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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_to_power_(752–775)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_to_power_(752–775)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Rise to power (752–775) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_to_power_(752–775)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Golden_age_(775–861)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Golden_age_(775–861)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Golden age (775–861) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Golden_age_(775–861)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_fragmentation_(861–945)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_fragmentation_(861–945)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Political fragmentation (861–945) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_fragmentation_(861–945)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buyid_and_Seljuq_control_(945–1118)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buyid_and_Seljuq_control_(945–1118)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Buyid and Seljuq control (945–1118) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buyid_and_Seljuq_control_(945–1118)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revival_of_caliphal_state_(1118–1258)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revival_of_caliphal_state_(1118–1258)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Revival of caliphal state (1118–1258) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revival_of_caliphal_state_(1118–1258)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongol_invasion_and_end" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_invasion_and_end"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Mongol invasion and end </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_invasion_and_end-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abbasid_Caliphate_of_Cairo_(1261–1517)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abbasid_Caliphate_of_Cairo_(1261–1517)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7.1 Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo (1261–1517) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abbasid_Caliphate_of_Cairo_(1261–1517)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Islamic_Golden_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_Golden_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Islamic Golden Age </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_Golden_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Philosophy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Science and technology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Science_and_technology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Science and technology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Science_and_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Technology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Society </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arabization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arabization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Arabization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arabization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Status_of_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Status_of_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Status of women </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Status_of_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment_of_Jews_and_Christians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment_of_Jews_and_Christians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Treatment of Jews and Christians </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatment_of_Jews_and_Christians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Holidays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Holidays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Holidays </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Holidays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Civil administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_caliphs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_caliphs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 List of caliphs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_caliphs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Abbasid Caliphate</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 117 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-117" aria-hidden="true" > 117 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidiese_Kalifaat" title="Abbasidiese Kalifaat – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Abbasidiese Kalifaat" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasiden" title="Abbasiden – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Abbasiden" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%89%A3%E1%88%B2%E1%8B%B6%E1%89%BD" title="አባሲዶች – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አባሲዶች" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الدولة العباسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الدولة العباسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califato_abasida" title="Califato abasida – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Califato abasida" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califatu_abas%C3%ADn" title="Califatu abasín – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Califatu abasín" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalif%C3%A1to_Mbohapyha" title="Kalifáto Mbohapyha – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Kalifáto Mbohapyha" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasil%C9%99r_xilaf%C9%99ti" title="Abbasilər xilafəti – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Abbasilər xilafəti" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%AE%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="عباسی خیلافتی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="عباسی خیلافتی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%A4" title="আব্বাসীয় খিলাফত – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আব্বাসীয় খিলাফত" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_Khalifah-kok" title="Abbas Khalifah-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Abbas Khalifah-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D3%99%D0%B1%D0%B1%D3%99%D1%81%D0%B8%D2%99%D3%99%D1%80_%D1%85%D3%99%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5" title="Ғәббәсиҙәр хәлифәлеге – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ғәббәсиҙәр хәлифәлеге" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Халіфат Абасідаў – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Халіфат Абасідаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Халіфат Абасыдаў – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Халіфат Абасыдаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Абасидски халифат – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Абасидски халифат" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abasidski_halifat" title="Abasidski halifat – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Abasidski halifat" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifad_Abbasid" title="Kalifad Abbasid – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kalifad Abbasid" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Аббасай улас – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Аббасай улас" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califat_Abb%C3%A0ssida" title="Califat Abbàssida – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Califat Abbàssida" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BB%D3%91%D1%85%D3%97" title="Аббас халифлӑхӗ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Аббас халифлӑхӗ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abb%C3%A1sovsk%C3%BD_chal%C3%ADf%C3%A1t" title="Abbásovský chalífát – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Abbásovský chalífát" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abassiaid" title="Abassiaid – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Abassiaid" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbaside-kalifatet" title="Abbaside-kalifatet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Abbaside-kalifatet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9_%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لخلافة لعباسية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لخلافة لعباسية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasiden-Kalifat" title="Abbasiden-Kalifat – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Abbasiden-Kalifat" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbassiidide_kalifaat" title="Abbassiidide kalifaat – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Abbassiidide kalifaat" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%86%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%91%CE%B2%CE%B2%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B4%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Χαλιφάτο των Αββασιδών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χαλιφάτο των Αββασιδών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califato_abas%C3%AD" title="Califato abasí – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Califato abasí" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abasida_Kaliflando" title="Abasida Kaliflando – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Abasida Kaliflando" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbastar_Kalifa-herria" title="Abbastar Kalifa-herria – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Abbastar Kalifa-herria" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="خلافت عباسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خلافت عباسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Samrajya" title="Abbasid Samrajya – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Abbasid Samrajya" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califat_abbasside" title="Califat abbasside – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Califat abbasside" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cailifeacht_Abasach" title="Cailifeacht Abasach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cailifeacht Abasach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califato_Abb%C3%A1sida" title="Califato Abbásida – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Califato Abbásida" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EB%B0%94%EC%8A%A4_%EC%B9%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%8C%8C%EA%B5%AD" title="아바스 칼리파국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아바스 칼리파국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daular_Abbasiyyah" title="Daular Abbasiyyah – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Daular Abbasiyyah" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%A2%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%AB%D6%86%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Աբբասյան խալիֆայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աբբասյան խալիֆայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%A4" title="अब्बासी ख़िलाफ़त – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अब्बासी ख़िलाफ़त" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abasidski_Kalifat" title="Abasidski Kalifat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Abasidski Kalifat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Abbasid Caliphate" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abasida_a_Kalipato" title="Abasida a Kalipato – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Abasida a Kalipato" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kekhalifahan_Abbasiyah" title="Kekhalifahan Abbasiyah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kekhalifahan Abbasiyah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphato_Abbaside" title="Caliphato Abbaside – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Caliphato Abbaside" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas%C3%ADdaveldi%C3%B0" title="Abbasídaveldið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Abbasídaveldið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califfato_abbaside" title="Califfato abbaside – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Califfato abbaside" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%90%D7%A1" title="בית עבאס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בית עבאס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bani_Abbasiyah" title="Bani Abbasiyah – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Bani Abbasiyah" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D" title="აბასიანთა სახალიფო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აბასიანთა სახალიფო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Аббасилер халифаты – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Аббасилер халифаты" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifat_Abbasid" title="Kalifat Abbasid – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Kalifat Abbasid" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waabbasi" title="Waabbasi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Waabbasi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanedana_Ebasiyan" title="Xanedana Ebasiyan – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Xanedana Ebasiyan" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Аббасий халифаты – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Аббасий халифаты" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphatus_Abbasidarum" title="Caliphatus Abbasidarum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Caliphatus Abbasidarum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab%C4%81s%C4%ABdu_kalif%C4%81ts" title="Abāsīdu kalifāts – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Abāsīdu kalifāts" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abasid%C5%B3_kalifatas" title="Abasidų kalifatas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Abasidų kalifatas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califfaa_Abbasid" title="Califfaa Abbasid – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Califfaa Abbasid" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abb%C3%A1szida_Kalif%C3%A1tus" title="Abbászida Kalifátus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Abbászida Kalifátus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Абасидски Калифат – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Абасидски Калифат" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifata_Abasida" title="Kalifata Abasida – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Kalifata Abasida" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%96%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D" title="അബ്ബാസി ഖിലാഫത്ത് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അബ്ബാസി ഖിലാഫത്ത്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D" title="აბასიანეფიშ სახალიფო – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="აბასიანეფიშ სახალიფო" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86" title="العباسيين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="العباسيين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86" title="عباسیون – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="عباسیون" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Bani_Abbasiyah" title="Kerajaan Bani Abbasiyah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kerajaan Bani Abbasiyah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82_%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Аббасидын Халифат Улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Аббасидын Халифат Улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalifaat_van_de_Abbasiden" title="Kalifaat van de Abbasiden – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kalifaat van de Abbasiden" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%83%E3%83%90%E3%83%BC%E3%82%B9%E6%9C%9D" title="アッバース朝 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アッバース朝" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Ӏаббасийн халифат – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ӏаббасийн халифат" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidene" title="Abbasidene – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Abbasidene" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidekalifatet" title="Abbasidekalifatet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Abbasidekalifatet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califat_abbassida" title="Califat abbassida – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Califat abbassida" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bag%CA%BBdod_xalifaligi" title="Bagʻdod xalifaligi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Bagʻdod xalifaligi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A6_%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A4" title="ਅੱਬਾਸਿਦ ਖਿਲਾਫ਼ਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅੱਬਾਸਿਦ ਖਿਲਾਫ਼ਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DB%81" title="خلافت عباسیہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="خلافت عباسیہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="عباسي خلافت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="عباسي خلافت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calif%C3%A0_%C3%ABd_j%27Ab%C3%A0sid" title="Califà ëd j'Abàsid – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Califà ëd j'Abàsid" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasiden-Kalifaat" title="Abbasiden-Kalifaat – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Abbasiden-Kalifaat" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasydzi" title="Abbasydzi – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Abbasydzi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califado_Ab%C3%A1ssida" title="Califado Abássida – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Califado Abássida" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasiy_halifeligi" title="Abbasiy halifeligi – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Abbasiy halifeligi" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Califatul_Abbasid" title="Califatul Abbasid – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Califatul Abbasid" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Аббасидский халифат – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аббасидский халифат" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Abbasid Caliphate" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abasit%C3%ABt" title="Abasitët – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Abasitët" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbassidi" title="Abbassidi – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Abbassidi" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Abbasid Caliphate" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="عباسي خلافت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="عباسي خلافت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abb%C3%A1sovsk%C3%BD_kalif%C3%A1t" title="Abbásovský kalifát – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Abbásovský kalifát" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abasidski_kalifat" title="Abasidski kalifat – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Abasidski kalifat" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawladii_Cabaasiyiinta" title="Dawladii Cabaasiyiinta – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Dawladii Cabaasiyiinta" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%DB%95%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%B9%DB%95%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="خەلافەتی عەباسی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="خەلافەتی عەباسی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Абасидски калифат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Абасидски калифат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abasidski_Kalifat" title="Abasidski Kalifat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Abasidski Kalifat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidikalifaatti" title="Abbasidikalifaatti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Abbasidikalifaatti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidkalifatet" title="Abbasidkalifatet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Abbasidkalifatet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalipatong_Abasida" title="Kalipatong Abasida – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kalipatong Abasida" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="அப்பாசியக் கலீபகம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அப்பாசியக் கலீபகம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C9%9Bbbasn" title="Iɛbbasn – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Iɛbbasn" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AE%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AE%E0%B9%8C" title="รัฐเคาะลีฟะฮ์อับบาซียะฮ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="รัฐเคาะลีฟะฮ์อับบาซียะฮ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%91%D0%BD" title="Хилофати Аббосиён – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Хилофати Аббосиён" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abb%C3%A2s%C3%AEler" title="Abbâsîler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Abbâsîler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidler" title="Abbasidler – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Abbasidler" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B1%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Аббасидський халіфат – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аббасидський халіфат" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DB%81" title="خلافت عباسیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="خلافت عباسیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%89%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="ئابباسىيلار – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئابباسىيلار" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab%C3%A0sii" title="Abàsii – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Abàsii" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%C3%A0_Abbas" title="Nhà Abbas – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhà Abbas" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalipa_Abasida" title="Kalipa Abasida – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kalipa Abasida" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%94%E6%96%AF%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="阿拔斯王朝 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="阿拔斯王朝" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2%D7%A8_%D7%9B%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%98" title="אבאסישער כאליפאט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אבאסישער כאליפאט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E5%B7%B4%E6%96%AF%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="阿巴斯王朝 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="阿巴斯王朝" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebasi" title="Ebasi – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Ebasi" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abasidu_kalifats" title="Abasidu kalifats – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Abasidu kalifats" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasids&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasids">Abbasids</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Third Islamic caliphate</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the dynasty that ruled the Abbasid Caliphate, see <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid dynasty</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output 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.ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Abbasid Caliphate</div><div class="ib-country-names">الْخِلَافَة الْعَبَّاسِيَّة (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>) Al-Khilāfa al-ʿAbbāsiyya</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>750–1258</li> <li>1261–1517</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px 3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Abbasid_banner.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Abbasids"><img alt="Flag of Abbasids" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Abbasid_banner.svg/250px-Abbasid_banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Abbasid_banner.svg/330px-Abbasid_banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> </div> <div><a href="/wiki/Black_Standard" title="Black Standard">The Abbasid Black Standard</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[nb 1]</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Abbasid_Caliphate_850AD.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Abbasid Caliphate in c. 850"><img alt="The Abbasid Caliphate in c. 850" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Abbasid_Caliphate_850AD.png/250px-Abbasid_Caliphate_850AD.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Abbasid_Caliphate_850AD.png/500px-Abbasid_Caliphate_850AD.png 1.5x" data-file-width="2163" data-file-height="1345" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The Abbasid Caliphate in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 850</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a> (750–762)<a href="#cite_note-9">[nb 2]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> (762–836, 892–1258)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Samarra" title="Abbasid Samarra">Samarra</a> (836–892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> (1261–1517)<a href="#cite_note-10">[nb 3]</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> (central administration); various regional languages</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> (<a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Abbasid</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">Hereditary</a> <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphate</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Abbasid_caliphs" title="List of Abbasid caliphs">Caliph</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 750–754 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Al-Saffah" title="Al-Saffah">Al-Saffah</a> (first)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1242–1258 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">Al-Musta'sim</a> (last caliph in Baghdad)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1261–1262 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_II" title="Al-Mustansir II">Al-Mustansir II</a> (first caliph in Cairo)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1508–1517 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_III" title="Al-Mutawakkil III">Al-Mutawakkil III</a> (last caliph in Cairo)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Abbasid_Caliphate)" title="Vizier (Abbasid Caliphate)">Vizier</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 779–782 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ya%27qub_ibn_Dawud" title="Ya'qub ibn Dawud">Ya'qub ibn Dawud</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1258 </div></th><td class="infobox-data">Ibn al-Alqami</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">750</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Founding of <a href="/wiki/Round_city_of_Baghdad" title="Round city of Baghdad">Baghdad</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">762</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Al-Ma'mun wins <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Fitna" title="Fourth Fitna">civil war</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">813</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Founding of <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Samarra" title="Abbasid Samarra">Samarra</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">836</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Anarchy_at_Samarra" title="Anarchy at Samarra">Anarchy at Samarra</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">861–870</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Buyids" class="mw-redirect" title="Buyids">Buyids</a> take control of Baghdad </div></th><td class="infobox-data">945</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Abbasids declare independence from <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuks</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1165</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Mongol <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">Siege of Baghdad</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1258</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Abbasids re-established in <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Cairo</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1261</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Mamluk_War_(1516%E2%80%931517)" title="Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)">Ottoman conquest of Cairo</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1517</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gold_dinar" title="Gold dinar">Dinar</a> (gold coin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">Dirham</a> (silver coin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fals" title="Fals">Fals</a> (copper coin)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty" title="Dabuyid dynasty">Dabuyid dynasty</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Samanid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanid dynasty">Samanid dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Sajid_dynasty" title="Sajid dynasty">Sajid dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Ziyarid_dynasty" title="Ziyarid dynasty">Ziyarid dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Qarmatians" title="Qarmatians">Qarmatians</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Habbari_dynasty" title="Habbari dynasty">Habbari dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Multan" title="Emirate of Multan">Emirate of Multan</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1227789315">.mw-parser-output .script-arabic{font-family:"Scheherazade New","SF Arabic",Amiri,"Noto Naskh Arabic","Droid Arabic Naskh","Noto Sans Arabic","Sakkal Majalla","Harmattan","Arabic Typesetting","Arabic Transparent","Times New Roman",Arial,Calibri,"Microsoft Sans Serif","Segoe UI",serif,sans-serif;font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> خِلافة‎</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/250px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/375px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg/500px-Map_of_expansion_of_Caliphate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="413" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Main caliphates</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; border-top: 1px solid #aaa; text-align: center; padding-left: 0.4em; padding-right: 2.4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Parallel caliphates</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Cordoba Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharifian_Caliphate" title="Sharifian Caliphate">Sharifian Caliphate</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="text-align:center; font-weight:normal"> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/20px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/40px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Caliphate" title="Template:Caliphate"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Caliphate" title="Template talk:Caliphate"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Caliphate" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Caliphate"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/əˈbæsɪd, ˈæbəsɪd/</a>; <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: الْخِلَافَة الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: al-Khilāfa al-ʿAbbāsiyya) was the third <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphate</a> to succeed the <a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Islamic prophet</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, <a href="/wiki/Abbas_ibn_Abd_al-Muttalib" title="Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib">Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib</a> (566–653 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>), from whom the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">dynasty</a> takes its name.