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</a> <ul id="toc-Psychiatric_comorbidities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trauma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trauma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Trauma </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trauma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-psychiatric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-psychiatric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Non-psychiatric </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-psychiatric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Problematic_digital_media_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problematic_digital_media_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Problematic digital media use </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Problematic_digital_media_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suicide_risk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suicide_risk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Suicide risk </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suicide_risk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Causes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Causes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Environment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathophysiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathophysiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Pathophysiology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pathophysiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Pathophysiology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Pathophysiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Brain_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brain_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Brain structure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brain_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neurotransmitter_pathways" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurotransmitter_pathways"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Neurotransmitter pathways </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurotransmitter_pathways-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Executive_function_and_motivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Executive_function_and_motivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Executive function and motivation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Executive_function_and_motivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paradoxical_reaction_to_neuroactive_substances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paradoxical_reaction_to_neuroactive_substances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Paradoxical reaction to neuroactive substances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paradoxical_reaction_to_neuroactive_substances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Diagnosis </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Diagnosis subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_Classification_of_Diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_Classification_of_Diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 International Classification of Diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_Classification_of_Diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_construct_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_construct_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Social construct theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_construct_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adults" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adults"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Adults </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adults-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differential_diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differential_diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Differential diagnosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differential_diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Management </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Management subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Behavioural_therapies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Behavioural_therapies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Behavioural therapies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Behavioural_therapies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_interventions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_interventions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Digital interventions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_interventions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Medication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stimulants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stimulants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 Stimulants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stimulants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-stimulants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-stimulants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.2 Non-stimulants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-stimulants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Guidelines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Guidelines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.3 Guidelines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Guidelines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exercise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exercise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Exercise </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exercise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Diet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prognosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prognosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Prognosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prognosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Epidemiology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_directions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_directions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Research directions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research_directions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Research directions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Research_directions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Possible_positive_traits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_positive_traits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Possible positive traits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_positive_traits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_biomarkers_for_diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_biomarkers_for_diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Possible biomarkers for diagnosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_biomarkers_for_diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 76 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-76" aria-hidden="true" > 76 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aandaggebrek-hiperaktiwiteitsteuring" title="Aandaggebrek-hiperaktiwiteitsteuring – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Aandaggebrek-hiperaktiwiteitsteuring" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-/Hyperaktivit%C3%A4tsst%C3%B6rung" title="Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-/Hyperaktivitätsstörung – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-/Hyperaktivitätsstörung" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B6%D8%B7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%86%D9%82%D8%B5_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%B9_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%B7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B7" title="اضطراب نقص الانتباه مع فرط النشاط – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اضطراب نقص الانتباه مع فرط النشاط" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diqq%C9%99t_%C3%A7at%C4%B1%C5%9Fmazl%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1_v%C9%99_hiperaktivlik_pozuntusu" title="Diqqət çatışmazlığı və hiperaktivlik pozuntusu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Diqqət çatışmazlığı və hiperaktivlik pozuntusu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%85%D9%87_%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D9%88_%DA%86%D9%88%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C_%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B4%D9%85%D8%A7_%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%88%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="دیقت اسکیلمه سی و چوخلی چالیشما پوزوکلوگی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="دیقت اسکیلمه سی و چوخلی چالیشما پوزوکلوگی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%B9-%C3%AC-le%CC%8Dk_put-chiok_ko%C3%A8-t%C5%8Dng-ch%C3%A8ng" title="Chù-ì-le̍k put-chiok koè-tōng-chèng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chù-ì-le̍k put-chiok koè-tōng-chèng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%84%D1%96%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%83_%D1%9E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%96_%D1%96_%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%9E%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D1%96" title="Сіндром дэфіцыту ўвагі і гіперактыўнасці – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сіндром дэфіцыту ўвагі і гіперактыўнасці" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%82_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE_%D0%B8_%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Синдром на дефицит на вниманието и хиперактивност – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Синдром на дефицит на вниманието и хиперактивност" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poreme%C4%87aj_hiperaktivnosti_i_deficita_pa%C5%BEnje" title="Poremećaj hiperaktivnosti i deficita pažnje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Poremećaj hiperaktivnosti i deficita pažnje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trastorn_per_d%C3%A8ficit_d%27atenci%C3%B3_amb_hiperactivitat" title="Trastorn per dèficit d'atenció amb hiperactivitat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Trastorn per dèficit d'atenció amb hiperactivitat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADHD" title="ADHD – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="ADHD" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhwylder_diffyg_canolbwyntio_a_gorfywiogrwydd" title="Anhwylder diffyg canolbwyntio a gorfywiogrwydd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Anhwylder diffyg canolbwyntio a gorfywiogrwydd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADHD" title="ADHD – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="ADHD" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-/Hyperaktivit%C3%A4tsst%C3%B6rung" title="Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-/Hyperaktivitätsstörung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-/Hyperaktivitätsstörung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktiivsus-_ja_t%C3%A4helepanuh%C3%A4ire" title="Aktiivsus- ja tähelepanuhäire – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Aktiivsus- ja tähelepanuhäire" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%87%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82_%CF%80%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%87%CE%AE%CF%82/%CF%85%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Διαταραχή ελλειμματικής προσοχής/υπερκινητικότητας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διαταραχή ελλειμματικής προσοχής/υπερκινητικότητας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trastorno_por_d%C3%A9ficit_de_atenci%C3%B3n_con_hiperactividad" title="Trastorno por déficit de atención con hiperactividad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Trastorno por déficit de atención con hiperactividad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atentomanka-hiperaktiva_perturbo" title="Atentomanka-hiperaktiva perturbo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Atentomanka-hiperaktiva perturbo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arreta-defizitaren_eta_hiperaktibitatearen_nahasmendu" title="Arreta-defizitaren eta hiperaktibitatearen nahasmendu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Arreta-defizitaren eta hiperaktibitatearen nahasmendu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84_%DA%A9%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%87%DB%8C-%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B4%E2%80%8C%D9%81%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C" title="اختلال کم‌توجهی-بیش‌فعالی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اختلال کم‌توجهی-بیش‌فعالی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trouble_d%C3%A9ficit_de_l%27attention_avec_ou_sans_hyperactivit%C3%A9" title="Trouble déficit de l'attention avec ou sans hyperactivité – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Trouble déficit de l'attention avec ou sans hyperactivité" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neamhord_Easnaimh_Airde" title="Neamhord Easnaimh Airde – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Neamhord Easnaimh Airde" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trastorno_por_d%C3%A9ficit_de_atenci%C3%B3n_con_hiperactividade" title="Trastorno por déficit de atención con hiperactividade – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Trastorno por déficit de atención con hiperactividade" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98%EB%A0%A5%EA%B2%B0%ED%95%8D_%EA%B3%BC%EC%9E%89%ED%96%89%EB%8F%99%EC%9E%A5%EC%95%A0" title="주의력결핍 과잉행동장애 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="주의력결핍 과잉행동장애" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashin_hankali_na_rashin_%C6%99arfi" title="Rashin hankali na rashin ƙarfi – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Rashin hankali na rashin ƙarfi" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%A4%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%AB_%D6%87_%D5%B0%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B7" title="Ուշադրության պակասի և հիպերակտիվության համախտանիշ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ուշադրության պակասի և հիպերակտիվության համախտանիշ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="ध्यानाभाव एवं अतिसक्रियता विकार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ध्यानाभाव एवं अतिसक्रियता विकार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poreme%C4%87aj_hiperaktivnosti_i_deficita_pa%C5%BEnje" title="Poremećaj hiperaktivnosti i deficita pažnje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Poremećaj hiperaktivnosti i deficita pažnje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perturbo_di_Atencindijo_kun_Hiperaktiveso_(PAIH)" title="Perturbo di Atencindijo kun Hiperaktiveso (PAIH) – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Perturbo di Atencindijo kun Hiperaktiveso (PAIH)" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangguan_pemusatan_perhatian_dan_hiperaktivitas" title="Gangguan pemusatan perhatian dan hiperaktivitas – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gangguan pemusatan perhatian dan hiperaktivitas" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athyglisbrestur" title="Athyglisbrestur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Athyglisbrestur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disturbo_da_deficit_di_attenzione/iperattivit%C3%A0" title="Disturbo da deficit di attenzione/iperattività – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Disturbo da deficit di attenzione/iperattività" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%A9%D7%91,_%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%96_%D7%95%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%99%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="הפרעת קשב, ריכוז והיפראקטיביות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הפרעת קשב, ריכוז והיפראקטיביות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A7%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%A6%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90_%E1%83%93%E1%83%90_%E1%83%B0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ყურადღების დეფიციტისა და ჰიპერაქტივობის აშლილობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ყურადღების დეფიციტისა და ჰიპერაქტივობის აშლილობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AC%DB%81_%D8%AE%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B1_%DB%81%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%BE%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%DB%8C_%DA%88%D8%B3_%D8%A2%D8%B1%DA%88%D8%B1" title="توجہ خسار ہایپر ایکٹیوٹی ڈس آرڈر – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="توجہ خسار ہایپر ایکٹیوٹی ڈس آرڈر" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatizo_la_Kutotulia" title="Tatizo la Kutotulia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Tatizo la Kutotulia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conturbatio_hypercinetica_cum_attentionis_defecto" title="Conturbatio hypercinetica cum attentionis defecto – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Conturbatio hypercinetica cum attentionis defecto" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzman%C4%ABbas_defic%C4%ABta_un_hiperaktivit%C4%81tes_sindroms" title="Uzmanības deficīta un hiperaktivitātes sindroms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Uzmanības deficīta un hiperaktivitātes sindroms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aktyvumo_ir_d%C4%97mesio_sutrikimas" title="Aktyvumo ir dėmesio sutrikimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Aktyvumo ir dėmesio sutrikimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindrom_de_la_manca_de_atende_e_iperativia" title="Sindrom de la manca de atende e iperativia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Sindrom de la manca de atende e iperativia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figyelemhi%C3%A1nyos_hiperaktivit%C3%A1s-zavar" title="Figyelemhiányos hiperaktivitás-zavar – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Figyelemhiányos hiperaktivitás-zavar" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%94%D0%A5%D0%94" title="АДХД – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="АДХД" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%BC" title="അറ്റൻഷൻ ഡെഫിസിറ്റ് ഹൈപ്പർ ആക്ടിവിറ്റി ഡിസോർഡർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അറ്റൻഷൻ ഡെഫിസിറ്റ് ഹൈപ്പർ ആക്ടിവിറ്റി ഡിസോർഡർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="अवधान अस्थिरता आणि अतिक्रियाशीलता विकृती – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अवधान अस्थिरता आणि अतिक्रियाशीलता विकृती" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangguan_kurang_daya_tumpuan_dan_hiperaktif" title="Gangguan kurang daya tumpuan dan hiperaktif – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Gangguan kurang daya tumpuan dan hiperaktif" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADHD" title="ADHD – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="ADHD" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A8%E6%84%8F%E6%AC%A0%E5%A6%82%E5%A4%9A%E5%8B%95%E7%97%87" title="注意欠如多動症 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="注意欠如多動症" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADHD" title="ADHD – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="ADHD" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADHD" title="ADHD – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="ADHD" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%A7%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AD%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AC_%E0%AC%93_%E0%AC%85%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BF%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%BE_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B0" title="ଧ୍ୟାନାଭାବ ଓ ଅତିସକ୍ରିୟତା ବିକାର – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଧ୍ୟାନାଭାବ ଓ ଅତିସକ୍ରିୟତା ବିକାର" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diqqat_yetishmasligi_va_giperaktivlik_sindromi" title="Diqqat yetishmasligi va giperaktivlik sindromi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Diqqat yetishmasligi va giperaktivlik sindromi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%A1%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%AB%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%9F_%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%90%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A1%E0%A8%B0" title="ਅਟੈਨਸ਼ਨ ਡੈਫੀਸਿਟ ਹਾਈਪਰ ਐਕਟੀਵਿਟੀ ਡਿਸਆਰਡਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਟੈਨਸ਼ਨ ਡੈਫੀਸਿਟ ਹਾਈਪਰ ਐਕਟੀਵਿਟੀ ਡਿਸਆਰਡਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADHD" title="ADHD – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="ADHD" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transtorno_do_d%C3%A9ficit_de_aten%C3%A7%C3%A3o_e_hiperatividade" title="Transtorno do déficit de atenção e hiperatividade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Transtorno do déficit de atenção e hiperatividade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulburare_hiperchinetic%C4%83_cu_deficit_de_aten%C8%9Bie" title="Tulburare hiperchinetică cu deficit de atenție – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Tulburare hiperchinetică cu deficit de atenție" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B8_%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Синдром дефицита внимания и гиперактивности – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Синдром дефицита внимания и гиперактивности" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5-%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83" title="ध्यानाभाव-अतिसक्रियता-विकारः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="ध्यानाभाव-अतिसक्रियता-विकारः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87rregullimi_i_hiperaktivitetit_t%C3%AB_deficitit_t%C3%AB_v%C3%ABmendjes" title="Çrregullimi i hiperaktivitetit të deficitit të vëmendjes – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Çrregullimi i hiperaktivitetit të deficitit të vëmendjes" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motnja_aktivnosti_in_pozornosti" title="Motnja aktivnosti in pozornosti – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Motnja aktivnosti in pozornosti" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AE%DB%86%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86" title="ماخۆلان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ماخۆلان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%9B%D0%B0%D1%98" title="Хиперкинетички поремећај – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хиперкинетички поремећај" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiperkineti%C4%8Dki_poreme%C4%87aj" title="Hiperkinetički poremećaj – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hiperkinetički poremećaj" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarkkaavaisuus-_ja_ylivilkkaush%C3%A4iri%C3%B6" title="Tarkkaavaisuus- ja ylivilkkaushäiriö – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tarkkaavaisuus- ja ylivilkkaushäiriö" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADHD" title="ADHD – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="ADHD" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="அவதானக் குறை மிகையியக்கம் குறைபாடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அவதானக் குறை மிகையியக்கம் குறைபாடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%8F%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BE_%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%82_%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF_%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B6%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%A4" title="ఏకాగ్రతా లోపం అతి క్రియాశీలత – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఏకాగ్రతా లోపం అతి క్రియాశీలత" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99" title="โรคซนสมาธิสั้น – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โรคซนสมาธิสั้น" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dikkat_eksikli%C4%9Fi_ve_hiperaktivite_bozuklu%C4%9Fu" title="Dikkat eksikliği ve hiperaktivite bozukluğu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Dikkat eksikliği ve hiperaktivite bozukluğu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%96%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83_%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B8_%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%96" title="Розлад дефіциту уваги та гіперактивності – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Розлад дефіциту уваги та гіперактивності" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AC%DB%81_%DA%A9%D8%A7_%DA%A9%D9%85%DB%8C_%D9%88_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B4_%D9%81%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AA_%DA%A9%D8%A7_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B6%DB%81" title="توجہ کا کمی و بیش فعالیت کا عارضہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="توجہ کا کمی و بیش فعالیت کا عارضہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%E1%BB%91i_lo%E1%BA%A1n_t%C4%83ng_%C4%91%E1%BB%99ng_gi%E1%BA%A3m_ch%C3%BA_%C3%BD" title="Rối loạn tăng động giảm chú ý – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Rối loạn tăng động giảm chú ý" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%8E%E5%8B%95%E7%97%87" title="過動症 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="過動症" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A8%E6%84%8F%E5%8A%9B%E7%BC%BA%E9%99%B7%E5%A4%9A%E5%8A%A8%E9%9A%9C%E7%A2%8D" title="注意力缺陷多动障碍 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="注意力缺陷多动障碍" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%8E%E5%BA%A6%E6%B4%BB%E8%BA%8D%E7%97%87" title="過度活躍症 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="過度活躍症" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A8%E6%84%8F%E5%8A%9B%E4%B8%8D%E8%B6%B3%E9%81%8E%E5%8B%95%E7%97%87" title="注意力不足過動症 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="注意力不足過動症" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q181923#sitelinks-wikipedia" 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/ADD_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="ADD (disambiguation)">ADD (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/ADHD_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="ADHD (disambiguation)">ADHD (disambiguation)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hyperactive_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Hyperactive (disambiguation)">Hyperactive (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Formerly: Attention deficit disorder (ADD), hyperkinetic disorder (HD)<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:ADHDNeuroanatomy.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An image of the brain showcasing the underlying relationship between the neurology and neuropsychology of ADHD." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cc/ADHDNeuroanatomy.png/260px-ADHDNeuroanatomy.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cc/ADHDNeuroanatomy.png/390px-ADHDNeuroanatomy.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cc/ADHDNeuroanatomy.png/520px-ADHDNeuroanatomy.png 2x" data-file-width="631" data-file-height="540" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">ADHD arises from maldevelopment in brain regions such as the <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basal_ganglia" title="Basal ganglia">basal ganglia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">anterior cingulate cortex</a>, which regulate the executive functions necessary for human self-regulation.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">pediatrics</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inattention" class="mw-redirect" title="Inattention">Inattention</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Psychomotor_agitation" title="Psychomotor agitation">hyperactivity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Disinhibition" title="Disinhibition">disinhibition</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Executive_dysfunction" title="Executive dysfunction">executive dysfunction</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation" title="Emotional dysregulation">emotional dysregulation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Impulsivity" title="Impulsivity">impulsivity</a></li><li>impaired <a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Usual onset</th><td class="infobox-data">In most cases at least some ADHD symptoms and impairments onset prior to age 12.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">Genetic</a> (inherited, <a href="/wiki/De_novo_mutation" title="De novo mutation">de novo</a>) and to a lesser extent, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_factors" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental factors">environmental</a> factors (exposure to biohazards during pregnancy, <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">traumatic brain injury</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic method</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Based on impairing symptoms after other possible causes have been ruled out</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Differential_diagnosis" title="Differential diagnosis">Differential diagnosis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">Bipolar disorder</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_disengagement_syndrome" title="Cognitive disengagement syndrome">cognitive disengagement syndrome</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Conduct_disorder" title="Conduct disorder">conduct disorder</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">major depressive disorder</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum disorder">autism spectrum disorder</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Oppositional_defiant_disorder" title="Oppositional defiant disorder">oppositional defiant disorder</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Learning_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Learning disorder">learning disorder</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">anxiety disorder</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder" title="Borderline personality disorder">borderline personality disorder</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_alcohol_spectrum_disorder" title="Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder">fetal alcohol spectrum disorder</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Treatment</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Medication</li><li><a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">Medication</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stimulants" class="mw-redirect" title="Stimulants">Stimulants</a> (<a href="/wiki/Methylphenidate" title="Methylphenidate">methylphenidate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">amphetamine</a>)</li><li>non-stimulants (<a href="/wiki/Atomoxetine" title="Atomoxetine">atomoxetine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viloxazine" title="Viloxazine">viloxazine</a>)</li><li>alpha-2A agonists (<a href="/wiki/Guanfacine" title="Guanfacine">guanfacine</a> XR, <a href="/wiki/Clonidine" title="Clonidine">clonidine</a> XR)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Frequency</th><td class="infobox-data">0.8–1.5% (2019, using DSM-IV-TR and ICD-10)<a href="#cite_note-GBD2019-3">[3]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder" title="Neurodevelopmental disorder">neurodevelopmental disorder</a> characterized by <a href="/wiki/Executive_dysfunction" title="Executive dysfunction">executive dysfunction</a> occasioning symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Inattention" class="mw-redirect" title="Inattention">inattention</a>, hyperactivity, <a href="/wiki/Impulsivity" title="Impulsivity">impulsivity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation" title="Emotional dysregulation">emotional dysregulation</a> that are excessive and pervasive, impairing in multiple contexts, and <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmentally-inappropriate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> ADHD symptoms arise from executive dysfunction,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> and emotional dysregulation is often considered a core symptom.