oos-Duitsland">Oos-Duitsland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hongarye" title="Hongarye">Hongarye</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roemeni%C3%AB" title="Roemenië">Roemenië</a> en <a href="/wiki/Bulgarye" title="Bulgarye">Bulgarye</a> gevorder met Sowjetoorheersde gesamentlike ondernemings. Dit het ook handelsooreenkomste aangegaan wat ontwerp was om die Sowjetunie te bevoordeel. Moskou het die Kommunistiese Partye van sy satellietstate beheer en hulle het opdragte van die <a href="/wiki/Moskouse_Kremlin" title="Moskouse Kremlin">Kremlin</a> uitgevoer. Sy bondgenote van die Tweede Wêreldoorlog, Amerika en Brittanje, het sy vyande geword uit vrees vir sy ambisies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chroesjtsjof-era">Chroesjtsjof-era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=9" title="Wysig afdeling: Chroesjtsjof-era" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Chroesjtsjof-era">wysig bron</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:John_Kennedy,_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg/250px-John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg/330px-John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg/500px-John_Kennedy%2C_Nikita_Khrushchev_1961.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2894" data-file-height="2315" /></a><figcaption>Die Sowjetleier <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Chroesjtsjof" title="Nikita Chroesjtsjof">Nikita Chroesjtsjof</a> (links) by die Amerikaanse president <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> op 3 Junie 1961 in <a href="/wiki/Wene" title="Wene">Wene</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Yuri_Gagarin_(1961)_-_Restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Yuri_Gagarin_%281961%29_-_Restoration.jpg/180px-Yuri_Gagarin_%281961%29_-_Restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Yuri_Gagarin_%281961%29_-_Restoration.jpg/270px-Yuri_Gagarin_%281961%29_-_Restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Yuri_Gagarin_%281961%29_-_Restoration.jpg/360px-Yuri_Gagarin_%281961%29_-_Restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2213" data-file-height="2767" /></a><figcaption>Die Sowjetse ruimtevaarder Joeri Gagarin, die eerste mens in die ruimte.</figcaption></figure> Stalin is op 5 Maart 1953 dood. Omdat geen opvolger aangewys is nie, wou die hoogste amptenare van die Kommunistiese Party aanvanklik die Sowjetunie met ’n driemanskap regeer onder leiding van <a href="/wiki/Georgi_Malenkof" title="Georgi Malenkof">Georgi Malenkof</a>. Dit het nie lank geduur nie en <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Chroesjtsjof" title="Nikita Chroesjtsjof">Nikita Chroesjtsjof</a> het eindelik die daaropvolgende magstryd teen die middel 1950's gewen. In 1956 het hy Stalin se wandade ontbloot en beheer oor die party en die volk afgeskaal. Dis was bekend as de-Stalinisasie. <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Soviet_empire_1960.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Soviet_empire_1960.png/220px-Soviet_empire_1960.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Soviet_empire_1960.png/330px-Soviet_empire_1960.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Soviet_empire_1960.png/440px-Soviet_empire_1960.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Die grootste omvang van die Sowjetse invloedsfeer, ná die Kubaanse Rewolusie van 1959 en voor die Sowjet-Chinese konflik van 1961.</figcaption></figure> Moskou het Oos-Europa as ’n kritieke buffersone in die weste beskou in die moontlike geval van nog ’n inval soos die een deur die Duitsers in 1941. Daarom wou die USSR sy beheer oor die streek verstewig deur die Oos-Europese lande in satellietstate te omskep wat van hom afhanklik en aan sy leierskap onderdanig is. Militêre mag is in 1956 gebruik om opstande in Hongarye en Pole te onderdruk. Laat in die 1950's het ’n konfrontasie met <a href="/wiki/China" class="mw-disambig" title="China">China</a> oor die USSR se soeke na toenadering tot die Weste, wat <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> beskou het as Chroesjtsjof se <a href="/w/index.php?title=Revisionisme&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Revisionisme (bladsy bestaan nie)">revisionisme</a>, gelei tot ’n skeuring in die wêreldwye Marxisties-Leninistiese beweging. Die regerings van <a href="/wiki/Albani%C3%AB" title="Albanië">Albanië</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kambodja" title="Kambodja">Kambodja</a> en <a href="/wiki/Somali%C3%AB" title="Somalië">Somalië</a> het hulle aan die kant van China geskaar in plaas van die USSR. In dié tydperk van die laat 1950's en vroeë 1960's het die Sowjetunie groot wetenskaplike en tegnologiese suksesse in die <a href="/wiki/Ruimtewedloop" title="Ruimtewedloop">ruimtewedloop</a> behaal: Hulle het die eerste kunsmatige satelliet, <a href="/wiki/Spoetnik_1" title="Spoetnik 1">Spoetnik 1</a>, in 1957 gelanseer; ’n lewende hond met die naam <a href="/wiki/Laika" title="Laika">Laika</a> ook in 1957 en die eerste <a href="/wiki/Mens" title="Mens">mens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joeri_Gagarin" title="Joeri Gagarin">Joeri Gagarin</a>, in 1961 die ruimte ingestuur. Die eerste vrou in die ruimte was <a href="/wiki/Walentina_Teresjkowa" title="Walentina Teresjkowa">Walentina Teresjkowa</a> (1963), die eerste mens wat in die ruimte geloop het was <a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Leonof" title="Aleksei Leonof">Aleksei Leonof</a> (1965), die eerste sagte landing op die <a href="/wiki/Maan" title="Maan">maan</a> was deur <a href="/wiki/Loena-ruimteprogram" title="Loena-ruimteprogram">Loena 9</a> (1966) en die eerste maanverkenningstuie was <a href="/wiki/Loenochod-ruimteprogram" title="Loenochod-ruimteprogram">Loenochod 1 en 2</a> (1970 en 1973).<a href="#cite_note-lunokhod-32">[32]</a> Chroesjtsjof het in die middel 1950's die <a href="/wiki/Chroesjtsjof-ontdooiing" title="Chroesjtsjof-ontdooiing">Ontdooiing</a> begin – ’n komplekse verskuiwing in die politieke, kulturele en ekonomiese lewe in die Sowjetunie. Dié tydperk sluit in ’n mate van openlikheid en kontak met ander nasies, asook nuwe sosiale en ekonomiese beleide met groter klem op verbruikersgoedere. Dit het ’n verhoging van die lewenstandaard tot gevolg gehad, terwyl hoë vlakke van ekonomiese groei gehandhaaf is. Sensuur is ook verslap. Chroesjtsjof se hervormings in landbou en administrasie was egter oor die algemeen onproduktief. In 1962 het hy ’n <a href="/wiki/Kubaanse_missielkrisis" title="Kubaanse missielkrisis">krisis met die VSA</a> ontketen oor die Sowjetunie se ontplooiing van <a href="/wiki/Kernkrag" title="Kernkrag">kernmissiele</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kuba" title="Kuba">Kuba</a>. ’n Ooreenkoms is tussen die USSR en VSA aangegaan om vyandelike kernmissiele uit beide Kuba en <a href="/wiki/Turkye" title="Turkye">Turkye</a> te verwyder en die krisis is so afgeweer. Dit het Chroesjtsjof baie verleentheid veroorsaak en sy prestige het afgeneem. Eindelik het dit gelei tot sy verwydering uit sy amp in 1964. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tydperk_van_stagnasie">Tydperk van stagnasie</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=10" title="Wysig afdeling: Tydperk van stagnasie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Tydperk van stagnasie">wysig bron</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg/300px-Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg/450px-Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg/600px-Carter_Brezhnev_sign_SALT_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>Leonid Brezjnef en die Amerikaanse president <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> onderteken die SALT II-wapenbeperkingsooreenkoms op 18 Junie 1979 in Wene.</figcaption></figure> Die tydperk van stagnasie was ’n tyd met negatiewe ekonomiese, politieke en sosiale resultate in die Sowjetunie. Dit het tydens die bewind van <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezjnef" title="Leonid Brezjnef">Leonid Brezjnef</a> begin en voortgeduur onder <a href="/wiki/Joeri_Andropof" title="Joeri Andropof">Joeri Andropof</a> en <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Tsjernenko" title="Konstantin Tsjernenko">Konstantin Tsjernenko</a>. Nadat nog ’n tydperk van gesamentlike leierskap op Chroestsjof se verwydering gevolg het, het Brezjnef hom vroeg in die 1970's as leier gevestig. In 1968 het die Sowjetunie en Warskouverdragsbondgenote <a href="/wiki/Tsjeggo-Slowakye" title="Tsjeggo-Slowakye">Tsjeggo-Slowakye</a> binnegeval om die <a href="/wiki/Praagse_Lente" title="Praagse Lente">Praagse Lente</a>-hervormings te beëindig. Brezjnef het die inval en vorige invalle in Oos-Europese state geregverdig met die instelling van die <a href="/wiki/Brezjnef-doktrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Brezjnef-doktrine">Brezjnef-doktrine</a>, waarvolgens die Sowjetunie hom die reg toeëien om die soewereiniteit te skend van enige land wat probeer om Marxisme-Leninisme met kapitalisme te vervang. Onder Brezjnef was daar ’n tydperk van <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">détente</a> met die Weste, wat gelei het tot verdrae oor wapenbeheer (soos SALT I en SALT II) terwyl die Sowjetunie steeds sy militêre krag vergroot het. In Oktober 1977 is die Sowjetunie se derde grondwet eenparig goedgekeur. Die heersende gevoel van die Sowjetleiers met Bresjnef se dood in 1982 was ’n teenstand teen verandering. Bresjnef se lang bewind is later ’n tydperk van stagnasie (период застоя, period zastoja) gedoop. Die topleierskap was teen dié tyd oud en verstok. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gorbatsjof-era">Gorbatsjof-era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=11" title="Wysig afdeling: Gorbatsjof-era" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Gorbatsjof-era">wysig bron</a>]</div> Twee ontwikkelings het die daaropvolgende dekade oorheers: die toenemende oënskynlike verbrokkeling van die Sowjetunie se ekonomiese en politieke strukture, en die laslappiepogings van hervorming om dié proses om te keer. Kenneth S. Deffeyes meen in Beyond Oil die <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan-administrasie</a> het <a href="/wiki/Saoedi-Arabi%C3%AB" title="Saoedi-Arabië">Saoedi-Arabië</a> aangemoedig om die prys van olie in 1980 te verlaag tot op ’n punt waar die Sowjetunie nie ’n wins kon maak met die verkoop van sy olie nie, en die USSR se ekonomie is so geknou.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:President_Ronald_Reagan_greets_a_young_boy_while_touring_Red_Square_during_the_Moscow_Summit_in_the_USSR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/President_Ronald_Reagan_greets_a_young_boy_while_touring_Red_Square_during_the_Moscow_Summit_in_the_USSR.jpg/220px-President_Ronald_Reagan_greets_a_young_boy_while_touring_Red_Square_during_the_Moscow_Summit_in_the_USSR.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/President_Ronald_Reagan_greets_a_young_boy_while_touring_Red_Square_during_the_Moscow_Summit_in_the_USSR.jpg/330px-President_Ronald_Reagan_greets_a_young_boy_while_touring_Red_Square_during_the_Moscow_Summit_in_the_USSR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/President_Ronald_Reagan_greets_a_young_boy_while_touring_Red_Square_during_the_Moscow_Summit_in_the_USSR.jpg/440px-President_Ronald_Reagan_greets_a_young_boy_while_touring_Red_Square_during_the_Moscow_Summit_in_the_USSR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2643" /></a><figcaption>Reagan groet ’n jong seun tydens ’n toer van <a href="/wiki/Rooiplein" title="Rooiplein">Rooiplein</a> saam met Gorbatsjof tydens die Moskouberaad van Mei 1988.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_330109_Soviet_President_Mikhail_Gorbachev_and_U.S._President_George_Bush.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="680" /></a><figcaption>Michail Gorbatsjof en <a href="/wiki/George_H.W._Bush" title="George H.W. Bush">George H.W. Bush</a> teken bilaterale dokumente tydens Gorbatsjof se amptelike besoek aan die VSA in 1990.</figcaption></figure> Brezjnef se twee opvolgers, oorgangsfigure met hulle wortels diep in sy tradisie, het nie lank gehou nie. Andropof was 68 jaar oud en Tsjernenko 72 toe hulle aan die bewind gekom het; albei is binne twee jaar dood. In ’n poging om ’n derde korttermynbewind af te weer het die regering hom tot die volgende generasie gewend en <a href="/wiki/Michail_Gorbatsjof" title="Michail Gorbatsjof">Michail Gorbatsjof</a> tot hoofsekretaris van die Kommunistiese Party verkies. Gorbatsjof het pogings aangewend om aansienlike veranderings in die ekonomie en partyleierskap teweeg te bring, wat <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a> ("hervorming") genoem is. Sy beleid van <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a> ("openheid") het die publiek toegang tot inligting gegee ná dekades van groot regeringsensuur. Hy wou ook die <a href="/wiki/Koue_Oorlog" title="Koue Oorlog">Koue Oorlog</a> beëindig. In 1988 het die Sowjetunie sy troepe uit <a href="/wiki/Afganistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Afganistan">Afganistan</a> onttrek ná ’n nege jaar lange oorlog. In 1989 het rewolusies in die satellietstate ontstaan. Met die afbreek van die <a href="/wiki/Berlynse_Muur" title="Berlynse Muur">Berlynse Muur</a> en met <a href="/wiki/Oos-Duitsland" class="mw-redirect" title="Oos-Duitsland">Oos-Duitsland</a> en <a href="/wiki/Wes-Duitsland" title="Wes-Duitsland">Wes-Duitsland</a> wat ’n hereniging nagestreef het, het die einde aangebreek van die <a href="/wiki/Ystergordyn" title="Ystergordyn">Ystergordyn</a> tussen die Weste en die Sowjetbeheerde streke. Laat in die 1980's het die republieke van die Sowjetunie stappe aangewend om hulle soewereiniteit te herstel. Op 7 April 1990 is ’n wet aanvaar dat enige republiek kon afstig as meer as twee derdes van sy inwoners in ’n referendum daarvoor stem.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In 1990 het baie republieke die eerste vrye verkiesings vir hulle eie wetgewende liggame gehou. In 1989 het die Russiese SFSR, die grootste republiek (met sowat die helfte van die bevolking), ’n nuutverkose Kongres van Volksafgevaardigdes saamgeroep. <a href="/wiki/Boris_Jeltsin" title="Boris Jeltsin">Boris Jeltsin</a> is as voorsitter verkies. Op 12 Junie 1990 het die kongres Rusland se soewereiniteit oor sy grondgebied verklaar en wette begin goedkeur wat sommige van die USSR se wette sou vervang. Ná ’n wegholoorwinning van die Hervormingsbeweging in Litaue het dié land op 11 Maart 1990 sy onafhanklikheid verklaar. Op 17 Maart 1991 is ’n referendum vir die behoud van die USSR in nege lande gehou (die ander het die stem geboikot). Die meeste van die inwoners in dié nege lande het vir die behoud van die Sowjetunie gestem en dit het Gorbatsjof se gewildheid ’n klein hupstootjie gegee. In die somer van 1991 het agt republieke ooreengekom oor die Nuwe Unie-verdrag – dit sou die Sowjetunie in ’n baie losser unie omskep het. Die ondertekening van die verdrag is egter in Augustus onderbreek deur ’n staatsgreeppoging deur geharde lede van die regering en die <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> wat Gorbatsjof se hervormings wou omkeer en die sentrale regering se beheer oor die publiek wou herstel. Nadat die staatsgreep misluk het, is Jeltsin as ’n held beskou danksy sy besliste optrede tydens die oproer, terwyl Gorbatsjof se bewind so te sê verby was. Die <a href="/wiki/Magsbalans" title="Magsbalans">magsbalans</a> het aansienlik na die kant van die republieke oorbeweeg. In Augustus 1991 reeds het Letland en Estland hulle volle onafhanklikheid verklaar. Gorbatsjof het laat in Augustus as hoofsekretaris van die Kommunistiese Party bedank en kort daarna is die party se bedrywighede vir ’n onbepaalde tyd opgehef – wat sy bewind in effek beëindig het. Teen die herfs kon Gorbatsjof nie langer gebeure buite Moskou beïnvloed nie en selfs daar is hy uitgedaag deur Jeltsin, wat in Julie 1991 tot president van Rusland verkies is. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ontbinding">Ontbinding</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=12" title="Wysig afdeling: Ontbinding" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: Ontbinding">wysig bron</a>]</div> <dl><dd><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Die hoofartikel vir hierdie afdeling is: <a href="/wiki/Ontbinding_van_die_Sowjetunie" title="Ontbinding van die Sowjetunie">Ontbinding van die Sowjetunie</a>.</div></dd></dl> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Cold_War_border_changes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Cold_War_border_changes.png/400px-Cold_War_border_changes.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Cold_War_border_changes.png 1.5x" data-file-width="599" data-file-height="436" /></a><figcaption>Grensveranderinge ná die Koue Oorlog.</figcaption></figure> Die oorblywende 12 republieke het voortgegaan met besprekings oor nuwe, al hoe losser modelle vir die unie. In dié tyd het Jeltsin dit wat van die Sowjetregering oorgebly het, oorgeneem – insluitende die <a href="/wiki/Moskouse_Kremlin" title="Moskouse Kremlin">Moskouse Kremlin</a>. Die finale slag was op 1 Desember 1990 toe Oekraïne, die tweede magtigste republiek, oorweldigend vir onafhanklikheid gestem het. Dit het enige realistiese kans dat die Sowjetunie op enige manier kon voortbestaan, beëindig. Teen Desember 1990 het almal, buiten Rusland en <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, hulle volle onafhanklikheid verklaar. Op 8 Desember 1991 het die presidente van Rusland, Oekraïne en <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> (voorheen Wit-Rusland) die Belawezja-ooreenkoms onderteken wat die Sowjetunie as ontbind verklaar het en die <a href="/wiki/Gemenebes_van_Onafhanklike_State" title="Gemenebes van Onafhanklike State">Gemenebes van Onafhanklike State</a> (GOS) in sy plek in die lewe geroep het. Op 21 Desember 1991 het afgevaardigdes van al die Sowjetrepublieke buiten <a href="/wiki/Georgi%C3%AB" title="Georgië">Georgië</a> die <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alma-Ata-protokol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alma-Ata-protokol (bladsy bestaan nie)">Alma-Ata-protokol</a> onderteken wat die ooreenkoms bekragtig het. Op 25 Desember het Gorbatsjof as president van die USSR bedank en die president se magte aan Jeltsin oorgedra. Daardie nag is die Sowjetvlag vir die laaste keer gestryk en die <a href="/wiki/Vlag_van_Rusland" title="Vlag van Rusland">Russiese driekleur</a> in sy plek gehys. Die volgende dag, op 26 Desember 1991, het die Opperste Sowjet, die hoogste regeringsliggaam van die Sowjetunie, gestem dat nie hy of die land meer bestaan nie. Dit word algemeen beskou as die amptelike, finale <a href="/wiki/Ontbinding_van_die_Sowjetunie" title="Ontbinding van die Sowjetunie">ontbinding van die Sowjetunie</a> en die einde van die Koue Oorlog.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Rusland is daarna internasionaal erken<a href="#cite_note-uk-36">[36]</a> as die USSR se opvolgerstaat. Rusland het al die USSR se buitelandse skuld aanvaar en die voormalige land se oorsese eiendomme as sy eie opgeëis. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leiers">Leiers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=13" title="Wysig afdeling: Leiers" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: Leiers">wysig bron</a>]</div> Leiers van die Sowjetunie, in chronologiese volgorde: <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Wladimir_Lenin" title="Wladimir Lenin">Wladimir Lenin</a> (1917–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Stalin" title="Josef Stalin">Josef Stalin</a> (1924–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Chroesjtsjof" title="Nikita Chroesjtsjof">Nikita Chroesjtsjof</a> (1953–1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Brezjnef" title="Leonid Brezjnef">Leonid Brezjnef</a> (1964–1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joeri_Andropof" title="Joeri Andropof">Joeri Andropof</a> (1982–1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Tsjernenko" title="Konstantin Tsjernenko">Konstantin Tsjernenko</a> (1984–1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michail_Gorbatsjof" title="Michail Gorbatsjof">Michail Gorbatsjof</a> (1985–1991)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geografie">Geografie</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=14" title="Wysig afdeling: Geografie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: Geografie">wysig bron</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Center_of_Vladivostok_and_Zolotoy_Rog.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Center_of_Vladivostok_and_Zolotoy_Rog.jpg/220px-Center_of_Vladivostok_and_Zolotoy_Rog.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Center_of_Vladivostok_and_Zolotoy_Rog.jpg/330px-Center_of_Vladivostok_and_Zolotoy_Rog.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Center_of_Vladivostok_and_Zolotoy_Rog.jpg/440px-Center_of_Vladivostok_and_Zolotoy_Rog.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="529" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wladiwostok" title="Wladiwostok">Wladiwostok</a> in die <a href="/wiki/Russiese_Verre_Ooste" title="Russiese Verre Ooste">Russiese Verre Ooste</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:The_Diomede_Islands_in_the_BeringSea_(picture_from_space).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/The_Diomede_Islands_in_the_BeringSea_%28picture_from_space%29.jpg/250px-The_Diomede_Islands_in_the_BeringSea_%28picture_from_space%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/The_Diomede_Islands_in_the_BeringSea_%28picture_from_space%29.jpg/330px-The_Diomede_Islands_in_the_BeringSea_%28picture_from_space%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/The_Diomede_Islands_in_the_BeringSea_%28picture_from_space%29.jpg/500px-The_Diomede_Islands_in_the_BeringSea_%28picture_from_space%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nasa" title="Nasa">Nasa</a>-satellietbeeld van die <a href="/wiki/Diomedes-eilande" title="Diomedes-eilande">Diomedes-eilande</a> in die <a href="/wiki/Beringstraat" title="Beringstraat">Beringstraat</a> (Rusland is links en die VSA regs).