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoiberg201010-11">[8]</a> After overthrowing the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a> of 750 CE (132 <a href="/wiki/Anno_Hegirae" class="mw-redirect" title="Anno Hegirae">AH</a>), they ruled as <a href="/wiki/Caliphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphs">caliphs</a> based in modern-day Iraq (<a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>), with <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> being their capital for most of their history. The Abbasid Revolution had its origins and first successes in the easterly region of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khurasan</a>, far from the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levantine</a> center of Umayyad influence.<a href="#cite_note-12">[9]</a> The Abbasid Caliphate first centered its government in <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a>, modern-day Iraq, but in 762 the caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a> founded the city of Baghdad, near the ancient <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian Empire">Babylonian</a> capital city of <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sassanid</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>. Baghdad became the center of <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_art" title="Abbasid art">arts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">invention</a> in what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age of Islam</a>. By housing several key academic institutions, including the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a>, as well as a multiethnic and multi-religious environment, the capital garnered an international reputation as a centre of learning. The Abbasid period was marked by the use of <a href="/wiki/Bureaucrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Bureaucrats">bureaucrats</a> in governance, including the <a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Abbasid_Caliphate)" title="Vizier (Abbasid Caliphate)">vizier</a>, as well as an increasing inclusion of <a href="/wiki/Mawla" title="Mawla">non-Arab Muslims</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">ummah</a> (Muslim community) and among the political elites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri20214–5-13">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELapidus201295-14">[11]</a> The apogee of the caliphate's power and prestige is traditionally associated with <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 786–809).<a href="#cite_note-15">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri202175-16">[13]</a> After his death, <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Fitna" title="Fourth Fitna">civil war</a> brought new divisions and was followed by significant changes to the character of the state, including the creation of a new professional army recruited mainly from <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a> slaves and the construction of a new capital, <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Samarra" title="Abbasid Samarra">Samarra</a>, in 836. The 9th century also saw a growing trend of provincial autonomy spawning local dynasties who controlled different regions of the empire, such as the <a href="/wiki/Aghlabids" class="mw-redirect" title="Aghlabids">Aghlabids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tahirids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahirids">Tahirids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Samanids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saffarids" class="mw-redirect" title="Saffarids">Saffarids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunids</a>. Following a <a href="/wiki/Anarchy_at_Samarra" title="Anarchy at Samarra">period of turmoil</a> in the 860s, the caliphate regained some stability and its seat returned to Baghdad in 892. During the 10th century, the authority of the caliphs was progressively reduced to a ceremonial function in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a>. Political and military power was transferred instead to the Iranian <a href="/wiki/Buyids" class="mw-redirect" title="Buyids">Buyids</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuq Turks</a>, who took control of Baghdad in 945 and 1055, respectively. The Abbasids eventually regained control of Mesopotamia during the rule of Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtafi" title="Al-Muqtafi">al-Muqtafi</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1136–1160) and extended it into Iran during the reign of Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir" title="Al-Nasir">al-Nasir</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1180–1225).<a href="#cite_note-17">[14]</a> This revival ended in 1258 with the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">siege of Baghdad</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongols</a> under <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu Khan</a> and the execution of Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">al-Musta'sim</a>. The Abbasid line of rulers re-centred themselves in the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk</a> capital of <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> in 1261. Though lacking in political power, with the brief exception of Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27in_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Musta'in (Cairo)">al-Musta'in</a>, the dynasty continued to claim religious authority until a few years after the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottoman</a> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Mamluk_War_(1516%E2%80%931517)" title="Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)">conquest of Egypt</a> in 1517,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolt1984-18">[15]</a> with the last Abbasid caliph being <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_III" title="Al-Mutawakkil III">al-Mutawakkil III</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[16]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abbasid_Revolution_(750–751)">Abbasid Revolution (750–751)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Abbasid Revolution (750–751)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a></div> The Abbasid caliphs were descended from <a href="/wiki/Abbas_ibn_Abd_al-Muttalib" title="Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib">Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib</a>, one of the youngest uncles of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> and of the same <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hashim" title="Banu Hashim">Banu Hashim</a> clan. The Abbasids claimed to be the true successors of Muhammad in replacing the Umayyad descendants of <a href="/wiki/Umayya_ibn_Abd_Shams" title="Umayya ibn Abd Shams">Banu Umayya</a> by virtue of their closer bloodline to Muhammad. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking their moral character and administration in general. According to <a href="/wiki/Ira_Lapidus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ira Lapidus">Ira Lapidus</a>, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of <a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a> with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their <a href="/wiki/Mawali" class="mw-redirect" title="Mawali">Mawali</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELapidus200254-20">[17]</a> The Abbasids also appealed to <a href="/wiki/Ajam" title="Ajam">non-Arab</a> Muslims, known as <a href="/wiki/Mawla" title="Mawla">mawali</a>, who remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_ibn_Ali_Abbasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammad ibn Ali Abbasi">Muhammad ibn 'Ali</a>, a great-grandson of Abbas, began to campaign in Persia for the return of power to the family of Muhammad, the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hashim" title="Banu Hashim">Hashemites</a>, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Umar_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar II">Umar II</a>. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Marwan_II" title="Marwan II">Marwan II</a>, this opposition culminated in the rebellion of <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Imam" title="Ibrahim al-Imam">Ibrahim al-Imam</a>, the fourth in descent from Abbas. Supported by the province of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khurasan</a> (eastern Iran), even though the governor opposed them, and the Shia Arabs,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoiberg201010-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDupuyDupuy1986233-21">[18]</a> he achieved considerable success, but was captured in the year 747 and died, possibly assassinated, in prison. On 9 June 747 (15 Ramadan AH 129), <a href="/wiki/Abu_Muslim" title="Abu Muslim">Abu Muslim</a>, rising from Khurasan, successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Standard" title="Black Standard">Black Standard</a>. Close to 10,000 soldiers were under Abu Muslim's command when the hostilities officially began in Merv.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis1995102-22">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Qahtaba_ibn_Shabib_al-Ta%27i" title="Qahtaba ibn Shabib al-Ta'i">General Qahtaba</a> followed the fleeing governor <a href="/wiki/Nasr_ibn_Sayyar" title="Nasr ibn Sayyar">Nasr ibn Sayyar</a> west defeating the Umayyads at the Battle of Gorgan, the Battle of Nahavand and finally in the Battle of Karbala, all in the year 748.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDupuyDupuy1986233-21">[18]</a> Ibrahim was captured by Marwan and was killed. The quarrel was taken up by Ibrahim's brother Abdallah, known by the name of <a href="/wiki/As-Saffah" class="mw-redirect" title="As-Saffah">Abu al-'Abbas as-Saffah</a>, who defeated the Umayyads in 750 in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Zab" title="Battle of the Zab">battle near the Great Zab</a> and was subsequently proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliph</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-23">[20]</a> After this loss, <a href="/wiki/Marwan_II" title="Marwan II">Marwan</a> fled to Egypt, where he was subsequently killed. The remainder of his family, barring one male, were also eliminated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDupuyDupuy1986233-21">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_to_power_(752–775)">Rise to power (752–775)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Rise to power (752–775)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Balami_-_Tarikhnama_-_Abu%27l-%27Abbas_al-Saffah_is_proclaimed_the_first_%27Abbasid_Caliph_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Balami_-_Tarikhnama_-_Abu%27l-%27Abbas_al-Saffah_is_proclaimed_the_first_%27Abbasid_Caliph_%28cropped%29.jpg/260px-Balami_-_Tarikhnama_-_Abu%27l-%27Abbas_al-Saffah_is_proclaimed_the_first_%27Abbasid_Caliph_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Balami_-_Tarikhnama_-_Abu%27l-%27Abbas_al-Saffah_is_proclaimed_the_first_%27Abbasid_Caliph_%28cropped%29.jpg/390px-Balami_-_Tarikhnama_-_Abu%27l-%27Abbas_al-Saffah_is_proclaimed_the_first_%27Abbasid_Caliph_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Balami_-_Tarikhnama_-_Abu%27l-%27Abbas_al-Saffah_is_proclaimed_the_first_%27Abbasid_Caliph_%28cropped%29.jpg/520px-Balami_-_Tarikhnama_-_Abu%27l-%27Abbas_al-Saffah_is_proclaimed_the_first_%27Abbasid_Caliph_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="820" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Early 14th century copy of the <a href="/wiki/Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Samanid</a>-period <a href="/wiki/Tarikhnama" title="Tarikhnama">Tarikhnama</a> of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Bal%27ami" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Bal'ami">Bal'ami</a> (10th century) depicting <a href="/wiki/As-Saffah" class="mw-redirect" title="As-Saffah">al-Saffah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reign" title="Reign">r.</a> 750–754) as he receives <a href="/wiki/Bay%27ah" title="Bay'ah">pledges of allegiance</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a></figcaption></figure> Immediately after their victory, <a href="/wiki/Al-Saffah" title="Al-Saffah">al-Saffah</a> sent his forces to <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, where his forces fought against <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a> expansion during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talas" title="Battle of Talas">Battle of Talas</a>. Al-Saffah focused on putting down numerous rebellions in Syria and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a> conducted raids during these early distractions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDupuyDupuy1986233-21">[18]</a> One of the first major changes effected by Abbasid rule was the move of the caliphate's center of power from Syria to Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq). This was closer to the Persian mawali support base of the Abbasids and the move addressed their demand for reduced Arab dominance in the empire.<a href="#cite_note-AHGC-24">[21]</a> However, no definitive capital was yet selected. In these early Abbasid years, <a href="/wiki/Kufa" title="Kufa">Kufa</a> generally served as the administrative capital, but the caliphs were wary of the <a href="/wiki/Alid" class="mw-redirect" title="Alid">Alid</a> sympathies in the city and did not always reside here.<a href="#cite_note-Kufa-7">[6]</a> In 752, al-Saffah built a new city called al-Hashimiyya, at an uncertain location, most likely near Kufa.<a href="#cite_note-Hashimiyya-8">[7]</a> Later that same year, he moved to <a href="/wiki/Anbar_(town)" title="Anbar (town)">Anbar</a>, where he built a new settlement for his Khurasani soldiers and a palace for himself.<a href="#cite_note-25">[22]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abb%C4%81sid_Caliph_al-Man%E1%B9%A3%C5%ABr_from_the_genealogy_(silsilan%C4%81ma),_Cream_of_Histories_(Z%C3%BCbdet-%C3%BCt_Tevarih,_1598).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Abb%C4%81sid_Caliph_al-Man%E1%B9%A3%C5%ABr_from_the_genealogy_%28silsilan%C4%81ma%29%2C_Cream_of_Histories_%28Z%C3%BCbdet-%C3%BCt_Tevarih%2C_1598%29.jpg/220px-Abb%C4%81sid_Caliph_al-Man%E1%B9%A3%C5%ABr_from_the_genealogy_%28silsilan%C4%81ma%29%2C_Cream_of_Histories_%28Z%C3%BCbdet-%C3%BCt_Tevarih%2C_1598%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Abb%C4%81sid_Caliph_al-Man%E1%B9%A3%C5%ABr_from_the_genealogy_%28silsilan%C4%81ma%29%2C_Cream_of_Histories_%28Z%C3%BCbdet-%C3%BCt_Tevarih%2C_1598%29.jpg/330px-Abb%C4%81sid_Caliph_al-Man%E1%B9%A3%C5%ABr_from_the_genealogy_%28silsilan%C4%81ma%29%2C_Cream_of_Histories_%28Z%C3%BCbdet-%C3%BCt_Tevarih%2C_1598%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Abb%C4%81sid_Caliph_al-Man%E1%B9%A3%C5%ABr_from_the_genealogy_%28silsilan%C4%81ma%29%2C_Cream_of_Histories_%28Z%C3%BCbdet-%C3%BCt_Tevarih%2C_1598%29.jpg/440px-Abb%C4%81sid_Caliph_al-Man%E1%B9%A3%C5%ABr_from_the_genealogy_%28silsilan%C4%81ma%29%2C_Cream_of_Histories_%28Z%C3%BCbdet-%C3%BCt_Tevarih%2C_1598%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="962" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reign" title="Reign">r.</a> 754–775) from an <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a>-era work, the "Cream of Histories" (Zübdet-üt Tevarih) in 1598<a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a></figcaption></figure> It was al-Saffah's successor, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Ja%27far_al-Mansur" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Ja'far al-Mansur">Abu Ja'far al-Mansur</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 754–775) who firmly consolidated Abbasid rule and faced down internal challenges.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri202143–55-27">[24]</a> His uncle, <a href="/wiki/Abd_Allah_ibn_Ali" title="Abd Allah ibn Ali">Abdallah ibn Ali</a>, the victor over the Umayyads at the Battle of the Zab, was the most serious potential rival for leadership and al-Mansur sent Abu Muslim, the Khurasani revolutionary commander, against him in 754. After Abu Muslim successfully defeated him, al-Mansur then turned to eliminate Abu Muslim himself. He arranged to have him arrested and executed in 755.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri202143–45-28">[25]</a> On the western frontier, the Abbasids were unable to re-assert caliphal control over the western and central <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>, which the Umayyads had lost in the 740s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbun-Nasr198741-29">[26]</a> One member of the Umayyad dynasty, Abd ar-Rahman, also managed to escape the purge of his family and established independent in rule in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> (present-day Spain and Portugal) in 756, founding the Umayyad <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Córdoba">Emirate of Córdoba</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri202141,_86-30">[27]</a> In 756, al-Mansur had also sent over 4,000 Arab mercenaries to assist the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> in the <a href="/wiki/An_Lushan_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="An Lushan Rebellion">An Lushan Rebellion</a> against <a href="/wiki/An_Lushan" title="An Lushan">An Lushan</a>. The Abbasids, or "Black Flags" as they were commonly called, were known in Tang dynasty chronicles as the hēiyī Dàshí, "The Black-robed Tazi" (黑衣大食) ("Tazi" being a borrowing from Persian <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" class="extiw" title="wikt:تازی">Tāzī</a>, the word for "Arab").<a href="#cite_note-32">[nb 4]</a> Later, Caliph <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> sent embassies to the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> and established good relations with them.<a href="#cite_note-Dennis_Bloodworth,_Ching_Ping_Bloodworth_2004_214-33">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[31]</a> After the war, these embassies remained in China<a href="#cite_note-36">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[36]</a> with al-Rashid establishing an alliance with China.<a href="#cite_note-Dennis_Bloodworth,_Ching_Ping_Bloodworth_2004_214-33">[29]</a> Several embassies from the Abbasid Caliphs to the Chinese court have been recorded in the <a href="/wiki/Old_Book_of_Tang" title="Old Book of Tang">Old Book of Tang</a>, the most important being those of al-Saffah, al-Mansur, and Harun al-Rashid. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baghdad_150_to_300_AH.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Baghdad_150_to_300_AH.png/260px-Baghdad_150_to_300_AH.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Baghdad_150_to_300_AH.png/390px-Baghdad_150_to_300_AH.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Baghdad_150_to_300_AH.png/520px-Baghdad_150_to_300_AH.png 2x" data-file-width="1805" data-file-height="1445" /></a><figcaption>Plan of <a href="/wiki/Round_city_of_Baghdad" title="Round city of Baghdad">Baghdad</a> between 767 and 912 CE, according to <a href="/wiki/William_Muir" title="William Muir">William Muir</a></figcaption></figure> In 762, al-Mansur suppressed <a href="/wiki/Alid_revolt_of_762%E2%80%93763" title="Alid revolt of 762–763">a rebellion</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Al-Nafs_al-Zakiyyah" title="Al-Nafs al-Zakiyyah">al-Nafs al-Zakiyya</a>, a descendant from <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Abi Talib">Ali ibn Abi Talib</a>, whose challenge to the Abbasid claim to leadership was based on his Alid lineage and thus presented a serious political threat. He was defeated by an Abbasid army led by <a href="/wiki/Isa_ibn_Musa" title="Isa ibn Musa">Isa ibn Musa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri202151–55-41">[37]</a> It was after this victory, in 762, that al-Mansur finally established a proper Abbasid capital, <a href="/wiki/Round_city_of_Baghdad" title="Round city of Baghdad">Baghdad</a> – officially called Madinat al-Salam ('City of Peace') – located on the <a href="/wiki/Tigris_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Tigris River">Tigris River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri202155–57-42">[38]</a> Prior to this, he had continued to consider multiple sites for a capital, including al-Hashimiyya, which he used as a capital for a while,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri202148–49-43">[39]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Weh_Antiok_Khosrow" title="Weh Antiok Khosrow">al-Rumiyya</a> (near the ruins of <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>), which he used for a few months.<a href="#cite_note-44">[40]</a> Various other sites in the region also appear to have served as "capitals" under either al-Saffah or al-Mansur prior to the founding of Baghdad.<a href="#cite_note-Hashimiyya-8">[7]</a> Al-Mansur centralised the judicial administration and, later, Harun al-Rashid established the institution of Chief Qadi to oversee it.<a href="#cite_note-45">[41]</a> The Umayyad empire was mostly Arab; however, the Abbasids progressively became made up of more and more converted Muslims in which the Arabs were only one of many ethnicities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201240-46">[42]</a> The Abbasids had depended heavily on the support of Persians<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoiberg201010-11">[8]</a> in their overthrow of the Umayyads. Al-Mansur welcomed non-Arab Muslims to his court. While this helped integrate Arab and Persian cultures, it alienated many of their Arab supporters, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabs" title="Khorasani Arabs">Khurasani Arabs</a> who had supported them in their battles against the Umayyads.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Golden_age_(775–861)">Golden age (775–861)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Golden age (775–861)">edit</a>]</div> The Abbasid leadership had to work hard in the last half of the 8th century (750–800) under several competent caliphs and their <a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Abbasid_Caliphate)" title="Vizier (Abbasid Caliphate)">viziers</a> to usher in the administrative changes needed to keep order of the political challenges created by the far-flung nature of the empire, and the limited communication across it.<a href="#cite_note-Brauer-47">[43]</a> It was also during this early period of the dynasty, in particular during the rule of al-Mansur, Harun al-Rashid, and <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a>, that its reputation and power were created.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoiberg201010-11">[8]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Decorated_niche,_750-825_CE,_Afrasiab,_Samarkand.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Decorated_niche%2C_750-825_CE%2C_Afrasiab%2C_Samarkand.jpg/250px-Decorated_niche%2C_750-825_CE%2C_Afrasiab%2C_Samarkand.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Decorated_niche%2C_750-825_CE%2C_Afrasiab%2C_Samarkand.jpg/330px-Decorated_niche%2C_750-825_CE%2C_Afrasiab%2C_Samarkand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Decorated_niche%2C_750-825_CE%2C_Afrasiab%2C_Samarkand.jpg/500px-Decorated_niche%2C_750-825_CE%2C_Afrasiab%2C_Samarkand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1780" data-file-height="1588" /></a><figcaption>Decorated niche from the Abbasid mosque of <a href="/wiki/Afrasiyab_(Samarkand)" title="Afrasiyab (Samarkand)">Afrasiab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a>, 750–825 CE.<a href="#cite_note-48">[44]</a></figcaption></figure> The position of wazir (vizier) developed in this period. It was initially akin to a secretary, but under the tenure of the <a href="/wiki/Barmakids" title="Barmakids">Barmakids</a>, an Iranian family close to the Abbasids, the position became powerful and Harun al-Rashid delegated state affairs to them for many years.<a href="#cite_note-49">[45]</a> This resulted in a more ceremonial role for many Abbasid caliphs relative to their time under the Umayyads; the viziers began to exert greater influence, and the role of the Caliph's aristocracy was slowly replaced by a Baramkid bureaucracy.<a href="#cite_note-AHGC-24">[21]</a> To the west, Harun al-Rashid agreed to grant the province of <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a> (centered in present-day Tunisia) as a hereditary emirate to <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Aghlab" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab">Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab</a>, who founded the <a href="/wiki/Aghlabid_dynasty" title="Aghlabid dynasty">Aghlabid dynasty</a> there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri202188-50">[46]</a> Under Harun al-Rashid's reign (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 786–809), the Abbasid Empire reached its peak.<a href="#cite_note-51">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-mag-52">[48]</a> His father, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">al-Mahdi</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 775–785), <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_invasion_of_Asia_Minor_(782)" title="Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (782)">restarted the fighting</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a>, and his sons continued the conflict until <a href="/wiki/Irene_of_Athens" title="Irene of Athens">Empress Irene</a> pushed for peace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDupuyDupuy1986233-21">[18]</a> After several years of peace, <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_I" title="Nikephoros I">Nikephoros I</a> broke the treaty, then fended off multiple incursions during the first decade of the 9th century. These attacks pushed into the <a href="/wiki/Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a>, culminating with a victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Krasos" title="Battle of Krasos">Battle of Krasos</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_invasion_of_Asia_Minor_(806)" title="Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (806)">massive invasion of 806</a>, led by al-Rashid himself.<a href="#cite_note-DD1-53">[49]</a> Harun al-Rashid's navy also proved successful, taking <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>. Rashid decided to focus on the rebellion of <a href="/wiki/Rafi_ibn_al-Layth" title="Rafi ibn al-Layth">Rafi ibn al-Layth</a> in Khurasan and died while there.<a href="#cite_note-DD1-53">[49]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg/260px-Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg/390px-Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg/520px-Harun_al-Rashid_receives_envoys_from_Charlemagne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1391" data-file-height="765" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reign" title="Reign">r.</a> 786–809) receiving a delegation sent by <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> at his court in Baghdad. Painting by Julius Köckert (1827–1918), dated 1864. Oil on canvas.</figcaption></figure> Domestically, al-Rashid pursued policies similar to those of his father al-Mahdi. He released many of the Umayyads and Alids his brother <a href="/wiki/Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">al-Hadi</a> had imprisoned and declared amnesty for all political groups of the <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[50]</a> While Baghdad remained the official capital, Harun al-Rashid chose to reside in Raqqa from 796 until the end of his reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri202188-50">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[nb 5]</a> In 802, al-Rashid established an unusual succession plan which decreed that his son <a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a> would inherit the title of Caliph and have control of Iraq and the western empire while his other son <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a> would rule Khurasan and most eastern parts of the empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2016124–127-57">[52]</a> In 803, he turned on and imprisoned or killed most of the Barmakids, who had wielded administrative power on his behalf.<a href="#cite_note-58">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri202184–88-59">[54]</a> The reasons for this sudden and ruthless move remain unclear and have been the subject of much discussion by contemporary writers and later historians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri202184–88-59">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2016127–129-60">[55]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abbasid_Dinar_-_Al_Amin_-_195_AH_(811_AD).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Abbasid_Dinar_-_Al_Amin_-_195_AH_%28811_AD%29.jpg/330px-Abbasid_Dinar_-_Al_Amin_-_195_AH_%28811_AD%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Abbasid_Dinar_-_Al_Amin_-_195_AH_%28811_AD%29.jpg/500px-Abbasid_Dinar_-_Al_Amin_-_195_AH_%28811_AD%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Abbasid_Dinar_-_Al_Amin_-_195_AH_%28811_AD%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="266" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gold_dinar" title="Gold dinar">Gold dinar</a> minted during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a> (809–813)</figcaption></figure> Al-Rashid's decision to split the succession proved to be damaging to the longevity of the empire.<a href="#cite_note-61">[56]</a> After his death in 809, his succession pact eventually collapsed and the empire was split by a <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Fitna" title="Fourth Fitna">civil war</a> between al-Amin in Iraq and al-Ma'mun in Khurasan. This ended with a successful <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(812%E2%80%93813)" title="Siege of Baghdad (812–813)">siege of Baghdad</a> by al-Ma'mun's forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2016135–148-62">[57]</a> When the city fell in 813, al-Amin was captured and executed on the orders of al-Ma'mun's general, <a href="/wiki/Tahir_ibn_Husayn" title="Tahir ibn Husayn">Tahir ibn Husayn</a>. This marked the first time that an Abbasid ruler was publicly executed and it irrevocably damaged the prestige of the caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2016148-63">[58]</a> Al-Ma'mun became caliph and ruled until his death in 833. He initially ruled the empire from his established base in Merv, Khurasan, where his main support was found, but this prolonged the discontent and instability in Iraq and triggered further fighting in the years following his victory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2016151–162-64">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021108–109-65">[60]</a> In 817, he officially declared an Alid, <a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Rida" title="Ali al-Rida">'Ali al-Rida</a>, as his heir, instead of an Abbasid family member, perhaps hoping to promote Muslim unity, but the move backfired.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2016157–161-66">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021109-67">[62]</a> Eventually, he was compelled to step back from these policies and move his court to Baghdad, where he arrived in August 819.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2016161–162-68">[63]</a> After this, the rest of his reign was relatively peaceful. Exceptions included a rebellion in <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Khurramites" title="Khurramites">Khurramites</a>, supported by the Byzantines, which continued until 837.<a href="#cite_note-DD1-53">[49]</a> He also repulsed a Byzantine attack on Syria around 829, followed by counter-attacks into Anatolia, and suppressed a rebellion in Egypt in 832.<a href="#cite_note-DD1-53">[49]</a> The later years of al-Ma'mun's reign are known for his intellectual interests and patronage. The so-called <a href="/wiki/Graeco-Arabic_translation_movement" title="Graeco-Arabic translation movement">"translation movement"</a> — the state-sponsored translation of scientific and literary works of antiquity into Arabic — that had begun under his predecessors was pushed even further during this time and al-Ma'mun shifted its focus to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> works of <a href="/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity" title="Science in classical antiquity">science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021117–122-69">[64]</a> In matters of religion, his interest in philosophy spurred him to endorse <a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazilism" title="Mu'tazilism">Mu'tazilism</a>, the rationalist school of Islamic thought. Under its influence, he officially endorsed the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Createdness_of_the_Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Createdness of the Qur'an">createdness of the Qur'an</a> in 827. In 833, he went further and forcibly imposed it on the <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulama</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> religious scholars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021122–123-70">[65]</a> This controversial policy, known as the <a href="/wiki/Mihna" title="Mihna">Mihna</a>, was eventually abandoned in 848. Ultimately, it failed to convince the Sunni ulama and instead contributed to the emergence of the latter as a more cohesive social class whose views and interests did not always align with the caliph.