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Impairments resulting from deficits in self-regulation such as <a href="/wiki/Time_management" title="Time management">time management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_inhibition" title="Cognitive inhibition">inhibition</a>, and sustained attention<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> can include poor professional performance, relationship difficulties, and numerous health risks,<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> collectively predisposing to a diminished quality of life<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> and a direct average reduction in life expectancy of 13 years.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The disorder costs society hundreds of billions of US dollars each year, worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> It is associated with other neurodevelopmental and <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">mental disorders</a> as well as non-psychiatric disorders, which can cause additional impairment.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> While people with ADHD often struggle to initiate work and persist on tasks with delayed consequences, this may not be evident in contexts they find intrinsically interesting and immediately rewarding,<a href="#cite_note-Barkley_2011-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Antshel_2014-18">[18]</a> potentiating <a href="/wiki/Hyperfocus" title="Hyperfocus">hyperfocus</a> (a more colloquial term)<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> or perseverative responding.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> This mental state is often hard to disengage from<a href="#cite_note-Barkley_20112-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> and is related to risks such as for <a href="/wiki/Internet_addiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet addiction">internet addiction</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> and types of offending behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> ADHD represents the extreme lower end of the continuous dimensional trait (bell curve) of executive functioning and self-regulation, which is supported by twin, brain imaging and molecular genetic studies.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Joao_P_2019-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Antshel_2014-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barkley_2011a-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown_2009-43">[43]</a> The precise causes of ADHD are unknown in most individual cases.<a href="#cite_note-nimh-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Meta-analyses of studies of twins, families and molecular genetics have shown that the disorder is primarily genetic with a heritability rate of 70-80%,<a href="#cite_note-:0-46">[46]</a> where risk factors are highly accumulative.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The environmental risks are not related to social or familial factors;<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-hl-50">[50]</a> they exert their effects very early in life, in the prenatal or early postnatal period.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> However, in rare cases, ADHD can be caused by a single event including <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">traumatic brain injury</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:0-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> exposure to biohazards during pregnancy,<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> or a major genetic mutation.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> There is no biologically distinct adult-onset ADHD except for when ADHD occurs after traumatic brain injury.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2016-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2></div> Inattention, hyperactivity (restlessness in adults), disruptive behaviour, and impulsivity are common in ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-cdc2016facts-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-National_Institute_of_Mental_Health_2023-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-National_Institute_of_Mental_Health-58">[58]</a> Academic difficulties are frequent, as are problems with relationships.<a href="#cite_note-National_Institute_of_Mental_Health_2023-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-National_Institute_of_Mental_Health-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-ICSI2012-59">[59]</a> The signs and symptoms can be difficult to define, as it is hard to draw a line at where normal levels of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity end and significant levels requiring interventions begin.<a href="#cite_note-Ramsay_2007-60">[60]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/DSM-5" title="DSM-5">fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</a> (DSM-5) and its text revision (<a href="/wiki/DSM-5-TR" class="mw-redirect" title="DSM-5-TR">DSM-5-TR</a>), symptoms must be present for six months or more to a degree that is much greater than others of the <a href="/wiki/Age_appropriate" class="mw-redirect" title="Age appropriate">same age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a> This requires at least six symptoms of either inattention or hyperactivity/impulsivity for those under 17 and at least five symptoms for those 17 years or older.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a> The symptoms must be present in at least two settings (e.g., social, school, work, or home), and must directly interfere with or reduce quality of functioning.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5-5">[5]</a> Additionally, several symptoms must have been present before age twelve.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a> The DSM-5 's required age of onset of symptoms is 12 years.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> However, research indicates the age of onset should not be interpreted as a prerequisite for diagnosis given contextual exceptions.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2016-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Presentations"> Presentations</h3></div> ADHD is divided into three primary presentations:<a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ramsay_2007-60">[60]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_predominantly_inattentive" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive">predominantly inattentive</a> (ADHD-PI or ADHD-I)</li> <li>predominantly hyperactive-impulsive (ADHD-PH or ADHD-HI)</li> <li>combined presentation (ADHD-C).</li></ul> The table "Symptoms" lists the symptoms for ADHD-I and ADHD-HI from two major classification systems. Symptoms which can be better explained by another psychiatric or medical condition which an individual has are not considered to be a symptom of ADHD for that person. In DSM-5, subtypes were discarded and reclassified as presentations of the disorder that change over time. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Symptoms </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Presentations </th> <th width="45%"><abbr title="Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 5th Edition">DSM-5</abbr> and <abbr title="Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 5th Edition, Text Revision">DSM-5-TR</abbr> symptoms<a href="#cite_note-DSM5-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a> </th> <th width="45%"><abbr title="International Classification of Diseases">ICD-11</abbr> symptoms<a href="#cite_note-ICD-11-7">[7]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Inattention </td> <td>Six or more of the following symptoms in children, and five or more in adults, excluding situations where these symptoms are better explained by another psychiatric or medical condition: <ul><li>Frequently overlooks details or makes careless mistakes</li> <li>Often has difficulty maintaining focus on one task or play activity</li> <li>Often appears not to be listening when spoken to, including when there is no obvious distraction</li> <li>Frequently does not finish following instructions, failing to complete tasks</li> <li>Often struggles to organise tasks and activities, to meet deadlines, and to keep belongings in order</li> <li>Is frequently reluctant to engage in tasks which require sustained attention</li> <li>Frequently loses items required for tasks and activities</li> <li>Is frequently easily distracted by extraneous stimuli, including thoughts in adults and older teenagers</li> <li>Often forgets daily activities, or is forgetful while completing them.</li></ul> </td> <td>Multiple symptoms of inattention that directly negatively impact occupational, academic or social functioning. Symptoms may not be present when engaged in highly stimulating tasks with frequent rewards. Symptoms are generally from the following clusters: <ul><li>Struggles to maintain focus on tasks that aren't highly stimulating/rewarding or that require continuous effort; details are often missed, and careless mistakes are frequent in school and work tasks; tasks are often abandoned before they are completed.</li> <li>Easily distracted (including by own thoughts); may not listen when spoken to; frequently appears to be lost in thought</li> <li>Often loses things; is forgetful and disorganised in daily activities.</li></ul> The individual may also meet the criteria for hyperactivity-impulsivity, but the inattentive symptoms are predominant. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hyperactivity-Impulsivity </td> <td>Six or more of the following symptoms in children, and five or more in adults, excluding situations where these symptoms are better explained by another psychiatric or medical condition: <ul><li>Is often fidgeting or squirming in seat</li> <li>Frequently has trouble sitting still during dinner, class, in meetings, etc.</li> <li>Frequently runs around or climbs in inappropriate situations. In adults and teenagers, this may be present only as restlessness.</li> <li>Often cannot quietly engage in leisure activities or play</li> <li>Frequently seems to be "on the go" or appears uncomfortable when not in motion</li> <li>Often talks excessively</li> <li>Often answers a question before it is finished, or finishes people's sentences</li> <li>Often struggles to wait their turn, including waiting in lines</li> <li>Frequently interrupts or intrudes, including into others' conversations or activities, or by using people's things without asking.</li></ul> </td> <td>Multiple symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity that directly negatively impact occupational, academic or social functioning. Typically, these tend to be most apparent in environments with structure or which require self-control. Symptoms are generally from the following clusters: <ul><li>Excessive motor activity; struggles to sit still, often leaving their seat; prefers to run about; in younger children, will fidget when attempting to sit still; in adolescents and adults, a sense of physical restlessness or discomfort with being quiet and still.</li> <li>Talks too much; struggles to quietly engage in activities.</li> <li>Blurts out answers or comments; struggles to wait their turn in conversation, games, or activities; will interrupt or intrude on conversations or games.</li> <li>A lack of forethought or consideration of consequences when making decisions or taking action, instead tending to act immediately (e.g., physically dangerous behaviours including reckless driving; impulsive decisions).</li></ul> The individual may also meet the criteria for inattention, but the hyperactive-impulsive symptoms are predominant. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Combined </td> <td>Meet the criteria for both inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive ADHD. </td> <td>Criteria are met for both inattentive and hyperactive-impulsive ADHD, with neither clearly predominating. </td></tr></tbody></table> Girls and women with ADHD tend to display fewer hyperactivity and impulsivity symptoms but more symptoms of inattention and distractibility.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Symptoms are expressed differently and more subtly as the individual ages.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: <span title="Page / location: 6
Quotation: "Whereas the core symptoms of hyperactivity, impulsivity and inattention, are well characterised in children, these symptoms may have different and more subtle expressions in adult life."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">6  Hyperactivity tends to become less overt with age and turns into inner restlessness, difficulty relaxing or remaining still, talkativeness or constant mental activity in teens and adults with ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: <span title="Pages: 6–7
Quotation: "For instance, where children with ADHD may run and climb excessively, or have difficulty in playing or engaging quietly in leisure activities, adults with ADHD are more likely to experience inner restlessness, inability to relax, or over talkativeness. Hyperactivity may also be expressed as excessive fidgeting, the inability to sit still for long in situations when sitting is expected (at the table, in the movie, in church or at symposia), or being on the go all the time. ... For example, physical overactivity in children could be replaced in adulthood by constant mental activity, feelings of restlessness and difficulty engaging in sedentary activities."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">6–7  Impulsivity in adulthood may appear as thoughtless behaviour, impatience, irresponsible spending and sensation-seeking behaviours,<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: <span title="Page / location: 6
Quotation: "Impulsivity may be expressed as impatience, acting without thinking, spending impulsively, starting new jobs and relationships on impulse, and sensation seeking behaviours."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">6  while inattention may appear as becoming easily bored, difficulty with organization, remaining on task and making decisions, and sensitivity to stress.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: <span title="Page / location: 6
Quotation: "Inattention often presents as distractibility, disorganization, being late, being bored, need for variation, difficulty making decisions, lack of overview, and sensitivity to stress."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">6  Although not listed as an official symptom, <a href="/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation" title="Emotional dysregulation">emotional dysregulation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mood_lability" class="mw-redirect" title="Mood lability">mood lability</a> is generally understood to be a common symptom of ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Retz_2012-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: <span title="Page / location: 6
Quotation: "In addition, many adults with ADHD experience lifetime mood lability with frequent highs and lows, and short-fuse temper outburst."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">6  People with ADHD of all ages are more likely to have problems with <a href="/wiki/Social_skills" title="Social skills">social skills</a>, such as social interaction and forming and maintaining friendships.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> This is true for all presentations. About half of children and adolescents with ADHD experience <a href="/wiki/Social_rejection" title="Social rejection">social rejection</a> by their peers compared to 10–15% of non-ADHD children and adolescents. People with attention deficits are prone to having difficulty processing verbal and nonverbal language which can negatively affect social interaction. They may also drift off during conversations, miss social cues, and have trouble learning social skills.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Difficulties managing anger are more common in children with ADHD<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> as are delays in <a href="/wiki/Communication_disorder" title="Communication disorder">speech, language</a> and motor development.<a href="#cite_note-ICD10-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid22201208-68">[68]</a> Poorer <a href="/wiki/Handwriting" title="Handwriting">handwriting</a> is more common in children with ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Racine_2008-69">[69]</a> Poor handwriting can be a symptom of ADHD in itself due to decreased attentiveness. When this is a pervasive problem, it may also be attributable to <a href="/wiki/Dyslexic" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyslexic">dyslexia</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dysgraphia" title="Dysgraphia">dysgraphia</a>. There is significant overlap in the symptomatologies of ADHD, dyslexia, and dysgraphia,<a href="#cite_note-Nicolson_2011-72">[72]</a> and 3 in 10 people diagnosed with dyslexia experience co-occurring ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Although it causes significant difficulty, many children with ADHD have an attention span equal to or greater than that of other children for tasks and subjects they find interesting.<a href="#cite_note-Walitza_2012-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="IQ_test_performance">IQ test performance</h3></div> Certain studies have found that people with ADHD tend to have lower scores on <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">intelligence quotient</a> (IQ) tests.<a href="#cite_note-Frazier_2004-75">[75]</a> The significance of this is controversial due to the differences between people with ADHD and the difficulty determining the influence of symptoms, such as distractibility, on lower scores rather than intellectual capacity. In studies of ADHD, higher IQs may be over-represented because many studies exclude individuals who have lower IQs despite those with ADHD scoring on average nine points lower on standardised intelligence measures.<a href="#cite_note-Mackenzie_2016-76">[76]</a> However, other studies contradict this, saying that in individuals with high intelligence, there is an increased risk of a missed ADHD diagnosis, possibly because of compensatory strategies in said individuals.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Studies of adults suggest that negative differences in intelligence are not meaningful and may be explained by associated health problems.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comorbidities">Comorbidities</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychiatric_comorbidities">Psychiatric comorbidities</h3></div> In children, ADHD occurs with other disorders about two-thirds of the time.<a href="#cite_note-Walitza_2012-74">[74]</a> Other neurodevelopmental conditions are common comorbidities. <a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum disorder">Autism spectrum disorder</a> (ASD), co-occurring at a rate of 21% in those with ADHD, affects social skills, ability to communicate, behaviour, and interests.<a href="#cite_note-Young_2020-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-NHS2018-80">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/Learning_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Learning disabilities">Learning disabilities</a> have been found to occur in about 20–30% of children with ADHD. Learning disabilities can include developmental speech and language disorders, and academic skills disorders.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyHC-81">[81]</a> ADHD, however, is not considered a learning disability, but it very frequently causes academic difficulties.<a href="#cite_note-BaileyHC-81">[81]</a> <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">Intellectual disabilities</a><a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a>: 75  and <a href="/wiki/Tourette%27s_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Tourette's syndrome">Tourette's syndrome</a><a href="#cite_note-NHS2018-80">[80]</a> are also common. ADHD is often comorbid with disruptive, impulse control, and conduct disorders. <a href="/wiki/Oppositional_defiant_disorder" title="Oppositional defiant disorder">Oppositional defiant disorder</a> (ODD) occurs in about 25% of children with an inattentive presentation and 50% of those with a combined presentation.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] It is characterised by angry or irritable mood, argumentative or defiant behaviour and vindictiveness which are age-inappropriate. <a href="/wiki/Conduct_disorder" title="Conduct disorder">Conduct disorder</a> (CD) occurs in about 25% of adolescents with ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] It is characterised by aggression, destruction of property, deceitfulness, theft and violations of rules.<a href="#cite_note-UTP2008-82">[82]</a> Adolescents with ADHD who also have CD are more likely to develop <a href="/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder" title="Antisocial personality disorder">antisocial personality disorder</a> in adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19428109-83">[83]</a> Brain imaging supports that CD and ADHD are separate conditions: conduct disorder was shown to reduce the size of one's <a href="/wiki/Temporal_lobe" title="Temporal lobe">temporal</a> lobe and <a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">limbic system</a>, and increase the size of one's <a href="/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex" title="Orbitofrontal cortex">orbitofrontal cortex</a>, whereas ADHD was shown to reduce connections in the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a> more broadly. Conduct disorder involves more impairment in motivation control than ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21094938-84">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Intermittent_explosive_disorder" title="Intermittent explosive disorder">Intermittent explosive disorder</a> is characterised by sudden and disproportionate outbursts of anger and co-occurs in individuals with ADHD more frequently than in the general population.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Anxiety and mood disorders are frequent comorbidities. <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">Anxiety disorders</a> have been found to occur more commonly in the ADHD population, as have <a href="/wiki/Mood_disorder" title="Mood disorder">mood disorders</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">major depressive disorder</a>). Boys diagnosed with the combined ADHD subtype are more likely to have a mood disorder.<a href="#cite_note-Wilens_2010-85">[85]</a> Adults and children with ADHD sometimes also have bipolar disorder, which requires careful assessment to accurately diagnose and treat both conditions.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21717696-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilens_2011-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sleep_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Sleep disorders">Sleep disorders</a> and ADHD commonly co-exist. They can also occur as a side effect of medications used to treat ADHD. In children with ADHD, <a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">insomnia</a> is the most common sleep disorder with behavioural therapy being the preferred treatment.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21600348-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid20451036-89">[89]</a> Problems with sleep initiation are common among individuals with ADHD but often they will be deep sleepers and have significant difficulty getting up in the morning.<a href="#cite_note-Brown_2008-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Melatonin" title="Melatonin">Melatonin</a> is sometimes used in children who have sleep onset insomnia.<a href="#cite_note-pmid20028959-90">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Restless_legs_syndrome" title="Restless legs syndrome">Restless legs syndrome</a> has been found to be more common in those with ADHD and is often due to <a href="/wiki/Iron_deficiency_anemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron deficiency anemia">iron deficiency anemia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21365608-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid20620105-92">[92]</a> However, restless legs can simply be a part of ADHD and requires careful assessment to differentiate between the two disorders.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18656214-93">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Delayed_sleep_phase_disorder" title="Delayed sleep phase disorder">Delayed sleep phase disorder</a> is also a common comorbidity.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Individuals with ADHD are at increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">substance use disorders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a>: <span title="Page / location: 9
Quotation: "Comorbid substance use disorder (SUD) deserves special attention due to the high rates of ADHD within SUD populations. A bidirectional link between ADHD and SUD is reported with ADHD symptoms over represented in SUD populations and SUD in ADHD populations."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">9  This is most commonly seen with <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcohol</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">cannabis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: <span title="Page / location: 9
Quotation: "Alcohol and cannabis are the most frequently abused substances in these populations followed by lower rates of cocaine and amphetamine abuse."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">9  The reason for this may be an altered reward pathway in the brains of ADHD individuals, self-treatment and increased psychosocial risk factors.: <span title="Page / location: 9