</figcaption></figure> Die Sowjetunie het sowat 'n sesde van die totale landoppervlakte van die wêreld beslaan. Dit het die oostelike helfte van <a href="/wiki/Europa" title="Europa">Europa</a> en 'n derde van <a href="/wiki/Asi%C3%AB" title="Asië">Asië</a> ingesluit en was meer as twee keer so groot soos die <a href="/wiki/Volksrepubliek_China" title="Volksrepubliek China">Volksrepubliek China</a>. Byna 10 000 km het die westelikste punt (20° O), naby <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad" title="Kaliningrad">Kaliningrad</a>, van Kaap Dezjnef aan die <a href="/wiki/Beringstraat" title="Beringstraat">Beringstraat</a> (170° W) geskei. Die noordelikste punt van die land, wat aan die bopunt van die Taimir-skiereiland geleë was, lê op 78° N en die suidelikste punt, wat in <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a> geleë was, lê op 38° N. Driekwart van die landmassa het noord van die 50ste breedtegraad gelê. Dit was 'n laagland met uitgestrekte vlaktes wat aan die een kant na die <a href="/wiki/Arktiese_Oseaan" title="Arktiese Oseaan">Arktiese Oseaan</a> en aan die ander kant via <a href="/wiki/Wes-Europa" title="Wes-Europa">Wes-Europa</a> na die <a href="/wiki/Atlantiese_Oseaan" title="Atlantiese Oseaan">Atlantiese Oseaan</a> afgeloop het. Slegs in die suide en ooste was daar hoë bergreekse. Sowat 75% van die Sowjetunie was minder as 450 m bo seespieël geleë. Die land se grense was meer as 56 000 km lank, waarvan twee derdes kuslyn (in die noorde en ooste) en 'n derde landgrense (in die weste en die suide) was. Aan die uiters noordwestelike grens van die Sowjetunie was <a href="/wiki/Noorwe%C3%AB" title="Noorweë">Noorweë</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>, die <a href="/wiki/Finse_Golf" title="Finse Golf">Finse Golf</a>, die <a href="/wiki/Oossee" title="Oossee">Oossee</a> en <a href="/wiki/Pole" title="Pole">Pole</a>. Op die punt waar die grens landinwaarts buig, het dit die skeiding tussen die Sowjet- en die Poolse deel van die voormalige <a href="/wiki/Oos-Pruise" title="Oos-Pruise">Oos-Pruise</a> gevorm. Verder suid het die Sowjetunie aan die destydse <a href="/wiki/Tsjeggo-Slowakye" title="Tsjeggo-Slowakye">Tsjeggo-Slowakye</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hongarye" title="Hongarye">Hongarye</a> en <a href="/wiki/Roemeni%C3%AB" title="Roemenië">Roemenië</a> gegrens. Die noordelike tak van die <a href="/wiki/Donau" title="Donau">Donaudelta</a> het die grens tot by die <a href="/wiki/Swartsee" title="Swartsee">Swartsee</a> beloop. Tussen die Swart- en die <a href="/wiki/Kaspiese_See" title="Kaspiese See">Kaspiese See</a> het die Sowjetunie aan <a href="/wiki/Turkye" title="Turkye">Turkye</a> en <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> gegrens. Oos van die Kaspiese See het die Sowjetunie aan Iran, <a href="/wiki/Afganistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Afganistan">Afganistan</a> en die Volksrepubliek China gegrens. Naby die ontmoetingspunt van die grense van die Sowjetunie, Afganistan en die Volksrepubliek China was die Sowjetunie deur 'n smal strook Afgaanse land van <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> en <a href="/wiki/Indi%C3%AB" title="Indië">Indië</a> geskei. Die Sowjetunie het ook aan <a href="/wiki/Mongoli%C3%AB" title="Mongolië">Mongolië</a> en <a href="/wiki/Noord-Korea" title="Noord-Korea">Noord-Korea</a> gegrens. Geen land ter wêreld het so 'n lang kuslyn gehad nie, maar geen land was ook deur soveel ysseë en moerasagtige kuste omring nie. Net ten suide van die belangrike hawens <a href="/wiki/Wladiwostok" title="Wladiwostok">Wladiwostok</a> ('n ysvrye hawe en destydse Sowjet-vlootbasis) en <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nachodka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nachodka (bladsy bestaan nie)">Nachodka</a>, was die kort grens tussen die Sowjetunie en Noord-Korea die <a href="/wiki/See_van_Japan" title="See van Japan">See van Japan</a>. Aan die oostelikste kant het die Beringstraat die Eurasiese vasteland van die <a href="/wiki/Noord-Amerika" title="Noord-Amerika">Noord-Amerikaanse</a> vasteland geskei. Aan die Arktiese Oseaan het die Sowjetkus verskeie vlak seë gehad wat deur groepe eilande van mekaar geskei is. Van oos na wes was dit die <a href="/wiki/Oos-Siberiese_See" title="Oos-Siberiese See">Oos-Siberiese See</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laptefsee" title="Laptefsee">Laptefsee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karasee" title="Karasee">Karasee</a> en <a href="/wiki/Barentssee" title="Barentssee">Barentssee</a>. Die <a href="/wiki/Argipel" title="Argipel">argipels</a> word onderskeidelik die <a href="/wiki/Nieu-Siberiese_Eilande" title="Nieu-Siberiese Eilande">Nieu-Siberiese Eilande</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nordland" title="Nordland">Nordland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nowaja_Zemlja" title="Nowaja Zemlja">Nowaja Zemlja</a> en <a href="/wiki/Franz_Josef-land" title="Franz Josef-land">Franz Josef-land</a> genoem. Naby die <a href="/wiki/Moermansk" title="Moermansk">Moermansk</a>-hawe aan die <a href="/wiki/Beringsee" title="Beringsee">Beringsee</a> het die landgrens met <a href="/wiki/Noorwe%C3%AB" title="Noorweë">Noorweë</a> begin. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regering_en_politiek">Regering en politiek</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=15" title="Wysig afdeling: Regering en politiek" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section's source code: Regering en politiek">wysig bron</a>]</div> Daar was drie magshiërargieë in die Sowjetunie: die wetgewende gesag, verteenwoordig deur die Opperste Sowjet; die regering, verteenwoordig deur die Ministersraad; en die <a href="/wiki/Kommunistiese_Party_van_die_Sowjetunie" title="Kommunistiese Party van die Sowjetunie">Kommunistiese Party van die Sowjetunie</a> (KPSU), die enigste wettige party en die finale beleidmaker van die land.<a href="#cite_note-sakwa-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kommunistiese_Party">Kommunistiese Party</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=16" title="Wysig afdeling: Kommunistiese Party" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section's source code: Kommunistiese Party">wysig bron</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg/280px-Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg/420px-Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg/560px-Moskau_Roter_Platz_September_1964.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2840" data-file-height="1850" /></a><figcaption>'n Militêre parade op <a href="/wiki/Rooiplein" title="Rooiplein">Rooiplein</a> in <a href="/wiki/Moskou" title="Moskou">Moskou</a>, 7 November 1964</figcaption></figure> Aan die bopunt van die Kommunistiese Party was die Sentrale Komitee, wat op partykongresse en -konferensies verkies is. Die Sentrale Komitee het op sy beurt gestem vir die Politburo (wat tussen 1952 en 1966 die "Presidium" genoem is), asook vir die sekretariaat en die algemene sekretaris van die Kommunistiese Party (van 1953 tot 1966 die "eerste sekretaris" genoem), wat de facto die hoogste amp in die Sowjetunie was.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Na gelang van die graad van magskonsolidasie, het óf die Politburo gesamentlik óf die algemene sekretaris, wat altyd lid van die Politburo was, die party en die land gelei<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> (behalwe in die tyd van Stalin se leierskap, toe sy mag ná 1941 direk deur sy posisie as lid van die Ministersraad uitgeoefen is, pleks van die Politburo).<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Die algemene lede van die KPSU het nie 'n stem in verkiesings gehad nie, want die sleutelbeginsel van die partyorganisasie was demokratiese sentralisme: Dit het streng onderhorigheid aan hoër liggame vereis en verkiesings is nie teengestaan nie; die kandidate wat van bo af voorgestel is, is goedgekeur.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Die Kommunistiese Party het sy oorheersing oor die staat gehandhaaf hoofsaaklik deur sy beheer van die aanstellingstelsel. Alle senior regeringsamptenare en die meeste afgevaardigdes van die Opperste Sowjet was lede van die KPSU. Van die partyleiers self was Stalin (1941-1953) en Chroestsjof (1958-1964) ook premiers. Nadat Chroestsjof gedwing is om te bedank is die partyleier verbied om so 'n dubbele amp te beklee,<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> hoewel die latere algemene sekretarisse vir minstens 'n deel van hulle bewind ook die hoofsaaklik seremoniële amp beklee het van voorsitter van die Presidium van die Opperste Sowjet, die nominale staatshoof.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regering">Regering</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=17" title="Wysig afdeling: Regering" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section's source code: Regering">wysig bron</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg/330px-Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg/500px-Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg/960px-Supreme_Soviet_1982.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="728" /></a><figcaption>Die Groot Kremlinpaleis, die setel van die Opperste Sowjet in Moskou, 1982.</figcaption></figure> Vir die grootste deel van die Sowjetunie se geskiedenis was die Opperste Sowjet die hoogste staatsliggaam.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Aanvanklik het dit net alle besluite van die party goedgekeur en toegepas. Sy mag en funksies is egter in die laat 1950's, 1960's en 1970's uitgebrei, met onder meer nuwe staatskommissies en -komitees. Dit het bykomende magte gekry met betrekking tot die goedkeuring van die land se vyfjaarplanne en regeringsbegroting.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Die Opperste Sowjet het 'n Presidium (die opvolger van die Sentrale Uitvoerende Komitee) verkies om sy mag uit te oefen tussen voltallige sittings,<a href="#cite_note-COMSSP-46">[46]</a> wat gewoonlik elke twee jaar gehou is, en was verantwoordelik vir die aanstelling van die Opperste Hof,<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> die prokureur-generaal<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> en die Ministersraad (voor 1946 bekend as die Raad van Volkskommissarisse), met die voorsitter (premier) aan die hoof. Dit het ook 'n enorme burokrasie bestuur wat verantwoordelik was vir die administrasie van die ekonomie en gemeenskap.<a href="#cite_note-COMSSP-46">[46]</a> Die staatsveiligheidsraad (die <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> en sy voorlopers) het 'n belangrike rol in die politiek gespeel. Dit was instrumenteel in die <a href="/wiki/Wladimir_Lenin#Rooi_Terreur" title="Wladimir Lenin">Rooi Terreur</a> en <a href="/wiki/Groot_Suiwering" title="Groot Suiwering">Groot Suiwering</a>,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> maar is ná Stalin se dood onder streng partybeheer geplaas. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skeiding_van_mag_en_hervorming">Skeiding van mag en hervorming</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=18" title="Wysig afdeling: Skeiding van mag en hervorming" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section's source code: Skeiding van mag en hervorming">wysig bron</a>]</div> Die grondwet, wat in 1924, 1936 en 1977 afgekondig is,<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> het nie staatsmag beperk nie. Geen formele skeiding van magte het bestaan tussen die KPSU, Opperste Sowjet en Ministersraad nie.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Daar was ook geen vasgestelde meganisme vir die opvolging van leiers nie. Bitter en soms dodelike magstryde het in die Politburo plaasgevind ná die dood van Lenin<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> en Stalin,<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> sowel as ná die afsetting van Chroesjtsjof,<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> wat plaasgevind het ná 'n besluit deur beide die Politburo en Sentrale Komitee.<a href="#cite_note-Khrushchevgoner-55">[55]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots,_February_1990.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots%2C_February_1990.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots%2C_February_1990.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots%2C_February_1990.jpg/500px-RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots%2C_February_1990.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots%2C_February_1990.jpg/960px-RIAN_archive_699872_Dushanbe_riots%2C_February_1990.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>Nasionalistiese opstande in 1990 in Doesjanbe, <a href="/wiki/Tadjikistan" title="Tadjikistan">Tadjikistan</a>.</figcaption></figure> Tussen 1988 en 1990 het <a href="/wiki/Michail_Gorbatsjof" title="Michail Gorbatsjof">Michail Gorbatsjof</a>, te midde van groot teenstand, hervormings toegepas wat die mag weg van die hoogste liggame van die party gewentel en die Opperste Sowjet se steun op hulle verminder het. Die Kongres van Volksafgevaardigdes is gestig. Die meeste van die lede is regstreeks verkies in 'n mededingende verkiesing in Maart 1989, wat die eerste in die Sowjetunie was. Die Kongres het nou die Opperste Sowjet verkies, wat 'n voltydse parlement en baie sterker as voorheen geword het. Vir die eerste keer sedert die 1920's het dit geweier om voorstelle van die party en Ministersraad goedsmoeds goed te keur.<a href="#cite_note-countrystudies-56">[56]</a> In 1990 het Gorbatsjof die amp van president van die Sowjetunie ingestel en aanvaar en dit het die mag in sy uitvoerende kantoor op homself gekonsentreer, onafhanklik van die party, en die regering is ondergeskik gestel.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Lassgenoemde is hernoem tot die Kabinet van Ministers van die USSR.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Spanning het toegeneem tussen die landwye owerhede onder Gorbatsjof; reformiste onder <a href="/wiki/Boris_Jeltsin" title="Boris Jeltsin">Boris Jeltsin</a>, wat die nuut verkose Opperste Sowjet van die Russiese SFSR beheer het; en Kommunistiese onversetlikes. Op 19-21 Augustus 1991 het 'n groep geharde Kommuniste 'n staatsgreeppoging uitgevoer. Die staatsgreep het misluk en die Staatsraad van die Sowjetunie het in die "oorgangstydperk" die hoogste orgaan van staatsmag geword.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Gorbatsjof het as algemene sekretaris bedank en net in die laaste maande van die bestaan van die Sowjetunie president gebly.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Menseregte">Menseregte</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=19" title="Wysig afdeling: Menseregte" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section's source code: Menseregte">wysig bron</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Menseregte" title="Menseregte">Menseregte</a> in die Sowjetunie was uiters beperk. Die Sowjetunie was van 1927 tot 1953 'n <a href="/wiki/Totalitarisme" title="Totalitarisme">totalitaristiese</a> staat<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> en daarna tot in 1990 'n eenpartystaat.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vryheid_van_spraak" title="Vryheid van spraak">Vryheid van spraak</a> is onderdruk en andersdenkendes gestraf. Onafhanklike politieke bedrywighede is nie geduld nie – nie in <a href="/wiki/Vakbond" title="Vakbond">vakbonde</a>, privaat korporasies, onafhanklike <a href="/wiki/Kerk" class="mw-disambig" title="Kerk">kerke</a> of opposisiepartye nie. Die vryheid van beweging binne en veral buite die land was ingeperk. Die staat het ook burgers se reg tot privaat eiendom ontneem. Die Sowjetbegrip van menseregte het grootliks van dié in die internasionale reg verskil. Die regering het enige vorm van vryheid, beweging en regte op die besit van eiendom feitlik verbied.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pipes-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Sulke optrede is deur regsteoretici in die Sowjetunie as voorbeelde van 'n "bourgeois moraliteit" beskou.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Volgens Lenin was die doel van sosialistiese howe nie om terreur deur die staat uit te wis nie ... maar "om dit te bevestig en in beginsel te wettig".<a href="#cite_note-Pipes-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administratiewe_verdelings">Administratiewe verdelings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=20" title="Wysig afdeling: Administratiewe verdelings" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section's source code: Administratiewe verdelings">wysig bron</a>]</div> Volgens sy grondwet was die Sowjetunie 'n <a href="/wiki/Federasie" title="Federasie">federasie</a> van deelrepublieke. Dié was óf enkele state soos <a href="/wiki/Oekra%C3%AFne" title="Oekraïne">Oekraïne</a> en <a href="/wiki/Wit-Rusland" class="mw-redirect" title="Wit-Rusland">Wit-Rusland</a> óf federasies soos die <a href="/wiki/Rusland" title="Rusland">Russiese</a> en die Transkaukasiese SFSR.<a href="#cite_note-sakwa-37">[37]</a> Al vier dié republieke was in Desember 1922 stigterslede van die Sowjetunie. Van die republieke se landsgrense en name het deur die bestaan van die USSR verander,<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> totdat daar eindelik 15 republieke was, soos hier onder aangedui. Hoewel dit in naam 'n unie van gelyke republieke was, is die land deur <a href="/wiki/Russe" title="Russe">Russe</a> oorheers. Dit was so erg dat die land vir die grootste deel van sy geskiedenis verkeerdelik as "Rusland" bekend was. Hoewel die Russiese SFSR tegnies net een republiek in die groter unie was, was dit verreweg die grootste (wat betref bevolking én oppervlakte), die magtigste en die bes ontwikkelde republiek. Dit was ook die nywerheidsentrum van die Sowjetunie. Die historikus Matthew White het geskryf dit was 'n ope geheim dat die land se federale struktuur oëverblindery was vir Russiese oorheersing. Daarom is die mense van die USSR gewoonlik "Russe" genoem en nie "Sowjette" nie, want "almal het geweet wie gee regtig die toon aan".<a href="#cite_note-White_2012-70">[70]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:USSR_Republics_Numbered_Alphabetically.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/USSR_Republics_Numbered_Alphabetically.png/400px-USSR_Republics_Numbered_Alphabetically.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/USSR_Republics_Numbered_Alphabetically.png/600px-USSR_Republics_Numbered_Alphabetically.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/USSR_Republics_Numbered_Alphabetically.png/800px-USSR_Republics_Numbered_Alphabetically.png 2x" data-file-width="1356" data-file-height="928" /></a><figcaption>Die voormalige state* van die Sowjetunie: 1. Armeense SSR, 2. Azerbeidjanse SSR, 3. Wit-Russiese SSR, 4. Estniese SSR, 5. Georgiese SSR, 6. Kazachstanse SSR, 7. Kirgisiese SSR, 8. Lettiese SSR, 9. Litause SSR, 10. Moldawiese SSR, 11. Russiese SFSR, 12. Tadjikistanse SSR, 13. Turkmeense SSR, 14. Oekraïense SSR, 15. Oezbekistanse SSR (*die republieke soos aan die einde van die USSR se bestaan)</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Voormalige Sowjetrepublieke</th> <th>Opvolgerstate </th></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1952%E2%80%931990).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Armeense_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Armeense Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Armeense Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1952%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Azerbeidjanse_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Azerbeidjanse Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Azerbeidjanse Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1953%E2%80%931990).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Estniese_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Estniese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Estniese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1951%E2%80%931990).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Georgiese_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Georgiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Georgiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1953%E2%80%931991);_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_(1991%E2%80%931992).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kazakhstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Kazachstanse_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Kazachstanse Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Kazachstanse Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1952%E2%80%931991);_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_(1991%E2%80%931992).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Kirgisiese_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Kirgisiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Kirgisiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1953%E2%80%931990).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Lettiese_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Lettiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Lettiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1953%E2%80%931988).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_the_Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931988%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931988%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Flag_of_the_Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931988%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931988%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Litause_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Litause Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Litause Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1952%E2%80%931990).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Moldawiese_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Moldawiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Moldawiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1949%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281949%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Oekra%C3%AFense_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Oekraïense Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Oekraïense Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1952%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281952%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Oezbekistanse_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Oezbekistanse Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Oezbekistanse Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_(1954%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic_%281954%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Russiese_Sosialistiese_Federale_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Russiese Sosialistiese Federale Sowjetrepubliek">Russiese Sosialistiese Federale Sowjetrepubliek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1953%E2%80%931991),_Flag_of_Tajikistan_(1991%E2%80%931992).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281953%E2%80%931991%29%2C_Flag_of_Tajikistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Tadjikistanse_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Tadjikistanse Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Tadjikistanse Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1973%E2%80%931991);_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_(1991%E2%80%931992).