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021122–126-71">[66]</a> Following the civil war between al-Amin and al-Ma'mun, the traditional mainstay of the Abbasid army, the Khurasaniyya and <a href="/wiki/Abna_al-dawla" title="Abna al-dawla">'Abna al-dawla</a>, were no longer seen as reliable and the caliphs sought to recruit a new type of army whose loyalty could be better assured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2001118-72">[67]</a> This process began under al-Ma'mun but it is his brother and successor, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 833–842), who is known for its more radical implementation. Soldiers were recruited from several new sources, but the most important, especially under al-Mu'tasim, were the group referred to by Arabic chronicles as "Turks" (atrāk), who appear to have been mainly <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a> people from Central Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2001118–120-73">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021131-74">[69]</a> Some modern scholars refer to them as <a href="/wiki/Mamluks" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluks">Mamluks</a>, marking them as the antecedent of the later slave-soldiers known by that term, but their exact legal status has been a subject of scholarly debate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2001121–122-75">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004157-76">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021131-74">[69]</a> Many, perhaps the majority, were originally purchased or captured slaves,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2001121–122-75">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021131-74">[69]</a> but they were paid regular salaries and thus likely <a href="/wiki/Manumitted" class="mw-redirect" title="Manumitted">manumitted</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2001121–122-75">[70]</a> In any case, these outsiders did not have political ties among the traditional elites and thus their loyalty was to the caliph alone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2001118-72">[67]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.jpg/260px-%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.jpg/390px-%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.jpg/520px-%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5906" data-file-height="2481" /></a><figcaption>Partly-reconstructed remains of a courtyard with circular pool in the Dār al-Khilāfa, the caliph's palace, in <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Samarra" title="Abbasid Samarra">Samarra</a>, begun in 836.<a href="#cite_note-77">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[73]</a></figcaption></figure> These troops were likely the first <a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">standing army</a> of the caliphate<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021132-79">[74]</a> and provided the caliph with a strong base of military support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004163-80">[75]</a> However, the influx of new foreign troops into the capital created tensions with its inhabitants and with older elites. This was one of the main reasons why, in 836, al-Mu'tasim decided to found a new capital, <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Samarra" title="Abbasid Samarra">Samarra</a>, on an open site to the north of Baghdad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004163-80">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021132-79">[74]</a> The new capital housed the caliph's army, allowed for the unhindered construction of massive new palaces, and became the focus of an even more elaborate courtly culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004163–164-81">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021133–139-82">[77]</a> Al-Mu'tasim's reign marked the end of the strong caliphs. He strengthened his personal army with the Mamluks and promptly restarted the war with the Byzantines. Though his attempt to seize <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> failed when his fleet was destroyed by a storm, his military excursions were generally successful, culminating with a resounding victory in the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Amorium" title="Sack of Amorium">Sack of Amorium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_fragmentation_(861–945)">Political fragmentation (861–945)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Political fragmentation (861–945)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Anarchy_at_Samarra" title="Anarchy at Samarra">Anarchy at Samarra</a></div>From the ninth century onward, the Abbasids found they could no longer keep together a centralized polity from Baghdad, which had grown larger than that of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[79]</a> As mentioned, Harun al-Rashid had already granted the province of Ifriqiya to the Aghlabids, who ruled this region as an autonomous vassal state until its fall to the <a href="/wiki/Fatimids" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimids">Fatimids</a> in 909.<a href="#cite_note-:7-85">[80]</a> In al-Ma'mun's reign, Tahir ibn Husayn (al-Ma'mun's general in the civil war) was appointed viceroy of Iran and most of the eastern regions of the empire from 821 onward. His descendants, the <a href="/wiki/Tahirids" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahirids">Tahirids</a>, continued to govern in this position with significant autonomy until 873, although they remained loyal to the caliph and used only the title of <a href="/wiki/Amir" class="mw-redirect" title="Amir">amir</a>. From their capital at <a href="/wiki/Nishapur" title="Nishapur">Nishapur</a>, they were important patrons of Arabic literature and Sunni religious scholarship, in addition to making major improvements to agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021147–148,_292-86">[81]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>, the Persian <a href="/wiki/Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Samanids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a> ruled as local governors, initially under the Tahirids. They oversaw the development of the region's cities into major trade centers, profiting from long-distance trade between China, Central Asia, Eastern Europe, and the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021148–149-87">[82]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%84%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A3%D8%B0%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%84%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A3%D8%B0%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82.jpg/220px-%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%84%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A3%D8%B0%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%84%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A3%D8%B0%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82.jpg/330px-%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%84%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A3%D8%B0%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%84%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A3%D8%B0%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82.jpg/440px-%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%84%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A3%D8%B0%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4108" data-file-height="2740" /></a><figcaption>The walls and spiral <a href="/wiki/Minaret" title="Minaret">minaret</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Samarra" title="Great Mosque of Samarra">Great Mosque of Samarra</a>, built from 848 to 852 CE in the Abbasid capital of <a href="/wiki/Samarra" title="Samarra">Samarra</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-88">[83]</a></figcaption></figure> The reign of <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">al-Mutawakkil</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 847–861) was characterized by the caliph's extravagant spending, his attempts to further consolidate power within the state, and his replacement of the Mihna policy with support for more orthodox Sunni scholars, in particular the <a href="/wiki/Hanbali_school" title="Hanbali school">Hanbali school</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021141–142-89">[84]</a> In 853, the Byzantines <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Damietta_(853)" title="Sack of Damietta (853)">sacked Damietta</a> in Egypt, and the caliph responded by sending troops into Anatolia, who sacked and marauded until they were <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lalakaon" title="Battle of Lalakaon">eventually annihilated</a> in 863.<a href="#cite_note-DD3-90">[85]</a> Al-Mutawakkil's lifestyle and spending weakened his support among the military. In 861, he was murdered at a party by a group of Turkish soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021142–143-91">[86]</a> This was the first time the Abbasid military intervened so directly and violently at court and it set a precedent for further coups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021143-92">[87]</a> The following period, sometimes known as the "<a href="/wiki/Anarchy_at_Samarra" title="Anarchy at Samarra">Anarchy at Samarra</a>" (861–870), saw four different caliphs come and go. While they each attempted to reassert their authority, they were at the mercy of military and political factions. Tax collection lapsed and, along with al-Mutawakkil's previous spending, this left the state short on funds, which exacerbated the infighting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004169–170-93">[88]</a> In 865, the Turkish soldiers of Samarra even <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_civil_war_(865%E2%80%93866)" title="Abbasid civil war (865–866)">besieged Baghdad</a> to overthrow the caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27in" title="Al-Musta'in">al-Musta'in</a> and, when the city fell the following year, they replaced him with <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tazz" title="Al-Mu'tazz">al-Mu'tazz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004171–172-94">[89]</a> The latter was overthrown by the same faction in 869 and replaced by <a href="/wiki/Al-Muhtadi" title="Al-Muhtadi">al-Muhtadi</a>, who was similarly overthrown in 870. Al-Muhtadi was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tamid" title="Al-Mu'tamid">al-Mu'tamid</a>, who was finally able to restore some order, in large part thanks to the help of his brother <a href="/wiki/Al-Muwaffaq" title="Al-Muwaffaq">al-Muwaffaq</a>, who kept the military under control and ran most government affairs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004172–174-95">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021146–147-96">[91]</a> The restoration was hampered by the <a href="/wiki/Zanj_Rebellion" title="Zanj Rebellion">Zanj rebellion</a>, which erupted in 869 and threatened the center of Abbasid control in Iraq. This major threat was not brought under control until a determined campaign was launched in 879.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004177–179-97">[92]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abbasid_Caliphate_891-892.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Abbasid_Caliphate_891-892.png/260px-Abbasid_Caliphate_891-892.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Abbasid_Caliphate_891-892.png/390px-Abbasid_Caliphate_891-892.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Abbasid_Caliphate_891-892.png/520px-Abbasid_Caliphate_891-892.png 2x" data-file-width="3054" data-file-height="1460" /></a><figcaption>Map of the fragmented Abbasid empire <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 892, with areas still under direct control of the Abbasid central government (dark green) and under autonomous rulers adhering to nominal Abbasid suzerainty (light green) </figcaption></figure> By the 870s, Egypt became autonomous under <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Tulun" title="Ahmad ibn Tulun">Ahmad ibn Tulun</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Tulunid" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulunid">Tulunid</a> successors, though they continued to acknowledge the caliph and generally sent tribute to Baghdad. For a time, they even controlled Syria and parts of the Jazira (<a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a>). In 882, the caliph al-Mu'tamid even tried (but failed) to move his residence to Egypt at Ibn Tulun's invitation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004174,_176–177-98">[93]</a> In the east, the <a href="/wiki/Saffarids" class="mw-redirect" title="Saffarids">Saffarids</a> were former soldiers in the Abbasid army who were stationed in <a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Sistan</a> and remained there as local strongmen. From 854 onward, they began to challenge the Tahirids and in 873 they captured Nishapur, ending Tahirid rule. They marched on Baghdad in 876 but <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dayr_al-Aqul" title="Battle of Dayr al-Aqul">were defeated</a> by al-Muwaffaq. The two sides were forced to come to terms and the Abbasids allowed the Saffarids to rule over Sistan, <a href="/wiki/Fars_province" title="Fars province">Fars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kerman_province" title="Kerman province">Kirman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Khurasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khurasan">Khurasan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021151–152-99">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004175–176-100">[95]</a> In 898, al-Mu'tadid set the Saffarids and Samanids against each other but the latter came out triumphant in battle and were able to expand their control to Khurasan, while the Saffarids remained further south. The Samanids never threatened the Abbasids in Iraq, but they were also not as close to the caliphs as their Tahirid predecessors and in practice they were almost entirely independent of Baghdad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004183-101">[96]</a> They became even greater patrons of religion and the arts than the Tahirids, still maintaining orthodox Sunni ideology but differing in their promotion of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021149–150-102">[97]</a> There was a brief Abbasid political and military revival at the end of the 9th century, especially under the policies of caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid" title="Al-Mu'tadid">al-Mu'tadid</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 892–902) and <a href="/wiki/Al-Muktafi" title="Al-Muktafi">al-Muktafi</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 902–908).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004179–185-103">[98]</a> Under al-Mu'tadid, the capital was moved from Samarra back to Baghdad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004180-104">[99]</a> Incursions by the <a href="/wiki/Qarmatians" title="Qarmatians">Qarmatians</a> and allied Bedouin tribes posed a serious threat from 899 onwards, but the Abbasid army, led by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Sulayman_al-Katib" title="Muhammad ibn Sulayman al-Katib">Muhammad ibn Sulayman</a>, won a reprieve against them in 904 and 907.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004183–185-105">[100]</a> In 905, the same general invaded Egypt and overthrew the weakened Tulunids, re-establishing Abbasid control to the west.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004184–185-106">[101]</a> By the time caliph al-Muktafi died in 908, the Abbasid revival was at its peak and a strong centralized state was in place again.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004185-107">[102]</a> After his death, however, the state became dominated by feuding bureaucrats. Under <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadir" title="Al-Muqtadir">al-Muqtadir</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 908–932), the Abbasid court continued to project power and wealth publicly but the politics and financial policies of the time compromised the caliphate's sustainability in the long-term. It was in this period that the practice of giving out <a href="/wiki/Iqta" class="mw-redirect" title="Iqta">iqtas</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">fiefs</a> in the form of tax farms) as favours began, which had the effect of reducing the caliphate's own tax revenues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021163–168-108">[103]</a> In 909, North Africa was lost to the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_dynasty" title="Fatimid dynasty">Fatimid dynasty</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ili</a> Shia sect tracing its roots to Muhammad's daughter <a href="/wiki/Fatima" title="Fatima">Fatima</a>. The Fatimids took control of Ifriqiya from the Aghlabids and eventually <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Fatimid conquest of Egypt">conquered Egypt</a> in 969, where they established their capital, <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fustat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004313–317-109">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaylor201572–73,_79-110">[105]</a> By the end of the century, they were one of the main political and ideological challenges to Sunni Islam and the Abbasids, contesting the Abbasids for the titular authority of the Islamic <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">ummah</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENaylor201580-111">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaftaryJiwa20171–2-112">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021195–196-113">[108]</a> The challenge of the Fatimid Caliphate only ended with their downfall in the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaftaryJiwa20174-114">[109]</a> Under the caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Radi" title="Al-Radi">al-Radi</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 934–941), Baghdad's authority declined further as local governors refused to send payments to the capital. The <a href="/wiki/Ikhshidids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ikhshidids">Ikhshidids</a> ruled Egypt and Syria autonomously prior to the Fatimid takeover. Even in Iraq, many governors refused to obey and the caliph was unable to send armies against them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004194–195-115">[110]</a> Al-Radi was forced to invite the governor of <a href="/wiki/Wasit" title="Wasit">Wasit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Ra%27iq" title="Muhammad ibn Ra'iq">Muhammad ibn Ra'iq</a>, to take over the administration under the newly-created position of <a href="/wiki/Amir_al-umara" title="Amir al-umara">amir al-umara</a> ("Commander of Commanders").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004194–195-115">[110]</a> Ibn Ra'iq disbanded the salaried army of the caliph and reduced much of the government's bureaucratic infrastructure, including the traditional vizierate, thus removing much of the Abbasid state's basis for power. He was overthrown in 938 and the following years were bogged down in political turmoil.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004195–196-116">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustakfi" title="Al-Mustakfi">Al-Mustakfi</a> had a short reign from 944 to 946, and it was during this period that the Persian faction known as the <a href="/wiki/Buyids" class="mw-redirect" title="Buyids">Buyids</a> from <a href="/wiki/Daylam" title="Daylam">Daylam</a> swept into power and assumed control over the bureaucracy in Baghdad. According to the history of <a href="/wiki/Miskawayh" title="Miskawayh">Miskawayh</a>, they began distributing iqtas to their supporters. This period of localized secular control was to last nearly 100 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoiberg201010-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[112]</a> Outside Iraq, all the autonomous provinces slowly took on the characteristic of de facto states with hereditary rulers, armies, and revenues and operated under only nominal caliph suzerainty, which may not necessarily be reflected by any contribution to the treasury, such as the <a href="/wiki/Soomro" title="Soomro">Soomro</a> emirs that had gained control of <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> and ruled the entire province from their capital of <a href="/wiki/Mansura,_Sindh" title="Mansura, Sindh">Mansura</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brauer-47">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazni" title="Mahmud of Ghazni">Mahmud of Ghazni</a> took the title of <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">sultan</a>, as opposed to the amir that had been in more common usage, signifying the <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid Empire</a>'s independence from caliphal authority, despite Mahmud's ostentatious displays of Sunni orthodoxy and ritual submission to the caliph. In the 11th century, the loss of respect for the caliphs continued, as some Islamic rulers no longer mentioned the caliph's name in the Friday <a href="/wiki/Khutba" class="mw-redirect" title="Khutba">khutba</a>, or struck it off their coinage.<a href="#cite_note-Brauer-47">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buyid_and_Seljuq_control_(945–1118)">Buyid and Seljuq control (945–1118)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Buyid and Seljuq control (945–1118)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Special:EditPage/Abbasid Caliphate">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Abbasid+Caliphate%22">"Abbasid Caliphate"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Abbasid+Caliphate%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Abbasid+Caliphate%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Abbasid+Caliphate%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Abbasid+Caliphate%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Abbasid+Caliphate%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (February 2025) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buyids_within_the_Middle_East,_ca._970.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Buyids_within_the_Middle_East%2C_ca._970.png/400px-Buyids_within_the_Middle_East%2C_ca._970.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Buyids_within_the_Middle_East%2C_ca._970.png/600px-Buyids_within_the_Middle_East%2C_ca._970.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Buyids_within_the_Middle_East%2C_ca._970.png/800px-Buyids_within_the_Middle_East%2C_ca._970.png 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="680" /></a><figcaption>The Middle East <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 970, after the Abbasids came under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></figcaption></figure> Despite the power of the Buyid amirs, the Abbasids retained a highly ritualized court in Baghdad, as described by the Buyid bureaucrat <a href="/wiki/Hilal_al-Sabi%27" title="Hilal al-Sabi'">Hilal al-Sabi'</a>, and they retained a certain influence over Baghdad as well as religious life. As Buyid power waned with the rule of <a href="/wiki/Baha%27_al-Daula" class="mw-redirect" title="Baha' al-Daula">Baha' al-Daula</a>, the caliphate was able to regain some measure of strength. The caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Qadir" title="Al-Qadir">al-Qadir</a>, for example, led the ideological struggle against the Shia with writings such as the <a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Manifesto" title="Baghdad Manifesto">Baghdad Manifesto</a>. The caliphs kept order in Baghdad itself, attempting to prevent the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Fitna_(word)" title="Fitna (word)">fitnas</a> in the capital, often contending with the <a href="/wiki/Ayyarun" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyarun">ayyarun</a>. With the Buyid dynasty on the wane, a vacuum was created that was eventually filled by the dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Oghuz Turks</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Seljuqs" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuqs">Seljuqs</a>. By 1055, the Seljuqs had wrested control from the Buyids and Abbasids, and took temporal power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoiberg201010-11">[8]</a> When the amir and former slave <a href="/wiki/Basasiri" class="mw-redirect" title="Basasiri">Basasiri</a> took up the Shia Fatimid banner in Baghdad in 1056–57, the caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27im_(Abbasid_caliph_at_Baghdad)" title="Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Baghdad)">al-Qa'im</a> was unable to defeat him without outside help. <a href="/wiki/Toghril_Beg" class="mw-redirect" title="Toghril Beg">Toghril Beg</a>, the Seljuq sultan, restored Baghdad to Sunni rule and took Iraq for his dynasty. Once again, the Abbasids were forced to deal with a military power that they could not match, though the Abbasid caliph remained the titular head of the Islamic community. The succeeding sultans <a href="/wiki/Alp_Arslan" title="Alp Arslan">Alp Arslan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malikshah" class="mw-redirect" title="Malikshah">Malikshah</a>, as well as their vizier <a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a>, took up residence in Persia, but held power over the Abbasids in Baghdad. When the dynasty began to weaken in the 12th century, the Abbasids gained greater independence once again. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revival_of_caliphal_state_(1118–1258)">Revival of caliphal state (1118–1258)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Revival of caliphal state (1118–1258)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Abbasid_Caliphate_in_1180_CE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Map_of_the_Abbasid_Caliphate_in_1180_CE.png/250px-Map_of_the_Abbasid_Caliphate_in_1180_CE.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Map_of_the_Abbasid_Caliphate_in_1180_CE.png/330px-Map_of_the_Abbasid_Caliphate_in_1180_CE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Map_of_the_Abbasid_Caliphate_in_1180_CE.png/500px-Map_of_the_Abbasid_Caliphate_in_1180_CE.png 2x" data-file-width="1130" data-file-height="977" /></a><figcaption>Approximate territory controlled by the Abbasids circa 1180, after gaining independence from the Seljuks<a href="#cite_note-118">[113]</a></figcaption></figure> Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustarshid" title="Al-Mustarshid">al-Mustarshid</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1118–1135) was the first caliph to build an army and to lead it in battle since the 10th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeacock2015147-119">[114]</a> He recruited Kurdish and Arab Bedouin tribes and re-fortified Baghdad. His first concern was not the Seljuks but the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Mazyad" title="Banu Mazyad">Mazyadids</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Hilla">Hilla</a> in central Iraq, whom he met in battle in 1123. His bid for independence was ultimately unsuccessful, as he was defeated by a Seljuk army in 1135 and assassinated soon after.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeacock2015147–150-120">[115]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtafi" title="Al-Muqtafi">al-Muqtafi</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1136–1160), a new caliphal state began to emerge with the help of his vizier <a href="/wiki/Awn_ad-Din_ibn_Hubayra" class="mw-redirect" title="Awn ad-Din ibn Hubayra">Ibn Hubayra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeacock2015151–153-121">[116]</a> Ibn Hubayra concentrated on reasserting authority in Iraq while the Seljuk Empire deteriorated. The Abbasids successfully defended Baghdad against the Seljuqs in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1157)" title="Siege of Baghdad (1157)">siege of 1157</a> and then conquered their Mazyadid enemies in Hilla in 1162.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeacock2015151–153-121">[116]</a> By the end of al-Muqtafi's reign, Baghdad controlled a state stretching from <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a> in the south to the edges of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a> in the north.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021233-122">[117]</a> After over two hundred years of Abbasid subjection to foreign dynasties, Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustanjid" title="Al-Mustanjid">al-Mustanjid</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1160–1170) formally declared independence from the Seljuk sultans in 1165, when he dropped their names from Abbasid coinage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeacock2015153-123">[118]</a> Initially, the caliphs were still vulnerable to the power of the viziers,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeacock2015153-123">[118]</a> but <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustadi" title="Al-Mustadi">al-Mustadi</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1170–1180) was able to further rally some support from the Baghdad public as well as symbolic support abroad from the <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a> sultan <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum" title="Sultanate of Rum">Rum Seljuk</a> sultan <a href="/wiki/Kilij_Arslan_II" title="Kilij Arslan II">Kilij Arslan II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021228–230-124">[119]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Talisman_Gate_in_Baghdad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Talisman_Gate_in_Baghdad.jpg/220px-Talisman_Gate_in_Baghdad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Talisman_Gate_in_Baghdad.jpg/330px-Talisman_Gate_in_Baghdad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Talisman_Gate_in_Baghdad.jpg/440px-Talisman_Gate_in_Baghdad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2746" data-file-height="1878" /></a><figcaption>Carving on <a href="/wiki/Bab_al-Talsim" title="Bab al-Talsim">Bab al-Talsim</a>, a Baghdad gate built by <a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir" title="Al-Nasir">al-Nasir</a> in 1221 (destroyed in 1917), possibly depicting the caliph wrestling dragons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBloomBlair2009197Architecture;_X._Decoration-125">[120]</a></figcaption></figure> The long reign of Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir" title="Al-Nasir">al-Nasir</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1180–1225) marked a definitive shift in late Abbasid power. He reinvigorated public displays of caliphal prestige, removed officials who were too powerful, engaged in diplomacy with regions beyond Iraq, and extended his control over former Seljuk territories in western Iran — including <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hamadan" title="Hamadan">Hamadan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zanjan,_Iran" title="Zanjan, Iran">Zanjan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021234–235-126">[121]</a> He sought to build up his influence among Muslim rulers abroad largely through the <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a>-inspired <a href="/wiki/Futuwwa" title="Futuwwa">futuwwa</a> brotherhood that he headed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021238–239-127">[122]</a> Under caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_I" title="Al-Mustansir I">al-Mustansir</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 1226–1242), the Abbasid state achieved significant stability and many of the same policies continued.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021246–249-128">[123]</a> He built the <a href="/wiki/Mustansiriyya_Madrasa" title="Mustansiriyya Madrasa">Mustansiriyya Madrasa</a>, inaugurated in 1234, the first madrasa to teach all four Sunni <a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">maddhabs</a> (schools of <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">jurisprudence</a>) and the first madrasa commissioned by an Abbasid caliph.