Quotation: "The causes for such comorbidity are likely to be complex including altered reward processing in ADHD, increased exposure to psychosocial risk factors and self treatment."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">9  This makes the evaluation and treatment of ADHD more difficult, with serious substance misuse problems usually treated first due to their greater risks.<a href="#cite_note-NICE2009-part2-96">[96]</a> Other psychiatric conditions include <a href="/wiki/Reactive_attachment_disorder" title="Reactive attachment disorder">reactive attachment disorder</a>,<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> characterised by a severe inability to appropriately relate socially, and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_disengagement_syndrome" title="Cognitive disengagement syndrome">cognitive disengagement syndrome</a>, a distinct attention disorder occurring in 30–50% of ADHD cases as a comorbidity, regardless of the presentation; a subset of cases diagnosed with ADHD-PIP have been found to have CDS instead.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Individuals with ADHD are three times more likely to be diagnosed with an <a href="/wiki/Eating_disorder" title="Eating disorder">eating disorder</a> compared to those without ADHD; conversely, individuals with eating disorders are two times more likely to have ADHD than those without eating disorders.<a href="#cite_note-Nazar_2016-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trauma">Trauma</h3></div> ADHD, <a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">trauma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Adverse_childhood_experiences" title="Adverse childhood experiences">adverse childhood experiences</a> are also comorbid,<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> which could in part be potentially explained by the similarity in presentation between different diagnoses. The symptoms of ADHD and <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">PTSD</a> can have significant behavioural overlap—in particular, motor restlessness, difficulty concentrating, distractibility, irritability/anger, emotional constriction or dysregulation, poor impulse control, and forgetfulness are common in both.<a href="#cite_note-Ford_2009-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> This could result in trauma-related disorders or ADHD being mis-identified as the other.<a href="#cite_note-Szymanski_2011-105">[105]</a> Additionally, traumatic events in childhood are a risk factor for ADHD;<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> they can lead to structural brain changes and the development of ADHD behaviours.<a href="#cite_note-Szymanski_2011-105">[105]</a> Finally, the behavioural consequences of ADHD symptoms cause a higher chance of the individual experiencing trauma (and therefore ADHD leads to a concrete diagnosis of a trauma-related disorder).<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-psychiatric">Non-psychiatric</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness#Hypophobia" title="Accident-proneness">Accident-proneness § Hypophobia</a></div> Some non-psychiatric conditions are also comorbidities of ADHD. This includes <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-NHS2018-80">[80]</a> a neurological condition characterised by recurrent seizures.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> There are well established associations between ADHD and obesity, <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> and sleep disorders,<a href="#cite_note-pmid27664125-112">[112]</a> and an association with celiac disease.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Children with ADHD have a higher risk for <a href="/wiki/Migraine" title="Migraine">migraine</a> headaches,<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> but have no increased risk of tension-type headaches. Children with ADHD may also experience headaches as a result of medication.<a href="#cite_note-Salem_2017-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pan_2021-116">[116]</a> A 2021 review reported that several neurometabolic disorders caused by <a href="/wiki/Inborn_errors_of_metabolism" title="Inborn errors of metabolism">inborn errors of metabolism</a> converge on common neurochemical mechanisms that interfere with biological mechanisms also considered central in ADHD pathophysiology and treatment. This highlights the importance of close collaboration between health services to avoid clinical overshadowing.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In June 2021, <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_%26_Biobehavioral_Reviews" title="Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews">Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews</a> published a <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic review</a> of 82 studies that all confirmed or implied elevated accident-proneness in ADHD patients and whose data suggested that the type of accidents or injuries and overall risk changes in ADHD patients over the lifespan.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> In January 2014, <a href="/wiki/Accident_Analysis_%26_Prevention" title="Accident Analysis & Prevention">Accident Analysis & Prevention</a> published a <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> of 16 studies examining the relative risk of <a href="/wiki/Traffic_collision" title="Traffic collision">traffic collisions</a> for drivers with ADHD, finding an overall relative risk estimate of 1.36 without controlling for exposure, a relative risk estimate of 1.29 when controlling for <a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">publication bias</a>, a relative risk estimate of 1.23 when controlling for exposure, and a relative risk estimate of 1.86 for ADHD drivers with <a href="/wiki/Oppositional_defiant_disorder" title="Oppositional defiant disorder">oppositional defiant disorder</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Conduct_disorder" title="Conduct disorder">conduct disorder</a> <a href="/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">comorbidities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Problematic_digital_media_use">Problematic digital media use</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internet_addiction_disorder" title="Internet addiction disorder">Internet addiction disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Problematic_smartphone_use" title="Problematic smartphone use">Problematic smartphone use</a>, <a href="/wiki/Problematic_social_media_use" title="Problematic social media use">Problematic social media use</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Video_game_addiction" title="Video game addiction">Video game addiction</a></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health#ADHD" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health § ADHD</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Digital_media_use_and_mental_health&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> In April 2018, the <a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Environmental_Research_and_Public_Health" title="International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health">International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health</a> published a systematic review of 24 studies researching associations between internet gaming disorder (IGD) and various psychopathologies that found an 85% correlation between IGD and ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Digital_media_use_and_mental_health_IJERPH_2018-121">[121]</a> In October 2018, <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America">PNAS USA</a> published a systematic review of four decades of research on the relationship between children and adolescents' screen media use and ADHD-related behaviours and concluded that a statistically small relationship between children's media use and ADHD-related behaviours exists.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> In November 2018, Cyberpsychology published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 5 studies that found evidence for a relationship between problematic smartphone use and <a href="/wiki/Impulsivity" title="Impulsivity">impulsivity</a> traits.<a href="#cite_note-Digital_media_use_and_mental_health_Cyberpsychology_2018-123">[123]</a> In October 2020, the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Behavioral_Addictions" title="Journal of Behavioral Addictions">Journal of Behavioral Addictions</a> published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 40 studies with 33,650 post-secondary student subjects that found a weak-to-moderate positive association between mobile phone addiction and impulsivity.<a href="#cite_note-Digital_media_use_and_mental_health_JBA_2020-124">[124]</a> In January 2021, the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Psychiatric_Research" title="Journal of Psychiatric Research">Journal of Psychiatric Research</a> published a systematic review of 29 studies including 56,650 subjects that found that ADHD symptoms were consistently associated with gaming disorder and more frequent associations between inattention and gaming disorder than other ADHD scales.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> In July 2021, <a href="/wiki/Frontiers_Media" title="Frontiers Media">Frontiers in Psychiatry</a> published a meta-analysis reviewing 40 <a href="/wiki/Voxel-based_morphometry" title="Voxel-based morphometry">voxel-based morphometry</a> studies and 59 <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> studies comparing subjects with IGD or ADHD to control groups that found that IGD and ADHD subjects had disorder-differentiating structural <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimage</a> alterations in the <a href="/wiki/Putamen" title="Putamen">putamen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex" title="Orbitofrontal cortex">orbitofrontal cortex</a> (OFC) respectively, and functional alterations in the <a href="/wiki/Precuneus" title="Precuneus">precuneus</a> for IGD subjects and in the <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">rewards circuit</a> (including the OFC, the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">anterior cingulate cortex</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a>) for both IGD and ADHD subjects.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> In March 2022, <a href="/wiki/JAMA_Psychiatry" title="JAMA Psychiatry">JAMA Psychiatry</a> published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 87 studies with 159,425 subjects 12 years of age or younger that found a small but statistically significant correlation between screen time and ADHD symptoms in children.<a href="#cite_note-Digital_media_use_and_mental_health_JAMA_Psychiatry_2022-127">[127]</a> In April 2022, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_Neuropsychology_(journal)" title="Developmental Neuropsychology (journal)">Developmental Neuropsychology</a> published a systematic review of 11 studies where the data from all but one study suggested that heightened screen time for children is associated with attention problems.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> In July 2022, the Journal of Behavioral Addictions published a meta-analysis of 14 studies comprising 2,488 subjects aged 6 to 18 years that found significantly more severe problematic internet use in subjects diagnosed with ADHD to control groups.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> In December 2022, <a href="/wiki/European_Child_%26_Adolescent_Psychiatry" title="European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry">European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry</a> published a systematic literature review of 28 longitudinal studies published from 2011 through 2021 of associations between digital media use by children and adolescents and later ADHD symptoms and found reciprocal associations between digital media use and ADHD symptoms (i.e. that subjects with ADHD symptoms were more likely to develop problematic digital media use and that increased digital media use was associated with increased subsequent severity of ADHD symptoms).<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> In May 2023, <a href="/wiki/Reviews_on_Environmental_Health" title="Reviews on Environmental Health">Reviews on Environmental Health</a> published a meta-analysis of 9 studies with 81,234 child subjects that found a positive correlation between screen time and ADHD risk in children and that higher amounts of screen time in childhood may significantly contribute to the development of ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> In December 2023, the Journal of Psychiatric Research published a meta-analysis of 24 studies with 18,859 subjects with a mean age of 18.4 years that found significant associations between ADHD and problematic internet use,<a href="#cite_note-Digital_media_use_and_mental_health_Journal_of_Psychiatric_Research_2023-132">[132]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Clinical_Psychology_Review" title="Clinical Psychology Review">Clinical Psychology Review</a> published a systematic review and meta-analysis of 48 studies examining associations between ADHD and gaming disorder that found a statistically significant association between the disorders.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suicide_risk">Suicide risk</h3></div> Systematic reviews in 2017 and 2020 found strong evidence that ADHD is associated with increased <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a> risk across all age groups, as well as growing evidence that an ADHD diagnosis in childhood or adolescence represents a significant future suicidal risk factor.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-Garas_2020-135">[135]</a> Potential causes include ADHD's association with functional impairment, negative social, educational and occupational outcomes, and financial distress.<a href="#cite_note-Septier_2019-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> A 2019 meta-analysis indicated a significant association between ADHD and suicidal spectrum behaviours (suicidal attempts, ideations, plans, and completed suicides); across the studies examined, the prevalence of suicide attempts in individuals with ADHD was 18.9%, compared to 9.3% in individuals without ADHD, and the findings were substantially replicated among studies which adjusted for other variables. However, the relationship between ADHD and suicidal spectrum behaviours remains unclear due to mixed findings across individual studies and the complicating impact of comorbid psychiatric disorders.<a href="#cite_note-Septier_2019-136">[136]</a> There is no clear data on whether there is a direct relationship between ADHD and suicidality, or whether ADHD increases suicide risk through comorbidities.<a href="#cite_note-Garas_2020-135">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2></div> ADHD arises from brain maldevelopment especially in the prefrontal executive networks that can arise either from genetic factors (different gene variants and mutations for building and regulating such networks) or from acquired disruptions to the development of these networks and regions; involved in <a href="/wiki/Executive_functioning" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive functioning">executive functioning</a> and self-regulation.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Antshel_2014-18">[18]</a> Their reduced size, functional connectivity, and activation contribute to the pathophysiology of ADHD, as well as imbalances in the noradrenergic and dopaminergic systems that mediate these brain regions.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Genetic factors play an important role; ADHD has a heritability rate of 70-80%. The remaining 20-30% of variance is mediated by de-novo mutations and non-shared environmental factors that provide for or produce brain injuries; there is no significant contribution of the rearing family and social environment.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Very rarely, ADHD can also be the result of abnormalities in the chromosomes.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></div> In November 1999, <a href="/wiki/Biological_Psychiatry_(journal)" title="Biological Psychiatry (journal)">Biological Psychiatry</a> published a <a href="/wiki/Literature_review" title="Literature review">literature review</a> by psychiatrists <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Biederman" title="Joseph Biederman">Joseph Biederman</a> and Thomas Spencer found the average <a href="/wiki/Heritability" title="Heritability">heritability</a> estimate of ADHD from <a href="/wiki/Twin_study" title="Twin study">twin studies</a> to be 0.8,<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> while a subsequent <a href="/wiki/Family_study" title="Family study">family</a>, twin, and <a href="/wiki/Adoption_study" title="Adoption study">adoption studies</a> literature review published in <a href="/wiki/Molecular_Psychiatry" title="Molecular Psychiatry">Molecular Psychiatry</a> in April 2019 by psychologists <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Faraone" title="Stephen Faraone">Stephen Faraone</a> and Henrik Larsson that found an average heritability estimate of 0.74.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">evolutionary psychiatrist</a> <a href="/wiki/Randolph_M._Nesse" title="Randolph M. Nesse">Randolph M. Nesse</a> has argued that the 5:1 <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">male-to-female sex ratio</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">epidemiology of ADHD</a> suggests that ADHD may be the <a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">end of a continuum where males are overrepresented at the tails</a>, citing clinical psychologist <a href="/wiki/Simon_Baron-Cohen" title="Simon Baron-Cohen">Simon Baron-Cohen</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">suggestion</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in autism">sex ratio in the epidemiology of autism</a> as an analogue.<a href="#cite_note-Baron-Cohen_2002-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nesse_2005_p._918-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nesse_2016_p._1019-150">[150]</a> <a href="/wiki/Evolution_by_natural_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution by natural selection">Natural selection</a> has been acting against the genetic variants for ADHD over the course of at least 45,000 years, indicating that it was not an adaptative trait in ancient times.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> The disorder may remain at a stable rate by the balance of genetic mutations and removal rate (natural selection) across generations; over thousands of years, these genetic variants become more stable, decreasing disorder prevalence.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Throughout human evolution, the EFs involved in ADHD likely provide the capacity to bind contingencies across time thereby directing behaviour toward future over immediate events so as to maximise future social consequences for humans.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> ADHD has a high <a href="/wiki/Heritability" title="Heritability">heritability</a> of 74%, meaning that 74% of the presence of ADHD in the population is due to genetic factors. There are multiple gene variants which each slightly increase the likelihood of a person having ADHD; it is <a href="/wiki/Polygenic_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Polygenic disease">polygenic</a> and thus arises through the accumulation of many genetic risks each having a very small effect.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2018-154">[154]</a> The siblings of children with ADHD are three to four times more likely to develop the disorder than siblings of children without the disorder.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> The association of maternal smoking observed in large population studies disappears after adjusting for family history of ADHD, which indicates that the association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and ADHD is due to familial or genetic factors that increase the risk for the confluence of smoking and ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> ADHD presents with reduced size, functional connectivity and activation<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> as well as low noradrenergic and dopaminergic functioning<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> in brain regions and networks crucial for executive functioning and self-regulation.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barkley_2011a-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Antshel_2014-18">[18]</a> Typically, a number of genes are involved, many of which directly affect brain functioning and neurotransmission.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> Those involved with dopamine include <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_transporter" title="Dopamine transporter">DAT</a>, <a href="/wiki/DRD4" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD4">DRD4</a>, <a href="/wiki/DRD5" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD5">DRD5</a>, <a href="/wiki/TAAR1" title="TAAR1">TAAR1</a>, <a href="/wiki/MAOA" class="mw-redirect" title="MAOA">MAOA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catechol_O-methyltransferase" class="mw-redirect" title="Catechol O-methyltransferase">COMT</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dopamine-beta-hydroxylase" class="mw-redirect" title="Dopamine-beta-hydroxylase">DBH.</a><a href="#cite_note-Kebir_2011-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-Berry_2007-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Other genes associated with ADHD include <a href="/wiki/Serotonin_transporter" title="Serotonin transporter">SERT</a>, <a href="/wiki/HTR1B" class="mw-redirect" title="HTR1B">HTR1B</a>, <a href="/wiki/SNAP25" title="SNAP25">SNAP25</a>, <a href="/wiki/GRIN2A" title="GRIN2A">GRIN2A</a>, <a href="/wiki/ADRA2A" class="mw-redirect" title="ADRA2A">ADRA2A</a>, <a href="/wiki/TPH2" title="TPH2">TPH2</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor" title="Brain-derived neurotrophic factor">BDNF</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gizer_2009-163">[163]</a> A common variant of a gene called <a href="/wiki/Latrophilin_3" title="Latrophilin 3">latrophilin 3</a> is estimated to be responsible for about 9% of cases and when this variant is present, people are particularly responsive to stimulant medication.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> The <a href="/wiki/DRD4%E2%80%937R" class="mw-redirect" title="DRD4–7R">7 repeat variant of dopamine receptor D4</a> (DRD4–7R) causes increased inhibitory effects induced by <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> and is associated with ADHD. The DRD4 receptor is a <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">G protein-coupled receptor</a> that inhibits <a href="/wiki/Adenylyl_cyclase" title="Adenylyl cyclase">adenylyl cyclase</a>. The DRD4–7R mutation results in a wide range of behavioural <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypes</a>, including ADHD symptoms reflecting split attention.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> The DRD4 gene is both linked to novelty seeking and ADHD. The genes <a href="/wiki/Glucose-fructose_oxidoreductase" title="Glucose-fructose oxidoreductase">GFOD1</a> and <a href="/wiki/T-cadherin" title="T-cadherin">CDH13</a> show strong genetic associations with ADHD. CDH13's association with ASD, <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>, bipolar disorder, and <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a> make it an interesting candidate causative gene.<a href="#cite_note-Grimm_2020-143">[143]</a> Another candidate causative gene that has been identified is <a href="/wiki/Latrophilin_3" title="Latrophilin 3">ADGRL3</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Zebrafish" title="Zebrafish">zebrafish</a>, knockout of this gene causes a loss of dopaminergic function in the ventral <a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</a> and the fish display a hyperactive/impulsive <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Grimm_2020-143">[143]</a> For <a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">genetic variation</a> to be used as a tool for diagnosis, more validating studies need to be performed. However, smaller studies have shown that <a href="/wiki/Genetic_polymorphism" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic polymorphism">genetic polymorphisms</a> in genes related to <a href="/wiki/Catecholaminergic" title="Catecholaminergic">catecholaminergic</a> neurotransmission or the <a href="/wiki/SNARE_(protein)" class="mw-redirect" title="SNARE (protein)">SNARE</a> complex of the <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapse</a> can reliably predict a person's response to <a href="/wiki/Stimulant" title="Stimulant">stimulant medication</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Grimm_2020-143">[143]</a> Rare genetic variants show more relevant clinical significance as their penetrance (the chance of developing the disorder) tends to be much higher.<a href="#cite_note-Zayats_2020-166">[166]</a> However their usefulness as tools for diagnosis is limited as no single gene predicts ADHD. ASD shows genetic overlap with ADHD at both common and rare levels of genetic variation.<a href="#cite_note-Zayats_2020-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environment">Environment</h3></div> In addition to genetics, some environmental factors might play a role in causing ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Sonu_2013-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-cdc2016-168">[168]</a> Alcohol intake during pregnancy can cause <a href="/wiki/Fetal_alcohol_spectrum_disorder" title="Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder">fetal alcohol spectrum disorders</a> which can include ADHD or symptoms like it.<a href="#cite_note-Burger_2011-169">[169]</a> Children exposed to certain toxic substances, such as <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">lead</a> or <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyls" class="mw-redirect" title="Polychlorinated biphenyls">polychlorinated biphenyls</a>, may develop problems which resemble ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-nimh-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eubig_2010-170">[170]</a> Exposure to the <a href="/wiki/Organophosphate" title="Organophosphate">organophosphate</a> insecticides <a href="/wiki/Chlorpyrifos" title="Chlorpyrifos">chlorpyrifos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alkyl_phosphate" title="Alkyl phosphate">dialkyl phosphate</a> is associated with an increased risk; however, the evidence is not conclusive.<a href="#cite_note-de_Cock_2012-171">[171]</a> Exposure to tobacco smoke during pregnancy can cause problems with central nervous system development and can increase the risk of ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-nimh-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Abbott_2012-172">[172]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">Nicotine</a> exposure during pregnancy may be an environmental risk.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Extreme <a href="/wiki/Premature_birth" class="mw-redirect" title="Premature birth">premature birth</a>, very <a href="/wiki/Low_birth_weight" title="Low birth weight">low birth weight</a>, and extreme neglect, abuse, or social deprivation also increase the risk<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-nimh-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thapar-2012-175">[175]</a> as do certain infections during pregnancy, at birth, and in early childhood. These infections include, among others, various viruses (<a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Varicella_zoster_virus" title="Varicella zoster virus">varicella zoster</a> <a href="/wiki/Encephalitis" title="Encephalitis">encephalitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rubella" title="Rubella">rubella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enterovirus_71" title="Enterovirus 71">enterovirus 71</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Millichap_2008-176">[176]</a> At least 30% of children with a <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">traumatic brain injury</a> later develop ADHD<a href="#cite_note-Eme-2012-177">[177]</a> and about 5% of cases are due to brain damage.<a href="#cite_note-Erk_2009-178">[178]</a> Some studies suggest that in a small number of children, artificial <a href="/wiki/Food_dye" class="mw-redirect" title="Food dye">food dyes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Preservatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Preservatives">preservatives</a> may be associated with an increased prevalence of ADHD or ADHD-like symptoms,<a href="#cite_note-nimh-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid22232312-179">[179]</a> but the evidence is weak and may apply to only children with <a href="/wiki/Food_sensitivities" class="mw-redirect" title="Food sensitivities">food sensitivities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sonu_2013-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid22232312-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-EncycFoodSafety-180">[180]</a> The <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> has put in place regulatory measures based on these concerns.<a href="#cite_note-FDAdyecomm-181">[181]</a> In a minority of children, <a href="/wiki/Food_intolerance" title="Food intolerance">intolerances</a> or <a href="/wiki/Food_allergy" title="Food allergy">allergies</a> to certain foods may worsen ADHD symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Nigg_2014-182">[182]</a> Individuals with <a href="/wiki/Hypokalemic_sensory_overstimulation" title="Hypokalemic sensory overstimulation">hypokalemic sensory overstimulation</a> are sometimes diagnosed as having ADHD, raising the possibility that a subtype of ADHD has a cause that can be understood mechanistically and treated in a novel way. The sensory overload is treatable with oral <a href="/wiki/Potassium_gluconate" title="Potassium gluconate">potassium gluconate</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Research does not support popular beliefs that ADHD is caused by eating too much refined sugar, watching too much television, bad parenting, poverty or family chaos; however, they might worsen ADHD symptoms in certain people.<a href="#cite_note-cdc2016facts-56">[56]</a> In some cases, an inappropriate diagnosis of ADHD may reflect a <a href="/wiki/Dysfunctional_family" title="Dysfunctional family">dysfunctional family</a> or a poor <a href="/wiki/Educational_system" title="Educational system">educational system</a>, rather than any true presence of ADHD in the individual.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] In other cases, it may be explained by increasing academic expectations, with a diagnosis being a method for parents in some countries to get extra financial and educational support for their child.<a href="#cite_note-Erk_2009-178">[178]</a> Behaviours typical of ADHD occur more commonly in children who have experienced violence and emotional abuse.<a href="#cite_note-NICE_2009-184">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</h2></div> Current models of ADHD suggest that it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain's <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotransmitter systems">neurotransmitter systems</a>, particularly those involving <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Malenka_ADHD_neurosci-185">[185]</a> The dopamine and norepinephrine pathways that originate in the <a href="/wiki/Ventral_tegmental_area" title="Ventral tegmental area">ventral tegmental area</a> and <a href="/wiki/Locus_coeruleus" title="Locus coeruleus">locus coeruleus</a> project to diverse regions of the brain and govern a variety of cognitive processes.<a href="#cite_note-VTA+LC_projection_systems-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-Malenka_pathways-16">[16]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Dopamine pathway">dopamine pathways</a> and <a href="/wiki/LC-NA_system" class="mw-redirect" title="LC-NA system">norepinephrine pathways</a> which project to the <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a> and <a href="/wiki/Striatum" title="Striatum">striatum</a> are directly responsible for modulating <a href="/wiki/Executive_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive function">executive function</a> (cognitive control of behaviour), motivation, reward perception, and motor function;<a href="#cite_note-Malenka_ADHD_neurosci-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-Malenka_pathways-16">[16]</a> these pathways are known to play a central role in the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pathophysiology" class="extiw" title="wikt:pathophysiology">pathophysiology</a> of ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-VTA+LC_projection_systems-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-Malenka_pathways-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid22169776-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid22983386-188">[188]</a> Larger models of ADHD with additional pathways have been proposed.<a href="#cite_note-pmid22169776-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid22983386-188">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brain_structure">Brain structure</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_-_Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_-_Reduced_brain_volume_on_the_left_side_from_ADHD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_-_Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_-_Reduced_brain_volume_on_the_left_side_from_ADHD.jpg/290px-Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_-_Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_-_Reduced_brain_volume_on_the_left_side_from_ADHD.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_-_Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_-_Reduced_brain_volume_on_the_left_side_from_ADHD.jpg/435px-Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_-_Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_-_Reduced_brain_volume_on_the_left_side_from_ADHD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_-_Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_-_Reduced_brain_volume_on_the_left_side_from_ADHD.jpg/580px-Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_-_Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_-_Reduced_brain_volume_on_the_left_side_from_ADHD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>The left prefrontal cortex, shown here in blue, is often affected in ADHD</figcaption></figure> In children with ADHD, there is a general reduction of volume in certain brain structures, with a proportionally greater decrease in the volume in the left-sided prefrontal cortex.<a href="#cite_note-Malenka_ADHD_neurosci-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-Krain2006-189">[189]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Posterior_parietal_cortex" title="Posterior parietal cortex">posterior parietal cortex</a> also shows thinning in individuals with ADHD compared to controls. Other brain structures in the prefrontal-striatal-cerebellar and prefrontal-striatal-thalamic circuits have also been found to differ between people with and without ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Malenka_ADHD_neurosci-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid22169776-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid22983386-188">[188]</a> The subcortical volumes of the <a href="/wiki/Accumbens" class="mw-redirect" title="Accumbens">accumbens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caudate_nucleus" title="Caudate nucleus">caudate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Putamen" title="Putamen">putamen</a> appears smaller in individuals with ADHD compared with controls.