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281973%E2%80%931991%29%3B_Flag_of_Turkmenistan_%281991%E2%80%931992%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Turkmeense_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Turkmeense Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Turkmeense Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_(1951%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg/60px-Flag_of_the_Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic_%281951%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Wit-Russiese_Sosialistiese_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Wit-Russiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek">Wit-Russiese Sosialistiese Sowjetrepubliek</a></li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armeni%C3%AB" title="Armenië">Armenië</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbeidjan" title="Azerbeidjan">Azerbeidjan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estland" title="Estland">Estland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgi%C3%AB" title="Georgië">Georgië</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasakstan" title="Kasakstan">Kasakstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirgisi%C3%AB" title="Kirgisië">Kirgisië</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letland" title="Letland">Letland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litaue" title="Litaue">Litaue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldowa" title="Moldowa">Moldowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oekra%C3%AFne" title="Oekraïne">Oekraïne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oesbekistan" title="Oesbekistan">Oesbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusland" title="Rusland">Rusland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadjikistan" title="Tadjikistan">Tadjikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Weermag">Weermag</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=21" title="Wysig afdeling: Weermag" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section's source code: Weermag">wysig bron</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg/260px-RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg/390px-RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg/520px-RSD-10_2009_G1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>'n Nie-interkontinentale ballistiese missiel SS-20, waarvan die ontplooiing deur die Sowjetunie in die laat 1970's 'n nuwe wapenwedloop in Europa ontketen het toe Navo gereageer het deur onder meer Pershing II-missiele in <a href="/wiki/Wes-Duitsland" title="Wes-Duitsland">Wes-Duitsland</a> te ontplooi.</figcaption></figure> Kragtens die militêre wet van September 1925 het die Sowjetweermag bestaan uit die leër, lugmag, vloot, gesamentlike staatspolitieke direktoraat en die interne troepe.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Die direktoraat het later onafhanklik geword en in 1934 by die geheime polisie, die <a href="/wiki/FSB#Van_die_Tsjeka_tot_die_FSB" title="FSB">NKWD</a>, aangesluit. Ná WO II is die strategiese missielmagte (1959), lugverdedigingsmagte (1948) en nasionale burgerlike weermag (1970) gestig: Hulle rang van belangrikheid was eerste, derde en sesde in die amptelike Sowejetverdedigingstelsel (die leër was tweede, die lugmag vierde en die vloot vyfde). Die leër het die grootste politieke invloed gehad. Tot die vroeë 1960's was die Sowjetvloot 'n taamlik klein militêre tak, maar ná die <a href="/wiki/Kubaanse_missielkrisis" title="Kubaanse missielkrisis">Karibiese krisis</a> het dit aansienlik uitgebrei. Dit het bekend geword vir sy gevegskruisers en duikbote. In 1989 het 500 000 mans daar diens gedoen. In die tydperk ná die oorlog was die Sowjetleër regstreeks betrokke by verskillende militêre operasies oorsee.<a href="#cite_note-theodora.com-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Dit sluit in die onderdrukking van die opstand in <a href="/wiki/Oos-Duitsland" class="mw-redirect" title="Oos-Duitsland">Oos-Duitsland</a> (1953), die <a href="/wiki/Hongaarse_Rewolusie_van_1956" title="Hongaarse Rewolusie van 1956">Hongaarse Rewolusie</a> (1956) en die Warskouverdrag se inval in <a href="/wiki/Tsjeggo-Slowakye" title="Tsjeggo-Slowakye">Tsjeggo-Slowakye</a> (1968). Hulle het ook tussen 1979 and 1989 aan die konflik met <a href="/wiki/Afganistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Afganistan">Afganistan</a> deelgeneem. Diensplig het in die Sowjetunie gegeld, wat beteken alle mans van 18 jaar en ouer wat liggaamlik geskik was, is opgeroep.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ekonomie">Ekonomie</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=22" title="Wysig afdeling: Ekonomie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section's source code: Ekonomie">wysig bron</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:DneproGES_1947.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/DneproGES_1947.JPG/280px-DneproGES_1947.JPG" decoding="async" width="280" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/DneproGES_1947.JPG/420px-DneproGES_1947.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/DneproGES_1947.JPG/560px-DneproGES_1947.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1338" data-file-height="845" /></a><figcaption>Die <a href="/wiki/Dnjepr" title="Dnjepr">Dnjepr</a>-hidroëlektrisiteitstasie, een van baie sulkes in die Sowjetunie.</figcaption></figure> In die Sowjetunie is die vervaardiging en verspreiding van goedere deur die regering gesentraliseer en beheer. Die Bolsjewiste se eerste kennismaking met 'n sentraal beheerde ekonomie was die beleid van <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oorlogskommunisme&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oorlogskommunisme (bladsy bestaan nie)">oorlogskommunisme</a>, wat die nasionalisering van nywerhede behels het, asook die gesentraliseerde verspreiding van produkte, die gedwonge aanskaffing van landbouprodukte en pogings om geldsirkulasie, privaat ondernemings en vrye handel uit te skakel.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Ná die ernstige ekonomiese verval daarna het Lenin oorlogskommunisme in 1921 met die <a href="/wiki/Nuwe_Ekonomiese_Beleid" title="Nuwe Ekonomiese Beleid">Nuwe Ekonomiese Beleid</a> (NEB) vervang, en vrye handel en privaat eienaarskap van klein sakeondernemings gewettig. Dit het die ekonomie geleidelik laat herstel.<a href="#cite_note-gregory2004-77">[77]</a> Stalin het die NEB afgeskaf en volle sentrale beplanning ingestel; hy het die gedwonge kollektivisme van die landbou en drakoniese arbeidswette ingestel. Die vinnige industrialisasie van die land het die vermoëns in swaar nywerhede in die 1930's verhoog.<a href="#cite_note-gregory2004-77">[77]</a> Die belangrikste motivering vir industrialisasie was voorbereiding vir oorlog, hoofsaaklik weens 'n wantroue in die kapitalistiese wêreld.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> As gevolg hiervan het die Sowjetunie van 'n grootliks landbougedrewe ekonomie ontwikkel tot 'n groot nywerheidsmag, en dit het gelei tot sy opkoms as 'n supermoondheid ná WO II.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-79">[79]</a> Die oorlog het 'n groot vernietiging van die Sowjetunie se ekonomie en infrastuktuur veroorsaak en dit moes in 'n groot mate herbou word.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:RIAN_archive_633872_Workers_of_Soligorsk_potash_plant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/RIAN_archive_633872_Workers_of_Soligorsk_potash_plant.jpg/250px-RIAN_archive_633872_Workers_of_Soligorsk_potash_plant.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/RIAN_archive_633872_Workers_of_Soligorsk_potash_plant.jpg/500px-RIAN_archive_633872_Workers_of_Soligorsk_potash_plant.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Werkers van die Soligorsk-potasfabriek in 1968 in Belarus.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti,_the_Samara_Region.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti%2C_the_Samara_Region.jpg/240px-RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti%2C_the_Samara_Region.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti%2C_the_Samara_Region.jpg/360px-RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti%2C_the_Samara_Region.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti%2C_the_Samara_Region.jpg/480px-RIAN_archive_878967_AvtoVAZ-_Volga_automaking_plant_in_Togliatti%2C_the_Samara_Region.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="672" /></a><figcaption>Die <a href="/wiki/AftoWAZ" title="AftoWAZ">Wolzjski Aftomobilni Zawod</a> (WAZ) in 1969.</figcaption></figure> Teen die vroeë 1940's het die Sowjet-ekonomie taamlik selfonderhoudend geword en net 'n klein deel van binnelandse produkte is internasionaal verhandel.<a href="#cite_note-foreign_trade-81">[81]</a> Ná die skepping van die Oosblok het buitelandse handel vinnig toegeneem. Tydens die <a href="/wiki/Wapenwedloop" title="Wapenwedloop">wapenwedloop</a> van die Koue oorlog het die Sowjetunie se ekonomie swaar gebuk gegaan onder militêre uitgawes. Terselfdertyd het die land die grootste wapenuitvoerder na <a href="/wiki/Ontwikkelende_land" title="Ontwikkelende land">ontwikkelende lande</a> geword. Die Sowjetunie se militêre begroting in die 1970's was enorm; dit het 40-60% uitgemaak van die totale federale begroting.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Van die 1930's tot met sy verbrokkeling laat in 1991 het die manier waarop die Sowjetunie se ekonomie gewerk het, in 'n groot mate onveranderd gebly. Die ekonomie is amptelik met sentrale beplanning beheer en in vyfjaarplanne georganiseer. Hoë staatslui kon egter in die planne inmeng. Alle groot ekonomiese besluite is deur die politieke leiers geneem.<a href="#cite_note-gregory2004-77">[77]</a> In die vervaaardigingsektor het swaar nywerheid en verdediging voorrang geniet bo gebruikersgoedere..<a href="#cite_note-economy-83">[83]</a> Laasgenoemde, veral buite die groot stede, was dikwels skaars en van swak gehalte. Onder die sentraal beheerde ekonomie het verbruikers feitlik geen invloed gehad op vervaardiging nie, en die veranderende aanvraag van 'n bevolking met 'n toenemende inkomste kon nie bevredig word deur produkte teen streng vasgestelde pryse nie.<a href="#cite_note-hanson-84">[84]</a> 'n Enorme, onbeplande tweede ekonomie het op lae vlakke saam met die beplande een ontstaan. Dit het van die goedere en dienste verskaf wat die beplanners nie kon nie. Met hervormings in 1965 is probeer om sommige elemente van die gedesentraliseerde ekonomie te wettig.<a href="#cite_note-gregory2004-77">[77]</a> Hoewel dit algemeen bekend is dat statistieke oor die Sowjetse ekonomie onbetroubaar is en sy ekonomiese groei moeilik is om presies te raam,<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> lyk dit of die ekonomie tot in die middel 1980's aanhou groei het. In die 1950's en 1960's het dit die Weste se ekonomie ingehaal.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> In 1987 het Gorbatsjof die ekonomie met sy beleid van <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a> probeer hervorm. Dit het die staatsbeheer oor ondernemings verslap, maar dit nie met markdryfvere vervang nie en dit het gelei tot 'n skerp afname in uitset. Die ekonomie, wat reeds gely het onder die afname in petroleumuitvoer, het in duie begin stort. Pryse was steeds vasgestel en die land het dit steeds beheer tot ná die land se verbrokkeling.<a href="#cite_note-gregory2004-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-hanson-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wetenskap_en_tegnologie">Wetenskap en tegnologie</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=23" title="Wysig afdeling: Wetenskap en tegnologie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section's source code: Wetenskap en tegnologie">wysig bron</a>]</div> Die Sowjetunie het groot klem gelê op wetenskap en tegnologie binne sy ekonomie,<a href="#cite_note-science&technology-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-89">[89]</a> maar sy grootste tegnologiese prestasies, soos die ontwikkeling van Spoetnik 1, was gewoonlik die weermag se verantwoordelikheid.<a href="#cite_note-economy-83">[83]</a> Lenin het geglo die USSR sal nie die <a href="/wiki/Ontwikkelde_land" title="Ontwikkelde land">ontwikkelde lande</a> verbysteek solank dit so 'n groot tegnologiese agterstand het as met sy stigting nie. Die Sowjetse owerhede het hulle ondersteuning van Lenin se siening bewys deur enorme netwerke en navorsings- en ontwikkelingsentrums te beplan. In die vroeë 1960's het die Sowjetunie 40% van sy doktorsgrade in chemie aan vroue toegeken, in vergelyking met die VSA se 5%.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Teen 1989 was Sowjetse wetenskaplikes onder die wêreld se bes opgeleide spesialiste op verskeie gebiede, soos <a href="/wiki/Energie" title="Energie">energiefisika</a>, sekere velde van <a href="/wiki/Geneeskunde" title="Geneeskunde">geneeskunde</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wiskunde" title="Wiskunde">wiskunde</a> en militêre tegnologie. Weens hulle rigiede staatsbeplanning en burokrasie het die Sowjette ver agter gebly wat betref <a href="/wiki/Chemie" title="Chemie">chemie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biologie" title="Biologie">biologie</a> en <a href="/wiki/Rekenaar" title="Rekenaar">rekenaars</a> in vergelyking met die ontwikkelde lande. Die regering het <a href="/wiki/Genetika" title="Genetika">genetici</a> teengestaan en vervolg ten gunste van lysenkoïsme (wat <a href="/wiki/Natuurlike_seleksie" title="Natuurlike seleksie">natuurlike seleksie</a> verwerp), 'n <a href="/wiki/Skynwetenskap" class="mw-redirect" title="Skynwetenskap">skynwetenskap</a> wat deur wetenskaplikes in die Sowjetunie en oorsee afgeskiet maar deur Stalin se binnekring ondersteun is. Dit is in die USSR en <a href="/wiki/China" class="mw-disambig" title="China">China</a> in werking gestel en het tot kleiner oeste gelei. Daar word algemeen geglo dit het bygedra tot die <a href="/wiki/Groot_Chinese_Hongersnood" title="Groot Chinese Hongersnood">Groot Chinese Hongersnood</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Die Sowjetunie het meer wetenskaplikes as <a href="/wiki/Ingenieur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingenieur">ingenieurs</a> as enige ander land gehad relatief tot die wêreldbevolking, deels vanweë die staat se sterk ondersteuning teen die 1980's van wetenskaplike ontwikkelings.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ruimteprogram">Ruimteprogram</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=24" title="Wysig afdeling: Ruimteprogram" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section's source code: Ruimteprogram">wysig bron</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:RIAN_archive_159271_Nikita_Khrushchev,_Valentina_Tereshkova,_Pavel_Popovich_and_Yury_Gagarin_at_Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/RIAN_archive_159271_Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Valentina_Tereshkova%2C_Pavel_Popovich_and_Yury_Gagarin_at_Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg/250px-RIAN_archive_159271_Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Valentina_Tereshkova%2C_Pavel_Popovich_and_Yury_Gagarin_at_Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/RIAN_archive_159271_Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Valentina_Tereshkova%2C_Pavel_Popovich_and_Yury_Gagarin_at_Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg/500px-RIAN_archive_159271_Nikita_Khrushchev%2C_Valentina_Tereshkova%2C_Pavel_Popovich_and_Yury_Gagarin_at_Lenin_Mausoleum.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="712" /></a><figcaption>Van links is <a href="/wiki/Joeri_Gagarin" title="Joeri Gagarin">Joeri Gagarin</a>, Pawel Popowitsj, <a href="/wiki/Walentina_Teresjkowa" title="Walentina Teresjkowa">Walentina Teresjkowa</a> en <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Chroesjtsjof" title="Nikita Chroesjtsjof">Nikita Chroesjtsjof</a> in 1963 by die <a href="/wiki/Lenin-mausoleum" title="Lenin-mausoleum">Lenin-mausoleum</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Soyuz_18_booster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Soyuz_18_booster.jpg/180px-Soyuz_18_booster.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Soyuz_18_booster.jpg/270px-Soyuz_18_booster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Soyuz_18_booster.jpg/360px-Soyuz_18_booster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1856" data-file-height="2723" /></a><figcaption>'n <a href="/wiki/Sojoes-program" title="Sojoes-program">Sojoes</a>-vuurpyl by die <a href="/wiki/Baikonoer" title="Baikonoer">Baikonoer</a>-lanseersentrum.</figcaption></figure> Teen die einde van die 1950's het die USSR die eerste kunsmatige satelliet, <a href="/wiki/Spoetnik_1" title="Spoetnik 1">Spoetnik 1</a>, gebou. Dit het die <a href="/wiki/Ruimtewedloop" title="Ruimtewedloop">ruimtewedloop</a> ingelui – 'n wedywering met die VSA om die beste ruimtevlugvermoëns te hê.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Dit is gevolg deur ander geslaagde satelliete, veral <a href="/wiki/Spoetnik_5" title="Spoetnik 5">Spoetnik 5</a>, waarmee <a href="/wiki/Hond" title="Hond">honde</a> die ruimte ingestuur is. Op 12 April 1961 het die USSR <a href="/wiki/Wostok-ruimteprogram" title="Wostok-ruimteprogram">Wostok 1</a> met <a href="/wiki/Joeri_Gagarin" title="Joeri Gagarin">Joeri Gagarin</a> gelanseer. Gagarin was die eerste mens wat in die ruimte gestuur is en 'n ruimtereis voltooi het.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Teen dié tyd het die Sowjetunie die eerste planne opgetrek vir <a href="/wiki/Pendeltuig" title="Pendeltuig">pendeltuie</a> en wentelende ruimtestasies, maar op die ou end het persoonlike dispute tussen die ontwerpers en die bestuur die inwerkingstelling daarvan verhoed. Met vlugte na die <a href="/wiki/Maan" title="Maan">Maan</a> het die USSR net <a href="/wiki/Loena-ruimteprogram" title="Loena-ruimteprogram">outomatiese ruimtevlugte</a> sonder enige bemanning gehad, en dié wedloop is deur die VSA gewen toe <a href="/wiki/Apollo_11" title="Apollo 11">Apollo 11</a> met 'n bemanning op die Maan land. In die laat 1980's het die Sowjetunie die <a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a>-ruimtestasie gebou. Dit was tussen 1986 en 1998 die enigste wentelende ruimtestasie. Ander modules, onder meer van Amerika, is geleidelik bygevoeg. Weens die agteruitgang van Mir is in 2001 besluit om dit in die <a href="/wiki/Atmosfeer" title="Atmosfeer">atmosfeer</a> te laat uitbrand.<a href="#cite_note-Harland2020-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vervoer">Vervoer</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=25" title="Wysig afdeling: Vervoer" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section's source code: Vervoer">wysig bron</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg/250px-RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg/330px-RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg/500px-RUS-2016-Murmansk-Icebreaker_Lenin_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6438" data-file-height="4292" /></a><figcaption>Die ysbreker Lenin.</figcaption></figure> Vervoer was 'n belangrike deel van die Sowjetse ekonomie. Die ekonomiese sentralisasie van die laat 1920's en die 1930's het gelei tot die enorme ontwikkeling van infrastruktuur. Veral die stigting van <a href="/wiki/Aeroflot" title="Aeroflot">Aeroflot</a> is noemenswaardig.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Daar was 'n groot verskeidenheid vervoermiddele op land, op water en in die lug.<a href="#cite_note-ciacom-97">[97]</a> Weens onvoldoende onderhoud was 'n groot deel van die Sowjetunie se vervoernetwerk egter verouderd en tegnologies swak in vergelyking met dié van die ontwikkelde lande.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983205-98">[98]</a> Die USSR se spoorvervoer is die meeste ter wêreld gebruik;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983205-98">[98]</a> dit was ook beter ontwikkel as dié in die meeste lande in die Weste.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983201-99">[99]</a> Die padnetwerk en motornywerheid het onderontwikkel gebly<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985168-100">[100]</a> en grondpaaie buite die groot stede was algemeen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985167-101">[101]</a> Intussen het die motornywerheid vinniger gegroei as die padnetwerk.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985169-102">[102]</a> Die onderontwikkelde paaie het gelei tot 'n toenemende vraag na openbare vervoer.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Die owerhede was agter nie in staat om in dié groter vraag te voorsien nie.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Daarteenoor was die Sowjetse handelsvloot een van die grootstes in die wěreld.<a href="#cite_note-ciacom-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demografie">Demografie</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=26" title="Wysig afdeling: Demografie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section's source code: Demografie">wysig bron</a>]</div> Die oormaat sterftes in die <a href="/wiki/Eerste_W%C3%AAreldoorlog" title="Eerste Wêreldoorlog">Eerste Wêreldoorlog</a> en die Russiese Burgeroorlog (insluitende die Russiese hongersnood van 1921 en '22, wat deur Lenin se oorlogskommunisme veroorsaak is),<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> het altesaam 18 miljoen beloop,<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> in the 1930's sowat 10 million<a href="#cite_note-1930s-16">[16]</a> en in 1941-1945 meer as 20 miljoen. Die bevolking ná die <a href="/wiki/Tweede_W%C3%AAreldoorlog" title="Tweede Wêreldoorlog">Tweede Wêreldoorlog</a> in die Sowjetunie was 45 tot 50 miljoen kleiner as wat dit sou gewees het as die vooroorlogse bevolkingsgroei gehandhaaf kon word.<a href="#cite_note-Geoffrey_A._Hosking_2006_242-25">[25]</a> Volgens Catherine Merridale is 'n redelike raming van die oormaat sterftes vir die hele tydperk "sowat 60 miljoen".<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Die geboortesyfer het afgeneem van 44 per duisend in 1926 tot 18 in 1974, hoofsaaklik weens groter verstedeliking en die stygende gemiddelde ouderdom van mense wat getrou het. In die laat 1960's en die 1970's is die tempo van sterftes omgekeer, veral onder mans van werkende ouderdom. Dit was egter ook in ander <a href="/wiki/Slawi%C3%ABrs" title="Slawiërs">Slawiese lande</a> die geval.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Kindersterftes het toegeneem van 24,7 in 1970 tot 27,9 in 1974. Sommige navorsers beskou dit as die gevolg van verslegtende gesondheidstoestande en -dienste.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etniese_groepe">Etniese groepe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=27" title="Wysig afdeling: Etniese groepe" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section's source code: Etniese groepe">wysig bron</a>]</div> Die Sowjetunie was 'n etnies uiteenlopende land, met meer as 100 aparte <a href="/wiki/Etniese_groep" title="Etniese groep">etniese groepe</a>. Die totale bevolking was in 1991 sowat 293 miljoen. <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Mestia,_Svaneti._October_30,_1929.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Mestia%2C_Svaneti._October_30%2C_1929.JPG/200px-Mestia%2C_Svaneti._October_30%2C_1929.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Mestia%2C_Svaneti._October_30%2C_1929.JPG/300px-Mestia%2C_Svaneti._October_30%2C_1929.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Mestia%2C_Svaneti._October_30%2C_1929.JPG/400px-Mestia%2C_Svaneti._October_30%2C_1929.JPG 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="493" /></a><figcaption>'n Man van Swanetië in die <a href="/wiki/Georgiese_SSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgiese SSR">Georgiese SSR</a>, 1929.