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021251–254-129">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongol_invasion_and_end">Mongol invasion and end</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mongol invasion and end">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">Siege of Baghdad (1258)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_the_Levant" title="Mongol invasions of the Levant">Mongol invasions of the Levant</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DiezAlbumsFallOfBaghdad_a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/DiezAlbumsFallOfBaghdad_a.jpg/170px-DiezAlbumsFallOfBaghdad_a.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/DiezAlbumsFallOfBaghdad_a.jpg/255px-DiezAlbumsFallOfBaghdad_a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/DiezAlbumsFallOfBaghdad_a.jpg/340px-DiezAlbumsFallOfBaghdad_a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2186" data-file-height="2791" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">Siege of Baghdad</a> by the Mongols led by <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu Khan</a> in 1258, as illustrated in a copy of the 14th-century <a href="/wiki/Jami%27_al-tawarikh" title="Jami' al-tawarikh">Jami' al-tawarikh</a></figcaption></figure> In 1206, <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> established a powerful dynasty among the <a href="/wiki/Mongol" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol">Mongols</a> of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">central Asia</a>. During the 13th century, this <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including both China in the east and much of the old Islamic caliphate (as well as <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>) in the west. <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu Khan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Baghdad (1258)">destruction of Baghdad</a> in 1258 is traditionally seen as the approximate end of the Golden Age.<a href="#cite_note-130">[125]</a> Contemporary accounts state Mongol soldiers looted and then destroyed mosques, palaces, libraries, and hospitals. Priceless books from Baghdad's thirty-six public libraries were torn apart, the looters using their leather covers as sandals.<a href="#cite_note-131">[126]</a> Grand buildings that had been the work of generations were burned to the ground. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> (the Grand Library of Baghdad), containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy, was destroyed. Claims have been made that the Tigris ran red from the blood of the scientists and philosophers killed.<a href="#cite_note-132">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[128]</a> Citizens attempted to flee, but were intercepted by Mongol soldiers who killed in abundance, sparing no one, not even children. The caliph Al-Musta'sim was captured and forced to watch as his citizens were murdered and his treasury plundered. Ironically, Mongols feared that a supernatural disaster would strike if the blood of <a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">Al-Musta'sim</a>, a direct descendant of Muhammad's uncle <a href="/wiki/Abbas_ibn_Abd_al-Muttalib" title="Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib">Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib</a>,<a href="#cite_note-encyclopedia-134">[129]</a> and the last reigning Abbasid caliph in Baghdad, was spilled. The Shia of Persia stated that no such calamity had happened after the death of <a href="/wiki/Husayn_ibn_Ali" title="Husayn ibn Ali">Husayn ibn Ali</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Karbala" title="Battle of Karbala">Battle of Karbala</a>; nevertheless, as a precaution and in accordance with a Mongol taboo which forbade spilling royal blood, Hulagu had Al-Musta'sim wrapped in a carpet and trampled to death by horses on 20 February 1258. The caliph's immediate family was also executed, with the lone exceptions of his youngest son who was sent to Mongolia, and a daughter who became a slave in the <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a> of Hulagu.<a href="#cite_note-135">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abbasid_Caliphate_of_Cairo_(1261–1517)">Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo (1261–1517)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo (1261–1517)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a></div> The later Ayyubid sultans of Egypt built an army recruited from slaves, the <a href="/wiki/Mamluks" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluks">Mamluks</a>. During a political and military crisis in 1250, the Mamluks seized power and established what is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021258–259,_270-136">[131]</a> Following the devastation of Baghdad in 1258 and in an effort to secure political legitimacy for the new regime in Egypt, the Mamluk ruler <a href="/wiki/Baybars" title="Baybars">Baybars</a> invited a surviving member of the Abbasid family to establish himself in Cairo in 1260–1261. The new caliph was <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_II" title="Al-Mustansir II">al-Mustansir II</a>, a brother of the former caliph al-Mustansir.<a href="#cite_note-:5-137">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021270-138">[133]</a> In 1262, he disappeared while leading a small army in an attempt to recapture Baghdad from the Mongols. Baybars subsequently replaced him with <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_I" title="Al-Hakim I">al-Hakim I</a>, another Abbasid family member who had just been proclaimed in <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-137">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021271-139">[134]</a> Thereafter, the Abbasid caliphs in Cairo continued to exist as a strictly ceremonial but nonetheless important institution within the Mamluk Sultanate, conferring significant prestige on the Mamluks.<a href="#cite_note-:5-137">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021272-140">[135]</a> It continued to be relevant even to other Muslim rulers until the 14th century; for example, the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">sultans of Delhi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Muzaffarids_(Iran)" title="Muzaffarids (Iran)">Muzaffarid</a> sultan <a href="/wiki/Mubariz_al-Din_Muhammad" title="Mubariz al-Din Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jalayirid_Sultanate" title="Jalayirid Sultanate">Jalayirid</a> sultan <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Jalayir" title="Ahmad Jalayir">Ahmad</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> sultan <a href="/wiki/Bayezid_I" title="Bayezid I">Bayezid I</a> all sought diplomas of investiture from the caliph or declared nominal allegiance to him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021273–275-141">[136]</a> Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27in_(Mamluk_Sultanate)" title="Al-Musta'in (Mamluk Sultanate)">al-Musta'in</a> even managed to reign as sultan in Cairo for a brief six months in 1412.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021275-142">[137]</a> During the 15th century, however, the institution of the caliph declined in significance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021275-142">[137]</a> The last Abbasid caliph in Cairo was <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_III" title="Al-Mutawakkil III">al-Mutawakkil III</a>, who was in place when the Ottoman sultan Selim II <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marj_Dabiq" title="Battle of Marj Dabiq">defeated the Mamluks</a> in 1516 and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Mamluk_War_(1516%E2%80%931517)" title="Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)">conquered Egypt</a> in 1517, ending the Mamluk Sultanate. Selim II met with al-Mutawakkil III in Aleppo in 1516, prior to marching into Egypt, and the caliph was then sent to the Ottoman capital of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>), ending the Abbasid caliphate definitively.<a href="#cite_note-:5-137">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021275–276-143">[138]</a> The idea of a "caliphate" subsequently became an ambiguous concept that was occasionally revisited by later Muslim rulers and intellectuals for political or religious reasons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri2021276-144">[139]</a> The Ottoman sultans, who were thenceforth the most powerful Muslim rulers in western Asia and the Mediterranean, did not use the title of "caliph" at all before the mid-16th century and only did so vaguely and inconsistently afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-:6-145">[140]</a> The claim that al-Mutawakkil III "transferred" the office of the caliph to the Ottoman sultan during their meeting in Aleppo is a legend that was elaborated in the 19th century and is not corroborated by contemporary accounts.<a href="#cite_note-:5-137">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-145">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_Golden_Age">Islamic Golden Age</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Islamic Golden Age">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Islamic philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Folio_from_the_%22Tashkent_Qur%27an%22_MET_DP234018.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Folio_from_the_%22Tashkent_Qur%27an%22_MET_DP234018.jpg/220px-Folio_from_the_%22Tashkent_Qur%27an%22_MET_DP234018.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Folio_from_the_%22Tashkent_Qur%27an%22_MET_DP234018.jpg/330px-Folio_from_the_%22Tashkent_Qur%27an%22_MET_DP234018.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Folio_from_the_%22Tashkent_Qur%27an%22_MET_DP234018.jpg/440px-Folio_from_the_%22Tashkent_Qur%27an%22_MET_DP234018.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3510" data-file-height="2811" /></a><figcaption>Page from the "<a href="/wiki/Samarkand_Kufic_Quran" title="Samarkand Kufic Quran">Tashkent Qur'an</a>", one of the oldest surviving Qur'an manuscripts, dating from the late 8th or early 9th century<a href="#cite_note-146">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[142]</a></figcaption></figure> The Abbasid historical period lasting to the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">Mongol conquest of Baghdad</a> in 1258 CE is considered the Islamic Golden Age.<a href="#cite_note-Tahir_Abbas-148">[143]</a> The Islamic Golden Age was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the Abbasid <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> and the transfer of the capital from <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> to Baghdad.<a href="#cite_note-Vartan-149">[144]</a> The Abbasids were influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'anic</a> injunctions and <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a>, such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr", stressing the value of knowledge. During this period the Muslim world became an intellectual center for science, philosophy, medicine and education as<a href="#cite_note-Vartan-149">[144]</a> the Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> in Baghdad, where both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars sought to translate and gather all the world's knowledge into <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Vartan-149">[144]</a> Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been lost were translated into Arabic and Persian and later in turn translated into Turkish, Hebrew and Latin.<a href="#cite_note-Vartan-149">[144]</a> During this period the Muslim world was a cauldron of cultures which collected, synthesized and significantly advanced the knowledge gained from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a>, Chinese, <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">Indian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a>, North African, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Medieval Greek</a> civilizations.<a href="#cite_note-Vartan-149">[144]</a> According to Huff, "[i]n virtually every field of endeavor—in astronomy, alchemy, mathematics, medicine, optics and so forth—the Caliphate's scientists were in the forefront of scientific advance."<a href="#cite_note-150">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Islamic literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic literature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_epic_literature" title="Arabic epic literature">Arabic epic literature</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian literature</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">Islamic poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">Arabic poetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish poetry">Turkish poetry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Persian_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian poetry">Persian poetry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:More_tales_from_the_Arabian_nights-14566176968.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/More_tales_from_the_Arabian_nights-14566176968.jpg/220px-More_tales_from_the_Arabian_nights-14566176968.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/More_tales_from_the_Arabian_nights-14566176968.jpg/330px-More_tales_from_the_Arabian_nights-14566176968.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/More_tales_from_the_Arabian_nights-14566176968.jpg/440px-More_tales_from_the_Arabian_nights-14566176968.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1626" data-file-height="1996" /></a><figcaption>Illustration from More tales from the Arabian nights (1915)</figcaption></figure> The best-known fiction from the Islamic world is <a href="/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights" title="One Thousand and One Nights">One Thousand and One Nights</a>, a collection of fantastical folk tales, legends and parables compiled primarily during the Abbasid era. The collection is recorded as having originated from an Arabic translation of a Sassanian-era Persian prototype, with likely origins in Indian literary traditions. Stories from <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Persian</a>, Mesopotamian, and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_literature" title="Egyptian literature">Egyptian</a> folklore and literature were later incorporated. The epic is believed to have taken shape in the 10th century and reached its final form by the 14th century; the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another.<a href="#cite_note-arabianNights-151">[146]</a> All Arabian <a href="/wiki/Fantasy" title="Fantasy">fantasy</a> tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights.<a href="#cite_note-arabianNights-151">[146]</a> This epic has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Galland" title="Antoine Galland">Antoine Galland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[147]</a> Many imitations were written, especially in France.<a href="#cite_note-arabianNights2-153">[148]</a> Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as <a href="/wiki/Aladdin" title="Aladdin">Aladdin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinbad" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinbad">Sinbad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ali_Baba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali Baba">Ali Baba</a>. A famous example of Islamic poetry on <a href="/wiki/Romance_(love)" title="Romance (love)">romance</a> was <a href="/wiki/Layla_and_Majnun" title="Layla and Majnun">Layla and Majnun</a>, an originally <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> story which was further developed by <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Azerbaijani people">Azerbaijani</a> and other poets in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> languages.<a href="#cite_note-154">[149]</a> It is a <a href="/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">tragic</a> story of undying love much like the later <a href="/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet" title="Romeo and Juliet">Romeo and Juliet</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Arabic poetry reached its greatest height in the Abbasid era, especially before the loss of central authority and the rise of the Persianate dynasties. Writers like <a href="/wiki/Abu_Tammam" title="Abu Tammam">Abu Tammam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abu_Nuwas" title="Abu Nuwas">Abu Nuwas</a> were closely connected to the caliphal court in Baghdad during the early 9th century, while others such as <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutanabbi" title="Al-Mutanabbi">al-Mutanabbi</a> received their patronage from regional courts. Under Harun al-Rashid, Baghdad was renowned for its bookstores, which proliferated after the making of paper was introduced. Chinese papermakers had been among those taken prisoner by the Arabs at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Talas" title="Battle of Talas">Battle of Talas</a> in 751. As prisoners of war, they were dispatched to <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, where they helped set up the first Arab paper mill. In time, paper replaced parchment as the medium for writing, and the production of books greatly increased. These events had an academic and societal impact that could be broadly compared to the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> in the West. Paper aided in communication and record-keeping, it also brought a new sophistication and complexity to businesses, banking, and the civil service. In 794, Jafa al-Barmak built the first paper mill in Baghdad, and from there the technology circulated. Harun required that paper be employed in government dealings, since something recorded on paper could not easily be changed or removed, and eventually, an entire street in Baghdad's business district was dedicated to selling paper and books.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201278-155">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy">Philosophy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Philosophy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early Islamic philosophy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Logic_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Logic in Islamic philosophy">Logic in Islamic philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illuminationist_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuminationist philosophy">Illuminationist philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transcendent_Theosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendent Theosophy">Transcendent Theosophy</a></div> One of the common definitions for "Islamic philosophy" is "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture".<a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEoP-156">[151]</a> Islamic philosophy, in this definition is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is exclusively produced by Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-RoutledgeEoP-156">[151]</a> Their works on <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> were a key step in the transmission of learning from ancient Greeks to the Islamic world and the West. They often corrected the philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of <a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a>. They also wrote influential original philosophical works, and their thinking was incorporated into <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a> during the Middle Ages, notably by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-157">[152]</a> Three speculative thinkers, <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, combined <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> with other ideas introduced through Islam, and <a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a> was later established as a result. Other influential Abbasid philosophers include <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">al-Jahiz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhacen). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Architecture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_architecture" title="Abbasid architecture">Abbasid architecture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.jpg/220px-%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.jpg/330px-%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.jpg/440px-%D9%82%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Qasr_al-%27Ashiq" title="Qasr al-'Ashiq">Qasr al-'Ashiq</a> palace in <a href="/wiki/Samarra" title="Samarra">Samarra</a>, constructed during 877–882 CE. <a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">Emir</a> 'Amad al-Dawla wrote a poem about this palace.<a href="#cite_note-Ha-158">[153]</a> During the medieval period, it was referred to as "al-Ma'shuq (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: المعشوق)" which means "beloved".<a href="#cite_note-Cu-159">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[155]</a></figcaption></figure> As power shifted from the Umayyads to the Abbasids, the architectural styles changed also, from Greco-Roman tradition (which features elements of Hellenistic and Roman representative style) to Eastern tradition which retained their independent architectural traditions from <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and Persia.<a href="#cite_note-Hoag_p7_9-161">[156]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_architecture" title="Abbasid architecture">Abbasid architecture</a> was particularly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_architecture" title="Sasanian architecture">Sasanian architecture</a>, which in turn featured elements present since ancient Mesopotamia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersen19961-162">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2442-163">[158]</a> The Christian styles evolved into a style based more on the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, utilizing mud bricks and baked bricks with carved stucco.<a href="#cite_note-wil-164">[159]</a> Other architectural innovations and styles were few, such as the <a href="/wiki/Four-centred_arch" title="Four-centred arch">four-centered arch</a>, and a dome erected on <a href="/wiki/Squinch" title="Squinch">squinches</a>. Unfortunately, much was lost due to the ephemeral nature of the stucco and luster tiles.<a href="#cite_note-wil2-165">[160]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baghdad-Zumurrud-Khaton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Baghdad-Zumurrud-Khaton.jpg/220px-Baghdad-Zumurrud-Khaton.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Baghdad-Zumurrud-Khaton.jpg/330px-Baghdad-Zumurrud-Khaton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Baghdad-Zumurrud-Khaton.jpg/440px-Baghdad-Zumurrud-Khaton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2852" data-file-height="3833" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zumurrud_Khatun_Mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Zumurrud Khatun Mosque">Zumurrud Khatun Tomb</a> (circa 1152),<a href="#cite_note-166">[161]</a> in a cemetery at <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a></figcaption></figure> Another major development was the creation or vast enlargement of cities as they were turned into the capital of the empire, beginning with the creation of Baghdad in 762, which was planned as a walled city with four gates, and a mosque and palace in the center. Al-Mansur, who was responsible for the creation of Baghdad, also planned the city of <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, along the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>. Finally, in 836, al-Mu'tasim moved the capital to a new site that he created along the Tigris, called Samarra. This city saw 60 years of work, with race-courses and game preserves to add to the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-wil-164">[159]</a> Due to the dry remote nature of the environment, some of the palaces built in this era were isolated havens. <a href="/wiki/Al-Ukhaidir_Fortress" title="Al-Ukhaidir Fortress">Al-Ukhaidir Fortress</a> is a fine example of this type of building, which has stables, living quarters, and a mosque, all surrounding inner courtyards.<a href="#cite_note-wil-164">[159]</a> Mesopotamia only has one surviving mausoleum from this era, in Samarra:<a href="#cite_note-wil2-165">[160]</a> an octagonal domed structured known as the Qubbat al-Sulaibiyya, which is the first known monumental tomb in <a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Islamic architecture</a> and may be the final resting place of <a href="/wiki/Al-Muntasir" title="Al-Muntasir">al-Muntasir</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[162]</a> Baghdad, the epicenter of the empire, was originally <a href="/wiki/Round_city_of_Baghdad" title="Round city of Baghdad">organized in a circular fashion</a> next to the Tigris River, with massive brick walls being constructed in successive rings around the core by a workforce of 100,000 with four huge gates (named Kufa, Basra, Khurasan and Syria). The central enclosure of the city contained Mansur's palace of 360,000 square feet (33,000 m2) in area and the great mosque of Baghdad, encompassing 90,000 square feet (8,400 m2). Travel across the Tigris and the network of waterways allowing the drainage of the Euphrates into the Tigris was facilitated by bridges and canals servicing the population.<a href="#cite_note-168">[163]</a> Outside the Abbasid heartlands, architecture was still influenced by the capital. In present-day Tunisia, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan" title="Great Mosque of Kairouan">Great Mosque of Kairouan</a> was founded under the Umayyad dynasty but completely rebuilt in the 9th century under the <a href="/wiki/Aghlabid_architecture" title="Aghlabid architecture">patronage of the Aghlabids</a>, vassals of the Abbasids.<a href="#cite_note-:8-169">[164]</a> The styles utilized were mainly Abbasid.<a href="#cite_note-170">[165]</a> In Egypt, Ahmad Ibn Tulun commissioned the <a href="/wiki/Mosque_of_Ibn_Tulun" title="Mosque of Ibn Tulun">Ibn Tulun Mosque</a>, completed in 879, that is based on the style of Samarra and is now one of the best-preserved Abbasid-style mosques from this period.<a href="#cite_note-:0522-171">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arts">Arts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Arts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_art" title="Abbasid art">Abbasid art</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bowl_by_Khalid,_Iraq,_Abbasid_dynasty,_9th-10th_century_AD,_earthenware_painted_over_glaze_with_luster_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC04595.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bowl_by_Khalid%2C_Iraq%2C_Abbasid_dynasty%2C_9th-10th_century_AD%2C_earthenware_painted_over_glaze_with_luster_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC04595.jpg/220px-Bowl_by_Khalid%2C_Iraq%2C_Abbasid_dynasty%2C_9th-10th_century_AD%2C_earthenware_painted_over_glaze_with_luster_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC04595.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bowl_by_Khalid%2C_Iraq%2C_Abbasid_dynasty%2C_9th-10th_century_AD%2C_earthenware_painted_over_glaze_with_luster_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC04595.jpg/330px-Bowl_by_Khalid%2C_Iraq%2C_Abbasid_dynasty%2C_9th-10th_century_AD%2C_earthenware_painted_over_glaze_with_luster_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC04595.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bowl_by_Khalid%2C_Iraq%2C_Abbasid_dynasty%2C_9th-10th_century_AD%2C_earthenware_painted_over_glaze_with_luster_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC04595.jpg/440px-Bowl_by_Khalid%2C_Iraq%2C_Abbasid_dynasty%2C_9th-10th_century_AD%2C_earthenware_painted_over_glaze_with_luster_-_Freer_Gallery_of_Art_-_DSC04595.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3189" data-file-height="3083" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lustreware" title="Lustreware">Lustreware</a> bowl from 9th century Samarra<a href="#cite_note-172">[167]</a></figcaption></figure> The establishment of Abbasid power based in Iraq, rather than Syria, resulted in a cultural and artistic development influenced not only by the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern traditions but also by connections further afield with India, Central Asia, and China.<a href="#cite_note-:3-88">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-173">[168]</a> The importation of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ceramics" title="Chinese ceramics">Chinese ceramics</a> elicited local imitations but also stirred innovations in local production.<a href="#cite_note-:3-88">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-173">[168]</a> <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_ceramics" title="Abbasid ceramics">Abbasid ceramics</a> became a more important art form with greater emphasis on decoration. A major innovation was the emergence of monochrome and polychrome <a href="/wiki/Lustreware" title="Lustreware">lustreware</a>, a technical achievement that had an important impact on the wider development of <a href="/wiki/Islamic_ceramics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic ceramics">Islamic ceramics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-173">[168]</a> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_glass" title="Islamic glass">Glassware</a> also became a more important art form and was likely the origin of the lustre technique that was introduced into ceramics.<a href="#cite_note-:3-88">[83]</a> Few textiles have survived but the production of <a href="/wiki/Tiraz" title="Tiraz">tiraz</a>, textiles with royal inscriptions, is well attested.<a href="#cite_note-:3-88">[83]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Folio_from_a_Qur%27an_(8th-9th_century)_Sura_39.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Folio_from_a_Qur%27an_%288th-9th_century%29_Sura_39.jpg/220px-Folio_from_a_Qur%27an_%288th-9th_century%29_Sura_39.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Folio_from_a_Qur%27an_%288th-9th_century%29_Sura_39.jpg/330px-Folio_from_a_Qur%27an_%288th-9th_century%29_Sura_39.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Folio_from_a_Qur%27an_%288th-9th_century%29_Sura_39.jpg/440px-Folio_from_a_Qur%27an_%288th-9th_century%29_Sura_39.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8750" data-file-height="6336" /></a><figcaption>Folio from a Qur'an with <a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a> script and gold <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illumination</a>, from 8th or 9th century<a href="#cite_note-174">[169]</a></figcaption></figure> Another major art form was calligraphy and manuscript production. During the Abbasid period, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Arabic calligraphy</a> evolved into a more refined discipline.<a href="#cite_note-:4-173">[168]</a> Rounded <a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a> script was typical<a href="#cite_note-:3-88">[83]</a> and became increasingly stylized.<a href="#cite_note-:4-173">[168]</a> <a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">Parchment</a> only allowed for a few lines of script, but from the late 8th century onward <a href="/wiki/History_of_paper" title="History of paper">paper</a> began to be produced.<a href="#cite_note-:3-88">[83]</a> Qur'ans are the main type of book to have survived from this period.<a href="#cite_note-:3-88">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science_and_technology">Science and technology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Science and technology">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Science">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Science in the medieval Islamic world</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_(Islam)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy (Islam)">Alchemy (Islam)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">Islamic astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic mathematics">Islamic mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">Islamic medicine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world">Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Mustansriah_School_-_Main_door.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Al-Mustansriah_School_-_Main_door.jpg/250px-Al-Mustansriah_School_-_Main_door.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Al-Mustansriah_School_-_Main_door.jpg/330px-Al-Mustansriah_School_-_Main_door.