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> Structural MRI studies have also revealed differences in white matter, with marked differences in inter-hemispheric asymmetry between ADHD and typically developing youths.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">Functional MRI</a> (fMRI) studies have revealed a number of differences between ADHD and control brains. Mirroring what is known from structural findings, fMRI studies have showed evidence for a higher connectivity between subcortical and cortical regions, such as between the caudate and prefrontal cortex. The degree of hyperconnectivity between these regions correlated with the severity of inattention or hyperactivity <a href="#cite_note-Damiani_2021-192">[192]</a> Hemispheric lateralization processes have also been postulated as being implicated in ADHD, but empiric results showed contrasting evidence on the topic.<a href="#cite_note-Tarchi_2022-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neurotransmitter_pathways">Neurotransmitter pathways</h3></div> Previously, it had been suggested that the elevated number of <a href="/wiki/Dopamine_transporters" class="mw-redirect" title="Dopamine transporters">dopamine transporters</a> in people with ADHD was part of the pathophysiology, but it appears the elevated numbers may be due to adaptation following exposure to stimulant medication.<a href="#cite_note-pmid22294258-195">[195]</a> Current models involve the <a href="/wiki/Mesocorticolimbic_projection" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesocorticolimbic projection">mesocorticolimbic dopamine pathway</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Locus_coeruleus-noradrenergic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system">locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-VTA+LC_projection_systems-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-Malenka_ADHD_neurosci-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-Malenka_pathways-16">[16]</a> ADHD psychostimulants possess treatment efficacy because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems.<a href="#cite_note-Malenka_ADHD_neurosci-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-Malenka_pathways-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-cognition_enhancers-196">[196]</a> There may additionally be abnormalities in <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonergic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glutamate_(neurotransmitter)" title="Glutamate (neurotransmitter)">glutamatergic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Cholinergic" title="Cholinergic">cholinergic</a> pathways.<a href="#cite_note-cognition_enhancers-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cortese-2012-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid22939004-198">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Executive_function_and_motivation">Executive function and motivation</h3></div> ADHD arises from a core deficit in executive functions (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Attentional_control" title="Attentional control">attentional control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inhibitory_control" title="Inhibitory control">inhibitory control</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a>), which are a set of <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognitive processes</a> that are required to successfully select and monitor behaviours that facilitate the attainment of one's chosen goals.<a href="#cite_note-Malenka_pathways-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Executive_functions-17">[17]</a> The executive function impairments that occur in ADHD individuals result in problems with staying organised, time keeping, <a href="/wiki/Procrastination" title="Procrastination">procrastination</a> control, maintaining concentration, paying attention, ignoring distractions, regulating emotions, and remembering details.<a href="#cite_note-Brown_2008-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Malenka_ADHD_neurosci-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-Malenka_pathways-16">[16]</a> People with ADHD appear to have unimpaired long-term memory, and deficits in long-term recall appear to be attributed to impairments in working memory.<a href="#cite_note-pmid24232170-199">[199]</a> Due to the rates of brain maturation and the increasing demands for executive control as a person gets older, ADHD impairments may not fully manifest themselves until adolescence or even early adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-Brown_2008-15">[15]</a> Conversely, brain maturation trajectories, potentially exhibiting diverging longitudinal trends in ADHD, may support a later improvement in executive functions after reaching adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-Tarchi_2022-193">[193]</a> ADHD has also been associated with motivational deficits in children. Children with ADHD often find it difficult to focus on long-term over short-term rewards, and exhibit impulsive behaviour for short-term rewards.<a href="#cite_note-Motivation-200">[200]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paradoxical_reaction_to_neuroactive_substances">Paradoxical reaction to neuroactive substances</h3></div> Another sign of the structurally altered signal processing in the central nervous system in this group of people is the conspicuously common <a href="/wiki/Paradoxical_reaction" title="Paradoxical reaction">paradoxical reaction</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 10–20% of patients). These are unexpected reactions in the opposite direction as with a normal effect, or otherwise significant different reactions. These are reactions to neuroactive substances such as <a href="/wiki/Local_anesthetic" title="Local anesthetic">local anesthetic</a> at the dentist, <a href="/wiki/Sedative" title="Sedative">sedative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antihistamine" title="Antihistamine">antihistamine</a>, weak <a href="/wiki/Neuroleptics" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroleptics">neuroleptics</a> and central and peripheral <a href="/wiki/Painkillers" class="mw-redirect" title="Painkillers">painkillers</a>. Since the causes of paradoxical reactions are at least partly genetic, it may be useful in critical situations, for example before operations, to ask whether such abnormalities may also exist in family members.<a href="#cite_note-PMID21886668-201">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2></div> ADHD is diagnosed by an assessment of a person's behavioural and mental development, including ruling out the effects of drugs, medications, and other medical or psychiatric problems as explanations for the symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-NICE2009-part2-96">[96]</a> ADHD diagnosis often takes into account feedback from parents and teachers<a href="#cite_note-Lake2011-203">[203]</a> with most diagnoses begun after a teacher raises concerns.<a href="#cite_note-Erk_2009-178">[178]</a> While many tools exist to aid in the diagnosis of ADHD, their validity varies in different populations, and a reliable and valid diagnosis requires confirmation by a clinician while supplemented by standardized rating scales and input from multiple informants across various settings.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson_2024-204">[204]</a> The diagnosis of ADHD has been criticised as being subjective because it is not based on a biological test. The International Consensus Statement on ADHD concluded that this criticism is unfounded, on the basis that ADHD meets standard criteria for validity of a mental disorder established by Robins and Guze. They attest that the disorder is considered valid because: 1) well-trained professionals in a variety of settings and cultures agree on its presence or absence using well-defined criteria and 2) the diagnosis is useful for predicting a) additional problems the patient may have (e.g., difficulties learning in school); b) future patient outcomes (e.g., risk for future drug abuse); c) response to treatment (e.g., medications and psychological treatments); and d) features that indicate a consistent set of causes for the disorder (e.g., findings from genetics or brain imaging), and that professional associations have endorsed and published guidelines for diagnosing ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> The most commonly used rating scales for diagnosing ADHD are the <a href="/wiki/Achenbach_System_of_Empirically_Based_Assessment" title="Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment">Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA)</a> and include the <a href="/wiki/Child_Behavior_Checklist" title="Child Behavior Checklist">Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)</a> used for parents to rate their child's behaviour, the Youth Self Report Form (YSR) used for children to rate their own behaviour, and the Teacher Report Form (TRF) used for teachers to rate their pupil's behaviour. Additional rating scales that have been used alone or in combination with other measures to diagnose ADHD include the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC), Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function - Second Edition (BRIEF2), <a href="/wiki/Conners_Comprehensive_Behaviour_Rating_Scale" title="Conners Comprehensive Behaviour Rating Scale">Revised Conners Rating Scale (CRS-R)</a>, Conduct-Hyperactive-Attention Problem-Oppositional Symptom scale (CHAOS), Developmental Behavior Checklist Hyperactivity Index (DBC-HI), <a href="/wiki/Disruptive_Behavior_Disorders_Rating_Scale" title="Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale">Parent Disruptive Behavior Disorder Ratings Scale (DBDRS)</a>, Diagnostic Infant and Preschool Assessment (DIPA-L), Pediatric Symptom Checklist (PSC), Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ), Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS), Strengths and Weaknesses of ADHD Symptoms and Normal Behavior Rating Scale (SWAN). and the <a href="/wiki/Vanderbilt_ADHD_diagnostic_rating_scale" title="Vanderbilt ADHD diagnostic rating scale">Vanderbilt ADHD diagnostic rating scale</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson_2024a-205">[205]</a> The ASEBA, BASC, CHAOS, CRS, and Vanderbilt diagnostic rating scales allow for both parents and teachers as raters in the diagnosis of childhood and adolescent ADHD. Adolescents may also self report their symptoms using self report scales from the ASEBA, SWAN, and the Dominic Interactive for Adolescents-Revised (DIA-R).<a href="#cite_note-Peterson_2024a-205">[205]</a> Self-rating scales, such as the <a href="/wiki/ADHD_rating_scale" title="ADHD rating scale">ADHD rating scale</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vanderbilt_ADHD_diagnostic_rating_scale" title="Vanderbilt ADHD diagnostic rating scale">Vanderbilt ADHD diagnostic rating scale</a>, are used in the screening and evaluation of ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Smith(2007)_in_Mash_&_Barkley_EBA-206">[206]</a> Based on a 2024 systematic literature review and meta analysis commissioned by the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute (PCORI), rating scales based on parent report, teacher report, or self-assessment from the adolescent have high internal consistency as a diagnostic tool meaning that the items within the scale are highly interrelated. The reliability of the scales between raters (i.e. their degree of agreement) however is poor to moderate making it important to include information from multiple raters to best inform a diagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson_2024a-205">[205]</a> Imaging studies of the brain do not give consistent results between individuals; thus, they are only used for research purposes and not a diagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> Electroencephalography is not accurate enough to make an ADHD diagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> A 2024 systematic review concluded that the use of <a href="/wiki/Biomarker" title="Biomarker">biomarkers</a> such as blood or urine samples, <a href="/wiki/Electroencephalography" title="Electroencephalography">electroencephalogram</a> (EEG) markers, and <a href="/wiki/Neuroimaging" title="Neuroimaging">neuroimaging</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRIs</a>, in diagnosis for ADHD remains unclear; studies showed great variability, did not assess test-retest reliability, and were not independently replicable.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson_2024-204">[204]</a> In North America and Australia, DSM-5 criteria are used for diagnosis, while European countries usually use the ICD-10. The DSM-IV criteria for diagnosis of ADHD is 3–4 times more likely to diagnose ADHD than is the ICD-10 criteria.<a href="#cite_note-Singh_2008-211">[211]</a> ADHD is alternately classified as <a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder" title="Neurodevelopmental disorder">neurodevelopmental disorder</a><a href="#cite_note-Caroline2010-212">[212]</a> or a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Disruptive_behaviour_disorder&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Disruptive behaviour disorder (page does not exist)">disruptive behaviour disorder</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Oppositional_defiant_disorder" title="Oppositional defiant disorder">ODD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conduct_disorder" title="Conduct disorder">CD</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder" title="Antisocial personality disorder">antisocial personality disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-google-book-ref-213">[213]</a> A diagnosis does not imply a <a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">neurological disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NICE_2009-184">[184]</a> Very few studies have been conducted on diagnosis of ADHD on children younger than 7 years of age, and those that have were found in a 2024 systematic review to be of low or insufficient strength of evidence.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson_2024a-205">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual</h4></div> As with many other psychiatric disorders, a formal diagnosis should be made by a qualified professional based on a set number of criteria. In the United States, these criteria are defined by the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders" title="Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders">DSM</a>. Based on the DSM-5 criteria published in 2013 and the DSM-5-TR criteria published in 2022, there are three presentations of ADHD: <ol><li>ADHD, predominantly inattentive presentation, presents with symptoms including being easily distracted, forgetful, daydreaming, disorganization, poor sustained attention, and difficulty completing tasks.</li> <li>ADHD, predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation, presents with excessive fidgeting and restlessness, hyperactivity, and difficulty waiting and remaining seated.</li> <li>ADHD, combined presentation, is a combination of the first two presentations.</li></ol> This subdivision is based on presence of at least six (in children) or five (in older teenagers and adults)<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> out of nine long-term (lasting at least six months) symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity–impulsivity, or both.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a> To be considered, several symptoms must have appeared by the age of six to twelve and occur in more than one environment (e.g. at home and at school or work). The symptoms must be inappropriate for a child of that age<a href="#cite_note-pmid21991721-215">[215]</a> and there must be clear evidence that they are causing impairment in multiple domains of life.<a href="#cite_note-pmid23755024-216">[216]</a> The DSM-5 and the DSM-5-TR also provide two diagnoses for individuals who have symptoms of ADHD but do not entirely meet the requirements. Other Specified ADHD allows the clinician to describe why the individual does not meet the criteria, whereas Unspecified ADHD is used where the clinician chooses not to describe the reason.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="International_Classification_of_Diseases">International Classification of Diseases</h4></div> In the eleventh revision of the <a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems</a> (<a href="/wiki/ICD-11" title="ICD-11">ICD-11</a>) by the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>, the disorder is classified as Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (code 6A05). The defined subtypes are predominantly inattentive presentation (6A05.0); predominantly hyperactive-impulsive presentation(6A05.1); and combined presentation (6A05.2). However, the ICD-11 includes two residual categories for individuals who do not entirely match any of the defined subtypes: other specified presentation (6A05.Y) where the clinician includes detail on the individual's presentation; and presentation unspecified (6A05.Z) where the clinician does not provide detail.<a href="#cite_note-ICD-11-7">[7]</a> In the tenth revision (<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">ICD-10</a>), the symptoms of hyperkinetic disorder were analogous to ADHD in the ICD-11. When a <a href="/wiki/Conduct_disorder" title="Conduct disorder">conduct disorder</a> (as defined by ICD-10)<a href="#cite_note-ICD10-67">[67]</a> is present, the condition was referred to as hyperkinetic conduct disorder. Otherwise, the disorder was classified as disturbance of activity and attention, other hyperkinetic disorders or hyperkinetic disorders, unspecified. The latter was sometimes referred to as hyperkinetic syndrome.<a href="#cite_note-ICD10-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_construct_theory">Social construct theory</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/Social_construct_theory_of_ADHD" class="mw-redirect" title="Social construct theory of ADHD">social construct theory of ADHD</a> suggests that, because the boundaries between normal and abnormal behaviour are socially constructed (i.e. jointly created and validated by all members of society, and in particular by <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physicians</a>, parents, teachers, and others), it then follows that subjective valuations and judgements determine which diagnostic criteria are used and thus, the number of people affected.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a>, a supporter of this theory, has argued that ADHD was "invented and then given a name".<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adults">Adults</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Adult_attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a></div> Adults with ADHD are diagnosed under the same criteria, including that their signs must have been present by the age of six to twelve. The individual is the best source for information in diagnosis, however others may provide useful information about the individual's symptoms currently and in childhood; a family history of ADHD also adds weight to a diagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: 7, 9  While the core symptoms of ADHD are similar in children and adults, they often present differently in adults than in children: for example, excessive physical activity seen in children may present as feelings of restlessness and constant mental activity in adults.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: 6  Worldwide, it is estimated that 2.58% of adults have persistent ADHD (where the individual currently meets the criteria and there is evidence of childhood onset), and 6.76% of adults have symptomatic ADHD (meaning that they currently meet the criteria for ADHD, regardless of childhood onset).<a href="#cite_note-Song_2021-219">[219]</a> In 2020, this was 139.84 million and 366.33 million affected adults respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Song_2021-219">[219]</a> Around 15% of children with ADHD continue to meet full DSM-IV-TR criteria at 25 years of age, and 50% still experience some symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: <span title="Page / location: 2
Quotation: "In the meta-analysis of these data from Faraone and colleagues it was concluded that about 15% retain the full diagnosis by age 25 years, with a further 50% in partial remission, indicating that around two-thirds of children with ADHD continue to have impairing levels of ADHD symptoms as adults."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">2  As of 2010<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder&action=edit">[update]</a>, most adults remain untreated.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21494335-220">[220]</a> Many adults with ADHD without diagnosis and treatment have a disorganised life, and some use <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">non-prescribed drugs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcohol</a> as a coping mechanism.<a href="#cite_note-Art.218-221">[221]</a> Other problems may include relationship and job difficulties, and an increased risk of criminal activities.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: <span title="Page / location: 6
Quotation: "Typically, adults with ADHD will not settle after the age of 30 but continue to change and/or lose jobs and relationships, either through boredom or being fired. They are usually underachievers with an estimated annual twenty two days of excess lost role performance. As a consequence relationships and jobs are often short lived. Relationships that last are often impaired due to the inability to listen with concentration to the spouse, not finishing or procrastinating tasks, often being on a 'short fuse' and interrupting conversations. ... Criminality in adulthood is predicted by ADHD and comorbid conduct disorder in childhood, especially with substance abuse and anti-social personality disorder in adulthood. ... ADHD patients are significantly more arrested, convicted, and incarcerated compared to normal controls, and ADHD is increasingly diagnosed in adults in forensic psychiatry."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">6  Associated mental health problems include depression, anxiety disorders, and learning disabilities.<a href="#cite_note-Art.218-221">[221]</a> Some ADHD symptoms in adults differ from those seen in children. While children with ADHD may climb and run about excessively, adults may experience an inability to relax, or may talk excessively in social situations.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: 6  Adults with ADHD may start relationships impulsively, display sensation-seeking behaviour, and be short-tempered.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: 6  Addictive behaviour such as substance abuse and <a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">gambling</a> are common.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: 6  This led to those who presented differently as they aged having outgrown the DSM-IV criteria.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: 5–6  The DSM-5 criteria does specifically deal with adults unlike that of DSM-IV, which does not fully take into account the differences in impairments seen in adulthood compared to childhood.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: 5  For diagnosis in an adult, having symptoms since childhood is required. Nevertheless, a proportion of adults who meet the criteria for ADHD in adulthood would not have been diagnosed with ADHD as children. Most cases of late-onset ADHD develop the disorder between the ages of 12–16 and may therefore be considered early adult or adolescent-onset ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differential_diagnosis">Differential diagnosis</h3></div> <table class="wikitable floatright" style="width:40em; border:solid 1px #999;"> <caption>Symptoms related to other disorders<a href="#cite_note-BBDADHD-224">[224]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th width="35%">Depressive disorder </th> <th width="30%">Anxiety disorder </th> <th width="35%">Bipolar disorder </th></tr> <tr> <td> <ul><li>feelings of hopelessness, <a href="/wiki/Low_self-esteem" class="mw-redirect" title="Low self-esteem">low self-esteem</a>, or unhappiness</li> <li>loss of interest in hobbies or regular activities</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue (medical)">fatigue</a></li> <li>sleep problems</li> <li>difficulty maintaining <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">attention</a></li> <li>change in <a href="/wiki/Appetite" title="Appetite">appetite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irritability" title="Irritability">irritability</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hostility" title="Hostility">hostility</a></li> <li>low tolerance for <a href="/wiki/Stress_(psychological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (psychological)">stress</a></li> <li>thoughts of death</li> <li>unexplained pain</li></ul> </td> <td> <ul><li>persistent feeling of anxiety</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irritability" title="Irritability">irritability</a></li> <li>occasional feelings of <a href="/wiki/Panic" title="Panic">panic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fear" title="Fear">fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypervigilance" title="Hypervigilance">hypervigilance</a></li> <li>inability to pay attention</li> <li>tire easily</li> <li>low tolerance for <a href="/wiki/Stress_(psychological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (psychological)">stress</a></li> <li>difficulty maintaining attention</li></ul> </td> <td> in manic state <ul><li>excessive <a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">happiness</a></li> <li>hyperactivity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racing_thoughts" title="Racing thoughts">racing thoughts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">aggression</a></li> <li>excessive talking</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grandiose_delusions" title="Grandiose delusions">grandiose delusions</a></li> <li>decreased need for sleep</li> <li>inappropriate social behaviour</li> <li>difficulty maintaining attention</li></ul> in depressive state <ul><li>same symptoms as in depression section</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> The DSM provides <a href="/wiki/Differential_diagnosis" title="Differential diagnosis">differential diagnoses</a> – potential alternate explanations for specific symptoms. Assessment and investigation of clinical history determines which is the most appropriate diagnosis. The DSM-5 suggests <a href="/wiki/Oppositional_defiant_disorder" title="Oppositional defiant disorder">oppositional defiant disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intermittent_explosive_disorder" title="Intermittent explosive disorder">intermittent explosive disorder</a>, and other disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Stereotypic_movement_disorder" title="Stereotypic movement disorder">stereotypic movement disorder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tourette_syndrome" title="Tourette syndrome">Tourette syndrome</a>, in addition to specific learning disorder, <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">autism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reactive_attachment_disorder" title="Reactive attachment disorder">reactive attachment disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">anxiety disorders</a>, depressive disorders, <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disruptive_mood_dysregulation_disorder" title="Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder">disruptive mood dysregulation disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">substance use disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Personality_disorder" title="Personality disorder">personality disorders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychotic_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychotic disorders">psychotic disorders</a>, medication-induced symptoms, and <a href="/wiki/Neurocognitive_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurocognitive disorders">neurocognitive disorders</a>. Many but not all of these are also common comorbidities of ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5-5">[5]</a> The DSM-5-TR also suggests <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">post-traumatic stress disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a> Symptoms of ADHD that particularly relate to disinhibition and <a href="/wiki/Irritability" title="Irritability">irritability</a> in addition to low-mood and self-esteem as a result of symptom expression might be confusable with <a href="/wiki/Dysthymia" title="Dysthymia">dysthymia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">bipolar disorder</a> as well as with <a href="/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder" title="Borderline personality disorder">borderline personality disorder</a>, however they are comorbid at a significantly increased rate relative to the general population.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: 10  Some symptoms that are viewed superficially due to anxiety disorders, intellectual disability or the effects of substance abuse such as intoxication and <a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">withdrawal</a> can overlap to some extent with ADHD. These disorders can also sometimes occur along with ADHD. Primary sleep disorders may affect attention and behaviour and the symptoms of ADHD may affect sleep.<a href="#cite_note-Owens2008-225">[225]</a> It is thus recommended that children with ADHD be regularly assessed for sleep problems.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> Sleepiness in children may result in symptoms ranging from the classic ones of yawning and rubbing the eyes, to disinhibition and inattention. <a href="/wiki/Obstructive_sleep_apnea" title="Obstructive sleep apnea">Obstructive sleep apnea</a> can also cause ADHD-like symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-pmid22670023-227">[227]</a> In general, the DSM-5-TR can help distinguish between many conditions associated with ADHD-like symptoms by the context in which the symptoms arise.