</figcaption></figure> Volgens 'n raming van 1990 was die meerderheid Russies (50,78%), gevolg deur Oekraïens, (15,45%) en Oezbeeks (5,84%).<a href="#cite_note-cia-110">[110]</a> In 1989 was 69,8% van die bevolking Oos-Slawies, 17,5% Turkies, 1,6% Armeens, 1,6% Balties, 1,5% Fins en 1,5% Tadjiks. Altesaam 1,4% was Georgies, 1,2% Moldawies en 4,1% van verskeie ander etniese groepe.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Alle Sowjetburgers het tot 'n spesifieke etniese groep behoort. 'n Kind se etnisiteit is deur sy ouers gekies wanneer hy 16 jaar oud was.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEComrie19812-112">[112]</a> Deels vanweë Sowjetbeleide is lede van sommige kleiner minderhede beskou as lid van 'n groter groep; die Mingreliërs van Georgië is byvoorbeeld beskou as Georgiërs, wat linguisties verwant is.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Sommige etniese groepe het vanself verenig, terwyl ander gedwing is om dit te doen. Die Russe, Oekraïners en Wit-Russe (Belarusse), wat almal Oos-Slawies en Ortodoks was, het naverwante kultuur-, etniese en godsdiensbande gedeel, terwyl dit met ander groepe nie die geval was nie. Waar verskillende etniese groepe 'n grondgebied gedeel het, het etniese vyandelikhede mettertyd ontstaan.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Lede van verskillende etniese groepe het in die regeringsliggame gedien. Magsorgane soos die Politburo, Sentrale Komitee, ensovoorts was amptelik etnies neutraal, hoewel die meeste lede in die praktyk Russe was. Daar was egter ook verskeie nie-Russiese leiers, soos Stalin en <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Gromiko" title="Andrei Gromiko">Andrei Gromiko</a>. In die Sowjettyd het 'n aansielike aantal etniese Russe en Oekraïners na ander Sowjetrepublieke migreer en baie het daar bly woon. Volgens die laaste sensus, van 1989, het die Russiese <a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">diaspora</a> in die ander republieke sowat 25 miljoen getel.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taal">Taal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=28" title="Wysig afdeling: Taal" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section's source code: Taal">wysig bron</a>]</div> Onder Lenin het die regering aan kleiner taalgroepe hulle eie <a href="/wiki/Skryfstelsel" title="Skryfstelsel">skryfstelsels</a> gegee.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Die ontwikkeling van dié stelsels was hoogs geslaagd, al was daar soms klein probleme. Een daarvan was dat baie tale se dialekte grootliks van mekaar verskil het.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Wanneer 'n taal sy eie skryfstelsel gekry en in 'n groot publikasie verskyn het, het dit 'n "amptelike taal" geword. Baie klein minderheidstale het nooit hulle eie skryfstelsel gekry nie en sprekers moes dus noodgedwonge 'n tweede taal aanleer.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Baie tale is deur die jare eenvoudig afgeskaf. Hulle is dan deur ander tale vervang, meestal <a href="/wiki/Russies" title="Russies">Russies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Omdat Russies die moedertaal van die meste mense was, was dit <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> 'n amptelike taal en die taal van "interetniese kommunikasie".<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Godsdiens">Godsdiens</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=29" title="Wysig afdeling: Godsdiens" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section's source code: Godsdiens">wysig bron</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg/250px-Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg/330px-Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg/500px-Bezbozhnik_u_stanka_22-1929.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2688" /></a><figcaption>Die voorblad van Bezbozjnik, 'n tydskrif vir goddeloses, in 1929. Die eerste vyfjaarplan vermorsel die gode van die <a href="/wiki/Abrahamitiese_gelowe" title="Abrahamitiese gelowe">Abrahamitiese gelowe</a>.</figcaption></figure> Die <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> en <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> was die grootste twee godsdienste in die Sowjetunie.<a href="#cite_note-dailylife-121">[121]</a> Die <a href="/wiki/Oosters-Ortodokse_Kerk" title="Oosters-Ortodokse Kerk">Oosterse Christendom</a> het oorheers onder Christene, met die tradisionele <a href="/wiki/Russies-Ortodokse_Kerk" title="Russies-Ortodokse Kerk">Russies-Ortodokse Kerk</a> wat die grootste denominasie was. Sowat 90% van die Moslems was <a href="/wiki/Soenni" title="Soenni">Soenni</a>, terwyl <a href="/wiki/Sjia" title="Sjia">Sjia</a> oorheers het in die Azerbeidjanse SSR.<a href="#cite_note-dailylife-121">[121]</a> Kleiner groepe het ingesluit <a href="/wiki/Rooms-Katoliek" class="mw-redirect" title="Rooms-Katoliek">Rooms-Katolieke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jode" title="Jode">Jode</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boeddhisme" title="Boeddhisme">Boeddhiste</a> en verskeie <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestante</a> denominasies (veral Baptiste en Lutherane).<a href="#cite_note-dailylife-121">[121]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/250px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/330px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/500px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="610" /></a><figcaption>Die <a href="/wiki/Katedraal_van_Christus_die_Verlosser" title="Katedraal van Christus die Verlosser">Katedraal van Christus die Verlosser</a> in Moskou word in 1931 gesloop.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Perrot_View_of_Sennaya_Square_1841.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Perrot_View_of_Sennaya_Square_1841.jpg/220px-Perrot_View_of_Sennaya_Square_1841.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Perrot_View_of_Sennaya_Square_1841.jpg/330px-Perrot_View_of_Sennaya_Square_1841.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Perrot_View_of_Sennaya_Square_1841.jpg/440px-Perrot_View_of_Sennaya_Square_1841.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1476" data-file-height="906" /></a><figcaption>Die Verlosserkerk op Sennajaplein in <a href="/wiki/Leningrad" class="mw-redirect" title="Leningrad">Leningrad</a> was een van die talle kerke wat in Chroesjtsjof se tyd gesloop is.</figcaption></figure> Die godsdienstige invloed was groot in die <a href="/wiki/Russiese_Ryk" title="Russiese Ryk">Russiese Ryk</a>. Die Russies-Ortodokse Kerk het 'n bevoorregte posisie beklee as die kerk van die monargie en het aan amptelike staatsfunksies deelgeneem.<a href="#cite_note-Simkin_2003-122">[122]</a> Die onmiddellike tydperk ná die stigting van die Sowjetunie het 'n stryd teen die Ortodokse Kerk ingesluit, want die rewolusionêre het dit beskou as 'n bondgenoot van die voormalige heersersklasse.<a href="#cite_note-Simon_1974,_64-65-123">[123]</a> Die 1918-grondwet het die Russiese SFSR as 'n sekulêre staat verklaar en alle godsdienstige leringe op plekke van algemene opvoeding verbied. Burgers kon wel godsdiens privaat studeer of daarin onderrig word.<a href="#cite_note-Simon_1974,_209-124">[124]</a> In 1929 is 'n verskeidenheid kerkbedrywighede verbied, soos ontmoetings vir georganiseerde Bybelstudie.<a href="#cite_note-Simon_1974,_64-65-123">[123]</a> Duisende Christelike en nie-Christelike instellings is in die 1920's en 1930's gesluit. Teen 1940 was tot 90% van die kerke, sinagoges en moskees wat in 1917 oop was, gesluit; Die meeste is gesloop of vir ander doeleindes deur die staat gebruik, ongeag hulle historiese en kulturele waarde.<a href="#cite_note-Atwood_2001,_311-125">[125]</a> Meer as 85 000 Ortodokse priesters is in 1937 alleen doodgeskiet.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Teen 1941 was net 'n twaalfde van die priesters van die Russies-Ortodokse Kerk nog in hulle gemeentes oor.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Tussen 1927 en 1940 het die Ortodokse kerke in Rusland afgeneem van 29 584 tot minder as 500 (1,7%).<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Die Sowjetunie was amptelik 'n sekulêre staat,<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> maar die regering het 'n program geborg waarmee <a href="/wiki/Ate%C3%AFsme" title="Ateïsme">ateïsme</a> afgedwing is.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adappur2000-20">[20]</a> Hoewel die meeste godsdienste nooit verbied is nie, is beslag gelê op godsdienstige eiendomme, gelowiges is lastig geval en gosdiens is bespot, terwyl ateïsme in skole verkondig is.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> In 1925 het die regering die Bond van Militante Ateïste gestig om die propagandaveldtog te versterk.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Daar het 'n sosiale stigma aan godsdiens gekleef; dit was onaanvaarbaar vir mense in sekere beroepe (soos onderwysers, staatsburokrate en soldate) om openlik godsdienstig te wees. Oortuig daarvan dat godsdienstige antisowjetisme iets van die verlede was en met 'n oorlog wat gedreig het, het die Stalin-regime in die laat 1930's 'n gematigder godsdiensbeleid aanvaar.<a href="#cite_note-Janz_1998,_38-39-135">[135]</a> Godsdiensbedrywighede het in dié tyd onder alle gelowiges toegeneem.<a href="#cite_note-Ro'i_1995,_263-136">[136]</a> Onder Nikita Chroesjtsjof het die staatsleiers tussen 1958 en 1964 met die kerke gebots. In dié tyd is die klem in die skole weer op ateïsme geplaas en verskeie staatspublikasies het dit bevorder.<a href="#cite_note-Janz_1998,_38-39-135">[135]</a> Die getal kerke, sinagoges en moskees het weer eens geweldig afgeneem.<a href="#cite_note-Nahaylo_&_Swoboda_1990,_144-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nahaylo_&_Swoboda_1990,_144-137">[137]</a> Die regering het in die Brezjnef-tydperk steeds godsdiensinstellings gemonitor, maar godsdiensbedrywighede het weer toegeneem.<a href="#cite_note-Steinberg_&_Wanner_2008,-138">[138]</a> Volgens 'n staatsopname in 1982 was 20% van die bevolking "aktiewe godsdienstige gelowiges".<a href="#cite_note-subculture-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kultuur">Kultuur</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=30" title="Wysig afdeling: Kultuur" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section's source code: Kultuur">wysig bron</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="182" data-mwtitle="Марш_энтузиастов.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8d/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2.ogg/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3A%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2.ogg&lang=vi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="vi" label="Tiếng Việt ‪(vi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio><figcaption>"Die Mars van die Entoesias", ’n lied uit die 1930's wat beroemd in die Sowjetunie was.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg/250px-Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg/330px-Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg/500px-Vladimir_Vysotsky.jpg 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Die Sowjetse sanger, liedjieskrywer, digter en akteur <a href="/wiki/Wladimir_Wisotski" title="Wladimir Wisotski">Wladimir Wisotski</a> in 1979.</figcaption></figure> Die kultuur van die Sowjetunie het gedurende sy 69-jarige bestaan deur verskeie stadiums gegaan. In die eerste 11 jaar ná die rewolusie (1918-1929), was daar relatiewe vryheid en kunstenaars het met verskillende style geëksperimenteer om ’n besonderse Sowjetkunsstyl te vind. Lenin wou hê kuns moet toeganklik vir die publiek wees. Aan die ander kant is honderde intellektuele, skrywers en kunstenaars verban of tereggestel en hulle werk verbied, soos Nikolai Goemiljof (geskiet omdat hy glo teen die Bolsjewistiese regering saamgesweer het) en <a href="/wiki/Jewgeni_Zamjatin" title="Jewgeni Zamjatin">Jewgeni Zamjatin</a> (verban).<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Die regering het ’n verskeidenheid neigings aangemoedig. In die <a href="/wiki/Kuns" title="Kuns">kuns</a> en <a href="/wiki/Letterkunde" title="Letterkunde">letterkunde</a> het talle skole floreer, sommige tradisioneel en ander radikaal eksperimenteel. Die Kommunistiese skrywers <a href="/wiki/Maksim_Gorki" title="Maksim Gorki">Maksim Gorki</a> en <a href="/wiki/Wladimir_Majakofski" title="Wladimir Majakofski">Wladimir Majakofski</a> was in dié tyd aktief. <a href="/wiki/Rolprent" title="Rolprent">Rolprente</a> as ’n manier om ’n grootliks ongeletterde gemeenskap te beïnvloed is deur die staat aangemoedig; baie van die regisseur <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Eisenstein" title="Sergei Eisenstein">Sergei Eisenstein</a> se beste prente dateer uit dié tydperk. Later, tydens Stalin se bewind, is die Sowjetkultuur gekenmerk deur die opkoms en oorheersing van die regeringvoorgeskrewe styl <a href="/wiki/Sosialistiese_realisme" title="Sosialistiese realisme">sosialistiese realisme</a>, en alle ander neigings is streng onderdruk. Daar was enkele uitsonderings, soos die werk van <a href="/wiki/Michail_Boelgakof" title="Michail Boelgakof">Michail Boelgakof</a>. Baie skrywers is gevange geneem en vermoor.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Ná die Chroestsjof-ontdooiing van die laat 1950's en vroeë 1960's het sensuur verslap. In dié tyd het ’n kenmerkende Sowjetkultuur ontwikkel wat gekenmerk is deur ’n konformistiese openbare lewe en ’n intense fokus op persoonlike lewe. ’n Groter eksperimentering met kunsvorme was weer toelaatbaar, met die gevolg dat meer gesofistikeerde en subtiel kritieke werk geskep is. Die regering se klem op sosialistiese realisme het afgeneem. ’n Ondergrondse andersdenkende letterkunde, bekend as <a href="/wiki/Samizdat" title="Samizdat">samizdat</a>, het in dié tyd ontwikkel. In <a href="/wiki/Argitektuur" title="Argitektuur">argitektuur</a> het die Chroesjtsjof-era gefokus op funksionele ontwerp eerder as die hoogs dekoratiewe styl van Stalin se tyd. In die tweede helfte van die 1980's het Gorbatsjof se beleide perestroika en glasnost die vryheid van uitdrukking dwarsdeur die Sowjetunie aansienlik in die media uitgebrei.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Vakansiedae </caption> <tbody><tr style="background:#efefef;"> <th>Datum</th> <th>Afrikaanse naam</th> <th>Plaaslike naam</th> <th>Opmerkings </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1_Januarie" title="1 Januarie">1 Januarie</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nuwejaarsdag" title="Nuwejaarsdag">Nuwejaarsdag</a> </td> <td>Новый Год </td> <td>Seker die grootste viering van die jaar. Die meeste van die tradisies van <a href="/wiki/Kersfees" title="Kersfees">Kersfees</a>, wat deur Stalin verbied is, soos <a href="/wiki/Djed_Moroz" title="Djed Moroz">Djed Moroz</a> (Kersvader) en ’n feesboom is na Nuwejaar geskuif en word vandag steeds daarmee verbind. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/23_Februarie" title="23 Februarie">23 Februarie</a></td> <td>Dag van die Weermag en Vloot </td> <td>День Советской Армии и Военно-Морского Флота </td> <td>Die stigting van die <a href="/wiki/Rooi_Le%C3%ABr" title="Rooi Leër">Rooi Leër</a>, <a href="/wiki/1918" title="1918">1918</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/8_Maart" title="8 Maart">8 Maart</a></td> <td>Internasionale Vrouedag </td> <td>Международный Женский День </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/12_April" title="12 April">12 April</a></td> <td>Ruimtevaardersdag </td> <td>День космонавтики </td> <td>Die dag in 1961 waarop Joeri Gagarin die eerste mens in die ruimte geword het </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1_Mei" title="1 Mei">1 Mei</a></td> <td>Internasionale Werkersdag </td> <td>Первое Мая - День Солидарности Трудящихся </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/9_Mei" title="9 Mei">9 Mei</a></td> <td>Oorwinningsdag </td> <td>День Победы </td> <td>Oorgawe van Nazi-Duitsland, <a href="/wiki/1945" title="1945">1945</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/7_Oktober" title="7 Oktober">7 Oktober</a></td> <td>Dag van die USSR-grondwet </td> <td>День Конституции СССР </td> <td>Aanvaarding van die 1977-grondwet; tussen 1936 en 1977 gevier op <a href="/wiki/5_Desember" title="5 Desember">5 Desember</a>, ná die 1936-grondwet </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/7_November" title="7 November">7 November</a> - <a href="/wiki/8_November" title="8 November">8 November</a> </td> <td>Viering van die <a href="/wiki/Russiese_Rewolusie_(1917)" title="Russiese Rewolusie (1917)">Oktober-rewolusie</a>, 1917 </td> <td>Годовщина Великой Октябрьской социалистической революции </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sport">Sport</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=31" title="Wysig afdeling: Sport" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section's source code: Sport">wysig bron</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:RIAN_archive_487039_Opening_ceremony_of_the_1980_Olympic_Games.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/RIAN_archive_487039_Opening_ceremony_of_the_1980_Olympic_Games.jpg/250px-RIAN_archive_487039_Opening_ceremony_of_the_1980_Olympic_Games.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/RIAN_archive_487039_Opening_ceremony_of_the_1980_Olympic_Games.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_487039_Opening_ceremony_of_the_1980_Olympic_Games.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/RIAN_archive_487039_Opening_ceremony_of_the_1980_Olympic_Games.jpg/500px-RIAN_archive_487039_Opening_ceremony_of_the_1980_Olympic_Games.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1001" data-file-height="792" /></a><figcaption>Openingseremonie van die <a href="/wiki/Olimpiese_Somerspele" title="Olimpiese Somerspele">Olimpiese Somerspele</a> 1980 in <a href="/wiki/Moskou" title="Moskou">Moskou</a></figcaption></figure> In sport was die <a href="/wiki/Sowjetse_nasionale_sokkerspan" title="Sowjetse nasionale sokkerspan">Sowjetse nasionale sokkerspan</a> een van die sterkste mededingende spanne. Dit het sewe keer aan die <a href="/wiki/FIFA" title="FIFA">FIFA</a> <a href="/wiki/Sokker-W%C3%AAreldbeker" title="Sokker-Wêreldbeker">Sokker-Wêreldbekertoernooi</a> deelgeneem en een keer die vierde plek behaal (in <a href="/wiki/FIFA_Sokker-W%C3%AAreldbekertoernooi_in_1966" title="FIFA Sokker-Wêreldbekertoernooi in 1966">1966</a>). Vir die <a href="/wiki/UEFA_Europa-beker" title="UEFA Europa-beker">UEFA Europa-beker</a> kon die Sowjetunie ses keer kwalifiseer en dit het die heel eerste toernooi, in <a href="/wiki/1960" title="1960">1960</a>, gewen. Tydens die <a href="/wiki/Olimpiese_Somerspele_1956" title="Olimpiese Somerspele 1956">Olimpiese Somerspele 1956</a> in <a href="/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a> kon die Sowjetse nasionale sokkerspan die goue medalje verower. Die land se eerste sportkoerant, Sowetski Sport, is op 20 Julie 1924 in Moskou gestig. Die Sowjetse Olimpiese Komitee is op 21 April 1951 gestig en die <a href="/wiki/Internasionale_Olimpiese_Komitee" title="Internasionale Olimpiese Komitee">Internasionale Olimpiese Komitee</a> (IOK) het dit op 7 Mei 1951 erken. Sowjetatlete se eerste Olimpiese Spele was in 1952 in <a href="/wiki/Helsinki" title="Helsinki">Helsinki</a>. Moskou, die destydse hoofstad van die Sowjetunie en die <a href="/wiki/Russiese_Sosialistiese_Federale_Sowjetrepubliek" title="Russiese Sosialistiese Federale Sowjetrepubliek">Russiese SFSR</a>, het die <a href="/wiki/Olimpiese_Somerspele_1980" title="Olimpiese Somerspele 1980">Olimpiese Somerspele 1980</a> gehuisves, wat deur talle, veral Westerse lande geboikot is. Die staatgeborgde "voltydse amateuratlete" van die <a href="/wiki/Oosblok" title="Oosblok">Oosbloklande</a> het gehelp om die ideologie van ware amateurs in die wiele te ry omdat dit die amateurs van die Weste wat hulleself gefinansier het, ’n agterstand gegee het. Die USSR het sportspanne ingeskryf wat in naam studente, soldate of beroepslui was, maar in werklikheid het die staat baie van hierdie mededingers betaal om voltyds te oefen.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Tog het die IOK gehou by die tradisionele reëls rakende amateursport.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verwysings">Verwysings</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=32" title="Wysig afdeling: Verwysings" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section's source code: Verwysings">wysig bron</a>]</div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-count references-column-count-3" style="-moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-americana-1"><a href="#cite_ref-americana_1-0">↑</a> Klein, Henri F. (red.), Soviet, Encyclopedia Americana, 1920. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPonsService2010763-2">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPonsService2010763_2-0">2,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPonsService2010763_2-1">2,1</a> <a href="#CITEREFPonsService2010">Pons & Service 2010</a>, p. 763. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMccauley2014487-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMccauley2014487_3-0">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFMccauley2014">Mccauley 2014</a>, p. 487. </li> <li id="cite_note-br1-4">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-br1_4-0">4,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-br1_4-1">4,1</a> <cite style="font-style:normal"> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Soviet-Union">Soviet Union</a>". Encyclopædia Britannica.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adc&rft.type=encyclopediaArticle&rft.title=Soviet+Union&rft.identifier=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FSoviet-Union&rft.source=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica">  </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a> <cite style="font-style:normal"> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/April-Theses">April Thesis</a>". Encyclopædia Britannica.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adc&rft.type=encyclopediaArticle&rft.title=April+Thesis&rft.identifier=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FApril-Theses&rft.source=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica">  </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC1-6"><a href="#cite_ref-BBC1_6-0">↑</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2205490">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:9px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-image:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png");background-image:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg");background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:12px;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140805155250/http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/russia/october/revision/4">"The causes of the October Revolution"</a>. BBC. Geargiveer vanaf <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/history/russia/october/revision/4">die oorspronklike</a> op 5 Augustus 2014. Besoek op 31 Desember 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+causes+of+the+October+Revolution&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fbitesize%2Fhigher%2Fhistory%2Frussia%2Foctober%2Frevision%2F4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEService200584-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEService200584_7-0">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFService2005">Service 2005</a>, p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFEvan_Mawdsley2007" class="citation book cs1">Evan Mawdsley (1 Maart 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=LUhXZD2BPeQC&pg=PA287">The Russian Civil War</a>. Pegasus Books. p. 287. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-1-933648-15-6" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-1-933648-15-6"><bdi>978-1-933648-15-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Civil+War&rft.pages=287&rft.pub=Pegasus+Books&rft.date=2007-03-01&rft.isbn=978-1-933648-15-6&rft.au=Evan+Mawdsley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DLUhXZD2BPeQC%26pg%3DPA287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a> Richard Sakwa The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union, 1917–1991: 1917–1991. Routledge, 1999. <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-415-12290-0" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-415-12290-0">ISBN 978-0-415-12290-0</a>. pp. 140–143. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a> Julian Towster. Political Power in the U.S.S.R., 1917–1947: The Theory and Structure of Government in the Soviet State Oxford Univ. Press, 1948. p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFLapin2000" class="citation journal cs1">Lapin, G. G. (2000). "70 Years of Gidroproekt and Hydroelectric Power in Russia". Hydrotechnical Construction. 34 (8/9): 374–379. <a href="/wiki/Digitale_objek-identifiseerder" title="Digitale objek-identifiseerder">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1004107617449">10.1023/A:1004107617449</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-8220">0018-8220</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hydrotechnical+Construction&rft.atitle=70+Years+of+Gidroproekt+and+Hydroelectric+Power+in+Russia&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=8%2F9&rft.pages=374-379&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1004107617449&rft.issn=0018-8220&rft.aulast=Lapin&rft.aufirst=G.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kuzbassenergo-12"><a href="#cite_ref-Kuzbassenergo_12-0">↑</a> (ru) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro/">On GOELRO Plan — at Kuzbassenergo.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081226190310/http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro/">Geargiveer</a> 26 Desember 2008 op <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFStéphane_CourtoisMark_Kramer1999" class="citation book cs1">Stéphane Courtois; Mark Kramer (15 Oktober 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=H1jsgYCoRioC&pg=PA206">Livre noir du Communisme: crimes, terreur, répression</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-674-07608-2" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-674-07608-2"><bdi>978-0-674-07608-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Livre+noir+du+Communisme%3A+crimes%2C+terreur%2C+r%C3%A9pression&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999-10-15&rft.isbn=978-0-674-07608-2&rft.au=St%C3%A9phane+Courtois&rft.au=Mark+Kramer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DH1jsgYCoRioC%26pg%3DPA206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thurston-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Thurston_14-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFThurston1998" class="citation book cs1">Thurston, Robert W. (1998). Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941. Yale University Press. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-300-07442-0" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-300-07442-0"><bdi>978-0-300-07442-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+and+Terror+in+Stalin%27s+Russia%2C+1934%E2%80%931941&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-300-07442-0&rft.aulast=Thurston&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFAbbott_Gleason2009" class="citation book cs1">Abbott Gleason (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373">A companion to Russian history</a>. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 373. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-1-4051-3560-3" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-1-4051-3560-3"><bdi>978-1-4051-3560-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+companion+to+Russian+history&rft.pages=373&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3560-3&rft.au=Abbott+Gleason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DJyN0hlKcfTcC%26pg%3DPA373&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-1930s-16">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-1930s_16-0">16,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-1930s_16-1">16,1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFGeoffrey_A._Hosking2001" class="citation book cs1">Geoffrey A. Hosking (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=oh-5AAmboMUC&pg=PA469">Russia and the Russians: a history</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 469. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-674-00473-3" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-674-00473-3"><bdi>978-0-674-00473-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+and+the+Russians%3A+a+history&rft.pages=469&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00473-3&rft.au=Geoffrey+A.+Hosking&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3Doh-5AAmboMUC%26pg%3DPA469&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nybooks.com/daily/2011/01/27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse/">Hitler vs. Stalin: Who Was Worse?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171012090945/http://www.nybooks.com/daily/2011/01/27/hitler-vs-stalin-who-was-worse/">Geargiveer</a> 12 Oktober 2017 op <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The New York Review of Books, 27 Januarie 2011 </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a> Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival, by Christopher Marsh, page 47. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">↑</a> Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History, by Dilip Hiro. Penguin, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-Adappur2000-20">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Adappur2000_20-0">20,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adappur2000_20-1">20,1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFAdappur2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Adappur, Abraham (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170314065732/https://books.google.com/books?id=44DYAAAAMAAJ">Religion and the Cultural Crisis in India and the West</a> (in Engels). Intercultural Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-81-85574-47-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-81-85574-47-9"><bdi>978-81-85574-47-9</bdi></a>. Geargiveer vanaf <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=44DYAAAAMAAJ">die oorspronklike</a> op 14 Maart 2017. Besoek op 14 Julie 2016. <q>Forced Conversion under Atheistic Regimes: It might be added that the most modern example of forced "conversions" came not from any theocratic state, but from a professedly atheist government — that of the Soviet Union under the Communists.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+the+Cultural+Crisis+in+India+and+the+West&rft.pub=Intercultural+Publications&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-81-85574-47-9&rft.aulast=Adappur&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D44DYAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">↑</a> USGOV1 </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.holodomorct.org/history.html">Ukrainian 'Holodomor' (man-made famine) Facts and History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130424093532/http://www.holodomorct.org/history.html">Geargiveer</a> 24 April 2013 op <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Holodomorct.org (28 November 2006). Besoek op 29 Julie 2013. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFGetty1991" class="citation journal cs1">Getty, J. Arch (1991). "State and Society Under Stalin: Constitutions and Elections in the 1930s". Slavic Review. 50 (1): 18–35. <a href="/wiki/Digitale_objek-identifiseerder" title="Digitale objek-identifiseerder">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2500596">10.2307/2500596</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2500596">2500596</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=State+and+Society+Under+Stalin%3A+Constitutions+and+Elections+in+the+1930s&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=18-35&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2500596&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2500596%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Getty&rft.aufirst=J.+Arch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_J._Duiker2009" class="citation book cs1">William J. Duiker (31 Augustus 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=uqvgYtJHGSMC">Contemporary World History</a>. Wadsworth Pub Co. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-495-57271-8" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-495-57271-8"><bdi>978-0-495-57271-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+World+History&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=Wadsworth+Pub+Co&rft.date=2009-08-31&rft.isbn=978-0-495-57271-8&rft.au=William+J.+Duiker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DuqvgYtJHGSMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Geoffrey_A._Hosking_2006_242-25">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Geoffrey_A._Hosking_2006_242_25-0">25,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Geoffrey_A._Hosking_2006_242_25-1">25,1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFGeoffrey_A._Hosking2006" class="citation book cs1">Geoffrey A. Hosking (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=CDMVMqDvp4QC&pg=PA242">Rulers and victims: the Russians in the Soviet Union</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 242. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-674-02178-5" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-674-02178-5"><bdi>978-0-674-02178-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rulers+and+victims%3A+the+Russians+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pages=242&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02178-5&rft.au=Geoffrey+A.+Hosking&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DCDMVMqDvp4QC%26pg%3DPA242&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">↑</a> Daniel Goldhagen, Hitler's Willing Executioners (p. 290) </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-treatment-of-soviet-pows-starvation-disease-and-shootings-june-1941january-1942">"The Treatment of Soviet POWs: Starvation, Disease, and Shootings, June 1941–January 1942"</a>. encyclopedia.ushmm.org (in Engels). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200522011511/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-treatment-of-soviet-pows-starvation-disease-and-shootings-june-1941january-1942">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 22 Mei 2020. Besoek op 9 Maart 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=encyclopedia.ushmm.org&rft.atitle=The+Treatment+of+Soviet+POWs%3A+Starvation%2C+Disease%2C+and+Shootings%2C+June+1941%E2%80%93January+1942&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencyclopedia.ushmm.org%2Fcontent%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fthe-treatment-of-soviet-pows-starvation-disease-and-shootings-june-1941january-1942&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFBrinkley2003" class="citation book cs1">Brinkley, Douglas (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=HymSg_Pp7X0C&pg=PA223&lpg=PA223&dq=big+four+world+war+2#v=onepage&q=big%20four%20world%20war%202&f=false">The New York Times Living History: World War II, 1942–1945: The Allied Counteroffensive</a>. Macmillan, 2004. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-8050-7247-1" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-8050-7247-1"><bdi>978-0-8050-7247-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+York+Times+Living+History%3A+World+War+II%2C+1942%E2%80%931945%3A+The+Allied+Counteroffensive&rft.pub=Macmillan%2C+2004&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-7247-1&rft.aulast=Brinkley&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DHymSg_Pp7X0C%26pg%3DPA223%26lpg%3DPA223%26dq%3Dbig%2Bfour%2Bworld%2Bwar%2B2%23v%3Donepage%26q%3Dbig%2520four%2520world%2520war%25202%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFUrquhart" class="citation book cs1">Urquhart, Brian. Looking for the Sheriff. New York Review of Books, 16 July 1998.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Looking+for+the+Sheriff&rft.pub=New+York+Review+of+Books%2C+16+July+1998&rft.aulast=Urquhart&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170915012329/http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/sovi.html">"The Soviet Union and the United States – Revelations from the Russian Archives | Exhibitions – Library of Congress"</a>. www.loc.gov (in Engels). 15 Junie 1992. Geargiveer vanaf <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/sovi.html">die oorspronklike</a> op 15 September 2017. Besoek op 12 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.loc.gov&rft.atitle=The+Soviet+Union+and+the+United+States+%E2%80%93+Revelations+from+the+Russian+Archives+%7C+Exhibitions+%E2%80%93+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=1992-06-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fexhibits%2Farchives%2Fsovi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-fas.org-31"><a href="#cite_ref-fas.org_31-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/irp/world/russia/gru/">"Main Intelligence Administration (GRU) Glavnoye Razvedovatel'noye Upravlenie – Russia / Soviet Intelligence Agencies"</a>. Fas.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200406022848/https://fas.org/irp/world/russia/gru/">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 6 April 2020. Besoek op 24 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Main+Intelligence+Administration+%28GRU%29+Glavnoye+Razvedovatel%27noye+Upravlenie+%E2%80%93+Russia+%2F+Soviet+Intelligence+Agencies&rft.pub=Fas.org&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Firp%2Fworld%2Frussia%2Fgru%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lunokhod-32"><a href="#cite_ref-lunokhod_32-0">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081226123643/http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/magazine2.html">"Tank on the Moon"</a>. The Nature of Things with David Suzuki (CBC-TV). 6 Desember 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/magazine2.html">the original</a> on 26 Desember 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081226123643/http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/magazine2.html">https://web.archive.org/web/20081226123643/http://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/magazine2.html</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Tank+on+the+Moon&rft.jtitle=The+Nature+of+Things+with+David+Suzuki&rft.date=6+Desember+2007&rft.pub=CBC-TV&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.archive.org%2Fweb%2F20081226123643%2Fhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnatureofthings%2Fmagazine2.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Sowjetunie">  </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">↑</a> Kenneth S. Deffeyes, Beyond Oil: The View from Hubbert's Peak. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rspp.su/sobor/conf_2006/istoki_duh_nrav_crisis.html">Origins of Moral-Ethical Crisis and Ways to Overcome it</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928104220/http://www.rspp.su/sobor/conf_2006/istoki_duh_nrav_crisis.html">Geargiveer</a> 28 September 2007 op <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by V.A.Drozhin Honoured Lawyer of Russia. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFBrzezinskiBrzezinskiSullivan1997" class="citation book cs1">Brzezinski, Zbigniew; Brzezinski, Zbigniew K; Sullivan, Paige (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/?id=Vt5OLD3vp4UC&pg=PR5&lpg=PR5&dq=26+december+1991+ussr#v=onepage&q=26%20december%201991%20ussr&f=false">Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States: Documents, Data, and Analysis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-1-56324-637-1" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-1-56324-637-1"><bdi>978-1-56324-637-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+and+the+Commonwealth+of+Independent+States%3A+Documents%2C+Data%2C+and+Analysis&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-56324-637-1&rft.aulast=Brzezinski&rft.aufirst=Zbigniew&rft.au=Brzezinski%2C+Zbigniew+K&rft.au=Sullivan%2C+Paige&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DVt5OLD3vp4UC%26pg%3DPR5%26lpg%3DPR5%26dq%3D26%2Bdecember%2B1991%2Bussr%23v%3Donepage%26q%3D26%2520december%25201991%2520ussr%26f%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-uk-36"><a href="#cite_ref-uk_36-0">↑</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1019744935436">Country Profile: Russia</a> Foreign & Commonwealth Office of the United Kingdom. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080311123046/http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket%2FXcelerate%2FShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1019744935436">Geargiveer</a> 11 Maart 2008 op <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-sakwa-37">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-sakwa_37-0">37,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sakwa_37-1">37,1</a> Sakwa, Richard. Soviet Politics in Perspective. 2nd ed. London – N.Y.: Routledge, 1998. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFLaw,_David_A.1975" class="citation book cs1">Law, David A. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f3ky9qBavl4C">Russian Civilization</a>. Ardent Media. pp. 193–194. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-8422-0529-0" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-8422-0529-0"><bdi>978-0-8422-0529-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512055909/http://books.google.com/books?id=f3ky9qBavl4C&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Civilization&rft.pages=193-194&rft.pub=Ardent+Media&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-8422-0529-0&rft.au=Law%2C+David+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df3ky9qBavl4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFZemtsov,_Ilya1989" class="citation book cs1">Zemtsov, Ilya (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chernenkolastbol00zemt">Chernenko: The Last Bolshevik: The Soviet Union on the Eve of Perestroika</a>. Transaction Publishers. p. 325. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-88738-260-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-88738-260-4"><bdi>978-0-88738-260-4</bdi></a>. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chernenko%3A+The+Last+Bolshevik%3A+The+Soviet+Union+on+the+Eve+of+Perestroika&rft.pages=325&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-88738-260-4&rft.au=Zemtsov%2C+Ilya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchernenkolastbol00zemt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFKnight,_Amy1995" class="citation book cs1">Knight, Amy (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PxiuUGRQhUIC">Beria: Stalin's First Lieutenant</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-691-01093-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-691-01093-9"><bdi>978-0-691-01093-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512055028/http://books.google.com/books?id=PxiuUGRQhUIC&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beria%3A+Stalin%27s+First+Lieutenant&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-691-01093-9&rft.au=Knight%2C+Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPxiuUGRQhUIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFHough,_Jerry_F.Fainsod,_Merle1979" class="citation book cs1">Hough, Jerry F.; Fainsod, Merle (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=38gMzMRXCpQC">How the Soviet Union is Governed</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 486. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-674-41030-5" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-674-41030-5"><bdi>978-0-674-41030-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512054528/http://books.google.com/books?id=38gMzMRXCpQC&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+Soviet+Union+is+Governed&rft.pages=486&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-674-41030-5&rft.au=Hough%2C+Jerry+F.&rft.au=Fainsod%2C+Merle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D38gMzMRXCpQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFService,_Robert2009" class="citation book cs1">Service, Robert (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o8Z1QAAACAAJ">History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-first Century</a>. Penguin Books Ltd. p. 378. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-14-103797-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-14-103797-4"><bdi>978-0-14-103797-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511090135/http://books.google.com/books?id=o8Z1QAAACAAJ&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 11 Mei 2011. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Modern+Russia%3A+From+Tsarism+to+the+Twenty-first+Century&rft.pages=378&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Ltd&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-14-103797-4&rft.au=Service%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do8Z1QAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3mQjvzP8VSYC">Конститутион оф тхе Руссиян Федератион: витх комментариес анд интерпретатион</a>. Brunswick Publishing Corp. 1994. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-1-55618-142-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-1-55618-142-9"><bdi>978-1-55618-142-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512045452/http://books.google.com/books?id=3mQjvzP8VSYC&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD+%D0%BE%D1%84+%D1%82%D1%85%D0%B5+%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BD+%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%3A+%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%85+%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%81+%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4+%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Brunswick+Publishing+Corp&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-55618-142-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3mQjvzP8VSYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFF._Triska,_JanSlusser,_Robert_M.1962" class="citation book cs1">F. Triska, Jan; Slusser, Robert M. (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theorylawpoli00tris">The Theory, Law, and Policy of Soviet Treaties</a>. Stanford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theorylawpoli00tris/page/63">63</a>–64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-8047-0122-8" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-8047-0122-8"><bdi>978-0-8047-0122-8</bdi></a>. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory%2C+Law%2C+and+Policy+of+Soviet+Treaties&rft.pages=63-64&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-0122-8&rft.au=F.+Triska%2C+Jan&rft.au=Slusser%2C+Robert+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheorylawpoli00tris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFDeb,_Kalipada1996" class="citation book cs1">Deb, Kalipada (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IvK6r-8Ogg0C">Soviet Union to Commonwealth: Transformation and Challenges</a>. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-81-85880-95-2" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-81-85880-95-2"><bdi>978-81-85880-95-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512053347/http://books.google.com/books?id=IvK6r-8Ogg0C&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Union+to+Commonwealth%3A+Transformation+and+Challenges&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=M.D.+Publications+Pvt.+Ltd&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-81-85880-95-2&rft.au=Deb%2C+Kalipada&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIvK6r-8Ogg0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-COMSSP-46">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-COMSSP_46-0">46,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-COMSSP_46-1">46,1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFBenson,_Shirley2001" class="citation book cs1">Benson, Shirley (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dQeahlZdM7sC">Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower</a>. Penn State University Press. pp. XIV. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-271-02170-6" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-271-02170-6"><bdi>978-0-271-02170-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150910233718/https://books.google.com/books?id=dQeahlZdM7sC&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 10 September 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nikita+Khrushchev+and+the+Creation+of+a+Superpower&rft.pages=XIV&rft.pub=Penn+State+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-271-02170-6&rft.au=Benson%2C+Shirley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdQeahlZdM7sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h9FFVgu-Ff0C">The Communist World</a>. Ardent Media. 2001. p. 441. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-271-02170-6" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-271-02170-6"><bdi>978-0-271-02170-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512051205/http://books.google.com/books?id=h9FFVgu-Ff0C&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Communist+World&rft.pages=441&rft.pub=Ardent+Media&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-271-02170-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh9FFVgu-Ff0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFJoseph_Marie_Feldbrugge,_Ferdinand1993" class="citation book cs1">Joseph Marie Feldbrugge, Ferdinand (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JWt7MN3Dch8C">Russian Law: The End of the Soviet System and the Role of Law</a>. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7923-2358-7" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7923-2358-7"><bdi>978-0-7923-2358-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512041218/http://books.google.com/books?id=JWt7MN3Dch8C&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Law%3A+The+End+of+the+Soviet+System+and+the+Role+of+Law&rft.pages=205&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-2358-7&rft.au=Joseph+Marie+Feldbrugge%2C+Ferdinand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJWt7MN3Dch8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFP._Hoffmann,_ErikLaird,_Robin_Frederick1984" class="citation book cs1">P. Hoffmann, Erik; Laird, Robin Frederick (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=63_obglArrMC">The Soviet Polity in the Modern Era</a>. Transaction Publishers]]. pp. 313–315. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-202-24165-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-202-24165-4"><bdi>978-0-202-24165-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512045329/http://books.google.com/books?id=63_obglArrMC&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Polity+in+the+Modern+Era&rft.pages=313-315&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers%5D%5D&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-202-24165-4&rft.au=P.+Hoffmann%2C+Erik&rft.au=Laird%2C+Robin+Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D63_obglArrMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFSakwa,_Richard1998" class="citation book cs1">Sakwa, Richard (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vX1U5G_xnqcC">Soviet Politics in Perspective</a>. Routledge. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-415-07153-6" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-415-07153-6"><bdi>978-0-415-07153-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512042437/http://books.google.com/books?id=vX1U5G_xnqcC&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Politics+in+Perspective&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-07153-6&rft.au=Sakwa%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvX1U5G_xnqcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFKucherov,_Samuel1970" class="citation book cs1">Kucherov, Samuel (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ssMUAAAAIAAJ">The Organs of Soviet Administration of Justice: Their History and Operation</a>. Brill Archive Publishers. p. 31. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512060346/http://books.google.com/books?id=ssMUAAAAIAAJ&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Organs+of+Soviet+Administration+of+Justice%3A+Their+History+and+Operation&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Brill+Archive+Publishers&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Kucherov%2C+Samuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DssMUAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFPhillips,_Steve2000" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, Steve (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_na0zfdhKQMC">Lenin and the Russian Revolution</a>. Heinemann. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-435-32719-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-435-32719-4"><bdi>978-0-435-32719-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512055812/http://books.google.com/books?id=_na0zfdhKQMC&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin+and+the+Russian+Revolution&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Heinemann&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-435-32719-4&rft.au=Phillips%2C+Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_na0zfdhKQMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">↑</a> <cite style="font-style:normal"> "Union of Soviet Socialist Republics". Encyclopædia Britannica. (2005). Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc..</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adc&rft.type=encyclopediaArticle&rft.title=Union+of+Soviet+Socialist+Republics&rft.source=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.publisher=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2005">  </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFService,_Robert2009" class="citation book cs1">Service, Robert (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o8Z1QAAACAAJ">History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-first Century</a>. Penguin Books Ltd. p. 379. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-14-103797-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-14-103797-4"><bdi>978-0-14-103797-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110511090135/http://books.google.com/books?id=o8Z1QAAACAAJ&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 11 Mei 2011. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Modern+Russia%3A+From+Tsarism+to+the+Twenty-first+Century&rft.pages=379&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Ltd&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-14-103797-4&rft.au=Service%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do8Z1QAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khrushchevgoner-55"><a href="#cite_ref-Khrushchevgoner_55-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFKhrushchev,_Nikita2007" class="citation book cs1">Khrushchev, Nikita (2007). Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev, Volume 3: Statesman. Pennsylvania State University Press. p. 674. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-271-02935-1" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-271-02935-1"><bdi>978-0-271-02935-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+Nikita+Khrushchev%2C+Volume+3%3A+Statesman&rft.pages=674&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-271-02935-1&rft.au=Khrushchev%2C+Nikita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-countrystudies-56"><a href="#cite_ref-countrystudies_56-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/russia/18.htm">"Gorbachev's Reform Dilemma"</a>. Library of Congress Country Studies. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110623125043/http://countrystudies.us/russia/18.htm">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 23 Junie 2011. Besoek op 16 Oktober 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gorbachev%27s+Reform+Dilemma&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress+Country+Studies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcountrystudies.us%2Frussia%2F18.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFPolmar,_Norman1991" class="citation book cs1">Polmar, Norman (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tkGDkpkQh-sC">The Naval Institute Guide to the Soviet</a>. United States Naval Institute. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-87021-241-3" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-87021-241-3"><bdi>978-0-87021-241-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150904015129/https://books.google.com/books?id=tkGDkpkQh-sC&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 4 September 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Naval+Institute+Guide+to+the+Soviet&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=United+States+Naval+Institute&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-87021-241-3&rft.au=Polmar%2C+Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtkGDkpkQh-sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFMcCauley,_Martin2007" class="citation book cs1">McCauley, Martin (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ycCZqmhhceMC">The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union</a>. Pearson Education. p. 490. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-582-78465-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-582-78465-9"><bdi>978-0-582-78465-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150904015129/https://books.google.com/books?id=ycCZqmhhceMC&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 4 September 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pages=490&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-582-78465-9&rft.au=McCauley%2C+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DycCZqmhhceMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFGovernment_of_the_USSR:_Gorbachev,_Mikhail1972" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Government of the USSR: Gorbachev, Mikhail (21 Maart 1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sssr.su/zopp.html"><bdi lang="ru">УКАЗ: ПОЛОЖЕНИЕ О МИНИСТЕРСТВЕ ЮСТИЦИИ СССР</bdi></a> [Law: About state governing bodies of USSR in a transition period on the bodies of state authority and administration of the USSR in Transition] (in Russies). sssr.su. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130425162517/http://www.sssr.su/zopp.html">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 25 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%A3%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%97%3A+%D0%9F%D0%9E%D0%9B%D0%9E%D0%96%D0%95%D0%9D%D0%98%D0%95+%D0%9E+%D0%9C%D0%98%D0%9D%D0%98%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%92%D0%95+%D0%AE%D0%A1%D0%A2%D0%98%D0%A6%D0%98%D0%98+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0&rft.pub=sssr.su&rft.date=1972-03-21&rft.au=Government+of+the+USSR%3A+Gorbachev%2C+Mikhail&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sssr.su%2Fzopp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFVincent_Daniels,_Robert1993" class="citation book cs1">Vincent Daniels, Robert (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gTIZ2dvDKF0C">A Documentary History of Communism in Russia: From Lenin to Gorbachev</a>. University Press of New England (UPNE). p. 388. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-87451-616-6" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-87451-616-6"><bdi>978-0-87451-616-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512041324/http://books.google.com/books?id=gTIZ2dvDKF0C&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Documentary+History+of+Communism+in+Russia%3A+From+Lenin+to+Gorbachev&rft.pages=388&rft.pub=University+Press+of+New+England+%28UPNE%29&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-87451-616-6&rft.au=Vincent+Daniels%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgTIZ2dvDKF0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation book cs1">Rutland, Peter (1993). The Politics of Economic Stagnation in the Soviet Union: The Role of Local Party Organs in Economic Management. Cambridge University Press. 1993. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-521-39241-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-521-39241-9"><bdi>978-0-521-39241-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rutland%2C+Peter+%281993%29.+The+Politics+of+Economic+Stagnation+in+the+Soviet+Union%3A+The+Role+of+Local+Party+Organs+in+Economic+Management&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-39241-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation book cs1">von Beyme, Klaus (2014). On Political Culture, Cultural Policy, Art and Politics. Springer. 19 November 2013. p. 65. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-3-319-01559-0" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-3-319-01559-0"><bdi>978-3-319-01559-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=von+Beyme%2C+Klaus+%282014%29.+On+Political+Culture%2C+Cultural+Policy%2C+Art+and+Politics&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013-11-19&rft.isbn=978-3-319-01559-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171010070843/http://constitution.garant.ru/history/ussr-rsfsr/1977/zakony/185465/">"Закон СССР от 14 марта 1990 г. N 1360-I "Об учреждении поста Президента СССР и внесении изменений и дополнений в Конституцию (Основной Закон) СССР""</a>. 10 Oktober 2017. Geargiveer vanaf <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://constitution.garant.ru/history/ussr-rsfsr/1977/zakony/185465/">die oorspronklike</a> op 10 Oktober 2017. Besoek op 4 Januarie 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0+%D0%BE%D1%82+14+%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0+1990+%D0%B3.+N+1360-I+%22%D0%9E%D0%B1+%D1%83%D1%87%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0+%D0%B8+%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B8+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B2+%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8E+%28%D0%9E%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%29+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0%22&rft.date=2017-10-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconstitution.garant.ru%2Fhistory%2Fussr-rsfsr%2F1977%2Fzakony%2F185465%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/docs/regional_perspectives_on_human_rights_the_ussr_and_russia_part_one">"Regional Perspectives on Human Rights: The USSR and Russia, Part One"</a>. Bertrand M. Patenaude Center for Russian, East European & Eurasian Studies, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bertrand+M.+Patenaude+Center+for+Russian%2C+East+European+%26+Eurasian+Studies%2C+Stanford+University&rft.atitle=Regional+Perspectives+on+Human+Rights%3A+The+USSR+and+Russia%2C+Part+One&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspice.fsi.stanford.edu%2Fdocs%2Fregional_perspectives_on_human_rights_the_ussr_and_russia_part_one&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pipes-65">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Pipes_65-0">65,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pipes_65-1">65,1</a> Richard Pipes Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime, Vintage books, Random House Inc., New York, 1995, <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-394-50242-7" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-394-50242-7">ISBN 978-0-394-50242-7</a>, pp. 401–403 </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">↑</a> Richard Pipes (2001) Communism Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-297-64688-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-297-64688-4">ISBN 978-0-297-64688-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFWyszyński1949" class="citation book cs1">Wyszyński, Andrzej (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180729141510/https://echelon.pl/files/echelon/Wyszy%C5%84ski%20-%20Teoria%20dowod%C3%B3w%20s%C4%85dowych%20%28OCR%29.pdf">Teoria dowodów sądowych w prawie radzieckim</a> (PDF). Biblioteka Zrzeszenia Prawników Demokratów. pp. 153, 162. Geargiveer vanaf <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://echelon.pl/files/echelon/Wyszy%C5%84ski%20-%20Teoria%20dowod%C3%B3w%20s%C4%85dowych%20(OCR).pdf">die oorspronklike</a> (PDF) op 29 Julie 2018. Besoek op 29 Desember 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teoria+dowod%C3%B3w+s%C4%85dowych+w+prawie+radzieckim&rft.pages=153%2C+162&rft.pub=Biblioteka+Zrzeszenia+Prawnik%C3%B3w+Demokrat%C3%B3w&rft.date=1949&rft.aulast=Wyszy%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Andrzej&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fechelon.pl%2Ffiles%2Fechelon%2FWyszy%25C5%2584ski%2520-%2520Teoria%2520dowod%25C3%25B3w%2520s%25C4%2585dowych%2520%28OCR%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFAdams,_Simon2005" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Simon (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LyqIDCc-cSsC">Russian Republics</a>. Black Rabbit Books. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-1-58340-606-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-1-58340-606-9"><bdi>978-1-58340-606-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512041101/http://books.google.com/books?id=LyqIDCc-cSsC&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Republics&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Black+Rabbit+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-58340-606-9&rft.au=Adams%2C+Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLyqIDCc-cSsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFFeldbrugge,_Ferdinand_Joseph_Maria1993" class="citation book cs1">Feldbrugge, Ferdinand Joseph Maria (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JWt7MN3Dch8C">Russian Law: The Rnd of the Soviet system and the Role of Law</a>. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7923-2358-7" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7923-2358-7"><bdi>978-0-7923-2358-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512041218/http://books.google.com/books?id=JWt7MN3Dch8C&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Law%3A+The+Rnd+of+the+Soviet+system+and+the+Role+of+Law&rft.pages=94&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-2358-7&rft.au=Feldbrugge%2C+Ferdinand+Joseph+Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJWt7MN3Dch8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-White_2012-70"><a href="#cite_ref-White_2012_70-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFWhite2012" class="citation book cs1">White, Matthew (2012). The Great Big Book of Horrible Things. W.W. Norton. p. 368. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-393-08192-3" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-393-08192-3"><bdi>978-0-393-08192-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Big+Book+of+Horrible+Things&rft.pages=368&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-393-08192-3&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">↑</a> Scott and Scott, The Armed Forces of the Soviet Union, Westview Press, 1979, p.13 </li> <li id="cite_note-theodora.com-72"><a href="#cite_ref-theodora.com_72-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theodora.com/wfb/1990/rankings/gdp_million_1.html">"GDP – Million – Flags, Maps, Economy, Geography, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163518/https://www.theodora.com/wfb/1990/rankings/gdp_million_1.html">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Junie 2018. Besoek op 29 Augustus 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GDP+%E2%80%93+Million+%E2%80%93+Flags%2C+Maps%2C+Economy%2C+Geography%2C+Climate%2C+Natural+Resources%2C+Current+Issues%2C+International+Agreements%2C+Population%2C+Social+Statistics%2C+Political+System&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theodora.com%2Fwfb%2F1990%2Frankings%2Fgdp_million_1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">↑</a> Scott en Scott (1979) p. 305 </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/30-october-1961-the-tsar-bomba">"October 30, 1961 – The Tsar Bomba: CTBTO Preparatory Commission"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160319201753/http://ctbto.org/specials/testing-times/30-october-1961-the-tsar-bomba/">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 19 Maart 2016. Besoek op 29 Augustus 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=October+30%2C+1961+%E2%80%93+The+Tsar+Bomba%3A+CTBTO+Preparatory+Commission&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ctbto.org%2Fspecials%2Ftesting-times%2F30-october-1961-the-tsar-bomba&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.prlib.ru/history/619624">"Принят закон "О всеобщей воинской обязанности""</a>. Vertaal deur A law on the mandatory military draft. prlib.ru. 12 Oktober 1967.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%82+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD+%22%D0%9E+%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%B9+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%22&rft.pub=prlib.ru&rft.date=1967-10-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.prlib.ru%2Fhistory%2F619624&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">↑</a> Lih, Lars T., Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914–1921, University of California Press (1990), p. 131 </li> <li id="cite_note-gregory2004-77">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-gregory2004_77-0">77,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gregory2004_77-1">77,1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gregory2004_77-2">77,2</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gregory2004_77-3">77,3</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gregory2004_77-4">77,4</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFGregory,_Paul_R.2004" class="citation book cs1">Gregory, Paul R. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hFHU5kaXhu8C">The Political Economy of Stalinism: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 218–220. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-521-53367-6" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-521-53367-6"><bdi>978-0-521-53367-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512042222/http://books.google.com/books?id=hFHU5kaXhu8C&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Political+Economy+of+Stalinism%3A+Evidence+from+the+Soviet+Secret+Archives&rft.pages=218-220&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-53367-6&rft.au=Gregory%2C+Paul+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhFHU5kaXhu8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFMawdsley,_Evan1998" class="citation book cs1">Mawdsley, Evan (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m-voAAAAIAAJ">The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union, 1929–1953</a>. Manchester University Press. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7190-4600-1" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7190-4600-1"><bdi>978-0-7190-4600-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210321215327/https://books.google.com/books?id=m-voAAAAIAAJ">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 21 Maart 2021. Besoek op 25 Mei 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Stalin+Years%3A+The+Soviet+Union%2C+1929%E2%80%931953&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-4600-1&rft.au=Mawdsley%2C+Evan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm-voAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto2-79"><a href="#cite_ref-auto2_79-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft,_S._G.Davies,_R._W.Cooper,_J._M.1986" class="citation book cs1">Wheatcroft, S. G.; Davies, R. W.; Cooper, J. M. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m-voAAAAIAAJ">Soviet Industrialization Reconsidered: Some Preliminary Conclusions about Economic Development between 1926 and 1941</a>. Vol. 39. Economic History Review. pp. 30–32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7190-4600-1" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7190-4600-1"><bdi>978-0-7190-4600-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210321215327/https://books.google.com/books?id=m-voAAAAIAAJ">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 21 Maart 2021. Besoek op 25 Mei 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Industrialization+Reconsidered%3A+Some+Preliminary+Conclusions+about+Economic+Development+between+1926+and+1941&rft.pages=30-32&rft.pub=Economic+History+Review&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-4600-1&rft.au=Wheatcroft%2C+S.+G.&rft.au=Davies%2C+R.+W.&rft.au=Cooper%2C+J.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm-voAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/russia/12.htm">"Reconstruction and Cold War"</a>. Library of Congress. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060927170555/http://countrystudies.us/russia/12.htm">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 27 September 2006. Besoek op 23 Oktober 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reconstruction+and+Cold+War&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcountrystudies.us%2Frussia%2F12.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-foreign_trade-81"><a href="#cite_ref-foreign_trade_81-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0391%29">"Reconstruction and Cold War"</a>. Library of Congress Country Studies. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170309155830/http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+su0391%29">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 9 Maart 2017. Besoek op 23 Oktober 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reconstruction+and+Cold+War&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress+Country+Studies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frs6.loc.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fquery%2Fr%3Ffrd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%2528DOCID%2Bsu0391%2529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://su90.ru/defence.html">"Расходы на оборону и численность вооруженных сил СССР"</a>. Vertaal deur Defense spending and size of the Armed Forces of the USSR.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8B+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83+%D0%B8+%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C+%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsu90.ru%2Fdefence.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-economy-83">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-economy_83-0">83,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-economy_83-1">83,1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150904015129/http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+su0009%29">"Economy"</a>. Library of Congress Country Studies. Geargiveer vanaf <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0009%29">die oorspronklike</a> op 4 September 2015. Besoek op 23 Oktober 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Economy&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress+Country+Studies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frs6.loc.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fquery%2Fr%3Ffrd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%2528DOCID%2Bsu0009%2529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hanson-84">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-hanson_84-0">84,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hanson_84-1">84,1</a> Hanson, Philip. The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Economy: An Economic History of the USSR from 1945. Londen: Longman, 2003. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFBergson,_Abram1997" class="citation journal cs1">Bergson, Abram (1997). "How Big was the Soviet GDP?". Comparative Economic Studies. 39 (1): 1–14. <a href="/wiki/Digitale_objek-identifiseerder" title="Digitale objek-identifiseerder">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fces.1997.1">10.1057/ces.1997.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155781882">155781882</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Economic+Studies&rft.atitle=How+Big+was+the+Soviet+GDP%3F&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-14&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2Fces.1997.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155781882%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Bergson%2C+Abram&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFHarrison,_Mark1993" class="citation journal cs1">Harrison, Mark (1993). "Soviet Economic Growth Since 1928: The Alternative Statistics of G. I. Khanin". Europe-Asia Studies. 45 (1): 141–167. <a href="/wiki/Digitale_objek-identifiseerder" title="Digitale objek-identifiseerder">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139308412080">10.1080/09668139308412080</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Soviet+Economic+Growth+Since+1928%3A+The+Alternative+Statistics+of+G.+I.+Khanin&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=141-167&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139308412080&rft.au=Harrison%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFGvosdev,_Nikolas2008" class="citation book cs1">Gvosdev, Nikolas (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_xTyZUEqkYC">The Strange Death of Soviet communism: A Postscript</a>. Transaction Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-1-4128-0698-5" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-1-4128-0698-5"><bdi>978-1-4128-0698-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200819204015/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q_xTyZUEqkYC">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 19 Augustus 2020. Besoek op 25 Mei 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Strange+Death+of+Soviet+communism%3A+A+Postscript&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4128-0698-5&rft.au=Gvosdev%2C+Nikolas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ_xTyZUEqkYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-science&technology-88"><a href="#cite_ref-science&technology_88-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150904015129/http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+su0413%29">"Science and Technology"</a>. Library of Congress Country Studies. Geargiveer vanaf <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0413%29">die oorspronklike</a> op 4 September 2015. Besoek op 23 Oktober 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Science+and+Technology&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress+Country+Studies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frs6.loc.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fquery%2Fr%3Ffrd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%2528DOCID%2Bsu0413%2529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-89"><a href="#cite_ref-auto_89-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/sovi.html">"The Soviet Union and the United States – Revelations from the Russian Archives | Exhibitions – Library of Congress"</a>. www.loc.gov. 15 Junie 1992. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170915012329/http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/sovi.html">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 15 September 2017. Besoek op 12 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.loc.gov&rft.atitle=The+Soviet+Union+and+the+United+States+%E2%80%93+Revelations+from+the+Russian+Archives+%7C+Exhibitions+%E2%80%93+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=1992-06-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fexhibits%2Farchives%2Fsovi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">↑</a> Rose Eveleth (12 Desember 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/soviet-russia-had-a-better-record-of-training-women-in-stem-than-america-does-today-180948141/?no-ist">Soviet Russia Had a Better Record of Training Women in STEM Than America Does Today</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006112126/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/soviet-russia-had-a-better-record-of-training-women-in-stem-than-america-does-today-180948141/?no-ist">Geargiveer</a> 6 Oktober 2014 op <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Smithsonian.com. Besoek op 26 Junie 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFOfford" class="citation journal cs1">Offord. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.the-scientist.com/foundations/stamping-out-science-1948-68665">"Stamping Out Science, 1948"</a>. The Scientist. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210528184521/https://www.the-scientist.com/foundations/stamping-out-science-1948-68665">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 28 Mei 2021. Besoek op 20 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Scientist&rft.atitle=Stamping+Out+Science%2C+1948&rft.au=Offord&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-scientist.com%2Ffoundations%2Fstamping-out-science-1948-68665&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFChan2015" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Chan, Chi Ling (11 Junie 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ojs.stanford.edu/ojs/index.php/intersect/article/view/691#:~:text=This%20essay%20argues%20that%20the,demands%20of%2021st%20century%20informationalization.">"Fallen Behind: Science, Technology and Soviet Statism"</a>. Intersect: The Stanford Journal of Science, Technology, and Society (in Engels). 8 (3).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Intersect%3A+The+Stanford+Journal+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Society&rft.atitle=Fallen+Behind%3A+Science%2C+Technology+and+Soviet+Statism&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2015-06-11&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Chi+Ling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fojs.stanford.edu%2Fojs%2Findex.php%2Fintersect%2Farticle%2Fview%2F691%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThis%2520essay%2520argues%2520that%2520the%2Cdemands%2520of%252021st%2520century%2520informationalization.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/astronomy-and-space-exploration/space-exploration/sputnik">"Sputnik"</a>. Encyclopedia. 27 November 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211127121715/https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/astronomy-and-space-exploration/space-exploration/sputnik">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 27 November 2021. Besoek op 27 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Sputnik&rft.date=2021-11-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fscience-and-technology%2Fastronomy-and-space-exploration%2Fspace-exploration%2Fsputnik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/first-man-in-space">"Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first man in space"</a>. History.com. 27 November 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211123163507/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/first-man-in-space">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 23 November 2021. Besoek op 27 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History.com&rft.atitle=Soviet+cosmonaut+Yuri+Gagarin+becomes+the+first+man+in+space&rft.date=2021-11-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fthis-day-in-history%2Ffirst-man-in-space&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harland2020-95"><a href="#cite_ref-Harland2020_95-0">↑</a> <cite style="font-style:normal">Harland, David M. (28 January 2020). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mir-Soviet-Russian-space-station">Mir</a>". Encyclopedia Britannica. </cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adc&rft.type=encyclopediaArticle&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft.aulast=Harland&rft.title=Mir&rft.identifier=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FMir-Soviet-Russian-space-station&rft.source=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=28+January+2020">  </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFHighman,_Robert_D.S.Greenwood,_John_T.Hardesty,_Von1998" class="citation book cs1">Highman, Robert D.S.; Greenwood, John T.; Hardesty, Von (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cpynoFM-Jf4C">Russian Aviation and Air Power in the Twentieth Century</a>. Routledge. p. 134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7146-4784-5" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7146-4784-5"><bdi>978-0-7146-4784-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201116193139/https://books.google.com/books?id=cpynoFM-Jf4C">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 16 November 2020. Besoek op 14 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Aviation+and+Air+Power+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-4784-5&rft.au=Highman%2C+Robert+D.S.&rft.au=Greenwood%2C+John+T.&rft.au=Hardesty%2C+Von&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcpynoFM-Jf4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ciacom-97">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-ciacom_97-0">97,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ciacom_97-1">97,1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFCentral_Intelligence_Agency1991" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101005005759/http://www.theodora.com/wfb1991/soviet_union/soviet_union_communications.html">"Soviet Union – Communications"</a>. The World Factbook. Geargiveer vanaf <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theodora.com/wfb1991/soviet_union/soviet_union_communications.html">die oorspronklike</a> op 5 Oktober 2010. Besoek op 20 Oktober 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Soviet+Union+%E2%80%93+Communications&rft.date=1991&rft.au=Central+Intelligence+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theodora.com%2Fwfb1991%2Fsoviet_union%2Fsoviet_union_communications.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983205-98">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1983205_98-0">98,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1983205_98-1">98,1</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson1983">Wilson 1983</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson1983201-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilson1983201_99-0">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilson1983">Wilson 1983</a>, p. 201. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985168-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985168_100-0">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFAmblerShawSymons1985">Ambler, Shaw & Symons 1985</a>, p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985167-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985167_101-0">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFAmblerShawSymons1985">Ambler, Shaw & Symons 1985</a>, p. 167. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985169-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmblerShawSymons1985169_102-0">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFAmblerShawSymons1985">Ambler, Shaw & Symons 1985</a>, p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFIMFOECD1991" class="citation book cs1">IMF; OECD (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_AQFk8R18f0C">A Study of the Soviet Economy</a>. Vol. 3. International Monetary Fund en Economic Co-operation and Development. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-92-64-13468-3" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-92-64-13468-3"><bdi>978-92-64-13468-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Study+of+the+Soviet+Economy&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=International+Monetary+Fund+en+Economic+Co-operation+and+Development&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-92-64-13468-3&rft.au=IMF&rft.au=OECD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_AQFk8R18f0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">↑</a> ДОРОГИ И ДВИЖЕНИЕ В СССР И ЦАРСКОЙ РОССИИ: ЧТО БЫ ПЕРЕНЯТЬ?, 1 August 2016<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%94%D0%9E%D0%A0%D0%9E%D0%93%D0%98+%D0%98+%D0%94%D0%92%D0%98%D0%96%D0%95%D0%9D%D0%98%D0%95+%D0%92+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0+%D0%98+%D0%A6%D0%90%D0%A0%D0%A1%D0%9A%D0%9E%D0%99+%D0%A0%D0%9E%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%98%D0%98%3A+%D0%A7%D0%A2%D0%9E+%D0%91%D0%AB+%D0%9F%D0%95%D0%A0%D0%95%D0%9D%D0%AF%D0%A2%D0%AC%3F&rft.date=1+August+2016&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Sowjetunie">  </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">↑</a> <cite style="font-style:normal">((The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica)) (8 June 2023). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/War-Communism">War Communism</a>". <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Britannica">Encyclopaedia Britannica</a>. </cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adc&rft.type=encyclopediaArticle&rft.au=%28%28The+Editors+of+Encyclopaedia+Britannica%29%29&rft.title=War+Communism&rft.identifier=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fevent%2FWar-Communism&rft.source=%5B%5BEncyclopaedia+Britannica%5D%5D&rft.date=8+June+2023">  </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFMark_Harrison1996" class="citation book cs1">Mark Harrison (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yJcD7_Q_rQ8C&pg=PA167">Accounting for War: Soviet Production, Employment, and the Defence Burden, 1940–1945</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-521-89424-1" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-521-89424-1"><bdi>978-0-521-89424-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200617211223/https://books.google.com/books?id=yJcD7_Q_rQ8C&pg=PA167">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 17 Junie 2020. Besoek op 25 Mei 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accounting+for+War%3A+Soviet+Production%2C+Employment%2C+and+the+Defence+Burden%2C+1940%E2%80%931945&rft.pages=167&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-89424-1&rft.au=Mark+Harrison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyJcD7_Q_rQ8C%26pg%3DPA167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFJay_WinterEmmanuel_Sivan2000" class="citation book cs1">Jay Winter; Emmanuel Sivan (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZK2A5x7E8IkC&pg=PA64">War and Remembrance in the Twentieth Century</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-521-79436-7" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-521-79436-7"><bdi>978-0-521-79436-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150904015129/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZK2A5x7E8IkC&pg=PA64">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 4 September 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+and+Remembrance+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-79436-7&rft.au=Jay+Winter&rft.au=Emmanuel+Sivan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZK2A5x7E8IkC%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFVallin,_J.Chesnais,_J.C.1970" class="citation book cs1">Vallin, J.; Chesnais, J.C. (1970). Recent Developments of Mortality in Europe, English-Speaking Countries and the Soviet Union, 1960–1970. Vol. 29. Population Studies. pp. 861–898.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recent+Developments+of+Mortality+in+Europe%2C+English-Speaking+Countries+and+the+Soviet+Union%2C+1960%E2%80%931970&rft.pages=861-898&rft.pub=Population+Studies&rft.date=1970&rft.au=Vallin%2C+J.&rft.au=Chesnais%2C+J.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFDavis,_ChristopherFeshbach,_Murray" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Christopher; Feshbach, Murray. Rising Infant Mortality in the USSR in the 1970s. Washington, D.C.: United States Census Bureau. p. 95.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rising+Infant+Mortality+in+the+USSR+in+the+1970s&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=United+States+Census+Bureau&rft.au=Davis%2C+Christopher&rft.au=Feshbach%2C+Murray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cia-110"><a href="#cite_ref-cia_110-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFCentral_Intelligence_Agency1991" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theodora.com/wfb1991/soviet_union/soviet_union_people.html">"Soviet Union – People"</a>. The World Factbook. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101004135453/http://www.theodora.com/wfb1991/soviet_union/soviet_union_people.html">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 4 Oktober 2010. Besoek op 25 Oktober 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Soviet+Union+%E2%80%93+People&rft.date=1991&rft.au=Central+Intelligence+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theodora.com%2Fwfb1991%2Fsoviet_union%2Fsoviet_union_people.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_89.php">"Демоскоп Weekly – Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей"</a>. www.demoscope.ru.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.demoscope.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BF+Weekly+%E2%80%93+%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5.+%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.demoscope.ru%2Fweekly%2Fssp%2Fsng_nac_89.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEComrie19812-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEComrie19812_112-0">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFComrie1981">Comrie 1981</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFComrie1981"> Comrie 1981</a>, p. 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFHosking,_Geoffrey2006" class="citation web cs1">Hosking, Geoffrey (13 Maart 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historytoday.com/geoffrey-hosking/rulers-and-victims-russians-soviet-union">"Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union"</a>. History Today. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110501085443/http://www.historytoday.com/geoffrey-hosking/rulers-and-victims-russians-soviet-union">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 1 Mei 2011. Besoek op 25 Oktober 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=Rulers+and+Victims%3A+The+Russians+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.date=2006-03-13&rft.au=Hosking%2C+Geoffrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Fgeoffrey-hosking%2Frulers-and-victims-russians-soviet-union&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">↑</a> Pål Kolstø, "Political construction sites: Nation-building in Russia and the post-Soviet States". Boulder, Colorado: Westview press 2000, pp. 81–104 uncorrected version, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://folk.uio.no/palk/ch02.htm">Chapter 2, par. "Nations and Nation-Building in Eastern Europe"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171219130957/http://folk.uio.no/palk/ch02.htm">Geargiveer</a> 19 Desember 2017 op <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://folk.uio.no/palk/PCSch05russian%20diasporas.htm">Chapter 5</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050102081015/http://folk.uio.no/palk/PCSch05russian%20diasporas.htm">Geargiveer</a> 2 Januarie 2005 op <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFComrie1981"> Comrie 1981</a>, pp. 3–4 </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFComrie1981"> Comrie 1981</a>, p. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFComrie1981"> Comrie 1981</a>, p. 25 </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFComrie1981"> Comrie 1981</a>, p. 26 </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160508201331/http://legal-ussr.narod.ru/data01/tex10935.htm"><bdi lang="ru">ЗАКОН СССР ОТ 24 April 1990 О ЯЗЫКАХ НАРОДОВ СССР</bdi></a> [Law of the USSR from 24 April 1990 on languages of the USSR] (in Russies). Government of the Soviet Union. 24 April 1990. Geargiveer vanaf <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://legal-ussr.narod.ru/data01/tex10935.htm">die oorspronklike</a> op 8 Mei 2016. Besoek op 24 Oktober 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%97%D0%90%D0%9A%D0%9E%D0%9D+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0+%D0%9E%D0%A2+24+April+1990+%D0%9E+%D0%AF%D0%97%D0%AB%D0%9A%D0%90%D0%A5+%D0%9D%D0%90%D0%A0%D0%9E%D0%94%D0%9E%D0%92+%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A1%D0%A0&rft.pub=Government+of+the+Soviet+Union&rft.date=1990-04-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flegal-ussr.narod.ru%2Fdata01%2Ftex10935.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dailylife-121">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-dailylife_121-0">121,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dailylife_121-1">121,1</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dailylife_121-2">121,2</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFEaton,_Katherine_Bliss2004" class="citation book cs1">Eaton, Katherine Bliss (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinsovie00eato">Daily life in the Soviet Union</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinsovie00eato/page/285">285</a> and 286. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-313-31628-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-313-31628-9"><bdi>978-0-313-31628-9</bdi></a>. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+life+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pages=285+and+286&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-313-31628-9&rft.au=Eaton%2C+Katherine+Bliss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdailylifeinsovie00eato&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simkin_2003-122"><a href="#cite_ref-Simkin_2003_122-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFSilvio_FerrariW._Cole_DurhamElizabeth_A._Sewell2003" class="citation book cs1">Silvio Ferrari; W. Cole Durham; Elizabeth A. Sewell (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QEucgny-0k4C">Law and religion in post-communist Europe</a>. Peeters Pub & Booksellers. p. 261. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-90-429-1262-5" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-90-429-1262-5"><bdi>978-90-429-1262-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200622083150/https://books.google.com/books?id=QEucgny-0k4C">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 22 Junie 2020. Besoek op 25 Mei 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+and+religion+in+post-communist+Europe&rft.pages=261&rft.pub=Peeters+Pub+%26+Booksellers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-90-429-1262-5&rft.au=Silvio+Ferrari&rft.au=W.+Cole+Durham&rft.au=Elizabeth+A.+Sewell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQEucgny-0k4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simon_1974,_64-65-123">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Simon_1974,_64-65_123-0">123,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Simon_1974,_64-65_123-1">123,1</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimon1974"> Simon 1974</a>, pp. 64–65 </li> <li id="cite_note-Simon_1974,_209-124"><a href="#cite_ref-Simon_1974,_209_124-0">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFSimon1974"> Simon 1974</a>, p. 209 </li> <li id="cite_note-Atwood_2001,_311-125"><a href="#cite_ref-Atwood_2001,_311_125-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFAtwood,_Craig_D.2001" class="citation book cs1">Atwood, Craig D. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alwaysreformingh0000atwo">Always Reforming: A History of Christianity Since 1300</a>. Macon, Georgia: Mercer University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/alwaysreformingh0000atwo/page/311">311</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-86554-679-0" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-86554-679-0"><bdi>978-0-86554-679-0</bdi></a>. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Always+Reforming%3A+A+History+of+Christianity+Since+1300&rft.place=Macon%2C+Georgia&rft.pages=311&rft.pub=Mercer+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-86554-679-0&rft.au=Atwood%2C+Craig+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Falwaysreformingh0000atwo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">↑</a> The Globe and Mail (Kanada), 9 Maart 2001. "Why father of glasnost is despised in Russia" deur Geoffrey York <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/5141.html#">http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/5141.html#</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120120105914/http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/5141.html">Geargiveer</a> 20 Januarie 2012 op <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">↑</a> D. Pospielovsky, The Russian Orthodox Church under the Soviet Regime, vol. 1, p. 175. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">↑</a> Dimitry V. Pospielovsky. A History of Soviet Atheism in Theory, and Practice, and the Believer, vol 2: Soviet Antireligious Campaigns and Persecutions, St Martin's Press, New York (1988) </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/36cons04.html">"ARTICLE 124"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190102163245/http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/36cons04.html">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 2 Januarie 2019. Besoek op 4 Februarie 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ARTICLE+124.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.departments.bucknell.edu%2Frussian%2Fconst%2F36cons04.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/77cons02.html">"Article 52"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190216062245/http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/77cons02.html">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 16 Februarie 2019. Besoek op 4 Februarie 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Article+52.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.departments.bucknell.edu%2Frussian%2Fconst%2F77cons02.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">↑</a> Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival, by Christopher Marsh, page 47. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">↑</a> Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History, by Dilip Hiro. Penguin, 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">↑</a> USGOV1. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFBlainey2011" class="citation book cs1">Blainey, Geoffrey (2011). A Short History of Christianity. Viking. p. 494.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Christianity&rft.pages=494&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Blainey&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Janz_1998,_38-39-135">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Janz_1998,_38-39_135-0">135,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Janz_1998,_38-39_135-1">135,1</a> <a href="#CITEREFJanz1998"> Janz 1998</a>, pp. 38–39 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ro'i_1995,_263-136"><a href="#cite_ref-Ro'i_1995,_263_136-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFRo'i,_Yaacov1995" class="citation book cs1">Ro'i, Yaacov (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bJBH5pxzSyMC">Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union</a>. Londen: Frank Cass. p. 263. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7146-4619-0" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7146-4619-0"><bdi>978-0-7146-4619-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512055620/http://books.google.com/books?id=bJBH5pxzSyMC">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+and+Jewish+Life+in+Russia+and+the+Soviet+Union&rft.place=Londen&rft.pages=263&rft.pub=Frank+Cass&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-4619-0&rft.au=Ro%27i%2C+Yaacov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbJBH5pxzSyMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nahaylo_&_Swoboda_1990,_144-137">↑ <a href="#cite_ref-Nahaylo_&_Swoboda_1990,_144_137-0">137,0</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nahaylo_&_Swoboda_1990,_144_137-1">137,1</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFNahaylo,_BohdanVictor_Swoboda1990" class="citation book cs1">Nahaylo, Bohdan; Victor Swoboda (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZrG7vrPue4wC">Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities Problem in the USSR</a>. London: Hamish Hamilton. p. 144. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-02-922401-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-02-922401-4"><bdi>978-0-02-922401-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512050225/http://books.google.com/books?id=ZrG7vrPue4wC">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Disunion%3A+A+History+of+the+Nationalities+Problem+in+the+USSR&rft.place=London&rft.pages=144&rft.pub=Hamish+Hamilton&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-02-922401-4&rft.au=Nahaylo%2C+Bohdan&rft.au=Victor+Swoboda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZrG7vrPue4wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Steinberg_&_Wanner_2008,-138"><a href="#cite_ref-Steinberg_&_Wanner_2008,_138-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFMark_D._SteinbergCatherine_Wanner2008" class="citation book cs1">Mark D. Steinberg; Catherine Wanner (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LR6X3EY8oPIC">Religion, morality, and community in post-Soviet societies</a>. Indiana University Press. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-253-22038-7" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-253-22038-7"><bdi>978-0-253-22038-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200617211211/https://books.google.com/books?id=LR6X3EY8oPIC">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 17 Junie 2020. Besoek op 25 Mei 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion%2C+morality%2C+and+community+in+post-Soviet+societies&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-253-22038-7&rft.au=Mark+D.+Steinberg&rft.au=Catherine+Wanner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLR6X3EY8oPIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-subculture-139"><a href="#cite_ref-subculture_139-0">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFMcKay,_GeorgeWilliams,_Christopher2009" class="citation book cs1">McKay, George; Williams, Christopher (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xpNBm-z7aOYC">Subcultures and New Religious Movements in Russia and East-Central Europe</a>. Peter Lang. pp. 231–232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-3-03911-921-9" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-3-03911-921-9"><bdi>978-3-03911-921-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512035801/http://books.google.com/books?id=xpNBm-z7aOYC&dq">Geargiveer</a> vanaf die oorspronklike op 12 Mei 2015. Besoek op 20 Junie 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Subcultures+and+New+Religious+Movements+in+Russia+and+East-Central+Europe&rft.pages=231-232&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-03911-921-9&rft.au=McKay%2C+George&rft.au=Williams%2C+Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxpNBm-z7aOYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">↑</a> 'On the other hand...' See the index of Stalin and His Hangmen by Donald Rayfield, 2004, Random House </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">↑</a> <a href="#CITEREFRayfield2004"> Rayfield 2004</a>, pp. 317–320 </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">↑</a> <cite style="font-style:normal"> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037405&gt">Gorbachev, Mikhail</a>". Encyclopædia Britannica. (2 October 2007). URL besoek op 1 Desember 2017.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adc&rft.type=encyclopediaArticle&rft.title=Gorbachev%2C+Mikhail&rft.identifier=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9037405%26gt&rft.source=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2+October+2007">  [dooie skakel] </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFBenjamin,_Daniel1992" class="citation magazine cs1">Benjamin, Daniel (27 Julie 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090902183140/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,976117-1,00.html">"Traditions Pro Vs. Amateur"</a>. Time. Geargiveer vanaf <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,976117-1,00.html">die oorspronklike</a> op 2 September 2009. Besoek op 18 Maart 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Traditions+Pro+Vs.+Amateur&rft.date=1992-07-27&rft.au=Benjamin%2C+Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C976117-1%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">↑</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFSchantz" class="citation journal cs1">Schantz, Otto. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130505052232/http://www.coubertin.ch/pdf/schantz.pdf">"The Olympic Ideal and the Winter Games Attitudes Towards the Olympic Winter Games in Olympic Discourses—from Coubertin to Samaranch"</a> (PDF). Comité International Pierre De Coubertin. Geargiveer vanaf <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coubertin.ch/pdf/schantz.pdf">die oorspronklike</a> (PDF) op 5 Mei 2013. Besoek op 13 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Olympic+Ideal+and+the+Winter+Games+Attitudes+Towards+the+Olympic+Winter+Games+in+Olympic+Discourses%E2%80%94from+Coubertin+to+Samaranch&rft.aulast=Schantz&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.coubertin.ch%2Fpdf%2Fschantz.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Sjabloon:Cite_journal" title="Sjabloon:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Hulp:AS1-foute#missing_periodical" title="Hulp:AS1-foute">hulp</a>) </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliografie">Bibliografie</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=33" title="Wysig afdeling: Bibliografie" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section's source code: Bibliografie">wysig bron</a>]</div> <div style="font-size:90%; -moz-column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; column-count:3;margin-left:1.5em;"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFAmblerShawSymons1985" class="citation book cs1">Ambler, John; Shaw, Denis J.B.; Symons, Leslie (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rpg9AAAAIAAJ">Soviet and East European Transport Problems</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7099-0557-8" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7099-0557-8"><bdi>978-0-7099-0557-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+and+East+European+Transport+Problems&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-7099-0557-8&rft.aulast=Ambler&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Shaw%2C+Denis+J.B.&rft.au=Symons%2C+Leslie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRpg9AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFComrie1981" class="citation book cs1">Comrie, Bernard (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/languagesofsovie0000comr">The Languages of the Soviet Union</a>. Cambridge University Press (CUP) Archive. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-521-29877-3" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-521-29877-3"><bdi>978-0-521-29877-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+of+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press+%28CUP%29+Archive&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29877-3&rft.aulast=Comrie&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flanguagesofsovie0000comr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFDaviesWheatcroft2004" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Robert; Wheatcroft, Stephen (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9780333311073">The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia Volume 5: The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture 1931–1933</a>. 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Basingstoke, Engeland: Palgrave. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-333-72157-5" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-333-72157-5"><bdi>978-0-333-72157-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin%3A+The+Practice+and+Theory+of+Revolution&rft.place=Basingstoke%2C+Engeland&rft.series=European+History+in+Perspective&rft.pub=Palgrave&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-333-72157-5&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFWilson1983" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, David (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1qgOAAAAQAAJ">The Demand for Energy in the Soviet Union</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7099-2704-4" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-0-7099-2704-4"><bdi>978-0-7099-2704-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Demand+for+Energy+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-7099-2704-4&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1qgOAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft1996" class="citation journal cs1">Wheatcroft, Stephen (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-German_Soviet.pdf">"The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45"</a> (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 48 (8): 1319–1353. <a href="/wiki/Digitale_objek-identifiseerder" title="Digitale objek-identifiseerder">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139608412415">10.1080/09668139608412415</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/152781">152781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Scale+and+Nature+of+German+and+Soviet+Repression+and+Mass+Killings%2C+1930%E2%80%9345&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1319-1353&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139608412415&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F152781%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wheatcroft&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FWCR-German_Soviet.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r2205490" /><cite id="CITEREFMccauley2014" class="citation book cs1">Mccauley, Martin (2014). The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-1-317-86783-8" title="Spesiaal:Boekbronne/978-1-317-86783-8"><bdi>978-1-317-86783-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Soviet+Union&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-86783-8&rft.aulast=Mccauley&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Faf.wikipedia.org%3ASowjetunie" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Skakels">Skakels</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&veaction=edit&section=34" title="Wysig afdeling: Skakels" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor">wysig</a> | <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sowjetunie&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section's source code: Skakels">wysig bron</a>]</div> <ul><li>(ru) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maps-world.ru/usssr.htm">Kaart van die USSR, grense, republieke en die grondgebied van die USSR</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikimedia Commons logo"><img alt="Wikimedia Commons logo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons" title="Wikimedia Commons">Wikimedia Commons</a> het meer media in die kategorie <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Soviet_Union" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Soviet Union">Sowjetunie</a>.</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AAer:Wiktionary_small.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img 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