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Al-Mustansriah_School_-_Main_door.jpg/500px-Al-Mustansriah_School_-_Main_door.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mustansiriyya_Madrasa" title="Mustansiriyya Madrasa">Mustansiriyya Madrasa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, established in 1227, one of the few Abbasid-era <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasas</a> remaining today</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/220px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/330px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/440px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="922" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan</a>, a pioneer in <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a>. The reigns of <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a> (786–809) and his successors fostered an age of great intellectual achievement. In large part, this was the result of the schismatic forces that had undermined the Umayyad regime, which relied on the assertion of the superiority of <a href="/wiki/Arab_culture" title="Arab culture">Arab culture</a> as part of its claim to legitimacy, and the Abbasids' welcoming of support from non-Arab Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-175">[170]</a></figcaption></figure> A number of medieval thinkers and scientists living under Islamic rule played a role in transmitting <a href="/wiki/Islamic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic science">Islamic science</a> to the Christian West. In addition, the period saw the recovery of much of the <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandrian</a> mathematical, geometric and astronomical knowledge, such as that of <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a> and Claudius <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>. These recovered mathematical methods were later enhanced and developed by other Islamic scholars, notably by Persian scientists <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abu_Nasr_Mansur" title="Abu Nasr Mansur">Abu Nasr Mansur</a>. <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> (particularly <a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorian</a> Christians) contributed to the Arab Islamic Civilization during the Umayyads and the Abbasids by translating works of <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophers">Greek philosophers</a> to <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Syriac Language">Syriac</a> and afterwards to <a href="/wiki/Arabic_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic Language">Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[172]</a> Nestorians played a prominent role in the formation of Arab culture,<a href="#cite_note-178">[173]</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Gondishapur" title="Academy of Gondishapur">Academy of Gondishapur</a> being prominent in the late <a href="/wiki/Sassanid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid">Sassanid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umayyad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad">Umayyad</a> and early Abbasid periods.<a href="#cite_note-179">[174]</a> Notably, eight generations of the Nestorian <a href="/wiki/Bukhtishu" title="Bukhtishu">Bukhtishu</a> family served as private doctors to caliphs and sultans between the eighth and eleventh centuries.<a href="#cite_note-180">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[176]</a> <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">Algebra</a> was significantly developed by Persian scientist <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_M%C5%ABs%C4%81_al-Khw%C4%81rizm%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī">Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī</a> during this time in his landmark text, <a href="/wiki/The_Compendious_Book_on_Calculation_by_Completion_and_Balancing" class="mw-redirect" title="The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing">Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala</a>, from which the term algebra is derived. He is thus considered to be the father of algebra by some,<a href="#cite_note-182">[177]</a> although the Greek mathematician <a href="/wiki/Diophantus" title="Diophantus">Diophantus</a> has also been given this title. The terms <a href="/wiki/Algorism" title="Algorism">algorism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> are derived from the name of al-Khwarizmi, who was also responsible for introducing the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu–Arabic numeral system</a> beyond the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hazan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Hazan.png/220px-Hazan.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Hazan.png 1.5x" data-file-width="245" data-file-height="289" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alhazen" class="mw-redirect" title="Alhazen">Ibn al-Haytham</a>, "the father of <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a>".<a href="#cite_note-183">[178]</a></figcaption></figure> Arab scientist <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhazen) developed an early <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a> (1021). The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical</a> orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham's empirical proof of the intromission theory of light (that is, that light rays entered the eyes rather than being <a href="/wiki/Emission_theory_(vision)" title="Emission theory (vision)">emitted by them</a>) was particularly important. Ibn al-Haytham was significant in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_scientific_method" title="History of scientific method">history of scientific method</a>, particularly in his approach to experimentation,<a href="#cite_note-184">[179]</a> and has been referred to as the "world's first true scientist".<a href="#cite_note-185">[180]</a> <a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine in medieval Islam">Medicine in medieval Islam</a> was an area of science that advanced particularly during the Abbasids' reign. During the 9th century, Baghdad contained over 800 doctors, and great discoveries in the understanding of anatomy and diseases were made. The clinical distinction between <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> was described during this time. Famous Persian scientist <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sina">Ibn Sina</a> (known to the West as <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>) produced treatises and works that summarized the vast amount of knowledge that scientists had accumulated, and was very influential through his encyclopedias, <a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Healing" title="The Book of Healing">The Book of Healing</a>. The work of him and many others directly influenced the research of European scientists during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">Astronomy in medieval Islam</a> was advanced by <a href="/wiki/Al-Battani" title="Al-Battani">Al-Battani</a>, who improved the precision of the measurement of the <a href="/wiki/Precession" title="Precession">precession</a> of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> by al-Battani,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mo%27ayyeduddin_Urdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi">Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Shatir" title="Ibn al-Shatir">Ibn al-Shatir</a> were later incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/Copernican_heliocentrism" title="Copernican heliocentrism">Copernican heliocentric</a> model.<a href="#cite_note-186">[181]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a>, though originally developed by the Greeks, was developed further by Islamic astronomers and engineers, and subsequently brought to medieval Europe. <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam">Muslim alchemists</a> influenced medieval European alchemists, particularly the writings attributed to <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81bir_ibn_Hayy%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Jābir ibn Hayyān">Jābir ibn Hayyān</a> (Geber). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology">Technology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Technology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world" title="Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world">Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wasseruhr_Harun_al_Raschid.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Wasseruhr_Harun_al_Raschid.jpg/220px-Wasseruhr_Harun_al_Raschid.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Wasseruhr_Harun_al_Raschid.jpg/330px-Wasseruhr_Harun_al_Raschid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Wasseruhr_Harun_al_Raschid.jpg/440px-Wasseruhr_Harun_al_Raschid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1051" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Illustration showing a <a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">water clock</a> given to <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> by <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a></figcaption></figure> In technology, the Abbasids adopted <a href="/wiki/Papermaking" title="Papermaking">papermaking</a> from China.<a href="#cite_note-Lucas-187">[182]</a> The use of paper spread from China into the caliphate in the 8th century CE, arriving in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> (Islamic Spain) and then the rest of Europe in the 10th century. It was easier to manufacture than <a href="/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a>, less likely to crack than <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>, and could absorb ink, making it ideal for making records and copies of the Qur'an. "Islamic paper makers devised assembly-line methods of hand-copying manuscripts to turn out editions far larger than any available in Europe for centuries."<a href="#cite_note-188">[183]</a> It was from the Abbasids that the rest of the world learned to make paper from linen.<a href="#cite_note-189">[184]</a> The knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> was also transmitted from China via the caliphate, where the formulas for pure <a href="/wiki/Potassium_nitrate" title="Potassium nitrate">potassium nitrate</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Explosive" title="Explosive">explosive</a> gunpowder effect were first developed.<a href="#cite_note-190">[185]</a> Advances were made in <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> and farming, using new technology such as the <a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">windmill</a>. Crops such as <a href="/wiki/Almond" title="Almond">almonds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Citrus" title="Citrus">citrus</a> fruit were brought to Europe through <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Apart from the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, navigable rivers were uncommon, so transport by sea was very important. Navigational sciences were highly developed, making use of a rudimentary <a href="/wiki/Sextant" title="Sextant">sextant</a> (known as a kamal). When combined with detailed maps of the period, sailors were able to sail across oceans rather than skirt along the coast. Abbasid sailors were also responsible for reintroducing large three masted merchant vessels to the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>. The name <a href="/wiki/Caravel" title="Caravel">caravel</a> may derive from an earlier Arab ship known as the qārib.<a href="#cite_note-191">[186]</a> Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. <a href="/wiki/Ormus" title="Ormus">Hormuz</a> was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network of trade routes in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>, along which Muslim countries traded with each other and with European powers such as <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> or <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> crossing Central Asia passed through the Abbasid caliphate between China and Europe. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bruges_Belgium_Windmill-Bonne-Chiere-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Bruges_Belgium_Windmill-Bonne-Chiere-01.jpg/250px-Bruges_Belgium_Windmill-Bonne-Chiere-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Bruges_Belgium_Windmill-Bonne-Chiere-01.jpg/330px-Bruges_Belgium_Windmill-Bonne-Chiere-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Bruges_Belgium_Windmill-Bonne-Chiere-01.jpg/500px-Bruges_Belgium_Windmill-Bonne-Chiere-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3285" data-file-height="3285" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Windmills" class="mw-redirect" title="Windmills">Windmills</a> were among Abbasid inventions in technology.<a href="#cite_note-192">[187]</a></figcaption></figure> Engineers in the Abbasid caliphate made a number of innovative industrial uses of <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropower</a>, and early industrial uses of <a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">tidal power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a>, and petroleum (notably by distillation into <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a>). The industrial uses of <a href="/wiki/Watermill" title="Watermill">watermills</a> in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-<a href="/wiki/Water_wheel" title="Water wheel">wheeled</a> and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. By the time of the Crusades, every province throughout the Islamic world had mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia. These mills performed a variety of agricultural and industrial tasks.<a href="#cite_note-Lucas-187">[182]</a> Abbasid engineers also developed machines (such as pumps) incorporating <a href="/wiki/Crankshaft" title="Crankshaft">crankshafts</a>, employed <a href="/wiki/Gear" title="Gear">gears</a> in mills and water-raising machines, and used dams to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines.<a href="#cite_note-Hassan-193">[188]</a> Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by <a href="/wiki/Manual_labour" title="Manual labour">manual labour</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_times" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient times">ancient times</a> to be <a href="/wiki/Mechanization" title="Mechanization">mechanized</a> and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. It has been argued that the industrial use of waterpower had spread from Islamic to Christian Spain, where fulling mills, paper mills, and forge mills were recorded for the first time in <a href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalonia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-194">[189]</a> A number of industries were generated during the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a>, including early industries for textiles, sugar, rope-making, matting, silk, and paper. <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">Latin translations of the 12th century</a> passed on knowledge of chemistry and instrument making in particular.<a href="#cite_note-195">[190]</a> The agricultural and <a href="/wiki/Handicraft" title="Handicraft">handicraft</a> industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.<a href="#cite_note-Labib-196">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Society">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arabization">Arabization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Arabization">edit</a>]</div> While the Abbasids originally gained power by exploiting the social inequalities against non-Arabs in the Umayyad Empire, during Abbasid rule the empire rapidly Arabized, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> region (namely <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>) as had begun under Umayyad rule. As knowledge was shared in the Arabic language throughout the empire, many people from different nationalities and religions began to speak Arabic in their everyday lives. Resources from other languages began to be translated into Arabic, and a unique Islamic identity began to form that fused previous cultures with Arab culture, creating a level of civilization and knowledge that was considered a marvel in Europe at the time.<a href="#cite_note-197">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Status_of_women">Status of women</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Status of women">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></div> In contrast to the earlier era, women in Abbasid society were absent from all arenas of the community's central affairs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAhmed1992112–115-198">[193]</a> While their Muslim forebears led men into battle, started rebellions, and played an active role in community life, as demonstrated in the <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a> literature, Abbasid women were ideally kept in seclusion.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Conquests had brought enormous wealth and large numbers of slaves to the Muslim elite. The majority of the slaves were women and children,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-199">[194]</a> many of whom had been dependents or harem-members of the defeated Sassanian upper classes.<a href="#cite_note-Abbott,_Nabia_1946-200">[195]</a> In the wake of the conquests an elite man could potentially own a thousand slaves, and ordinary soldiers could have ten people serving them.<a href="#cite_note-201">[nb 6]</a> It was narrated from Ibn Abbas that Muhammad said: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> There is no man whose two daughters reach the age of puberty and he treats them kindly for the time they are together, but they will gain him admittance to Paradise. Whoever has three daughters and is patient towards them, and feeds them, gives them to drink, and clothes them from his wealth; they will be a shield for him from the Fire on the Day of Resurrection.</blockquote> Even so, slave courtesans (<a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">qiyans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jawaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawaris">jawaris</a>) and princesses produced prestigious and important poetry. Enough survives to give us access to women's historical experiences, and reveals some vivacious and powerful figures, such as the Sufi mystic <a href="/wiki/Rabia_of_Basra" class="mw-redirect" title="Rabia of Basra">Raabi'a al-Adwiyya</a> (714–801 CE), the princess and poet <a href="/wiki/%27Ulayya_bint_al-Mahdi" class="mw-redirect" title="'Ulayya bint al-Mahdi">'Ulayya bint al-Mahdi</a> (777–825 CE), and the <a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">singing-girls</a> <a href="/wiki/Sh%C4%81riyah" title="Shāriyah">Shāriyah</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 815–870 CE), <a href="/wiki/Fadl_Ashsha%27ira" class="mw-redirect" title="Fadl Ashsha'ira">Fadl Ashsha'ira</a> (d. 871 CE) and <a href="/wiki/Arib_al-Ma%27muniyya" title="Arib al-Ma'muniyya">Arib al-Ma'muniyya</a> (797–890 CE).<a href="#cite_note-202">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[197]</a> Each wife in the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a> had an additional home or flat, with her own enslaved staff of eunuchs and maidservants. When a <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">concubine</a> gave birth to a son, she was elevated in rank to <a href="/wiki/Umm_walad" class="mw-redirect" title="Umm walad">umm walad</a> and also received apartments and (slave) servants as a gift.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201222-204">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treatment_of_Jews_and_Christians">Treatment of Jews and Christians</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Treatment of Jews and Christians">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hunayn_ibn-Ishaq_al-%27Ibadi_Isagoge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Hunayn_ibn-Ishaq_al-%27Ibadi_Isagoge.jpg/220px-Hunayn_ibn-Ishaq_al-%27Ibadi_Isagoge.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Hunayn_ibn-Ishaq_al-%27Ibadi_Isagoge.jpg/330px-Hunayn_ibn-Ishaq_al-%27Ibadi_Isagoge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Hunayn_ibn-Ishaq_al-%27Ibadi_Isagoge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hunayn_ibn_Ishaq" title="Hunayn ibn Ishaq">Hunayn ibn Ishaq</a> was an influential translator, scholar, physician, and scientist.<a href="#cite_note-:02-205">[199]</a></figcaption></figure> The status and treatment of Jews, Christians, and non-Muslims in the Abbasid Caliphate was a complex and continually changing issue. Non-Muslims were called <a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">dhimmis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-206">[200]</a> Dhimmis faced some level of discrimination in Abbasid society: they did not have all the privileges of Muslims and had to pay <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a>, a tax on non-Muslims. However, as <a href="/wiki/People_of_the_book" class="mw-redirect" title="People of the book">people of the book</a> (non-Muslim monotheists), Jews and Christians were allowed to practice their religion and were not required to convert. One of the common aspects of the treatment of the dhimmis is that their treatment depended on who the caliph was at the time. Some Abbasid rulers, like <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">Al-Mutawakkil</a> (822–861 CE) imposed strict restrictions on what dhimmis could wear in public, often yellow garments that distinguished them from Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-:1-207">[201]</a> Other restrictions al-Mutawakkil imposed included limiting the role of the dhimmis in government, seizing dhimmi housing and making it harder for dhimmis to become educated.<a href="#cite_note-:1-207">[201]</a> Most other Abbasid caliphs were not as strict as al-Mutawakkil, though. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">Al-Mansur</a> (714–775 CE), it was common for Jews and Christians to influence the overall culture in the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">caliphate</a>, specifically in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. Jews and Christians did this by participating in scholarly work. It was common that laws that were imposed against dhimmis during one caliph's rule were either discarded or not practiced during future caliphs' reigns. Al-Mansur and al-Mutawakkil both instituted laws that forbade non-Muslims from participating in public office.<a href="#cite_note-208">[202]</a> Al-Mansur did not follow his own law very closely, bringing dhimmis back to the caliphate's treasury due to the needed expertise of dhimmis in the area of finance.<a href="#cite_note-:2-209">[203]</a> Al-Mutawakkil followed the law banning dhimmis from public office more seriously, although, soon after his reign, many of the laws concerning dhimmis participating in government were completely unobserved or at least less strictly observed.<a href="#cite_note-:1-207">[201]</a> Even <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadir" title="Al-Muqtadir">Al-Muqtadir</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 908–932 CE), who held a similar stance as al-Mutawakkil on barring non-Muslims from public office, himself had multiple Christian secretaries, indicating that non-Muslims still had access to many of the most important figures within the caliphate.<a href="#cite_note-:2-209">[203]</a> Past having a casual association or just being a secretary to high-ranking Islamic officials, some of them achieved the second highest office after the caliph: the <a href="/wiki/Vizier_(Abbasid_Caliphate)" title="Vizier (Abbasid Caliphate)">vizier</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-209">[203]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Church_of_the_East_mural,_837-839_CE,_Palace_of_al-Mukhtar,_Samarra,_Iraq.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Church_of_the_East_mural%2C_837-839_CE%2C_Palace_of_al-Mukhtar%2C_Samarra%2C_Iraq.jpg/170px-Church_of_the_East_mural%2C_837-839_CE%2C_Palace_of_al-Mukhtar%2C_Samarra%2C_Iraq.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="450" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Church_of_the_East_mural%2C_837-839_CE%2C_Palace_of_al-Mukhtar%2C_Samarra%2C_Iraq.jpg/255px-Church_of_the_East_mural%2C_837-839_CE%2C_Palace_of_al-Mukhtar%2C_Samarra%2C_Iraq.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Church_of_the_East_mural%2C_837-839_CE%2C_Palace_of_al-Mukhtar%2C_Samarra%2C_Iraq.jpg/340px-Church_of_the_East_mural%2C_837-839_CE%2C_Palace_of_al-Mukhtar%2C_Samarra%2C_Iraq.jpg 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="2624" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> cleric. Mural from the Palace of <a href="/wiki/Al-Mukhtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mukhtar">al-Mukhtar</a>, dated 837–839 CE, <a href="/wiki/Samarra" title="Samarra">Samarra</a>, Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-210">[204]</a></figcaption></figure> Jews and Christians may have had a lower overall status compared to Muslims in the Abbasid Caliphate, but dhimmis were often allowed to hold respectable and even prestigious occupations in some cases, such as doctors and public officeholders. Jews and Christians were also allowed to be rich even if they were taxed for being a dhimmi.<a href="#cite_note-:0-206">[200]</a> Dhimmis were capable of moving up and down the social ladder, though this largely depended on the particular caliph. An indication as to the social standing of Jews and Christians at the time was their ability to live next to Muslim people. While al-Mansur was ruling the caliphate, for instance, it was not uncommon for dhimmis to live in the same neighborhoods as Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-:0-206">[200]</a> One of the biggest reasons why dhimmis were allowed to hold prestigious jobs and positions in government is that they were generally important to the well-being of the state and were proficient to excellent with the work at hand.<a href="#cite_note-211">[205]</a> Some Muslims in the caliphate took offense to the idea that there were dhimmis in public offices who were in a way ruling over them although it was an Islamic state, while other Muslims were at time jealous of some dhimmis for having a level of wealth or prestige greater than other Muslims, even if Muslims were still the majority of the ruling class.<a href="#cite_note-:2-209">[203]</a> In general, Muslims, Jews, and Christians had close relations that could be considered positive at times, especially for Jews, in contrast to how Jews were being treated in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-:0-206">[200]</a> Many of the laws and restrictions that were imposed on dhimmis often resembled other laws that previous states had used to discriminate against a minority religion, specifically Jewish people. Romans in the fourth century banned Jewish people from holding public offices, banned Roman citizens from converting to Judaism, and often demoted Jews who were serving in the Roman military.<a href="#cite_note-212">[206]</a> In direct contrast, there was an event in which two viziers, Ibn al-Furat and <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Isa_ibn_al-Jarrah" title="Ali ibn Isa ibn al-Jarrah">Ali ibn Isa ibn al-Jarrah</a>, argued about Ibn al-Furat's decision to make a Christian the head of the military. A previous vizier, Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Bazuri, had done so. These laws predated al-Mansur's laws against dhimmis and often had similar restrictions, although Roman emperors were often much more strict on enforcing these laws than many Abbasid caliphs.<a href="#cite_note-213">[207]</a> Most of <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Baghdad" title="History of the Jews in Baghdad">Baghdad's Jews</a> were incorporated into the Arab community and considered <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> their native language.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Some Jews studied Hebrew in their schools and Jewish religious education flourished. The united Muslim empire allowed Jews to reconstruct links between their dispersed communities throughout the Middle East. The city's Talmudic institute helped spread the rabbinical tradition to Europe, and the Jewish community in Baghdad went on to establish ten rabbinical schools and twenty-three synagogues. Baghdad not only contained the tombs of Muslim saints and martyrs, but also the tomb of <a href="/wiki/Joshua_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Joshua in Islam">Yusha</a>, whose corpse had been brought to Iraq during the first migration of the Jews out of the Levant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201268-214">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Holidays">Holidays</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Holidays">edit</a>]</div> There were large feasts on certain days, as the Muslims of the empire celebrated Christian holidays as well as their own. There were two main Islamic feasts: <a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Fitr" title="Eid al-Fitr">one marked by the end of Ramadan</a>; the other, "<a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Adha" title="Eid al-Adha">the Feast of Sacrifice</a>". The former was especially joyful because children would purchase decorations and sweetmeats; people prepared the best food and bought new clothes. At midmorning, the caliph, wearing Muhammad's thobe, would guide officials, accompanied by armed soldiers to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_al-Mansur" title="Great Mosque of al-Mansur">Great Mosque</a>, where he led prayers. After the prayer, all those in attendance would exchange the best wishes and hug their kin and companions. The festivities lasted for three days. During those limited number of nights, the palaces were lit up and boats on the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> hung lights. It was said that Baghdad "glittered 'like a bride'". During <a href="/wiki/Eid_al-Adha" title="Eid al-Adha">the Feast of Sacrifice</a>, sheep were butchered in public arenas and the caliph participated in a large-scale sacrifice in the palace courtyard. Afterward, the meat would be divided and given to the poor.<a href="#cite_note-215">[209]</a> In addition to these two holidays, <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shias</a> celebrated the birthdays of <a href="/wiki/Fatimah" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimah">Fatimah</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Abi Talib">Ali ibn Abi Talib</a>. Matrimonies and births in the royal family were observed by all in the empire. The announcement that one of the caliph's sons could <a href="/wiki/Qira%27at" title="Qira'at">recite the Koran</a> smoothly was greeted by communal jubilation. When Harun developed this holy talent, the people lit torches and decorated the streets with wreaths of flowers, and his father, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">Al-Mahdi</a>, freed 500 slaves.<a href="#cite_note-Bobrick_2012_71-216">[210]</a> Of all the holidays imported from other cultures and religions, the one most celebrated in Baghdad (a city with many Persians) was <a href="/wiki/Nowruz" title="Nowruz">Nowruz</a>, which celebrated the arrival of spring. In a ceremonial ablution introduced by Persian troops, residents sprinkled themselves with water and ate almond cakes. The palaces of the imperial family were lit up for six days and nights. The Abbasids also celebrated the Persian holiday of Mihraj, which marked the onset of winter (signified with pounding drums), and Sadar, when homes burned incense and the masses would congregate along the Tigris to witness princes and viziers pass by.<a href="#cite_note-Bobrick_2012_71-216">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Military">edit</a>]</div> In Baghdad there were many Abbasid military leaders who were or said they were of Arab descent. However, it is clear that most of the ranks were of <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> origin, the vast majority being from <a href="/wiki/Khorasan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Khorasan Province">Khurasan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>, not from western Iran or Azerbaijan.