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a> For example, children with <a href="/wiki/Learning_disability" title="Learning disability">learning disabilities</a> may feel distractable and agitated when asked to engage in tasks that require the impaired skill (e.g., reading, math), but not in other situations. A person with an <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a> may develop symptoms that overlap with ADHD when placed in a school environment that is inappropriate for their needs. The type of inattention implicated in ADHD, of poor persistence and sustained attention, differs substantially from selective or oriented inattention seen in <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_disengagement_syndrome" title="Cognitive disengagement syndrome">cognitive disengagement syndrome</a> (CDS), as well as from rumination, reexperiencing or mind blanking seen in anxiety disorders or PTSD. In mood disorders, ADHD-like symptoms may be limited to <a href="/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">manic</a> or depressive states of an episodic nature. Symptoms overlapping with ADHD in <a href="/wiki/Psychotic_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychotic disorders">psychotic disorders</a> may be limited to psychotic states. <a href="/wiki/Substance_use_disorder" title="Substance use disorder">Substance use disorder</a>, some medications, and certain medical conditions may cause symptoms to appear later in life, while ADHD, as a <a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopmental_disorder" title="Neurodevelopmental disorder">neurodevelopmental disorder</a>, requires for them to have been present since childhood. Furthermore, a careful understanding of the nature of the symptoms may help establish the difference between ADHD and other disorders.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a> For example, the forgetfulness and impulsivity typical of ADHD (e.g., in completing school assignments or following directions) may be distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Oppositional_defiant_disorder" title="Oppositional defiant disorder">opposition</a> when there is no hostility or defiance, although ADHD and ODD are highly comorbid. Tantrums may differ from the outbursts in <a href="/wiki/Intermittent_explosive_disorder" title="Intermittent explosive disorder">intermittent explosive disorder</a> if there is no aggression involved. The fidgetiness observed in ADHD may be differentiated from <a href="/wiki/Tic" title="Tic">tics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Stereotypy" title="Stereotypy">stereotypies</a> common in <a href="/wiki/Tourette_syndrome" title="Tourette syndrome">Tourette's disorder</a> or <a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">autism</a>. Also, the social difficulties often experienced by individuals with ADHD due to inattention (e.g., being unfocused during the interaction and therefore missing cues or being unaware of one's behavior)<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> or impulsivity (blurting things out, asking intrusive questions, interrupting) may be contrasted with the social detachment and deficits in understanding social cues associated with autism. Individuals with ADHD may also present signs of the social impairment or emotional and cognitive dysregulation seen in <a href="/wiki/Personality_disorder" title="Personality disorder">personality disorders</a>, but not necessarily such features as <a href="/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder" title="Borderline personality disorder">a fear of abandonment, an unstable sense of self,</a> <a href="/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder" title="Narcissistic personality disorder">narcissistic tendencies,</a> <a href="/wiki/Antisocial_personality_disorder" title="Antisocial personality disorder">aggressiveness</a>, or other personality features.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a> While it is possible and common for many of these different conditions to be comorbid with ADHD, the symptoms must not be better explained by them, as per diagnostic criterion E in the DSM-5.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a> The symptoms must arise early in life, appear across multiple environments, and cause significant impairment. Moreover, when some of these conditions are in fact comorbid with ADHD, it is still important to distinguish them, as each may need to be treated separately.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management</a></div> The management of ADHD typically involves <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">counseling</a> or medications, either alone or in combination. While there are various options of treatment to improve ADHD symptoms, medication therapies substantially improve long-term outcomes, and while eliminating some elevated risks such as obesity,<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> they do come with some risks of adverse events.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> Medications used include stimulants, atomoxetine, <a href="/wiki/Alpha-2_adrenergic_receptor" title="Alpha-2 adrenergic receptor">alpha-2 adrenergic receptor</a> agonists, and sometimes antidepressants.<a href="#cite_note-Wilens_2010-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-cognition_enhancers-196">[196]</a> In those who have trouble focusing on long-term rewards, a large amount of <a href="/wiki/Positive_reinforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive reinforcement">positive reinforcement</a> improves task performance.<a href="#cite_note-Motivation-200">[200]</a> Medications are the most effective treatment,<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-CNS09-231">[231]</a> and any side effects are typically mild and easy to resolve<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> although any improvements will be reverted if medication is ceased.<a href="#cite_note-May_2008-232">[232]</a> ADHD stimulants also improve persistence and task performance in children with ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Malenka_ADHD_neurosci-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-Motivation-200">[200]</a> To quote one systematic review, "recent evidence from observational and registry studies indicates that pharmacological treatment of ADHD is associated with increased achievement and decreased absenteeism at school, a reduced risk of trauma-related emergency hospital visits, reduced risks of suicide and attempted suicide, and decreased rates of substance abuse and criminality".<a href="#cite_note-Coghill_2017-233">[233]</a> Data also suggest that combining medication with CBT is a good idea: although CBT is substantially less effective, it can help address problems that reside after medication has been optimised.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> The nature and range of desirable endpoints of ADHD treatment vary among diagnostic standards for ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> In most studies, the efficacy of treatment is determined by reductions in symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> However, some studies have included subjective ratings from teachers and parents as part of their assessment of treatment efficacies.<a href="#cite_note-Comparative_efficacy_and_tolerabili-236">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Behavioural_therapies">Behavioural therapies</h3></div> There is good evidence for the use of <a href="/wiki/Behavioural_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioural therapy">behavioural therapies</a> in ADHD. They are the recommended first-line treatment in those who have mild symptoms or who are preschool-aged.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-Clinics09-238">[238]</a> Psychological therapies used include: <a href="/wiki/Psychoeducation" title="Psychoeducation">psychoeducational</a> input, behavior therapy, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">cognitive behavioral therapy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> <a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_psychotherapy" title="Interpersonal psychotherapy">interpersonal psychotherapy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Family_therapy" title="Family therapy">family therapy</a>, school-based interventions, social skills training, behavioural peer intervention, organization training,<a href="#cite_note-Evans2014-240">[240]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parent_management_training" title="Parent management training">parent management training</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NICE_2009-184">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neurofeedback" title="Neurofeedback">Neurofeedback</a> has greater treatment effects than non-active controls for up to 6 months and possibly a year following treatment, and may have treatment effects comparable to active controls (controls proven to have a clinical effect) over that time period.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> Despite efficacy in research, there is insufficient regulation of neurofeedback practice, leading to ineffective applications and false claims regarding innovations.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> Parent training may improve a number of behavioural problems including oppositional and non-compliant behaviours.<a href="#cite_note-Dal2017-243">[243]</a> There is little high-quality research on the effectiveness of family therapy for ADHD—but the existing evidence shows that it is similar to community care, and better than placebo.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> ADHD-specific support groups can provide information and may help families cope with ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Brain_encyclopedia-245">[245]</a> Social skills training, behavioural modification, and medication may have some limited beneficial effects in peer relationships. Stable, high-quality friendships with <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">non-deviant</a> peers protect against later psychological problems.<a href="#cite_note-pmid20490677-246">[246]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_interventions">Digital interventions</h3></div> Several clinical trials have investigated the efficacy of digital therapeutics, particularly <a href="/w/index.php?title=Akili_Interactive_Labs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Akili Interactive Labs (page does not exist)">Akili Interactive Labs</a>'s video game-based digital therapeutic AKL-T01, marketed as <a href="/wiki/EndeavourRx" class="mw-redirect" title="EndeavourRx">EndeavourRx</a>. The pediatric STARS-ADHD randomized, double-blind, parallel-group, controlled trial demonstrated that AKL-T01 significantly improved performance on the <a href="/wiki/Test_of_Variables_of_Attention" title="Test of Variables of Attention">Test of Variables of Attention</a>, an objective measure of attention and inhibitory control, compared to a control group after four weeks of at-home use.<a href="#cite_note-STARS-ADHD-247">[247]</a> A subsequent pediatric open-label study, STARS-Adjunct, published in <a href="/wiki/Nature_Portfolio" title="Nature Portfolio">Nature Portfolio</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Npj_Digital_Medicine" title="Npj Digital Medicine">npj Digital Medicine</a> evaluated AKL-T01 as an adjunctive treatment for children with ADHD who were either on stimulant medication or not on stimulant pharmacotherapy. Results showed improvements in ADHD-related impairment (measured by the Impairment Rating Scale) and ADHD symptoms after 4 weeks of treatment, with effects persisting during a 4-week pause and further improving with an additional treatment period.<a href="#cite_note-STARS-ADHD-Adjunct-248">[248]</a> Notably, the magnitude of the measured improvement was similar for children both on and off stimulants.<a href="#cite_note-STARS-ADHD-Adjunct-248">[248]</a> In 2020, AKL-T01 received marketing authorization for pediatric ADHD from the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">FDA</a>, becoming "the first game-based therapeutic granted marketing authorization by the FDA for any type of condition."<a href="#cite_note-FDA_AKL-T01-249">[249]</a> In addition to pediatric populations, a 2023 study in the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Academy_of_Child_and_Adolescent_Psychiatry" title="Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry">Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry</a> investigated the efficacy and safety of AKL-T01 in adults with ADHD. After six weeks of at-home treatment with AKL-T01, participants showed significant improvements in objective measures of attention (<a href="/wiki/Test_of_Variables_of_Attention" title="Test of Variables of Attention">TOVA - Attention Comparison Score</a>), reported ADHD symptoms (ADHD-RS-IV inattention subscale and total score), and reported quality of life (AAQoL).<a href="#cite_note-STARS-ADHD-Adults-250">[250]</a> The magnitude of improvement in attention was nearly seven times greater than that reported in pediatric trials.<a href="#cite_note-STARS-ADHD-Adults-250">[250]</a> The treatment was well-tolerated, with high compliance and no serious adverse events.<a href="#cite_note-STARS-ADHD-Adults-250">[250]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medication">Medication</h3></div> The medications for ADHD appear to alleviate symptoms via their effects on the pre-frontal executive, striatal and related regions and networks in the brain; usually by increasing neurotransmission of <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schulz_2012-252">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-Koda_2010-253">[253]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stimulants">Stimulants</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Methylphenidate" title="Methylphenidate">Methylphenidate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">amphetamine</a> or its derivatives are often first-line treatments for ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Dodson_2005-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> About 70 per cent respond to the first stimulant tried and as few as 10 per cent respond to neither amphetamines nor methylphenidate.<a href="#cite_note-CNS09-231">[231]</a> Stimulants may also reduce the risk of unintentional injuries in children with ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Ruiz-Goikoetxea_2017-256">[256]</a> <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">Magnetic resonance imaging</a> studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine or methylphenidate decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Neuroplasticity_1-257">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-Neuroplasticity_2-258">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-Neuroplasticity_3-259">[259]</a> A 2018 review found the greatest short-term benefit with methylphenidate in children, and amphetamines in adults.<a href="#cite_note-Comparative_efficacy_and_tolerabili-236">[236]</a> Studies and meta-analyses show that amphetamine is slightly-to-modestly more effective than methylphenidate at reducing symptoms,<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> and they are more effective pharmacotherapy for ADHD than <a href="/wiki/Alpha-adrenergic_agonist#α2_agonist" title="Alpha-adrenergic agonist">α2-agonists</a><a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> but methylphenidate has comparable efficacy to non-stimulants such as atomoxetine. In a <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_(organisation)" title="Cochrane (organisation)">Cochrane</a> clinical synopsis, Dr Storebø and colleagues summarised their meta-review<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a> on methylphenidate for ADHD in children and adolescents. The meta-analysis raised substantial doubts about the drug's efficacy relative to a placebo. This led to a strong critical reaction from the European ADHD Guidelines Group and individuals in the scientific community, who identified a number of flaws in the review.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> Since at least September 2021, there is a unanimous and global <a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">scientific consensus</a> that methylphenidate is safe and highly effective for treating ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> The same journal released a subsequent systematic review (2022) of extended-release methylphenidate for adults, concluding similar doubts about the certainty of evidence.<a href="#cite_note-y943-271">[271]</a> Other recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses, however, find certainty in the safety and high efficacy of methylphenidate for reducing ADHD symptoms,<a href="#cite_note-Comparative_efficacy_and_tolerabili-236">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> for alleviating the underlying executive functioning deficits,<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> and for substantially reducing the adverse consequences of untreated ADHD with continuous treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> Clinical guidelines internationally are also consistent in approving the safety and efficacy of methylphenidate and recommending it as a first-line treatment for the disorder.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> Safety and efficacy data have been reviewed extensively by medical regulators (e.g., the US Food and Drug Administration and the European Medicines Agency), the developers of evidence-based international guidelines (e.g., the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence and the American Academy of Pediatrics), and government agencies who have endorsed these guidelines (e.g., the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council). These professional groups unanimously conclude, based on the scientific evidence, that methylphenidate is safe and effective and should be considered as a first-line treatment for ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> The likelihood of developing <a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">insomnia</a> for ADHD patients taking stimulants has been measured at between 11 and 45 per cent for different medications,<a href="#cite_note-Wynchank_2017-275">[275]</a> and may be a main reason for discontinuation. Other side effects, such as <a href="/wiki/Tic" title="Tic">tics</a>, decreased appetite and weight loss, or <a href="/wiki/Emotional_lability" title="Emotional lability">emotional lability</a>, may also lead to discontinuation.<a href="#cite_note-CNS09-231">[231]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stimulant_psychosis" title="Stimulant psychosis">Stimulant psychosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">mania</a> are rare at therapeutic doses, appearing to occur in approximately 0.1% of individuals, within the first several weeks after starting amphetamine therapy.<a href="#cite_note-Cochrane_recreational_amph_psychosis-276">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid19171629-278">[278]</a> The safety of these medications in pregnancy is unclear.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> Symptom improvement is not sustained if medication is ceased.<a href="#cite_note-PRBM.S49114-280">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-May_2008-232">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-Castells_2018-281">[281]</a> The long-term effects of ADHD medication have yet to be fully determined,<a href="#cite_note-ADHD_2015_review-282">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid21519262-283">[283]</a> although stimulants are generally beneficial and safe for up to two years for children and adolescents.<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a> A 2022 meta-analysis found no statistically significant association between ADHD medications and the risk of <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a> (CVD) across age groups, although the study suggests further investigation is warranted for patients with preexisting CVD as well as long-term medication use.<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> Regular monitoring has been recommended in those on long-term treatment.<a href="#cite_note-pmid20571380-286">[286]</a> There are indications suggesting that stimulant therapy for children and adolescents should be stopped periodically to assess continuing need for medication, decrease possible growth delay, and reduce tolerance.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21530185-287">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> Although potentially addictive at high doses,<a href="#cite_note-NHM_therapeutic_stim_addiction_liability-289">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> stimulants used to treat ADHD have low potential for abuse.<a href="#cite_note-Dodson_2005-254">[254]</a> Treatment with stimulants is either protective against substance abuse or has no effect.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: <span title="Page / location: 12
Quotation: "... the literature supports the view that stimulant treatment for ADHD either has no impact in risk for substance abuse, or may even lower the risk of substance abuse by reducing the early onset of substance abuse in adolescents."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">12 <a href="#cite_note-ADHD_2015_review-282">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-NHM_therapeutic_stim_addiction_liability-289">[289]</a> The majority of studies on <a href="/wiki/Nicotine" title="Nicotine">nicotine</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Nicotinic_agonist" title="Nicotinic agonist">nicotinic agonists</a> as treatments for ADHD have shown favorable results; however, no nicotinic drug has been approved for ADHD treatment.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> <a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">Caffeine</a> was formerly used as a second-line treatment for ADHD but research indicates it has no significant effects in reducing ADHD symptoms. Caffeine appears to help with alertness, arousal and reaction time but not the type of inattention implicated in ADHD (sustained attention/persistence).<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pseudoephedrine" title="Pseudoephedrine">Pseudoephedrine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ephedrine" title="Ephedrine">ephedrine</a> do not affect ADHD symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Dodson_2005-254">[254]</a> <a href="/wiki/Modafinil" title="Modafinil">Modafinil</a> has shown some efficacy in reducing the severity of ADHD in children and adolescents.<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> It may be prescribed off-label to treat ADHD. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-stimulants">Non-stimulants</h4></div> Two non-stimulant medications, <a href="/wiki/Atomoxetine" title="Atomoxetine">atomoxetine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viloxazine" title="Viloxazine">viloxazine</a>, are approved by the FDA and in other countries for the treatment of ADHD. <a href="/wiki/Atomoxetine" title="Atomoxetine">Atomoxetine</a>, due to its lack of addiction liability, may be preferred in those who are at risk of recreational or compulsive stimulant use, although evidence is lacking to support its use over stimulants for this reason.<a href="#cite_note-Kooij_2010-63">[63]</a>: 13  Atomoxetine alleviates ADHD symptoms through norepinephrine reuptake and by indirectly increasing dopamine in the pre-frontal cortex,<a href="#cite_note-Koda_2010-253">[253]</a> sharing 70-80% of the brain regions with stimulants in their produced effects.<a href="#cite_note-Schulz_2012-252">[252]</a> Atomoxetine has been shown to significantly improve academic performance.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a> <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">Meta-analyses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic reviews</a> have found that atomoxetine has comparable efficacy, equal tolerability and response rate (75%) to <a href="/wiki/Methylphenidate" title="Methylphenidate">methylphenidate</a> in children and adolescents. In adults, efficacy and discontinuation rates are equivalent.<a href="#cite_note-Bushe_2016-296">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hazell_2011-297">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hanwella_2011-298">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rezaei_2016-299">[299]</a> Analyses of clinical trial data suggests that <a href="/wiki/Viloxazine" title="Viloxazine">viloxazine</a> is about as effective as atomoxetine and methylphenidate but with fewer side effects.<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> <a href="/wiki/Amantadine#Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Amantadine">Amantadine</a> was shown to induce similar improvements in children treated with <a href="/wiki/Methylphenidate" title="Methylphenidate">methylphenidate</a>, with less frequent side effects.<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a> A 2021 retrospective study showed that amantadine may serve as an effective adjunct to stimulants for ADHD–related symptoms and appears to be a safer alternative to second- or third-generation antipsychotics.<a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bupropion" title="Bupropion">Bupropion</a> is also used off-label by some clinicians due to research findings. It is effective, but modestly less than atomoxetine and methylphenidate.<a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a> There is little evidence on the effects of medication on social behaviours.<a href="#cite_note-McDonagh_20112-304">[304]</a> Antipsychotics may also be used to treat aggression in ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a> Alpha-2a agonists Two <a href="/wiki/Alpha-2_agonists" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-2 agonists">alpha-2a agonists</a>, extended-release formulations of <a href="/wiki/Guanfacine" title="Guanfacine">guanfacine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clonidine" title="Clonidine">clonidine</a>, are approved by the FDA and in other countries for the treatment of ADHD (effective in children and adolescents but effectiveness has still not been shown for adults).<a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-Huss_Chen_Ludolph_2016_pp._1–252-307">[307]</a> They appear to be modestly less effective than the stimulants (amphetamine and methylphenidate) and non-stimulants (atomoxetine and viloxazine) at reducing symptoms,<a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> but can be useful alternatives or used in conjunction with a stimulant. These medications act by adjusting the alpha-2a ports on the outside of noradrenergic nerve cells in the pre-frontal executive networks, so the information (electrical signal) is less confounded by noise.<a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Guidelines">Guidelines</h4></div> <a href="/wiki/Medical_guideline" title="Medical guideline">Guidelines</a> on when to use medications vary by country. The United Kingdom's <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Excellence" title="National Institute for Health and Care Excellence">National Institute for Health and Care Excellence</a> recommends use for children only in severe cases, though for adults medication is a first-line treatment.<a href="#cite_note-NICE_2019-311">[311]</a> Conversely, most United States guidelines recommend medications in most age groups.<a href="#cite_note-CADDRA-312">[312]</a> Medications are especially not recommended for preschool children.<a href="#cite_note-NICE_2019-311">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-NICE_2009-184">[184]</a> Underdosing of stimulants can occur, and can result in a lack of response or later loss of effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a> This is particularly common in adolescents and adults as approved dosing is based on school-aged children, causing some practitioners to use weight-based or benefit-based off-label dosing instead.<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a><a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a><a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exercise">Exercise</h3></div> Exercise does not reduce the symptoms of ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> The conclusion by the International Consensus Statement is based on two meta-analyses: one of 10 studies with 300 children and the other of 15 studies and 668 participants, which showed that exercise yields no statistically significant reductions on ADHD symptoms. A 2024 systematic review and meta analysis commissioned by the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute (PCORI) identified seven studies on the effectiveness of physical exercise for treating ADHD symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson_2024a-205">[205]</a> The type and amount of exercise varied widely across studies from martial arts interventions to treadmill training, to table tennis or aerobic exercise. Effects reported were not replicated, causing the authors to conclude that there is insufficient evidence that exercise intervention is an effective form of treatment for ADHD symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson_2024a-205">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diet">Diet</h3></div> Dietary modifications are not recommended as of 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder&action=edit">[update]</a> by the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Pediatrics" title="American Academy of Pediatrics">American Academy of Pediatrics</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Excellence" title="National Institute for Health and Care Excellence">National Institute for Health and Care Excellence</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/Agency_for_Healthcare_Research_and_Quality" title="Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality">Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality</a> due to insufficient evidence.<a href="#cite_note-APP2019-317">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-NICE_2019-311">[311]</a> A 2013 meta-analysis found less than a third of children with ADHD see some improvement in symptoms with <a href="/wiki/Free_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Free fatty acid">free fatty acid</a> supplementation or decreased consumption of artificial food colouring.<a href="#cite_note-Sonu_2013-167">[167]</a> These benefits may be limited to children with food sensitivities or those who are simultaneously being treated with ADHD medications.<a href="#cite_note-Sonu_2013-167">[167]</a> This review also found that evidence does not support removing other foods from the diet to treat ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Sonu_2013-167">[167]</a> A 2014 review found that an <a href="/wiki/Elimination_diet" title="Elimination diet">elimination diet</a> results in a small overall benefit in a minority of children, such as those with allergies.<a href="#cite_note-Nigg_2014-182">[182]</a> A 2016 review stated that the use of a <a href="/wiki/Gluten-free_diet" title="Gluten-free diet">gluten-free diet</a> as standard ADHD treatment is not advised.<a href="#cite_note-pmid26825336-318">[318]</a> A 2017 review showed that a few-foods elimination diet may help children too young to be medicated or not responding to medication, while free fatty acid supplementation or decreased eating of artificial food colouring as standard ADHD treatment is not advised.<a href="#cite_note-Pelsser_2017-319">[319]</a> Chronic deficiencies of iron, magnesium and iodine may have a negative impact on ADHD symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-pmid22928358-320">[320]</a> There is a small amount of evidence that lower tissue zinc levels may be associated with ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-pmid16190793-321">[321]</a> In the absence of a demonstrated <a href="/wiki/Zinc_deficiency" title="Zinc deficiency">zinc deficiency</a> (which is rare outside of developing countries), zinc supplementation is not recommended as treatment for ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-pmid25220092-322">[322]</a> However, zinc supplementation may reduce the minimum <a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_(pharmacology)" title="Effective dose (pharmacology)">effective dose</a> of amphetamine when it is used with amphetamine for the treatment of ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Kraus_2008-323">[323]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prognosis">Prognosis</h2></div> ADHD persists into adulthood in about 30–50% of cases.<a href="#cite_note-Balint_2008-324">[324]</a> Those affected are likely to develop coping mechanisms as they mature, thus compensating to some extent for their previous symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Art.218-221">[221]</a> Children with ADHD have a higher risk of unintentional injuries.<a href="#cite_note-Ruiz-Goikoetxea_2017-256">[256]</a> Effects of medication on functional impairment and <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life_(healthcare)" title="Quality of life (healthcare)">quality of life</a> (e.g. reduced risk of accidents) have been found across multiple domains.<a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a> Rates of smoking among those with ADHD are higher than in the general population at about 40%.<a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a> About 30–50% of people diagnosed in childhood continue to have <a href="/wiki/Adult_attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">ADHD in adulthood</a>, with 2.58% of adults estimated to have ADHD which began in childhood.<a href="#cite_note-Song_2021-219">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ginsberg_2014-327">[327]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:INTEGRITY" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:INTEGRITY">text–source integrity?</a>] In adults, hyperactivity is usually replaced by inner <a href="/wiki/Psychomotor_agitation" title="Psychomotor agitation">restlessness</a>, and adults often develop <a href="/wiki/Coping" title="Coping">coping</a> skills to compensate for their impairments. The condition can be difficult to tell apart from other conditions, as well as from high levels of activity within the range of normal behaviour. ADHD has a negative impact on patient health-related quality of life that may be further exacerbated by, or may increase the risk of, other psychiatric conditions such as anxiety and depression.<a href="#cite_note-Coghill_2017-233">[233]</a> Individuals with ADHD may also face misconceptions and stigma.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> Individuals with ADHD are significantly overrepresented in prison populations. Although there is no generally accepted estimate of ADHD prevalence among inmates, a 2015 meta-analysis estimated a prevalence of 25.5%, and a larger 2018 meta-analysis estimated the frequency to be 26.2%.<a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_attention_deficit_hyperactive_disorder" title="Epidemiology of attention deficit hyperactive disorder">Epidemiology of attention deficit hyperactive disorder</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map-Ever-Diagnosed-2011-550px.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Map-Ever-Diagnosed-2011-550px.jpg/300px-Map-Ever-Diagnosed-2011-550px.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Map-Ever-Diagnosed-2011-550px.jpg/450px-Map-Ever-Diagnosed-2011-550px.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Map-Ever-Diagnosed-2011-550px.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="369" /></a><figcaption>Percentage of people 4–17 ever diagnosed in the US as of 2011<a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a></figcaption></figure> ADHD is estimated to affect about 6–7% of people aged 18 and under when diagnosed via the DSM-IV criteria.<a href="#cite_note-pmid22976615-330">[330]</a> When diagnosed via the ICD-10 criteria, rates in this age group are estimated around 1–2%.<a href="#cite_note-Cowen_2012-331">[331]</a> Rates are similar between countries and differences in rates depend mostly on how it is diagnosed.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_2011-332">[332]</a> Children in North America appear to have a higher rate of ADHD than children in Africa and the Middle East; this is believed to be due to differing methods of diagnosis rather than a difference in underlying frequency. (The same publication which describes this difference also notes that the difference may be rooted in the available studies from these respective regions, as far more studies were from North America than from Africa and the Middle East.)<a href="#cite_note-Polanczyk_2007-333">[333]</a> As of 2019,<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder&action=edit">[update]</a> it was estimated to affect 84.7 million people globally.<a href="#cite_note-GBD2019-3">[3]</a> ADHD is diagnosed approximately twice as often in boys as in girls,<a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid22976615-330">[330]</a> and 1.6 times more often in men than in women,<a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a> although the disorder is overlooked in girls or diagnosed in later life because their symptoms sometimes differ from diagnostic criteria.<a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a><a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a> In 2014, <a href="/wiki/Keith_Conners" title="Keith Conners">Keith Conners</a>, one of the early advocates for recognition of the disorder, spoke out against overdiagnosis in a <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a> article.<a href="#cite_note-NYT2013-339">[339]</a> In contrast, a 2014 peer-reviewed medical literature review indicated that ADHD is underdiagnosed in adults.<a href="#cite_note-Ginsberg_2014-327">[327]</a> Studies from multiple countries have reported that children born closer to the start of the school year are more frequently diagnosed with and medicated for ADHD than their older classmates.<a href="#cite_note-340">[340]</a> Boys who were born in December where the school age cut-off was 31 December were shown to be 30% more likely to be diagnosed and 41% more likely to be treated than those born in January. Girls born in December had a diagnosis and treatment percentage increase of 70% and 77% respectively compared to those born in January. Children who were born at the last three days of a calendar year were reported to have significantly higher levels of diagnosis and treatment for ADHD than children born at the first three days of a calendar year. The studies suggest that ADHD diagnosis is prone to subjective analysis.<a href="#cite_note-Ford-Jones_2015-341">[341]</a> Rates of diagnosis and treatment have increased in both the United Kingdom and the United States since the 1970s. Prior to 1970, it was rare for children to be diagnosed with ADHD, while in the 1970s rates were about 1%.<a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a> This is believed to be primarily due to changes in how the condition is diagnosed<a href="#cite_note-CDCTime2013-343">[343]</a> and how readily people are willing to treat it with medications rather than a true change in incidence.<a href="#cite_note-Cowen_2012-331">[331]</a> With widely differing rates of diagnosis across countries, states within countries, races, and ethnicities, some suspect factors other than symptoms of ADHD are playing a role in diagnosis, such as cultural norms.<a href="#cite_note-Elder-2010-344">[344]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ford-Jones_2015-341">[341]</a> Despite showing a higher frequency of symptoms associated with ADHD, <a href="/wiki/People_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="People of color">non-White</a> children in the US are less likely than <a href="/wiki/White_American" class="mw-redirect" title="White American">White</a> children to be diagnosed or treated for ADHD, a finding that is often explained by bias among health professionals, as well as parents who may be reluctant to acknowledge that their child has ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-345">[345]</a> Crosscultural differences in diagnosis of ADHD can also be attributed to the long-lasting effects of harmful, racially targeted medical practices. Medical pseudosciences, particularly those that targeted Black populations during the period of slavery in the US, lead to a distrust of medical practices within certain communities. The combination of ADHD symptoms often being regarded as misbehaviour rather than as a psychiatric condition, and the use of drugs to regulate ADHD, result in a hesitancy to trust a diagnosis of ADHD. Cases of misdiagnosis in ADHD can also occur due to stereotyping of people of color. Due to ADHD's subjectively determined symptoms, medical professionals may diagnose individuals based on stereotyped behaviour or misdiagnose due to cultural differences in symptom presentation.<a href="#cite_note-Slobodin_2020-346">[346]</a> A 2024 study in <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a>’s <a href="/wiki/Morbidity_and_Mortality_Weekly_Report" title="Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report">Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report</a> reports around 15.5 million U.S. adults have attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, with many facing challenges in accessing treatment.<a href="#cite_note-347">[347]</a> One-third of diagnosed individuals had received a prescription for a stimulant drug in the past year but nearly three-quarters of them reported difficulties filling the prescription due to medication shortages.<a href="#cite_note-348">[348]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CDCHisGraph.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/CDCHisGraph.png/300px-CDCHisGraph.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/CDCHisGraph.png/450px-CDCHisGraph.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/CDCHisGraph.png/600px-CDCHisGraph.png 2x" data-file-width="1817" data-file-height="1057" /></a><figcaption>Timeline of ADHD diagnostic criteria, prevalence, and treatment</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="History of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">History of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a></div> ADHD was officially known as attention deficit disorder (ADD) from 1980 to 1987; prior to the 1980s, it was known as hyperkinetic reaction of childhood. Symptoms similar to those of ADHD have been described in medical literature dating back to the 18th century. Sir <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Crichton" title="Alexander Crichton">Alexander Crichton</a> describes "mental restlessness" in his book An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement written in 1798.<a href="#cite_note-349">[349]</a><a href="#cite_note-350">[350]</a> He made observations about children showing signs of being inattentive and having the "fidgets". The first clear description of ADHD is credited to <a href="/wiki/George_Still" class="mw-redirect" title="George Still">George Still</a> in 1902 during a series of lectures he gave to the Royal College of Physicians of London.<a href="#cite_note-351">[351]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDCTime2013-343">[343]</a> The terminology used to describe the condition has changed over time and has included: minimal brain dysfunction in the DSM-I (1952), hyperkinetic reaction of childhood in the DSM-II (1968), and attention-deficit disorder with or without hyperactivity in the DSM-III (1980).<a href="#cite_note-CDCTime2013-343">[343]</a> In 1987, this was changed to ADHD in the DSM-III-R, and in 1994 the DSM-IV in split the diagnosis into three subtypes: ADHD inattentive type, ADHD hyperactive-impulsive type, and ADHD combined type.<a href="#cite_note-Millichap_2010_chap1-352">[352]</a> These terms were kept in the DSM-5 in 2013 and in the DSM-5-TR in 2022.<a href="#cite_note-DSM5-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-DSM5TR-6">[6]</a> Prior to the DSM, terms included minimal brain damage in the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-353">[353]</a> ADHD, its diagnosis, and its treatment have been controversial since the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-May_2008-232">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-Foreman_2006-8">[8]</a> Positions range from the view that ADHD is within the normal range of behaviour<a href="#cite_note-NICE2009-part2-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2005-354">[354]</a> to the hypothesis that ADHD is a genetic condition.<a href="#cite_note-355">[355]</a> Other areas of controversy include the use of stimulant medications in children,<a href="#cite_note-May_2008-232">[232]</a> the method of diagnosis, and the possibility of overdiagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-Cormier_2008-356">[356]</a> In 2009, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence states that the current treatments and methods of diagnosis are based on the dominant view of the academic literature.<a href="#cite_note-NICE2009-Diagnosis-357">[357]</a> Once neuroimaging studies were possible, studies in the 1990s provided support for the pre-existing theory that neurological differences (particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">frontal lobes</a>) were involved in ADHD. A genetic component was identified and ADHD was acknowledged to be a persistent, long-term disorder which lasted from childhood into adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-358">[358]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barkley_2006-359">[359]</a> ADHD was split into the current three sub-types because of a field trial completed by Lahey and colleagues and published in 1994.<a href="#cite_note-360">[360]</a> In 2021, global teams of scientists curated the International Consensus Statement compiling evidence-based findings about the disorder.<a href="#cite_note-Faraone_2021-9">[9]</a> In 1934, Benzedrine became the first amphetamine medication approved for use in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Rasmussen_2006-361">[361]</a> Methylphenidate was introduced in the 1950s, and <a href="/wiki/Enantiopure" class="mw-redirect" title="Enantiopure">enantiopure</a> dextroamphetamine in the 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-CDCTime2013-343">[343]</a> The use of stimulants to treat ADHD was first described in 1937.<a href="#cite_note-362">[362]</a> Charles Bradley gave the children with behavioural disorders Benzedrine and found it improved academic performance and behaviour.<a href="#cite_note-363">[363]</a><a href="#cite_note-364">[364]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_directions">Research directions</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possible_positive_traits">Possible positive traits</h3></div> Possible positive traits of ADHD are a new avenue of research, and therefore limited. A 2020 review found that creativity <a href="/wiki/Creativity_and_mental_health" title="Creativity and mental health">may be associated</a> with ADHD symptoms, particularly <a href="/wiki/Divergent_thinking" title="Divergent thinking">divergent thinking</a> and quantity of creative achievements, but not with the disorder of ADHD itself – i.e. it has not been found to be increased in people diagnosed with the disorder, only in people with subclinical symptoms or those that possess traits associated with the disorder. Divergent thinking is the ability to produce creative solutions which differ significantly from each other and consider the issue from multiple perspectives. Those with ADHD symptoms could be advantaged in this form of creativity as they tend to have diffuse attention, allowing rapid switching between aspects of the task under consideration; flexible <a href="/wiki/Associative_memory_(psychology)" title="Associative memory (psychology)">associative memory</a>, allowing them to remember and use more distantly-related ideas which is associated with creativity; and impulsivity, allowing them to consider ideas which others may not have.<a href="#cite_note-Hoogman_2020-365">[365]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possible_biomarkers_for_diagnosis">Possible biomarkers for diagnosis</h3></div> Reviews of ADHD <a href="/wiki/Biomarker_(medicine)" title="Biomarker (medicine)">biomarkers</a> have noted that platelet <a href="/wiki/Monoamine_oxidase" title="Monoamine oxidase">monoamine oxidase</a> expression, urinary <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a>, urinary <a href="/wiki/3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol" title="3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol">MHPG</a>, and urinary <a href="/wiki/Phenethylamine" title="Phenethylamine">phenethylamine</a> levels consistently differ between ADHD individuals and non-ADHD controls. These measurements could serve as diagnostic biomarkers for ADHD, but more research is needed to establish their diagnostic utility. Urinary and <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">blood plasma</a> phenethylamine concentrations are lower in ADHD individuals relative to controls. The two most commonly prescribed drugs for ADHD, <a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">amphetamine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methylphenidate" title="Methylphenidate">methylphenidate</a>, increase phenethylamine <a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">biosynthesis</a> in treatment-responsive individuals with ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-Berry_2007-161">[161]</a> Lower urinary phenethylamine concentrations are associated with symptoms of inattentiveness in ADHD individuals.<a href="#cite_note-Scassellati_2012-366">[366]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_controversies" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder controversies">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directed_attention_fatigue" title="Directed attention fatigue">Directed attention fatigue</a> – a temporary state sharing many of the symptoms of ADHD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-medication" title="Self-medication">Self-medication</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFaraoneBellgroveBrikellCortese2024" class="citation journal cs1">Faraone SV, Bellgrove MA, Brikell I, Cortese S, Hartman CA, Hollis C, et al. 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Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America (Review). 23 (4): 937–953. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chc.2014.05.010">10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4322780">4322780</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25220094">25220094</a>. <q>an elimination diet produces a small aggregate effect but may have greater benefit among some children. Very few studies enable proper evaluation of the likelihood of response in children with ADHD who are not already preselected based on prior diet response.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Child+and+Adolescent+Psychiatric+Clinics+of+North+America&rft.atitle=Restriction+and+elimination+diets+in+ADHD+treatment&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=937-953&rft.date=2014-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4322780%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25220094&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.chc.2014.05.010&rft.aulast=Nigg&rft.aufirst=JT&rft.au=Holton%2C+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4322780&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091024102724/http://www.euro.who.int/document/MNH/ebrief14.pdf">"Mental health of children and adolescents"</a> (PDF). 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The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 85 (1): 45–58. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3313539">3313539</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22461743">22461743</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Yale+Journal+of+Biology+and+Medicine&rft.atitle=Focus%3A+Translational+Medicine%3A+Guanfacine+for+the+Treatment+of+Cognitive+Disorders%3A+A+Century+of+Discoveries+at+Yale&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=45-58&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3313539%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22461743&rft.aulast=Arnsten&rft.aufirst=AF&rft.au=Jin%2C+LE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3313539&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NICE_2019-311">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NICE_2019_311-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NICE_2019_311-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NICE_2019_311-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Excellence2019" class="citation book cs1">National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng87/">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis and management</a>. NICE Guideline, No. 87. London: National Guideline Centre (UK). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4731-2830-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4731-2830-9"><bdi>978-1-4731-2830-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1126668845">1126668845</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210112035209/https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng87/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Attention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder%3A+diagnosis+and+management&rft.place=London&rft.series=NICE+Guideline%2C+No.+87&rft.pub=National+Guideline+Centre+%28UK%29&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1126668845&rft.isbn=978-1-4731-2830-9&rft.au=National+Institute+for+Health+and+Care+Excellence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nice.org.uk%2Fguidance%2Fng87%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CADDRA-312"><a href="#cite_ref-CADDRA_312-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.caddra.ca/cms4/pdfs/caddraGuidelines2011Introduction.pdf">"Canadian ADHD Practice Guidelines"</a> (PDF). Canadian ADHD Resource Alliance. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210121222344/https://www.caddra.ca/cms4/pdfs/caddraGuidelines2011Introduction.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Canadian+ADHD+Resource+Alliance&rft.atitle=Canadian+ADHD+Practice+Guidelines&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.caddra.ca%2Fcms4%2Fpdfs%2FcaddraGuidelines2011Introduction.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevensWilensStern2013" class="citation journal cs1">Stevens JR, Wilens TE, Stern TA (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3733520">"Using stimulants for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: clinical approaches and challenges"</a>. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders. 15 (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4088%2FPCC.12f01472">10.4088/PCC.12f01472</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3733520">3733520</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23930227">23930227</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Primary+Care+Companion+for+CNS+Disorders&rft.atitle=Using+stimulants+for+attention-deficit%2Fhyperactivity+disorder%3A+clinical+approaches+and+challenges&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3733520%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23930227&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4088%2FPCC.12f01472&rft.aulast=Stevens&rft.aufirst=JR&rft.au=Wilens%2C+TE&rft.au=Stern%2C+TA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3733520&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung2010" class="citation web cs1">Young JL (20 December 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/734449_print">"Individualizing Treatment for Adult ADHD: An Evidence-Based Guideline"</a>. Medscape. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220508225446/https://www.medscape.org/viewarticle/734449_print">Archived</a> from the original on 8 May 2022. Retrieved 8 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Medscape&rft.atitle=Individualizing+Treatment+for+Adult+ADHD%3A+An+Evidence-Based+Guideline&rft.date=2010-12-20&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=JL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.medscape.org%2Fviewarticle%2F734449_print&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiederman2003" class="citation web cs1">Biederman J (21 November 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/464377_print">"New-Generation Long-Acting Stimulants for the Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder"</a>. Medscape. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220508225829/https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/464377_print">Archived</a> from the original on 8 May 2022. Retrieved 8 May 2022. <q>As most treatment guidelines and prescribing information for stimulant medications relate to experience in school-aged children, prescribed doses for older patients are lacking. Emerging evidence for both methylphenidate and Adderall indicate that when weight-corrected daily doses, equipotent with those used in the treatment of younger patients, are used to treat adults with ADHD, these patients show a very robust clinical response consistent with that observed in pediatric studies. These data suggest that older patients may require a more aggressive approach in terms of dosing, based on the same target dosage ranges that have already been established – for methylphenidate, 1–1.5–2 mg/kg/day, and for D,L-amphetamine, 0.5–0.75–1 mg/kg/day.... In particular, adolescents and adults are vulnerable to underdosing, and are thus at potential risk of failing to receive adequate dosage levels. As with all therapeutic agents, the efficacy and safety of stimulant medications should always guide prescribing behavior: careful dosage titration of the selected stimulant product should help to ensure that each patient with ADHD receives an adequate dose, so that the clinical benefits of therapy can be fully attained.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Medscape&rft.atitle=New-Generation+Long-Acting+Stimulants+for+the+Treatment+of+Attention-Deficit%2FHyperactivity+Disorder&rft.date=2003-11-21&rft.aulast=Biederman&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.medscape.com%2Fviewarticle%2F464377_print&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessler1996" class="citation journal cs1">Kessler S (January 1996). "Drug therapy in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder". Southern Medical Journal. 89 (1): 33–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00007611-199601000-00005">10.1097/00007611-199601000-00005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8545689">8545689</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12798818">12798818</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southern+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=Drug+therapy+in+attention-deficit+hyperactivity+disorder&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=33-38&rft.date=1996-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12798818%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8545689&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00007611-199601000-00005&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-APP2019-317"><a href="#cite_ref-APP2019_317-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolraichHaganAllanChan2019" class="citation journal cs1">Wolraich ML, Hagan JF, Allan C, Chan E, Davison D, Earls M, et al. (October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7067282">"Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents"</a>. Pediatrics. 144 (4): e20192528. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2019-2528">10.1542/peds.2019-2528</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7067282">7067282</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31570648">31570648</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pediatrics&rft.atitle=Clinical+Practice+Guideline+for+the+Diagnosis%2C+Evaluation%2C+and+Treatment+of+Attention-Deficit%2FHyperactivity+Disorder+in+Children+and+Adolescents&rft.volume=144&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e20192528&rft.date=2019-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7067282%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31570648&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1542%2Fpeds.2019-2528&rft.aulast=Wolraich&rft.aufirst=ML&rft.au=Hagan%2C+JF&rft.au=Allan%2C+C&rft.au=Chan%2C+E&rft.au=Davison%2C+D&rft.au=Earls%2C+M&rft.au=Evans%2C+SW&rft.au=Flinn%2C+SK&rft.au=Froehlich%2C+T&rft.au=Frost%2C+J&rft.au=Holbrook%2C+JR&rft.au=Lehmann%2C+CU&rft.au=Lessin%2C+HR&rft.au=Okechukwu%2C+K&rft.au=Pierce%2C+KL&rft.au=Winner%2C+JD&rft.au=Zurhellen%2C+W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7067282&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid26825336-318"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid26825336_318-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErtürkWoutersImerajLampo2020" class="citation journal cs1">Ertürk E, Wouters S, Imeraj L, Lampo A (August 2020). "Association of ADHD and Celiac Disease: What Is the Evidence? A Systematic Review of the Literature". Journal of Attention Disorders (Review). 24 (10): 1371–1376. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1087054715611493">10.1177/1087054715611493</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26825336">26825336</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33989148">33989148</a>. <q>Up till now, there is no conclusive evidence for a relationship between ADHD and <abbr title="celiac disease">CD</abbr>. Therefore, it is not advised to perform routine screening of CD when assessing ADHD (and vice versa) or to implement <abbr title="gluten-free diet">GFD</abbr> as a standard treatment in ADHD. Nevertheless, the possibility of untreated CD predisposing to ADHD-like behavior should be kept in mind. ... It is possible that in untreated patients with CD, neurologic symptoms such as chronic fatigue, inattention, pain, and headache could predispose patients to ADHD-like behavior (mainly symptoms of inattentive type), which may be alleviated after GFD treatment.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Attention+Disorders&rft.atitle=Association+of+ADHD+and+Celiac+Disease%3A+What+Is+the+Evidence%3F+A+Systematic+Review+of+the+Literature&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1371-1376&rft.date=2020-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A33989148%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26825336&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1087054715611493&rft.aulast=Ert%C3%BCrk&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Wouters%2C+S&rft.au=Imeraj%2C+L&rft.au=Lampo%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pelsser_2017-319"><a href="#cite_ref-Pelsser_2017_319-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelsserFrankenaToormanRodrigues_Pereira2017" class="citation journal cs1">Pelsser LM, Frankena K, Toorman J, Rodrigues Pereira R (January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5266211">"Diet and ADHD, Reviewing the Evidence: A Systematic Review of Meta-Analyses of Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trials Evaluating the Efficacy of Diet Interventions on the Behavior of Children with ADHD"</a>. 