<a href="#cite_note-217">[211]</a> Most of the Khurasani soldiers who brought the Abbasids to power were Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-218">[212]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Akhdar_Castle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Al-Akhdar_Castle.jpg/220px-Al-Akhdar_Castle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Al-Akhdar_Castle.jpg/330px-Al-Akhdar_Castle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Al-Akhdar_Castle.jpg/440px-Al-Akhdar_Castle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6720" data-file-height="4480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Al-Ukhaidir_Fortress" title="Al-Ukhaidir Fortress">Ukhaidir Fortress</a>, located south of <a href="/wiki/Karbala" title="Karbala">Karbala</a>, is a large, rectangular fortress erected in 775 AD with a unique defensive style. </figcaption></figure> The standing army of the Muslims in Khurasan was overwhelmingly Arab. The unit organization of the Abbasids was designed with the goal of ethnic and racial equality among supporters. When Abu Muslim recruited officers along the Silk Road, he registered them based not on their tribal or ethno-national affiliations but on their current places of residence.<a href="#cite_note-ira62-219">[213]</a> Under the Abbasids, Iranian peoples became better represented in the army and bureaucracy as compared to before.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004134-220">[214]</a> The Abbasid army was centred on the Khurasan <a href="/wiki/Abna_al-dawla" title="Abna al-dawla">Abna al-dawla</a> infantry and the Khurasaniyya heavy cavalry, led by their own semi-autonomous commanders (qa'id) who recruited and deployed their own men with Abbasid resource grants.<a href="#cite_note-221">[215]</a> al-Mu‘tasim began the practice of recruiting Turkic slave soldiers from the <a href="/wiki/Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Samanids</a> into a private army, which allowed him to take over the reins of the caliphate. He abolished the old jund system created by Umar and diverted the salaries of the original Arab military descendants to the Turkic slave soldiers. The Turkic soldiers transformed the style of warfare, as they were known as capable horse archers, trained from childhood to ride. This military was now drafted from the ethnic groups of the faraway borderlands, and were completely separate from the rest of society. Some could not speak Arabic properly. This led to the decline of the caliphate starting with the Anarchy at Samarra.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004156–169-222">[216]</a> Although the Abbasids never retained a substantial regular army, the caliph could recruit a considerable number of soldiers in a short time when needed from levies. There were also cohorts of regular troops who received steady pay and a special forces unit. At any moment, 125,000 Muslim soldiers could be assembled along the Byzantine frontier, <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rayy" class="mw-redirect" title="Rayy">Rayy</a>, and other geostrategic locations in order to quell any unrest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201244-223">[217]</a> The cavalry was entirely covered in iron, with helmets. Similar to medieval knights, their only exposed spots were the end of their noses and small openings in front of their eyes. Their foot soldiers were issued spears, swords, and pikes, and (in line with Persian fashion) trained to stand so solidly that, one contemporary wrote "you would have thought them held fast by clamps of bronze".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201244-223">[217]</a> The Abbasid army amassed an array of siege equipment, such as <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapults</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mangonel" title="Mangonel">mangonels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Battering_ram" title="Battering ram">battering rams</a>, ladders, grappling irons, and hooks. All such weaponry was operated by military engineers. However, the primary siege weapon was the manjaniq, a type of siege weapon that was comparable to the <a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">trebuchet</a> employed in Western medieval times. From the seventh century onward, it had largely replaced <a href="/wiki/Torsion_siege_engine" title="Torsion siege engine">torsion artillery</a>. By Harun al-Rashid's time, the Abbasid army employed fire <a href="/wiki/Grenade" title="Grenade">grenades</a>. The Abbasids also utilized <a href="/wiki/Field_hospital" title="Field hospital">field hospitals</a> and ambulances drawn by camels.<a href="#cite_note-224">[218]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civil_administration">Civil administration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Civil administration">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abbasid_Caliphate_850AD.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Abbasid_Caliphate_850AD.png/250px-Abbasid_Caliphate_850AD.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Abbasid_Caliphate_850AD.png/330px-Abbasid_Caliphate_850AD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Abbasid_Caliphate_850AD.png/500px-Abbasid_Caliphate_850AD.png 2x" data-file-width="2163" data-file-height="1345" /></a><figcaption>The provinces of Abbasid Caliphate in c. 850 under <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">al-Mutawakkil</a></figcaption></figure> As a result of such a vast Empire, the caliphate was decentralized and divided into 24 provinces.<a href="#cite_note-Bobrick_2012_45-225">[219]</a> Harun's vizier enjoyed close to unchecked powers. Under Harun, a special "bureau of confiscation" was created. This governmental wing made it possible for the vizier to seize the property and riches of any corrupt governor or civil servant. In addition, it allowed governors to confiscate the estates of lower-ranking officials. Finally, the caliph could impose the same penalty on a vizier who fell from grace. As one later caliph put it: "The vizier is our representative throughout the land and amongst our subjects. Therefore, he who obeys him obeys us; and he who obeys us obeys God, and God shall cause him who obeys Him to enter paradise."<a href="#cite_note-Bobrick_2012_45-225">[219]</a> Every regional metropolis had a post office and hundreds of roads were paved in order to link the imperial capital with other cities and towns. The empire employed a system of relays to deliver mail. The central post office in Baghdad even had a map with directions that noted the distances between each town. The roads were provided with roadside inns, hospices, and wells and could reach eastward through Persia and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, to as far as China.<a href="#cite_note-226">[220]</a> The post office not only enhanced civil services but also served as intelligence for the caliph. Mailmen were employed as spies who kept an eye on local affairs.<a href="#cite_note-Bobrick_2012_47-227">[221]</a> Early in the days of the caliphate, the Barmakids took the responsibility of shaping the <a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">civil service</a>. The family had roots in a <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> monastery in northern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>. In the early 8th century, the family converted to Islam and began to take on a sizable part of the civil administration for the Abbasids.<a href="#cite_note-Bobrick_2012_47-227">[221]</a> Capital poured into the caliphate's treasury from a variety of taxes, including a real estate tax; a levy on cattle, gold and silver, and commercial wares; a special tax on non-Muslims; and customs dues.<a href="#cite_note-Bobrick_2012_45-225">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trade">Trade</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Trade">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">History of Islamic economics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></div> Under <a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun</a>, maritime trade through the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> thrived, with Arab vessels trading as far south as <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> and as far east as China, Korea, and Japan. The growing economy of Baghdad and other cities inevitably led to the demand for luxury items and formed a class of entrepreneurs who organized long-range caravans for the trade and then the distribution of their goods. A whole section in the East Baghdad suq was dedicated to Chinese goods. Arabs traded with the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_region" title="Baltic region">Baltic region</a> and made it as far north as the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>. Tens of thousands of Arab coins have been discovered in parts of Russia and Sweden, which bear witness to the comprehensive trade networks set up by the Abbasids. <a href="/wiki/Offa_of_Mercia" title="Offa of Mercia">King Offa of Mercia (in England)</a> minted gold coins similar to those of the Abbasids in the eighth century.<a href="#cite_note-Bobrick_2012_74-228">[222]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0972_fol_6b-7a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0972_fol_6b-7a.jpg/250px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0972_fol_6b-7a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0972_fol_6b-7a.jpg/330px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0972_fol_6b-7a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0972_fol_6b-7a.jpg/500px-Khalili_Collection_Islamic_Art_mss_0972_fol_6b-7a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3064" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Roads_and_Kingdoms" title="Book of Roads and Kingdoms">Book of Roads and Kingdoms</a> written by <a href="/wiki/Istakhri" title="Istakhri">Istakhri</a></figcaption></figure> Muslim merchants employed ports in <a href="/wiki/Bandar_Siraf" title="Bandar Siraf">Bandar Siraf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> ports to travel and trade with India and <a href="/wiki/South_East_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="South East Asia">South East Asia</a>. Land routes were also utilized through <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. Arab businessmen were present in China as early as the eighth century. Arab merchants sailed the Caspian Sea to reach and trade with <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bobrick_2012_74-228">[222]</a> Many caravans and goods never made it to their intended destinations. Some Chinese exports perished in fires, while other ships sank. It was said that anybody who made it to China and back unharmed was blessed by God. Common sea routes were also plagued by pirates who built and crewed vessels that were faster than most merchant ships. It is said that many of the adventures at sea in the <a href="/wiki/Sinbad_the_Sailor" title="Sinbad the Sailor">Sinbad tales</a> were based on historical fiction of mariners of the day.<a href="#cite_note-Bobrick_2012_75-229">[223]</a> The Abbasids also established overland trade with Africa, largely for gold and <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">slaves</a>. When trade with Europe ceased due to <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">hostilities</a>, Jews served as a link between the two hostile worlds.<a href="#cite_note-Bobrick_2012_75-229">[223]</a> The Abbasids engaged in extensive trade with the Italian maritime republics of <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a>, from the 11th century. Venetian merchants facilitated the exchange of high-value goods such as spices, silk, and precious metals from the East. In return, Venice exported European manufactured goods and luxury items. While Genoese merchants traded in luxury goods like spices, textiles, and other high-demand items. Genoa's strategic position in the Mediterranean enabled it to integrate into the broader Mediterranean trade network, connecting the Abbasid Caliphate with other European markets. These trade relations played a key role in linking the medieval Mediterranean with the broader Islamic world. This exchange of goods, alongside cultural and technological transfers, fostered a more interconnected medieval global economy.<a href="#cite_note-230">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_caliphs">List of caliphs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: List of caliphs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Abbasid_caliphs" title="List of Abbasid caliphs">List of Abbasid caliphs</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Abbasid_caliphs" title="List of Abbasid caliphs">List of Abbasid caliphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Intermezzo" title="Iranian Intermezzo">Iranian Intermezzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">List of largest empires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sunni_dynasties" title="List of Sunni dynasties">List of Sunni dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Governors_of_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Category:Governors of the Abbasid Caliphate">Category:Governors of the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Qadi" title="Great Qadi">Great Qadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Abbasid_Studies" title="Journal of Abbasid Studies">Journal of Abbasid Studies</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> adopted black for its rāyaʾ for which their partisans were called the musawwids.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Their rivals chose other colours in reaction; among these, forces loyal to <a href="/wiki/Marwan_II" title="Marwan II">Marwan II</a> adopted red.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The choice of black as the colour of the Abbasid Revolution was already motivated by the "black standards out of Khorasan" tradition associated with the <a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a>. The contrast of white vs. black as the Umayyad vs. Abbasid dynastic colour over time developed in white as the colour of Shia Islam and black as the colour of Sunni Islam: "The proselytes of the ʿAbbasid revolution took full advantage of the eschatological expectations raised by black banners in their campaign to undermine the Umayyad dynasty from within. Even after the ʿAbbasids had triumphed over the Umayyads in 750, they continued to deploy black as their dynastic colour; not only the banners but the headdresses and garments of the ʿAbbasid caliphs were black... The ubiquitous black created a striking contrast with the banners and dynastic color of the Umayyads, which had been white ... The Ismaili Shiʿite counter-caliphate founded by the Fatimids took white as its dynastic color, creating a visual contrast to the ʿAbbasid enemy ... white became the Shiʿite color, in deliberate opposition to the black of the ʿAbbasid 'establishment'."<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> After the revolution, Islamic apocalyptic circles admitted that the Abbasid banners would be black but asserted that the Mahdi's standard would be black and larger.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Anti-Abbasid circles cursed "the black banners from the East", "first and last".<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Kufa remained the overall administrative capital but the caliphs resided in multiple other sites during these years.<a href="#cite_note-Kufa-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hashimiyya-8">[7]</a> See article for details. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> The Abbasids resided in Cairo as ceremonial figures under the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk sultans</a> after the fall of Baghdad in 1258. See article for details. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Wade states "Tazi in Persian sources referred to a people in that land, but was later extended to cover Arab lands. The Persian term was adopted by Tang China (Dàshí :大食) to refer to the Arabs until the 12th century."<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> This city had previously been the residence of his father, al-Mahdi, whom al-Mansur had appointed its governor in 771. Al-Mahdi constructed a new city for himself, al-Rafiqa, next to Raqqa, and the two towns came to form a single urban agglomeration over time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri202169-55">[51]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> Concubines were expected to be treated well, treating them poorly would have been deviation from Islamic ethics however some from the ruling class engaged in acts of disbelief and deviancy behind closed doors with and without their harem's </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTabari1995" class="citation cs1">Tabari (1995). Jane McAuliffe (ed.). Abbāsid Authority Affirmed. Vol. 28. SUNY. p. 124.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abb%C4%81sid+Authority+Affirmed&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=SUNY&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Tabari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrone2012">Crone 2012</a>, p. 122 </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHathaway2012" class="citation book cs1">Hathaway, Jane (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L-lPC7DgepEC&pg=PA96">A Tale of Two Factions: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen</a>. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp. 97f. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791486108" title="Special:BookSources/978-0791486108"><bdi>978-0791486108</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Tale+of+Two+Factions%3A+Myth%2C+Memory%2C+and+Identity+in+Ottoman+Egypt+and+Yemen&rft.place=Albany&rft.pages=97f&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0791486108&rft.aulast=Hathaway&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL-lPC7DgepEC%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCook2002" class="citation book cs1">Cook, David (2002). Studies in Muslim Apocalyptic. Darwin Press. p. 153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0878501427" title="Special:BookSources/978-0878501427"><bdi>978-0878501427</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Muslim+Apocalyptic&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Darwin+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0878501427&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrone2012">Crone 2012</a>, p. 243 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kufa-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kufa_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kufa_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDjaït1986" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Djaït, Hichem (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=al-K%C5%ABfa&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"al-Kūfa"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/C._E._Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="C. E. Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. Volume V: Khe–Mahi. Leiden: E. J. Brill. p. 347. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07819-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07819-2"><bdi>978-90-04-07819-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-K%C5%ABfa&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+V%3A+Khe%E2%80%93Mahi&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=347&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07819-2&rft.aulast=Dja%C3%AFt&rft.aufirst=Hichem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Dal-K%25C5%25ABfa%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hashimiyya-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hashimiyya_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hashimiyya_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hashimiyya_8-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLassner1971" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lassner, J. (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=al-H%C4%81s%CC%B2h%CC%B2imiyya&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"al-Hās̲h̲imiyya"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Victor_Louis_M%C3%A9nage" title="Victor Louis Ménage">Ménage, V. L.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schacht" title="Joseph Schacht">Schacht, J.</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 265–266. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/495469525">495469525</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=al-H%C4%81s%CC%B2h%CC%B2imiyya&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+III%3A+H%E2%80%93Iram&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E265-%3C%2Fspan%3E266&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F495469525&rft.aulast=Lassner&rft.aufirst=J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3Dal-H%25C4%2581s%25CC%25B2h%25CC%25B2imiyya%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoiberg201010-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoiberg201010_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoiberg201010_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoiberg201010_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoiberg201010_11-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoiberg201010_11-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoiberg201010_11-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFHoiberg2010">Hoiberg 2010</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBosworth1982" class="citation web cs1">Bosworth, C.E. (15 December 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abbasid-caliphate">"'Abbasid Caliphate"</a>. Encyclopediapaedia Iranica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopediapaedia+Iranica&rft.atitle=%27Abbasid+Caliphate&rft.date=1982-12-15&rft.aulast=Bosworth&rft.aufirst=C.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fabbasid-caliphate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri20214–5-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri20214–5_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2021">El-Hibri 2021</a>, pp. 4–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELapidus201295-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELapidus201295_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLapidus2012">Lapidus 2012</a>, p. 95. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOmar1971" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Omar, F. (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brill.com/search?q=H%C4%81r%C5%ABn+al-Ras%CC%B2h%CC%B2%C4%ABd&source=%2Fdb%2Feieo">"Hārūn al-Ras̲h̲īd"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Victor_Louis_M%C3%A9nage" title="Victor Louis Ménage">Ménage, V. L.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a> & <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schacht" title="Joseph Schacht">Schacht, J.</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" class="mw-redirect" title="The Encyclopaedia of Islam">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a>. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 232–234. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/495469525">495469525</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=H%C4%81r%C5%ABn+al-Ras%CC%B2h%CC%B2%C4%ABd&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition.+Volume+III%3A+H%E2%80%93Iram&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E232-%3C%2Fspan%3E234&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F495469525&rft.aulast=Omar&rft.aufirst=F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brill.com%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DH%25C4%2581r%25C5%25ABn%2Bal-Ras%25CC%25B2h%25CC%25B2%25C4%25ABd%26source%3D%252Fdb%252Feieo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri202175-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEl-Hibri202175_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEl-Hibri2021">El-Hibri 2021</a>, p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRichards2020" class="citation book cs1">Richards, D. 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In the Late Sasanid and Early Islamic Eras"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Iranica_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranica Online">Iranica Online</a>. Vol. XIII. pp. 543–550. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120229181405/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iraq-i-late-sasanid-early-islamic">Archived</a> from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 30 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iraq+i.+In+the+Late+Sasanid+and+Early+Islamic+Eras&rft.btitle=Iranica+Online&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E543-%3C%2Fspan%3E550&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Morony&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Firaq-i-late-sasanid-early-islamic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ira62-219"><a href="#cite_ref-ira62_219-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFrye1975" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Frye, Richard N., ed. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hvx9jq_2L3EC&dq=umayyad+abbasid+non+muslim+support&pg=PA62">The Cambridge History of Iran</a>. Vol. 4: The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20093-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20093-8"><bdi>0-521-20093-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-521-20093-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhvx9jq_2L3EC%26dq%3Dumayyad%2Babbasid%2Bnon%2Bmuslim%2Bsupport%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004134-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004134_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, p. 134. </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJo_Van_Steenbergen2020" class="citation book cs1">Jo Van Steenbergen (2020). "2.1". A History of the Islamic World, 600–1800: Empire, Dynastic Formations, and Heterogeneities in Pre-Modern Islamic West-Asia. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1000093070" title="Special:BookSources/978-1000093070"><bdi>978-1000093070</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2.1&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Islamic+World%2C+600%E2%80%931800%3A+Empire%2C+Dynastic+Formations%2C+and+Heterogeneities+in+Pre-Modern+Islamic+West-Asia&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1000093070&rft.au=Jo+Van+Steenbergen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004156–169-222"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy2004156–169_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy2004">Kennedy 2004</a>, pp. 156–169. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBobrick201244-223">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201244_223-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBobrick201244_223-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 44 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bobrick_2012_45-225">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bobrick_2012_45_225-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bobrick_2012_45_225-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bobrick_2012_45_225-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 45 </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 46 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bobrick_2012_47-227">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bobrick_2012_47_227-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bobrick_2012_47_227-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 47 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bobrick_2012_74-228">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bobrick_2012_74_228-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bobrick_2012_74_228-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 74 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bobrick_2012_75-229">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bobrick_2012_75_229-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bobrick_2012_75_229-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBobrick2012">Bobrick 2012</a>, p. 75 </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHays" class="citation web cs1">Hays, Jeffrey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://africame.factsanddetails.com/article/entry-261.html">"Abbasids (A.D. 750 to 1258): Rise, History, Wealth | Middle East And North Africa — Facts and Details"</a>. africame.factsanddetails.com. Retrieved 10 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=africame.factsanddetails.com&rft.atitle=Abbasids+%28A.D.+750+to+1258%29%3A+Rise%2C+History%2C+Wealth+%7C+Middle+East+And+North+Africa+%E2%80%94+Facts+and+Details&rft.aulast=Hays&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fafricame.factsanddetails.com%2Farticle%2Fentry-261.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sultanandthesaintfilm.com/education/cross-cultural-trade-cultural-exchange-crusades/">"Cross-Cultural Trade and Cultural Exchange During the Crusades"</a>. The Sultan and The Saint. Retrieved 10 July 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Sultan+and+The+Saint&rft.atitle=Cross-Cultural+Trade+and+Cultural+Exchange+During+the+Crusades&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sultanandthesaintfilm.com%2Feducation%2Fcross-cultural-trade-cultural-exchange-crusades%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbbas2011" class="citation book cs1">Abbas, Tahir (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JdC90uc8PfQC&pg=PA9">Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics: The British Experience</a>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4155-7225-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4155-7225-5"><bdi>978-0-4155-7225-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2009050163">2009050163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Radicalism+and+Multicultural+Politics%3A+The+British+Experience&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2009050163&rft.isbn=978-0-4155-7225-5&rft.aulast=Abbas&rft.aufirst=Tahir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJdC90uc8PfQC%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbun-Nasr1987" class="citation book cs1">Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC">A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period</a>. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530991-1"><bdi>978-0-19-530991-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 15 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grove+Encyclopedia+of+Islamic+Art+%26+Architecture&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530991-1&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Blair%2C+Sheila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dun4WcfEASZwC%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBobrick2012" class="citation book cs1">Bobrick, Benson (2012). The Caliph's Splendor: Islam and the West in the Golden Age of Baghdad. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1416567622" title="Special:BookSources/978-1416567622"><bdi>978-1416567622</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Caliph%27s+Splendor%3A+Islam+and+the+West+in+the+Golden+Age+of+Baghdad&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1416567622&rft.aulast=Bobrick&rft.aufirst=Benson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBonnerEnerSinger2003" class="citation book cs1">Bonner, Michael; Ener, Mine; Singer, Amy, eds. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zBp3y5lWz58C&pg=PA97">Poverty and Charity in Middle Eastern Contexts</a>. Albany: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5737-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-5737-5"><bdi>978-0-7914-5737-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2002042629">2002042629</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poverty+and+Charity+in+Middle+Eastern+Contexts&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2002042629&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-5737-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzBp3y5lWz58C%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrague2009" class="citation book cs1">Brague, Rémi (2009). The Legend of the Middle Ages: Philosophical Explorations of Medieval Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2260-7080-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2260-7080-3"><bdi>978-0-2260-7080-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008028720">2008028720</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legend+of+the+Middle+Ages%3A+Philosophical+Explorations+of+Medieval+Christianity%2C+Judaism%2C+and+Islam&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008028720&rft.isbn=978-0-2260-7080-3&rft.aulast=Brague&rft.aufirst=R%C3%A9mi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrauer1995" class="citation book cs1">Brauer, Ralph W. 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Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. pp. 7–10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87169-856-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87169-856-0"><bdi>0-87169-856-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/94078513">94078513</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Boundaries+and+Frontiers+in+Medieval+Muslim+Geography&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E7-%3C%2Fspan%3E10&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F94078513&rft.isbn=0-87169-856-0&rft.aulast=Brauer&rft.aufirst=Ralph+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChapuis1995" class="citation book cs1">Chapuis, Oscar (1995). A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tu Duc. 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Talattof, Kamran; Clinton, Jerome W. (eds.). The Poetry of Nizami Ganjavi: Knowledge, Love, and Rhetoric. Houndmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-3122-2810-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-3122-2810-4"><bdi>0-3122-2810-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/99056710">99056710</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Poetry+of+Nizami+Ganjavi%3A+Knowledge%2C+Love%2C+and+Rhetoric&rft.place=Houndmills%2C+UK&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F99056710&rft.isbn=0-3122-2810-4&rft.aulast=Clinton&rft.aufirst=Jerome+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCooperYue2008" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, William Wager; Yue, Piyu (2008). Challenges of the Muslim World: Present, Future and Past. International Symposia in Economic Theory and Econometrics. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4445-3243-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4445-3243-5"><bdi>978-0-4445-3243-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Challenges+of+the+Muslim+World%3A+Present%2C+Future+and+Past&rft.series=International+Symposia+in+Economic+Theory+and+Econometrics&rft.pub=Emerald+Group+Publishing+Limited&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-4445-3243-5&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=William+Wager&rft.au=Yue%2C+Piyu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCotter2001" class="citation news cs1">Cotter, Holland (29 December 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150527180216/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/12/29/books/shelf-life-the-story-of-islam-s-gift-of-paper-to-the-west.html">"The Story of Islam's Gift of Paper to the West"</a>. The New York Times. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.utk.edu/~persian/paper.htm">the original</a> on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Story+of+Islam%27s+Gift+of+Paper+to+the+West&rft.date=2001-12-29&rft.aulast=Cotter&rft.aufirst=Holland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.utk.edu%2F~persian%2Fpaper.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCrone2012" class="citation book cs1">Crone, Patricia (2012). The Nativist Prophets of Early Islam.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nativist+Prophets+of+Early+Islam&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Crone&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDaftaryJiwa2017" class="citation book cs1">Daftary, Farhad; Jiwa, Shainool (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b7qKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">The Fatimid Caliphate: Diversity of Traditions</a>. I.B. 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New York: Harper & Row Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-181235-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-181235-8"><bdi>0-06-181235-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Military+History+from+3500+B.C.+to+the+Present&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row+Publishers&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-06-181235-8&rft.aulast=Dupuy&rft.aufirst=R.+Ernest&rft.au=Dupuy%2C+Trevor+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEglash1999" class="citation book cs1">Eglash, Ron (1999). African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-2614-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-2614-0"><bdi>978-0-8135-2614-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/98026043">98026043</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+Fractals%3A+Modern+Computing+and+Indigenous+Design&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F98026043&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-2614-0&rft.aulast=Eglash&rft.aufirst=Ron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFitzgerald1961" class="citation book cs1">Fitzgerald, Charles Patrick (1961) [1950]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinashortcultur0000fitz">China: A Short Cultural History</a>. 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Garden City, NY: Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/61010347">61010347</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Embers+in+Cathay&rft.place=Garden+City%2C+NY&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F61010347&rft.aulast=Ghosh&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQvtwAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGlasséSmith2002" class="citation book cs1">Glassé, Cyril; Smith, Huston (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000glas">The New Encyclopedia of Islam</a>. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7591-0190-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7591-0190-6"><bdi>0-7591-0190-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Encyclopedia+of+Islam&rft.place=Walnut+Creek%2C+CA&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7591-0190-6&rft.aulast=Glass%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Cyril&rft.au=Smith%2C+Huston&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewencyclopediao0000glas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrantClute1999" class="citation book cs1">Grant, John; Clute, John (1999). "The Encyclopedia of Fantasy". Arabian fantasy. New York: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-19869-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-19869-8"><bdi>0-312-19869-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/96037472">96037472</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Fantasy&rft.btitle=Arabian+fantasy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F96037472&rft.isbn=0-312-19869-8&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Clute%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGregorian2003" class="citation book cs1">Gregorian, Vartan (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islam00vart/page/26">Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith</a>. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islam00vart/page/26">26–38</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8157-3282-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8157-3282-1"><bdi>0-8157-3282-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003006189">2003006189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+A+Mosaic%2C+Not+a+Monolith&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pages=26-38&rft.pub=Brookings+Institution+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003006189&rft.isbn=0-8157-3282-1&rft.aulast=Gregorian&rft.aufirst=Vartan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislam00vart%2Fpage%2F26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEl-Hibri2021" class="citation book cs1">El-Hibri, Tayeb (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FTMiEAAAQBAJ">The Abbasid Caliphate: A History</a>. 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Chicago. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-837-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-837-8"><bdi>978-1-59339-837-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abbasid+Dynasty&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=15th&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59339-837-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewencyclopaedia2009ency&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHoiberg2010a" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Hoiberg, Dale H., ed. 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Chicago. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-837-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59339-837-8"><bdi>978-1-59339-837-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nestorian&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=15th&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59339-837-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewencyclopaedia2009ency&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_encyclopedia" title="Template:Cite encyclopedia">cite encyclopedia</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHolt1984" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_M._Holt" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter M. 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University of London: 501–507. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0041977x00113710">10.1017/s0041977x00113710</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161092185">161092185</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Some+Observations+on+the+%27Abb%C4%81sid+Caliphate+of+Cairo&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E501-%3C%2Fspan%3E507&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0041977x00113710&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161092185%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.aufirst=Peter+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHuff2003" class="citation book cs1">Huff, Toby E. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-5218-2302-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-5218-2302-1"><bdi>0-5218-2302-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2002035017">2002035017</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Early+Modern+Science%3A+Islam%2C+China%2C+and+the+West&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2002035017&rft.isbn=0-5218-2302-1&rft.aulast=Huff&rft.aufirst=Toby+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIsichei1997" class="citation book cs1">Isichei, Elizabeth (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofafrican00isic">A History of African Societies to 1870</a>. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-53113-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-53113-4"><bdi>978-1-134-53113-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Armies+of+the+Caliphs%3A+Military+and+Society+in+the+Early+Islamic+State&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-134-53113-4&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHCH5e8smjggC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2004" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Hugh N. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century (2nd ed.). Pearson/Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-40525-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-40525-7"><bdi>978-0-582-40525-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prophet+and+the+Age+of+the+Caliphates%3A+The+Islamic+Near+East+from+the+Sixth+to+the+Eleventh+Century&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Pearson%2FLongman&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-582-40525-7&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2016" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Hugh (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lZnDCwAAQBAJ">The Early Abbasid Caliphate: A Political History</a>. 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New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-0289-7211-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-0289-7211-2"><bdi>0-0289-7211-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/89008129">89008129</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Religious+Traditions+of+Asia%3A+Religion%2C+History%2C+and+Culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan+Publishing+Co&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F89008129&rft.isbn=0-0289-7211-2&rft.aulast=Kitagawa&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Mitsuo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freligioustraditi00kita&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKraus1942–1943" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kraus_(Arabist)" title="Paul Kraus (Arabist)">Kraus, Paul</a> (1942–1943). 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(1990). "'Abbasids". Cambridge Biographical Dictionary. 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Boston: McGraw Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-244233-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-244233-6"><bdi>0-07-244233-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003041213">2003041213</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Middle+East%3A+A+History&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003041213&rft.isbn=0-07-244233-6&rft.aulast=Ochsenwald&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Fisher%2C+Sydney+Nettleton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPavlidis2010" class="citation book cs1">Pavlidis, T. (2010). "11: Turks and Byzantine Decline". In Goldschmidt, Arthur Jr.; Davidson, Lawrence (eds.). A Concise History of the Middle East (9th ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-4388-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8133-4388-4"><bdi>978-0-8133-4388-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2009005664">2009005664</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=11%3A+Turks+and+Byzantine+Decline&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+the+Middle+East&rft.place=Boulder%2C+CO&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2009005664&rft.isbn=978-0-8133-4388-4&rft.aulast=Pavlidis&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPeacock2015" class="citation book cs1">Peacock, A. 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Stanford. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161109081428/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/copernicus/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2016. 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Comité international des sciences historiques [International Committee of Historical Sciences]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-600-8154-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-600-8154-8"><bdi>978-84-600-8154-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=17e+Congr%C3%A8s+international+des+sciences+historiques%3A+Madrid%2C+du+26+ao%C3%BBt+au+2+septembre+1990&rft.pub=Comit%C3%A9+international+des+sciences+historiques+%5BInternational+Committee+of+Historical+Sciences%5D&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-84-600-8154-8&rft.aulast=Ruano&rft.aufirst=Eloy+Benito&rft.au=Burgos%2C+Manuel+Espadas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJXUoAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dbukhtishu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchwarz2013" class="citation web cs1">Schwarz, George R. 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New York: Harper & Row. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-0601-3932-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-0601-3932-3"><bdi>0-0601-3932-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/72076978">72076978</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%3A+A+History+in+Art&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F72076978&rft.isbn=0-0601-3932-3&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Bradley&rft.au=Weng%2C+Wango+H.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8rhPAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSöylemez2005" class="citation journal cs1">Söylemez, Mehmet Mahfuz (2005). 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Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans: 1185–1365. 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L. (1969). "Al-Hazen: Father of Modern Optics". Al-'Arabi. 8: 12–13. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11634474">11634474</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al-%27Arabi&rft.atitle=Al-Hazen%3A+Father+of+Modern+Optics&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E12-%3C%2Fspan%3E13&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11634474&rft.aulast=Verma&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVisser2005" class="citation book cs1">Visser, Reidar (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pCC4ffbOv_YC&pg=PA19">Basra, the Failed Gulf State: Separatism and Nationalism in Southern Iraq</a>. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publisher. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8258-8799-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-8258-8799-5"><bdi>3-8258-8799-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Basra%2C+the+Failed+Gulf+State%3A+Separatism+and+Nationalism+in+Southern+Iraq&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Transaction+Publisher&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=3-8258-8799-5&rft.aulast=Visser&rft.aufirst=Reidar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpCC4ffbOv_YC%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWade2012" class="citation book cs1">Wade, Geoffrey (2012). "Southeast Asian Islam and Southern China in the Fourteenth Century". 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New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/68026314">68026314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abbasid+Architecture&rft.btitle=McGraw-Hill+Dictionary+of+Art&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Book+Company&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F68026314&rft.aulast=Wilber&rft.aufirst=Donald+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Abbasid_Caliphate&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the 1921 <a href="/wiki/Collier%27s_Encyclopedia" title="Collier's Encyclopedia">Collier's Encyclopedia</a> article <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Collier%27s_New_Encyclopedia_(1921)/Abbassides" class="extiw" title="s:Collier's New Encyclopedia (1921)/Abbassides">Abbassides</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Abbassides,_The">"Abbassides, The" </a>. <a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a>. 1905.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abbassides%2C+The&rft.btitle=New+International+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20060202.shtml">"Abbasid Caliphs"</a> (streaming RealAudio), In Our Time, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>: BBC Radio 4, 2 February 2006</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abbasid+Caliphs&rft.btitle=In+Our+Time&rft.place=UK&rft.pub=BBC+Radio+4&rft.date=2006-02-02&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fradio4%2Fhistory%2Finourtime%2Finourtime_20060202.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-unfit"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190416193911/http://www.iranica.com/">"Abbasid Caliphate"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranica.com/">Encyclopaedia Iranica</a> (entry), archived from the original on 16 April 2019, retrieved 15 June 2007</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abbasid+Caliphate&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fabbasid-caliphate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAbbasid+Caliphate" class="Z3988">.</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFC332; text-align:center;"><div style="font-size:90%">— <a href="/wiki/Imperial_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial house">Imperial house</a> —</div><div></div><div><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_dynasty" title="Abbasid dynasty">Abbasid dynasty</a></div><div style="font-size:90%">Cadet branch of the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hashim" title="Banu Hashim">Banu Hashim</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad dynasty</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> dynasty 750–1258 and 1261–1517 also claimed by <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_dynasty" title="Fatimid dynasty">Fatimid dynasty</a> in 909, <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_dynasty" title="Umayyad dynasty">Umayyad dynasty</a> in 929, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottoman dynasty</a> </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty" title="Ottoman dynasty">Ottoman dynasty</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Abbasid_Caliphs211" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Abbasid_caliphs" title="Template:Abbasid caliphs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Abbasid_caliphs" title="Template talk:Abbasid caliphs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Abbasid_caliphs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Abbasid caliphs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Abbasid_Caliphs211" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Abbasid_caliphs" title="List of Abbasid caliphs">Abbasid Caliphs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliphs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> (749–1258)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Saffah" title="Al-Saffah">al-Saffah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mahdi" title="Al-Mahdi">al-Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hadi" title="Al-Hadi">al-Hadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harun_al-Rashid" title="Harun al-Rashid">Harun al-Rashid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Amin" title="Al-Amin">al-Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_al-Mahdi" title="Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi">Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi</a>[B]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">al-Ma'mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tasim" title="Al-Mu'tasim">al-Mu'tasim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq" title="Al-Wathiq">al-Wathiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil" title="Al-Mutawakkil">al-Mutawakkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muntasir" title="Al-Muntasir">al-Muntasir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27in" title="Al-Musta'in">al-Musta'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tazz" title="Al-Mu'tazz">al-Mu'tazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muhtadi" title="Al-Muhtadi">al-Muhtadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tamid" title="Al-Mu'tamid">al-Mu'tamid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid" title="Al-Mu'tadid">al-Mu'tadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muktafi" title="Al-Muktafi">al-Muktafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadir" title="Al-Muqtadir">al-Muqtadir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_al-Mu%27tazz" title="Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz">Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz</a>[B]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qahir" title="Al-Qahir">al-Qahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Radi" title="Al-Radi">al-Radi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muttaqi" title="Al-Muttaqi">al-Muttaqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustakfi" title="Al-Mustakfi">al-Mustakfi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muti%27" title="Al-Muti'">al-Muti'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ta%27i%27" title="Al-Ta'i'">al-Ta'i'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qadir" title="Al-Qadir">al-Qadir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27im_(Abbasid_caliph_at_Baghdad)" title="Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Baghdad)">al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtadi" title="Al-Muqtadi">al-Muqtadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustazhir" title="Al-Mustazhir">al-Mustazhir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustarshid" title="Al-Mustarshid">al-Mustarshid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Rashid_Billah" title="Al-Rashid Billah">al-Rashid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Muqtafi" title="Al-Muqtafi">al-Muqtafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustanjid" title="Al-Mustanjid">al-Mustanjid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustadi" title="Al-Mustadi">al-Mustadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nasir" title="Al-Nasir">al-Nasir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahir_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Zahir bi-Amr Allah">al-Zahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_I" title="Al-Mustansir I">al-Mustansir I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim" title="Al-Musta'sim">al-Musta'sim</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad" title="Siege of Baghdad">Mongol conquest</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliphs</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> (1261–1517)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_II" title="Al-Mustansir II">al-Mustansir II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_I" title="Al-Hakim I">al-Hakim I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustakfi_I_(Cairo)" title="Al-Mustakfi I (Cairo)">al-Mustakfi I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq_I" title="Al-Wathiq I">al-Wathiq I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_II" title="Al-Hakim II">al-Hakim II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid_I" title="Al-Mu'tadid I">al-Mu'tadid I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_I" title="Al-Mutawakkil I">al-Mutawakkil I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim_(Cairo)" title="Al-Musta'sim (Cairo)">al-Musta'sim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_I" title="Al-Mutawakkil I">al-Mutawakkil I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wathiq_II" title="Al-Wathiq II">al-Wathiq II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27sim_(Cairo)" title="Al-Musta'sim (Cairo)">al-Musta'sim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_I" title="Al-Mutawakkil I">al-Mutawakkil I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Musta%27in_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Musta'in (Cairo)">al-Musta'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27tadid_II" title="Al-Mu'tadid II">al-Mu'tadid II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustakfi_II" title="Al-Mustakfi II">al-Mustakfi II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qa%27im_(Abbasid_caliph_at_Cairo)" title="Al-Qa'im (Abbasid caliph at Cairo)">al-Qa'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustanjid_(Cairo)" title="Al-Mustanjid (Cairo)">al-Mustanjid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_II" title="Al-Mutawakkil II">al-Mutawakkil II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustamsik" title="Al-Mustamsik">al-Mustamsik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_III" title="Al-Mutawakkil III">al-Mutawakkil III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mustamsik" title="Al-Mustamsik">al-Mustamsik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mutawakkil_III" title="Al-Mutawakkil III">al-Mutawakkil III</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Mamluk_War_(1516%E2%80%9317)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17)">Ottoman conquest</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>[B] indicates ephemeral caliphs recognized in the city of Baghdad only</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_dynasties_in_Mashriq_region80" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_dynasties_in_Mashriq_region" title="Template:Islamic dynasties in Mashriq region"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_dynasties_in_Mashriq_region" title="Template talk:Islamic dynasties in Mashriq region"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_dynasties_in_Mashriq_region" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic dynasties in Mashriq region"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_dynasties_in_Mashriq_region80" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_empires_and_dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Muslim empires and dynasties">Islamic dynasties</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a> region</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashiduns</a> (632–661)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a> (661–750)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abbasids</a> (750–1258)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunids</a> (868–905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanids</a> (890–1004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadhabani" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadhabani">Hadhabani</a> (10th–11th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimids</a> (909–1171)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhsidids</a> (935–969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarrahids" title="Jarrahids">Jarrahids</a> (970–11th/12th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numayrid_dynasty" title="Numayrid dynasty">Numayrids</a> (990–1081)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwanids_(Diyar_Bakr)" title="Marwanids (Diyar Bakr)">Marwanids</a> (990–1085)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uqaylid_dynasty" title="Uqaylid dynasty">Uqaylids</a> (990–1096)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirdasid_dynasty" title="Mirdasid dynasty">Mirdasids</a> (1024–1080)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artuqids" title="Artuqids">Artuqids</a> (11th–12th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burid_dynasty" title="Burid dynasty">Burids</a> (1104–1154)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zengid_dynasty" title="Zengid dynasty">Zengids</a> (1127–1250)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubids</a> (1171–1341)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Mosul#Lu'lu'id_dynasty" title="List of rulers of Mosul">Lu'lu'ids</a> (1234–1262)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahri_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahri dynasty">Bahri</a> (1250–1382)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahdinan" title="Bahdinan">Bahdinan</a> (1376–1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burji_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Burji dynasty">Burji</a> (1382–1517)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harfush_dynasty" title="Harfush dynasty">Harfush</a> (15th–19th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soran_Emirate" title="Soran Emirate">Soran</a> (16th–19th century)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridwan_dynasty" title="Ridwan dynasty">Ridwan</a> (1560s–1690)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baban" title="Baban">Baban</a> (1649–1850)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihab_dynasty" title="Shihab dynasty">Shihabs</a> (1697–1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)">Mamluks</a> (1704–1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalili_dynasty" title="Jalili dynasty">Jalilis</a> (1726–1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_dynasty" title="Muhammad Ali dynasty">Alawiyya</a> (1805–1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hashemites" title="Hashemites">Hashemites of Iraq</a> (1921–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hashemites" title="Hashemites">Hashemites of Jordan</a> (1921–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islam_topics273" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam_topics" title="Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islam_topics" title="Template talk:Islam topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islam_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islam_topics273" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Islam" title="Outline of Islam">Outline of Islam</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God in Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">In Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Revelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Qadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Judgement Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiest_sites_in_Islam" title="Holiest sites in Islam">Holiest sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Shahada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Salah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Sawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_religious_leaders" title="Islamic religious