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These include actively and universally eliciting parental concerns about child behavior and academic performance (at home and school) at well-visits,32,33 providing care that is culturally relevant in families' preferred languages,34 and linking with community resources to provide mental health education, guidance, and services to families (eg, parent training courses for parents of children with ADHD).35–39 Pediatric clinicians also may need to consider universal behavioral health screening tools for children to improve diagnostic capabilities and recognize when a child has ADHD symptoms, even if the problem is not recognized by the parent. 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Human Psychopharmacology. 24 (1): 1–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fhup.992">10.1002/hup.992</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629554">2629554</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19051222">19051222</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Psychopharmacology&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+stimulants+to+treat+ADHD%3A+transdermal+methylphenidate&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-17&rft.date=2009-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2629554%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19051222&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fhup.992&rft.aulast=Patrick&rft.aufirst=KS&rft.au=Straughn%2C+AB&rft.au=Perkins%2C+JS&rft.au=Gonz%C3%A1lez%2C+MA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2629554&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-363"><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGross1995" class="citation journal cs1">Gross MD (February 1995). 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The American Journal of Psychiatry. 152 (2): 298–299. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fajp.152.2.298b">10.1176/ajp.152.2.298b</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1535-7228">1535-7228</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/22024537">22024537</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1480183">1480183</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7840374">7840374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Origin+of+stimulant+use+for+treatment+of+attention+deficit+disorder&rft.volume=152&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=298-299&rft.date=1995-02&rft.eissn=1535-7228&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fajp.152.2.298b&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1480183&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F22024537&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7840374&rft.aulast=Gross&rft.aufirst=MD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-364"><a href="#cite_ref-364">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1998" class="citation journal cs1">Brown W (1998). "Charles Bradley, M.D.". American Journal of Psychiatry. 155 (7): 968. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1176%2Fajp.155.7.968">10.1176/ajp.155.7.968</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1535-7228">1535-7228</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-953X">0002-953X</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/22024537">22024537</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1480183">1480183</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Charles+Bradley%2C+M.D.&rft.volume=155&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=968&rft.date=1998&rft.eissn=1535-7228&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1176%2Fajp.155.7.968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1480183&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F22024537&rft.issn=0002-953X&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoogman_2020-365"><a href="#cite_ref-Hoogman_2020_365-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoogmanStolteBaasKroesbergen2020" class="citation journal cs1">Hoogman M, Stolte M, Baas M, Kroesbergen E (December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.ubn.ru.nl//bitstream/handle/2066/227072/227072.pdf">"Creativity and ADHD: A review of behavioral studies, the effect of psychostimulants and neural underpinnings"</a> (PDF). Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 119: 66–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neubiorev.2020.09.029">10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.029</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1874%2F409179">1874/409179</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33035524">33035524</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222142805">222142805</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230906213830/https://repository.ubn.ru.nl//bitstream/handle/2066/227072/227072.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 6 September 2023. Retrieved 28 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuroscience+and+Biobehavioral+Reviews&rft.atitle=Creativity+and+ADHD%3A+A+review+of+behavioral+studies%2C+the+effect+of+psychostimulants+and+neural+underpinnings&rft.volume=119&rft.pages=66-85&rft.date=2020-12&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1874%2F409179&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A222142805%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33035524&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.neubiorev.2020.09.029&rft.aulast=Hoogman&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Stolte%2C+M&rft.au=Baas%2C+M&rft.au=Kroesbergen%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.ubn.ru.nl%2F%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F2066%2F227072%2F227072.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scassellati_2012-366"><a href="#cite_ref-Scassellati_2012_366-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScassellatiBonviciniFaraoneGennarelli2012" class="citation journal cs1">Scassellati C, Bonvicini C, Faraone SV, Gennarelli M (October 2012). "Biomarkers and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analyses". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 51 (10): 1003–1019.e20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jaac.2012.08.015">10.1016/j.jaac.2012.08.015</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23021477">23021477</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Academy+of+Child+and+Adolescent+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Biomarkers+and+attention-deficit%2Fhyperactivity+disorder%3A+a+systematic+review+and+meta-analyses&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1003-1019.e20&rft.date=2012-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jaac.2012.08.015&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23021477&rft.aulast=Scassellati&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Bonvicini%2C+C&rft.au=Faraone%2C+SV&rft.au=Gennarelli%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarkleyBenton2022" class="citation book cs1">Barkley RA, Benton CM (2022). Taking charge of adult ADHD : proven strategies to succeed at work, at home, and in relationships (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press, a division of Guildford Publications, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781462547524" title="Special:BookSources/9781462547524"><bdi>9781462547524</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1251741330">1251741330</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taking+charge+of+adult+ADHD+%3A+proven+strategies+to+succeed+at+work%2C+at+home%2C+and+in+relationships&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=The+Guilford+Press%2C+a+division+of+Guildford+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1251741330&rft.isbn=9781462547524&rft.aulast=Barkley&rft.aufirst=RA&rft.au=Benton%2C+CM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallowellRatey2011" class="citation book cs1">Hallowell EM, Ratey JJ (2011). Driven to distraction : recognizing and coping with attention deficit disorder from childhood through adulthood (1 ed.). Anchor Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307743152" title="Special:BookSources/9780307743152"><bdi>9780307743152</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1200786886">1200786886</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Driven+to+distraction+%3A+recognizing+and+coping+with+attention+deficit+disorder+from+childhood+through+adulthood&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Anchor+Books&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1200786886&rft.isbn=9780307743152&rft.aulast=Hallowell&rft.aufirst=EM&rft.au=Ratey%2C+JJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinshawScheffler2014" class="citation book cs1">Hinshaw SP, Scheffler RM (2014). The ADHD Explosion: Myths, Medication, Money, and Today's Push for Performance. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979055-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-979055-5"><bdi>978-0-19-979055-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+ADHD+Explosion%3A+Myths%2C+Medication%2C+Money%2C+and+Today%27s+Push+for+Performance&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-979055-5&rft.aulast=Hinshaw&rft.aufirst=SP&rft.au=Scheffler%2C+RM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMate1999" class="citation book cs1">Mate G (1999). Scattered minds : a new look at the origins and healing of attention deficit disorder. Canada: Vintage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780676972597" title="Special:BookSources/9780676972597"><bdi>9780676972597</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48795973">48795973</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scattered+minds+%3A+a+new+look+at+the+origins+and+healing+of+attention+deficit+disorder&rft.place=Canada&rft.pub=Vintage&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48795973&rft.isbn=9780676972597&rft.aulast=Mate&rft.aufirst=G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwarz2016" class="citation book cs1">Schwarz A (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/adhdnationchildr0000schw_d3y4">ADHD Nation: Children, Doctors, Big Pharma, and the Making of an American Epidemic</a>. Scribner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5011-0591-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5011-0591-3"><bdi>978-1-5011-0591-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/951612166">951612166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ADHD+Nation%3A+Children%2C+Doctors%2C+Big+Pharma%2C+and+the+Making+of+an+American+Epidemic&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F951612166&rft.isbn=978-1-5011-0591-3&rft.aulast=Schwarz&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fadhdnationchildr0000schw_d3y4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung2007" class="citation book cs1">Young JL (9 January 2007). <a href="/wiki/ADHD_Grown_Up:_A_Guide_to_Adolescent_and_Adult_ADHD" title="ADHD Grown Up: A Guide to Adolescent and Adult ADHD">ADHD Grown Up: A Guide to Adolescent and Adult ADHD</a>. Norton, W. W. & Company, Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ADHD+Grown+Up%3A+A+Guide+to+Adolescent+and+Adult+ADHD&rft.pub=Norton%2C+W.+W.+%26+Company%2C+Inc&rft.date=2007-01-09&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=JL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliszka2007" class="citation journal cs1">Pliszka S (July 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2Fchi.0b013e318054e724">"Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder"</a>. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 46 (7): 894–921. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2Fchi.0b013e318054e724">10.1097/chi.0b013e318054e724</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17581453">17581453</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:602465">602465</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Academy+of+Child+and+Adolescent+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Practice+parameter+for+the+assessment+and+treatment+of+children+and+adolescents+with+attention-deficit%2Fhyperactivity+disorder&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=894-921&rft.date=2007-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A602465%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17581453&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2Fchi.0b013e318054e724&rft.aulast=Pliszka&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1097%252Fchi.0b013e318054e724&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReaserPrevattPetscherProctor2007" class="citation journal cs1">Reaser A, Prevatt F, Petscher Y, Proctor B (2007). "The learning and study strategies of college students with ADHD". Psychology in the Schools. 44 (6). Wiley-Blackwell: 627–638. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fpits.20252">10.1002/pits.20252</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1520-6807">1520-6807</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-3085">0033-3085</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/64009353">64009353</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1763062">1763062</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychology+in+the+Schools&rft.atitle=The+learning+and+study+strategies+of+college+students+with+ADHD&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=627-638&rft.date=2007&rft.eissn=1520-6807&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fpits.20252&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1763062&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F64009353&rft.issn=0033-3085&rft.aulast=Reaser&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Prevatt%2C+F&rft.au=Petscher%2C+Y&rft.au=Proctor%2C+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAttention+deficit+hyperactivity+disorder" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li>National Institute of Mental Health. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nimh.nih.gov/topics/topic-page-adhd">NIMH Pages About Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).</a> National Institutes of Health (NIH), U.S. Department of Health and Human 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181923" class="extiw" title="d:Q181923">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-11" title="ICD-11">11</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#821852937">6A05</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/F90">F90</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=314.00">314.00</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=314.01">314.01</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Online_Mendelian_Inheritance_in_Man" title="Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man">OMIM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omim.org/entry/143465">143465</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001289">D001289</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb6158.htm">6158</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/SNOMED_CT" title="SNOMED CT">SNOMED CT</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://snomed.info/id/406506008">406506008</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001551.htm">001551</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/EMedicine" title="EMedicine">eMedicine</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/med/3103-overview">med/3103</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.emedicine.com/ped/topic177.htm#">ped/177</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_UK" title="Patient UK">Patient UK</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patient.info/doctor/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-pro">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a></li><li>Scholia: <a class="external text" href="https://tools.wmflabs.org/scholia/topic/Q181923">Q181923</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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.navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Attention-deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Template:Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Attention-deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Template talk:Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Attention-deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_(ADHD)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a> (ADHD)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="History of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">History of ADHD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adult_attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">ADHD in adults</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_controversies" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder controversies">ADHD controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management">ADHD management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coaching#ADHD_coaching" title="Coaching">ADHD coaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_attention_deficit_hyperactive_disorder" title="Epidemiology of attention deficit hyperactive disorder">Epidemiology of ADHD</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Major characteristics: <a href="/wiki/Attention" title="Attention">Attention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperactivity">Hyperactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impulsivity" title="Impulsivity">Impulsivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infodumping" title="Infodumping">Infodumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimming" title="Stimming">Stimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation" title="Emotional dysregulation">Emotional dysregulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sub-types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_predominantly_inattentive" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive">ADHD Predominantly Inattentive Presentation</a> (ADHD-I)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_predominantly_hyperactive-impulsive&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder predominantly hyperactive-impulsive (page does not exist)">ADHD Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Presentation</a> (ADHD-HI)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_combined_presentation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder combined presentation (page does not exist)">ADHD Combined Presentation</a> (ADHD-C)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_management#Medications" class="mw-redirect" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management">Medications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd>Stimulants:</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Methylphenidate" title="Methylphenidate">Methylphenidate</a> (Ritalin, Concerta, and others)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexmethylphenidate" title="Dexmethylphenidate">Dexmethylphenidate</a> (Focalin, Focalin XR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">Amphetamine</a> (Evekeo, <a href="/wiki/Adderall" title="Adderall">Adderall</a>, Adzenys XR, Dyanavel XR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dextroamphetamine" title="Dextroamphetamine">Dextroamphetamine</a> (Dexedrine, Zenzedi, ProCentra, and others)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisdexamfetamine" title="Lisdexamfetamine">Lisdexamfetamine</a> (Vyvanse)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">Methamphetamine</a> (Desoxyn)</li></ul> <dl><dd>Non-stimulant:</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomoxetine" title="Atomoxetine">Atomoxetine</a> (Strattera)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanfacine" title="Guanfacine">Guanfacine</a> (Tenex (off-label), Intuniv)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonidine" title="Clonidine">Clonidine</a> (Catapres (off-label), Kapvay)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bupropion" title="Bupropion">Bupropion</a> (Wellbutrin (off-label), Zyban)</li></ul> <dl><dd>Investigational:</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_investigational_attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_drugs" title="List of investigational attention deficit hyperactivity disorder drugs">List of investigational attention deficit hyperactivity disorder drugs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related or outdated topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delayed_gratification" title="Delayed gratification">Delayed gratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder" title="Auditory processing disorder">Auditory processing disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deficits_in_attention,_motor_control_and_perception" title="Deficits in attention, motor control and perception">Deficits in attention, motor control and perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_coordination_disorder" title="Developmental coordination disorder">Developmental coordination disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_arousal_theory" title="Low arousal theory">Low arousal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sluggish_cognitive_tempo" class="mw-redirect" title="Sluggish cognitive tempo">Sluggish cognitive tempo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_processing_disorder" title="Sensory processing disorder">Sensory processing disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunter_versus_farmer_hypothesis" title="Hunter versus farmer hypothesis">Hunter versus farmer hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Category:Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="ADHD_pharmacotherapies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:ADHD_pharmacotherapies" title="Template:ADHD pharmacotherapies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:ADHD_pharmacotherapies" title="Template talk:ADHD pharmacotherapies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:ADHD_pharmacotherapies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:ADHD pharmacotherapies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="ADHD_pharmacotherapies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_management#Medications" class="mw-redirect" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management"><abbr title="Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder">ADHD</abbr> pharmacotherapies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system"><abbr title="central nervous system">CNS</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip central nervous system <a href="/wiki/Stimulants" class="mw-redirect" title="Stimulants">stimulants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">Amphetamine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mixed_amphetamine_salts" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed amphetamine salts">Mixed amphetamine salts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Levoamphetamine" title="Levoamphetamine">Levoamphetamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dextroamphetamine" title="Dextroamphetamine">Dextroamphetamine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lisdexamfetamine" title="Lisdexamfetamine">Lisdexamfetamine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">Methamphetamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylphenidate" title="Methylphenidate">Methylphenidate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexmethylphenidate" title="Dexmethylphenidate">Dexmethylphenidate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serdexmethylphenidate" title="Serdexmethylphenidate">Serdexmethylphenidate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Serdexmethylphenidate/dexmethylphenidate" title="Serdexmethylphenidate/dexmethylphenidate">+dexmethylphenidate</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center">Non-classical <abbr title="central nervous system">CNS</abbr> <a href="/wiki/Stimulants" class="mw-redirect" title="Stimulants">stimulants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armodafinil" title="Armodafinil">Armodafinil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomoxetine" title="Atomoxetine">Atomoxetine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modafinil" title="Modafinil">Modafinil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viloxazine" title="Viloxazine">Viloxazine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/Alpha-adrenergic_agonist" title="Alpha-adrenergic agonist">α2-adrenoceptor</a> <a href="/wiki/Alpha-adrenergic_agonist" title="Alpha-adrenergic agonist">agonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clonidine" title="Clonidine">Clonidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanfacine" title="Guanfacine">Guanfacine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/Antidepressants" class="mw-redirect" title="Antidepressants">Antidepressants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amitriptyline" title="Amitriptyline">Amitriptyline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bupropion" title="Bupropion">Bupropion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buspirone" title="Buspirone">Buspirone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desipramine" title="Desipramine">Desipramine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duloxetine" title="Duloxetine">Duloxetine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imipramine" title="Imipramine">Imipramine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milnacipran" title="Milnacipran">Milnacipran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moclobemide" title="Moclobemide">Moclobemide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nortriptyline" title="Nortriptyline">Nortriptyline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reboxetine" title="Reboxetine">Reboxetine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venlafaxine" title="Venlafaxine">Venlafaxine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center">Miscellaneous/others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amantadine" title="Amantadine">Amantadine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbamazepine" title="Carbamazepine">Carbamazepine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a> (ADHD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypokalemic_sensory_overstimulation" title="Hypokalemic sensory overstimulation">Hypokalemic sensory overstimulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoamine_releasing_agent" title="Monoamine releasing agent">Monoamine releasing agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">Dopamine</a> (DA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_transporter" title="Dopamine transporter">Dopamine transporter</a> (DAT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_reuptake_inhibitor" title="Dopamine reuptake inhibitor">Dopamine reuptake inhibitor</a> (DRI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine</a> (NE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine_transporter" title="Norepinephrine transporter">Norepinephrine transporter</a> (NET)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine_reuptake_inhibitor" title="Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor">Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor</a> (NRI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">Serotonin</a> (5-HT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin_transporter" title="Serotonin transporter">Serotonin transporter</a> (SERT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitor" title="Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor">Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor</a> (SSRI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin-norepinephrine_reuptake_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor">Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor</a> (SNRI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine-dopamine_reuptake_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor">Norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor</a> (NDRI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine_reuptake_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor">Serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor</a> (SNDRI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Amphetamine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Amphetamine" title="Template:Amphetamine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Amphetamine" title="Template talk:Amphetamine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Amphetamine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Amphetamine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Amphetamine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">Amphetamine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center">Main articles and pharmaceuticals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.5em"><a href="/wiki/Amphetamine" title="Amphetamine">Amphetamine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Adzenys ER</li> <li>Adzenys XR-ODT</li> <li>Dyanavel XR</li> <li>Evekeo</li> <li>Evekeo ODT</li> <li>Mixed amphetamine salts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adderall" title="Adderall">Adderall</a></li> <li>Adderall XR</li> <li>Mydayis</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.5em"><a href="/wiki/Levoamphetamine" title="Levoamphetamine">Levoamphetamine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">N/A</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.5em"><a href="/wiki/Dextroamphetamine" title="Dextroamphetamine">Dextroamphetamine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Dexedrine</li> <li>ProCentra</li> <li>Zenzedi</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.5em"><a href="/wiki/Lisdexamfetamine" title="Lisdexamfetamine">Lisdexamfetamine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Vyvanse</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center">Neuropharmacology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.5em"><a href="/wiki/Biological_target" title="Biological target">Biomolecular targets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TAAR1" title="TAAR1">TAAR1</a> (<a href="/wiki/Agonist#Types_of_agonists" title="Agonist">full agonist</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocaine_and_amphetamine_regulated_transcript" title="Cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript">CART</a> (<a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA"><abbr title="messenger RNA">mRNA</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip messenger RNA inducer)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-HT1A_receptor" title="5-HT1A receptor">5-HT1A receptor</a> (low affinity <a href="/wiki/Ligand_(biochemistry)" title="Ligand (biochemistry)">ligand</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoamine_oxidase" title="Monoamine oxidase">MAO</a> (weak <a href="/wiki/Competitive_inhibition" title="Competitive inhibition">competitive inhibitor</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase" title="Carbonic anhydrase">Carbonic anhydrases</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase_4" title="Carbonic anhydrase 4">hCA4</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase_5A" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonic anhydrase 5A">hCA5A</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase_5B" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonic anhydrase 