leaders">Leaders</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_Islam" title="Timeline of the history of Islam">Timeline of the history of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Shi'a Imams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Religious texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Seerah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qisas_Al-Anbiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Qisas Al-Anbiya">Story of Prophets</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Denominations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazili" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazili">Mu'tazili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Bektashi Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhakkima" title="Muhakkima">Muhakkima</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azariqa" title="Azariqa">Azariqa</a></li> <li>Moderate Kharijites <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azzabas" title="Azzabas">Azzabas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukkari" title="Nukkari">Nukkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam#Wahbi_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibadi Islam">Wahbi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufri" title="Sufri">Sufri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdat" title="Najdat">Najdat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lahore_Ahmadiyya_Movement_for_the_Propagation_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam">Lahori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Life</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_clothing" title="Islamic clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_flags" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_in_Islam" title="Morality in Islam">Moral teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_in_Islamic_philosophy" title="Peace in Islamic philosophy">Peace</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism_in_Islam" title="Pacifism in Islam">Pacifism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Political aspects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_democracy" title="Islam and democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Liberalism and progressivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qurban_(Islamic_ritual_sacrifice)" title="Qurban (Islamic ritual sacrifice)">Qurbani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_humanity" title="Islam and humanity">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT in Islam">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Islam by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="LawJurisprudence273" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukuk" title="Sukuk">Sukuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takaful" title="Takaful">Takaful</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murabaha" title="Murabaha">Murabaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">Riba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Hygiene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghusl" title="Ghusl">Ghusl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miswak" title="Miswak">Miswak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najis" title="Najis">Najis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayammum" title="Tayammum">Tayammum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_toilet_etiquette" title="Islamic toilet etiquette">Toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wudu" title="Wudu">Wudu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_family_jurisprudence" title="Islamic family jurisprudence">Family</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marital_jurisprudence" title="Islamic marital jurisprudence">Marriage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_sexual_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic sexual jurisprudence">Sex</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haya_(Islam)" title="Haya (Islam)">Haya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marriage_contract" title="Islamic marriage contract">Marriage contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahr" title="Mahr">Mahr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahram" title="Mahram">Mahram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Islam" title="Marriage in Islam">Nikah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikah_mut%27ah" title="Nikah mut'ah">Nikah mut'ah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zina" title="Zina">Zina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baligh" title="Baligh">Baligh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Cleanliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_criminal_jurisprudence" title="Islamic criminal jurisprudence">Criminal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_violence" title="Islam and violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_domestic_violence" title="Islam and domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism" title="Islamic extremism">Islamic extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">Islamic terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_blasphemy" title="Islam and blasphemy">Blasphemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Islam" title="Capital punishment in Islam">Death penalty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhabihah" title="Dhabihah">Dhabiĥa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Dhimmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Islam" title="Divorce in Islam">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws" title="Islamic dietary laws">Diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adab_(Islam)" title="Adab (Islam)">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maisir" title="Maisir">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">Gender segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_honorifics" title="Islamic honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudud" title="Hudud">Hudud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_inheritance_jurisprudence" title="Islamic inheritance jurisprudence">Inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war in Islam">POWs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_sharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sources of sharia">Sources of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_theological_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theological jurisprudence">Theological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">Schools of islamic jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Islamic_studies273" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_rug" title="Oriental rug">Carpets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Theological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_evolution" title="Islamic views on evolution">Creationism (evolution)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu%27ubiyya" title="Shu'ubiyya">Shu'ubiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_non-Islamic_places_of_worship_into_mosques" title="Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques">Conversion to mosques</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Other273" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Mormonism" title="Islam and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Islam" title="Protestantism and Islam">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze#Relationship_with_Muslims" title="Druze">Druzism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Jainism" title="Islam and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Sikhism" title="Islam and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam_by_country" title="Apostasy in Islam by country">Apostasy in Islam by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-Muslims" title="Ex-Muslims">Ex-Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_Muslims" title="List of former Muslims">List of former Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ex-Muslim_organisations" title="List of ex-Muslim organisations">List of ex-Muslim organisations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism of Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Muslim">Cultural Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islamism" title="Criticism of Islamism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Islamism" title="Post-Islamism">Post-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutbism" title="Qutbism">Qutbism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_miracles" title="Islamic view of miracles">Islamic view of miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_in_Islam" title="Nursing in Islam">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution of Muslims</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">Minority Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence_among_Muslims" title="Sectarian violence among Muslims">Sectarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quran_and_miracles" class="mw-redirect" title="Quran and miracles">Quran and miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_Islam" title="Symbols of Islam">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/20px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/40px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iraq&#124;link=Iraq_Iraq_topics583" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iraq_topics" title="Template:Iraq topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iraq_topics" title="Template talk:Iraq topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iraq_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iraq topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Iraq&#124;link=Iraq_Iraq_topics583" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq"><img alt="Iraq" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg/45px-Flag_of_Iraq.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History583" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf-Ubaid_Transitional_period" title="Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period">Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">First Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Assyrian Period">Old Assyrian Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian captivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Sassanid Asorestan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">638–1958</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Iraq" title="Ottoman Iraq">Ottoman Iraq</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Iraq)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Iraq)">Mamluk dynasty</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Mesopotamia" title="Mandate for Mesopotamia">Mandate for Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Iraq" title="Mandatory Iraq">Mandatory Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Iraq" title="List of kings of Iraq">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Republic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_(1958%E2%80%931968)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)">1958–1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">1968–2003</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Iraq_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)">2003–2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">2011–present</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">National Command</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_Shatt_al-Arab_conflict" title="1974–75 Shatt al-Arab conflict">1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1977_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1977 Shia uprising in Iraq">1977 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979%E2%80%931980_Shia_uprising_in_Iraq" title="1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq">1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Opera" title="Operation Opera">Operation Opera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Kuwait" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Kuwait">Invasion of Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1991_Iraqi_uprisings" title="1991 Iraqi uprisings">1991 uprisings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">Sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">U.S. invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2003%E2%80%932011)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)">Iraqi insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_of_United_States_troops_from_Iraq_(2007%E2%80%932011)" title="Withdrawal of United States troops from Iraq (2007–2011)">U.S. troop withdrawal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(2011%E2%80%932013)" title="Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013)">Insurgency (2011–2013)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Iraq_(2013%E2%80%932017)" title="War in Iraq (2013–2017)">War (2014–2017)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Mosul" title="Fall of Mosul">Fall of Mosul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mosul_(2016%E2%80%932017)" title="Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)">Mosul liberation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_insurgency_in_Iraq_(2017%E2%80%93present)" title="Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present)">Insurgency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932021_Iraqi_protests" title="2019–2021 Iraqi protests">2019–2021 protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iraqi_political_crisis" title="2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis">2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography583" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iraq" title="Geography of Iraq">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Faw_peninsula" title="Al-Faw peninsula">Faw peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Iraq" title="Template:Borders of Iraq">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Kurdistan" title="Iraqi Kurdistan">Iraqi Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lakes_of_Iraq" title="Category:Lakes of Iraq">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iraq" title="List of islands of Iraq">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_in_Iraq" title="List of places in Iraq">Places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab" title="Shatt al-Arab">Shatt al-Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Qasr" title="Umm Qasr">Umm Qasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iraq" title="Wildlife of Iraq">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics583" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iraq" title="Politics of Iraq">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Iraq" title="Governorates of Iraq">Administrative divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iraq" title="Constitution of Iraq">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Representatives_of_Iraq" title="Council of Representatives of Iraq">Council of Representatives (legislative)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Iraq" title="Democracy in Iraq">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iraq" title="Elections in Iraq">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid_to_Iraq" title="Foreign aid to Iraq">Foreign aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iraq" title="Foreign relations of Iraq">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_Iraq" title="Federal government of Iraq">Government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Iraq)" title="Council of Ministers (Iraq)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_Council_of_Iraq" title="Presidency Council of Iraq">Presidency Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="List of prime ministers of Iraq">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iraq" title="Human rights in Iraq">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_pre-Saddam_Iraq" title="Human rights in pre-Saddam Iraq">in pre-Saddam Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Saddam_Hussein%27s_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq">in Saddam Hussein's Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Human rights in post-invasion Iraq">in post-invasion Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Islamic_State-controlled_territory" title="Human rights in Islamic State-controlled territory">in ISIL-controlled territory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iraq">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iraq" title="Freedom of religion in Iraq">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iraq" title="Women in Iraq">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iraq" title="Law of Iraq">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armed_Forces" title="Iraqi Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Police" title="Iraqi Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iraq" title="List of political parties in Iraq">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Iraq" title="Judiciary of Iraq">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iraq" title="List of wars involving Iraq">Wars and conflicts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy583" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iraq" title="Economy of Iraq">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Iraq" title="List of banks in Iraq">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iraq" title="Central Bank of Iraq">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iraq" title="List of companies of Iraq">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iraq" title="Corruption in Iraq">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_dinar" title="Iraqi dinar">Dinar (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_of_Iraq" title="Infrastructure of Iraq">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Foreign Investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iraq" title="Petroleum industry in Iraq">Oil Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_reserves_in_Iraq" title="Oil reserves in Iraq">Oil reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_in_post-invasion_Iraq" title="Investment in post-invasion Iraq">Reconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_Stock_Exchange" title="Iraq Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Iraq" title="Telecommunications in Iraq">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iraq" title="Transport in Iraq">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iraq" title="List of airlines of Iraq">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Republic_Railways" title="Iraqi Republic Railways">Railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iraq" title="Tourism in Iraq">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society583" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iraq" title="Category:Society of Iraq">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iraq" title="Demographics of Iraq">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqis" title="Iraqis">Iraqis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iraq" title="Languages of Iraq">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen#Language" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minorities_in_Iraq" title="Minorities in Iraq">Minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Armenians" title="Iraqi Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iraq" title="Circassians in Iraq">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iraq" title="Kurds in Iraq">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajam_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajam of Iraq">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solluba" title="Solluba">Solluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen" title="Iraqi Turkmen">Iraqi Turkmen</a>/Turkoman</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism_in_Iraq" title="Secularism in Iraq">Secularism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iraq" title="Islam in Iraq">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iraq" title="Christianity in Iraq">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Iraq" title="Irreligion in Iraq">Irreligion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_art" title="Iraqi art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iraq" title="Cinema of Iraq">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_cuisine" title="Iraqi cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iraq" title="Culture of Iraq">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Iraq">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iraq" title="Education in Iraq">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Iraq" title="Health in Iraq">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Iraq" title="Mass media in Iraq">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Iraq" title="Television in Iraq">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iraq" title="Music of Iraq">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Iraq" title="Smoking in Iraq">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Iraq" title="Sport in Iraq">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Iraq" title="Squatting in Iraq">Squatting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Iraq" title="Public holidays in Iraq">Public holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akitu" title="Akitu">Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehwa_Rabba" title="Dehwa Rabba">Mandaean New Year</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Iraq" title="Category:Iraq">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Iraq" title="Portal:Iraq">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Iraq" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Iraq">WikiProject</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Iraq" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Iraq">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires160" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires160" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a> (<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li>Magadha <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê 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<li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> 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title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/25399477">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"> 117 languages </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"> Add topic </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-portlet mw-portlet-dock-bottom emptyPortlet" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul> </ul> </div> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.eqiad.main-748fc965c8-v2grx","wgBackendResponseTime":390,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.922","walltime":"3.584","ppvisitednodes":{"value":28770,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":686008,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":120980,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":54,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":561363,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2920.192 1 -total"," 19.21% 561.049 2 Template:Reflist"," 13.58% 396.442 119 Template:Sfn"," 13.53% 395.205 83 Template:Cite_book"," 12.53% 365.983 1 Template:Infobox_former_country"," 6.27% 183.011 1 Template:Commons_category"," 5.02% 146.458 2 Template:Sister_project"," 5.01% 146.427 1 Template:Navboxes"," 4.13% 120.614 1 Template:Caliphate"," 4.02% 117.392 1 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.664","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":23002385,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREF1905\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbbas2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbbott1946\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbun-Nasr1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhmed1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Khalili2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllegranziAube2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaker1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaumer2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloodworthBloodworth2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloom2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloomBlair2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBobrick2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBonnerEnerSinger2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBosworth1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBosworth1996\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBrague2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrauer1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrend1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapuis1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClinton2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCook2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooperYue2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCotter2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrone2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaftaryJiwa2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDimand1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDimand1969a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDimand1969b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDimand1969c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunn2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDupuyDupuy1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEglash1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEkhtiar2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEl-Hibri2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEttinghausenGrabarJenkins-Madina2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisherBoyle1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitzgerald1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrazier2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrye1975\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGhareebDougherty2004\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGhosh1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlasséSmith2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrantClute1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGregorian2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHathaway2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHays\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoag2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoiberg2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoiberg2010a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolt1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuff2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsichei1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenkins1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJo_Van_Steenbergen2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarateke2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitagawa1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKraus1942–1943\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLabib1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLapidus2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLapidus2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLe_Strange1895\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeaman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevy-Rubin2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindemann2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLucas2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagnussonGoring1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarozzi2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeisami1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichele2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMikaberidze2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorony2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorony2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNaylor2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholls1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorthedge1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorthedge2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOchsenwaldFisher2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOsman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPasnau2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPavlidis2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeacock2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetersen1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillipsGritzner2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQutbuddin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRabin2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichards2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuanoBurgos1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamer_M._Ali\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwarz2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharkey2017\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSirry2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithWeng1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStapletonAzoHidayat_Husain1927\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStreckDuri1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSöylemez2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTabari1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTabbaa2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTillier2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToomer1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUniversity_of_Calgary1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerma1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVisser2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVásáry2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWade2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestbrook2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWickham2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilber1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFal-Hassan2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFal-Hassan2002a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFal-Hassan2002b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Camp1976\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"'\\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"Abbasids\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Caliphate\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 4,\n [\"Citation\"] = 3,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite NIE\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 83,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 12,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 16,\n [\"Collier's poster\"] = 1,\n [\"Columns-list\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 2,\n [\"EI2\"] = 1,\n [\"Empires\"] = 1,\n [\"Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition\"] = 4,\n [\"For\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 7,\n [\"Google books\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 65,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox former country\"] = 1,\n [\"Iraq topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Islam topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 3,\n [\"Langx\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 10,\n [\"More citations needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Muslim dynasties in Mashriq region\"] = 1,\n [\"Native name\"] = 1,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 3,\n [\"R.\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 6,\n [\"Reign\"] = 18,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 1,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 1,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-imperialhouse\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 119,\n [\"SfnRef\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 4,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 3,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 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Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-09-01T15:54:44Z","dateModified":"2025-03-15T18:36:22Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b0\/Abbasid_banner.svg","headline":"third Islamic caliphate (750\u20131258)"}</script> </body> </html>