5B">hCA5B</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase_7" title="Carbonic anhydrase 7">hCA7</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase_12" title="Carbonic anhydrase 12">hCA12</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase_13" title="Carbonic anhydrase 13">hCA13</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase_14" title="Carbonic anhydrase 14">hCA14</a> (<a href="/wiki/Enzyme_activator" title="Enzyme activator">enzyme activator</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.5em">Inhibited <a href="/wiki/Membrane_transport_protein" title="Membrane transport protein">transporters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine_transporter" title="Dopamine transporter">DAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine_transporter" title="Norepinephrine transporter">NET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin_transporter" title="Serotonin transporter">SERT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesicular_monoamine_transporter_1" title="Vesicular monoamine transporter 1">VMAT1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesicular_monoamine_transporter_2" title="Vesicular monoamine transporter 2">VMAT2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glutamate_transporter#EAATs" title="Glutamate transporter">EAAT3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SLC22A3" title="SLC22A3">SLC22A3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SLC22A5" title="SLC22A5">SLC22A5</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center">Active metabolites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4-Hydroxyamphetamine" title="4-Hydroxyamphetamine">4-Hydroxyamphetamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-Hydroxynorephedrine" title="P-Hydroxynorephedrine">4-Hydroxynorephedrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenylpropanolamine" title="Phenylpropanolamine">Norephedrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">ADHD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder management">ADHD management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulant_psychosis#Substituted_amphetamines" title="Stimulant psychosis">Amphetamine psychosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzedrine_in_popular_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Benzedrine in popular culture">Benzedrine in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">Dopamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doping_in_sport" title="Doping in sport">Doping in sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_functions" title="Executive functions">Executive functions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formetorex" title="Formetorex">Formetorex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FOSB#ΔFosB" title="FOSB">ΔFosB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_culture_of_substituted_amphetamines" title="History and culture of substituted amphetamines">History and culture of substituted amphetamines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methamphetamine" title="Methamphetamine">Methamphetamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylphenidate" title="Methylphenidate">Methylphenidate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-Methylphenethylamine" title="N-Methylphenethylamine">N-Methylphenethylamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motivational_salience" title="Motivational salience">Motivational salience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Motivational_salience#Incentive_salience" title="Motivational salience">Incentive salience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcolepsy" title="Narcolepsy">Narcolepsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise#Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Neurobiological effects of physical exercise">Neurobiological effects of physical exercise § Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootropic" title="Nootropic">Nootropic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance-enhancing_substance" title="Performance-enhancing substance">Performance-enhancing substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenethylamine" title="Phenethylamine">Phenethylamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phentermine" title="Phentermine">Phentermine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenylacetone" title="Phenylacetone">Phenylacetone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">Recreational drug use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">Serotonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substituted_amphetamine" title="Substituted amphetamine">Substituted amphetamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trace_amine" title="Trace amine">Trace amine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Amphetamine" title="Category:Amphetamine">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" title="Template:Emotional and behavioral disorders"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" title="Template talk:Emotional and behavioral disorders"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Emotional and behavioral disorders"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" title="Emotional and behavioral disorders">Emotional and behavioral disorders</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" title="Emotional and behavioral disorders">Emotional/behavioral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">ADHD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conduct_disorder" title="Conduct disorder">Conduct disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppositional_defiant_disorder" title="Oppositional defiant disorder">Oppositional defiant disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" title="Emotional and behavioral disorders">Emotional/behavioral disorder</a> (EBD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_anxiety_disorder" title="Separation anxiety disorder">Separation anxiety</a></li> <li>Social functioning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_mutism" title="Selective mutism">Selective mutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactive_attachment_disorder" title="Reactive attachment disorder">RAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinhibited_attachment_disorder" title="Disinhibited attachment disorder">DAD</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tic_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Tic disorders">Tic disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourette_syndrome" title="Tourette syndrome">Tourette syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech disorders">Speech disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stuttering" title="Stuttering">Stuttering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluttering" title="Cluttering">Cluttering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypic_movement_disorder" title="Stereotypic movement disorder">Stereotypic movement disorder</a></li> <li>Elimination disorders <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enuresis" title="Enuresis">Enuresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encopresis" title="Encopresis">Encopresis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mental_disorders_(Classification)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mental_disorders" title="Template:Mental disorders"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mental_disorders" title="Template talk:Mental disorders"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mental_disorders" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mental disorders"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mental_disorders_(Classification)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorder" title="Mental disorder">Mental disorders</a> (<a href="/wiki/Classification_of_mental_disorders" title="Classification of mental disorders">Classification</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Adult_personality_and_behavior" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Adult personality and behavior</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sexual</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ego-dystonic_sexual_orientation" title="Ego-dystonic sexual orientation">Ego-dystonic sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraphilia" title="Paraphilia">Paraphilia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fetishism" title="Sexual fetishism">Fetishism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyeurism" title="Voyeurism">Voyeurism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_anhedonia" title="Sexual anhedonia">Sexual anhedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_anorexia" title="Sexual anorexia">Sexual anorexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_maturation_disorder" title="Sexual maturation disorder">Sexual maturation disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_relationship_disorder" title="Sexual relationship disorder">Sexual relationship disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Factitious_disorder" title="Factitious disorder">Factitious disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Factitious_disorder_imposed_on_self" title="Factitious disorder imposed on self">Munchausen syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_intimacy" title="Fear of intimacy">Fear of intimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_dysphoria" title="Gender dysphoria">Gender dysphoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermittent_explosive_disorder" title="Intermittent explosive disorder">Intermittent explosive disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excoriation_disorder" title="Excoriation disorder">Dermatillomania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleptomania" title="Kleptomania">Kleptomania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyromania" title="Pyromania">Pyromania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichotillomania" title="Trichotillomania">Trichotillomania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_disorder" title="Personality disorder">Personality disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Childhood_and_learning" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_diagnosed_in_childhood" title="Mental disorders diagnosed in childhood">Childhood and learning</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" title="Emotional and behavioral disorders">Emotional and behavioral</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">ADHD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conduct_disorder" title="Conduct disorder">Conduct disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oppositional_defiant_disorder" title="Oppositional defiant disorder">ODD</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_and_behavioral_disorders" title="Emotional and behavioral disorders">Emotional and behavioral disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separation_anxiety_disorder" title="Separation anxiety disorder">Separation anxiety disorder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Movement disorders">Movement disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypic_movement_disorder" title="Stereotypic movement disorder">Stereotypic</a></li></ul></li> <li>Social functioning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disinhibited_attachment_disorder" title="Disinhibited attachment disorder">DAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactive_attachment_disorder" title="Reactive attachment disorder">RAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_mutism" title="Selective mutism">Selective mutism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_disorder" title="Speech disorder">Speech</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluttering" title="Cluttering">Cluttering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuttering" title="Stuttering">Stuttering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tic_disorder" title="Tic disorder">Tic disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tourette_syndrome" title="Tourette syndrome">Tourette syndrome</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">Intellectual disability</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-linked_intellectual_disability" title="X-linked intellectual disability">X-linked intellectual disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lujan%E2%80%93Fryns_syndrome" title="Lujan–Fryns syndrome">Lujan–Fryns syndrome</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Psychological development (<a href="/wiki/Developmental_disability" title="Developmental disability">developmental disabilities</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder" title="Pervasive developmental disorder">Pervasive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_developmental_disorder" title="Specific developmental disorder">Specific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mood_(affective)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mood_disorder" title="Mood disorder">Mood</a> (affective)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">Bipolar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_I_disorder" title="Bipolar I disorder">Bipolar I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_II_disorder" title="Bipolar II disorder">Bipolar II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Bipolar disorder not otherwise specified">Bipolar NOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclothymia" title="Cyclothymia">Cyclothymia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">Depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atypical_depression" title="Atypical depression">Atypical depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysthymia" title="Dysthymia">Dysthymia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">Major depressive disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melancholic_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Melancholic depression">Melancholic depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasonal_affective_disorder" title="Seasonal affective disorder">Seasonal affective disorder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">Mania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Neurological_and_symptomatic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Neurological and symptomatic</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum">Autism spectrum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asperger_syndrome" title="Asperger syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-functioning_autism" title="High-functioning autism">High-functioning autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified">PDD-NOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savant_syndrome" title="Savant syndrome">Savant syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dementia" title="Dementia">Dementia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV-associated_neurocognitive_disorder" title="HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder">AIDS dementia complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease" title="Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease">Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontotemporal_dementia" title="Frontotemporal dementia">Frontotemporal dementia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huntington%27s_disease" title="Huntington's disease">Huntington's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild_cognitive_impairment" title="Mild cognitive impairment">Mild cognitive impairment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pick%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Pick's disease">Pick's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundowning" title="Sundowning">Sundowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_dementia" title="Vascular dementia">Vascular dementia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wandering_(dementia)" title="Wandering (dementia)">Wandering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">Delirium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_brain_syndrome" title="Organic brain syndrome">Organic brain syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-concussion_syndrome" title="Post-concussion syndrome">Post-concussion syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Neurotic,_stress-related_and_somatoform" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neurosis" title="Neurosis">Neurotic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a>-related and <a href="/wiki/Somatic_symptom_disorder" title="Somatic symptom disorder">somatoform</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adjustment_disorder" title="Adjustment disorder">Adjustment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjustment_disorder" title="Adjustment disorder">Adjustment disorder</a> with depressed mood</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">Anxiety</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phobia" title="Phobia">Phobia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agoraphobia" title="Agoraphobia">Agoraphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_phobia" title="Childhood phobia">Childhood phobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anxiety" title="Social anxiety">Social anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anxiety_disorder" title="Social anxiety disorder">Social phobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropophobia">Anthropophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_social_phobia" title="Specific social phobia">Specific social phobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_phobia" title="Specific phobia">Specific phobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claustrophobia" title="Claustrophobia">Claustrophobia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_anxiety_disorder" title="Generalized anxiety disorder">Generalized anxiety disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">OCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_attack" title="Panic attack">Panic attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic_disorder" title="Panic disorder">Panic disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_stress" title="Psychological stress">Stress</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_stress_reaction" title="Acute stress reaction">Acute stress reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">PTSD</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissociative disorder">Dissociative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depersonalization-derealization_disorder" title="Depersonalization-derealization disorder">Depersonalization-derealization disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_identity_disorder" title="Dissociative identity disorder">Dissociative identity disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissociative_fugue" title="Dissociative fugue">Dissociative fugue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_amnesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychogenic amnesia">Psychogenic amnesia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Somatic_symptom_disorder" title="Somatic symptom disorder">Somatic symptom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Body_dysmorphic_disorder" title="Body dysmorphic disorder">Body dysmorphic disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_disorder" title="Conversion disorder">Conversion disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ganser_syndrome" title="Ganser syndrome">Ganser syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globus_pharyngis" title="Globus pharyngis">Globus pharyngis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_non-epileptic_seizure" title="Psychogenic non-epileptic seizure">Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_pregnancy" title="False pregnancy">False pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypochondriasis" title="Hypochondriasis">Hypochondriasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness" title="Mass psychogenic illness">Mass psychogenic illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nosophobia" title="Nosophobia">Nosophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogenic_pain" title="Psychogenic pain">Psychogenic pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatization_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatization disorder">Somatization disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Physiological_and_physical_behavior" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Physiological and physical behavior</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eating_disorder" title="Eating disorder">Eating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa" title="Anorexia nervosa">Anorexia nervosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulimia_nervosa" title="Bulimia nervosa">Bulimia nervosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumination_syndrome" title="Rumination syndrome">Rumination syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_specified_feeding_or_eating_disorder" title="Other specified feeding or eating disorder">Other specified feeding or eating disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nonorganic <a href="/wiki/Sleep_disorder" title="Sleep disorder">sleep</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypersomnia" title="Hypersomnia">Hypersomnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">Insomnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasomnia" title="Parasomnia">Parasomnia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Night_terror" title="Night terror">Night terror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightmare" title="Nightmare">Nightmare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_eye_movement_sleep_behavior_disorder" title="Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder">REM sleep behavior disorder</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_disorders_of_childbirth" title="Psychiatric disorders of childbirth">Postnatal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">Postpartum depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpartum_psychosis" title="Postpartum psychosis">Postpartum psychosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dysfunction#Sexual_desire_disorders" title="Sexual dysfunction">Sexual desire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypersexuality" title="Hypersexuality">Hypersexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoactive_sexual_desire_disorder" title="Hypoactive sexual desire disorder">Hypoactive sexual desire disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Psychoactive_substances,_substance_abuse_and_substance-related" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_drug" title="Psychoactive drug">Psychoactive</a> substances, <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance abuse</a> and substance-related</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_overdose" title="Drug overdose">Drug overdose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_intoxication" title="Substance intoxication">Intoxication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_dependence" title="Physical dependence">Physical dependence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebound_effect" title="Rebound effect">Rebound effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulant_psychosis" title="Stimulant psychosis">Stimulant psychosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dependence" title="Substance dependence">Substance dependence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_withdrawal" title="Drug withdrawal">Withdrawal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Schizophrenia,_schizotypal_and_delusional" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Schizotypal_personality_disorder" title="Schizotypal personality disorder">schizotypal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Delusional_disorder" title="Delusional disorder">delusional</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delusional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delusional_disorder" title="Delusional disorder">Delusional disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folie_%C3%A0_deux" title="Folie à deux">Folie à deux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Psychosis" title="Psychosis">Psychosis</a> and schizophrenia-like</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brief_reactive_psychosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Brief reactive psychosis">Brief reactive psychosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizoaffective_disorder" title="Schizoaffective disorder">Schizoaffective disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizophreniform_disorder" title="Schizophreniform disorder">Schizophreniform disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schizophrenia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_schizophrenia" title="Childhood schizophrenia">Childhood schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disorganized_schizophrenia" title="Disorganized schizophrenia">Disorganized (hebephrenic) schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoneurotic_schizophrenia" title="Pseudoneurotic schizophrenia">Pseudoneurotic schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple-type_schizophrenia" title="Simple-type schizophrenia">Simple-type schizophrenia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catatonia" title="Catatonia">Catatonia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Symptoms_and_uncategorized" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Symptoms and uncategorized</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impulse-control_disorder" title="Impulse-control disorder">Impulse-control disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kl%C3%BCver%E2%80%93Bucy_syndrome" title="Klüver–Bucy syndrome">Klüver–Bucy syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychomotor_agitation" title="Psychomotor agitation">Psychomotor agitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypy" title="Stereotypy">Stereotypy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Template:Digital media use and mental health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Template talk:Digital media use and mental health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Digital media use and mental health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed or recognised diagnostic categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_addiction" title="Computer addiction">Computer addiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_addiction_disorder" title="Internet addiction disorder">Internet addiction disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_sex_addiction" title="Internet sex addiction">Internet sex addiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_gambling" title="Online gambling">Online problem gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problematic_smartphone_use" title="Problematic smartphone use">Problematic smartphone use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nomophobia" title="Nomophobia">Nomophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problematic_social_media_use" title="Problematic social media use">Problematic social media use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_addiction" title="Television addiction">Television addiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_addiction" title="Video game addiction">Video game addiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disciplines involved</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital sociology">Digital sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberpsychology" title="Cyberpsychology">Cyberpsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Evolutionary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated psychiatric conditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">Anxiety disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_anxiety_disorder" title="Generalized anxiety disorder">Generalized anxiety disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">Obsessive–compulsive disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anxiety_disorder" title="Social anxiety disorder">Social anxiety disorder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_disorder" title="Bipolar disorder">Bipolar disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eating_disorder" title="Eating disorder">Eating disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anorexia_nervosa" title="Anorexia nervosa">Anorexia nervosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_image_disturbance" title="Body image disturbance">Body image disturbance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">Insomnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcissistic_personality_disorder" title="Narcissistic personality disorder">Narcissistic personality disorder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_addiction" title="Behavioral addiction">Behavioral addiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_image" title="Body image">Body image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Facebook" title="Criticism of Facebook">Criticism of Facebook</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2021_Facebook_leak" title="2021 Facebook leak">2021 Facebook company files leak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberbullying" title="Cyberbullying">Cyberbullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberpathology" title="Cyberpathology">Cyberpathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_detox" title="Digital detox">Digital detox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_zombie" title="Digital zombie">Digital zombie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Evolution of cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Evolutionary mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_missing_out" title="Fear of missing out">Fear of missing out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promotion_of_anorexia" class="mw-redirect" title="Promotion of anorexia">Promotion of anorexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binge-watching" title="Binge-watching">Binge-watching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_consumption" title="Television consumption">Television consumption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media_and_suicide" title="Social media and suicide">Social media and suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media_restrictions_on_children_in_Australia" title="Social media restrictions on children in Australia">Social media restrictions on children in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaving" title="Spaving">Spaving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suicide_and_the_Internet" title="Suicide and the Internet">Suicide and the Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technophilia" title="Technophilia">Technophilia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technophobia" title="Technophobia">Technophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technostress" title="Technostress">Technostress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181923#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse 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