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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Scientific efforts aimed at reconstructing the beginnings of life</div> <p><b>Formamide-based prebiotic chemistry</b> is a reconstruction of the beginnings of life on Earth, assuming that <a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">formamide</a> could accumulate in sufficiently high amounts to serve as the building block and reaction medium for the synthesis of the first <a href="/wiki/Biogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogenic">biogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">molecules</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-chemsocrev_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemsocrev-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">Formamide</a> (NH<sub>2</sub>CHO), the simplest naturally occurring <a href="/wiki/Amide" title="Amide">amide</a>, contains all the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>), which are required for the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Biomolecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomolecules">biomolecules</a>, and is a ubiquitous molecule in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-plrev_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plrev-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">Formamide</a> has been detected in <a href="/wiki/Central_massive_object" title="Central massive object">galactic centers</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> star-forming regions of dense <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">molecular clouds</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-adande_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adande-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> high-mass young stellar objects,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar medium</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comets</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and satellites.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, dense clouds containing formamide, with sizes on the order of kilo<a href="/wiki/Parsec" title="Parsec">parsecs</a>, have been observed in the vicinity of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-adande_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adande-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">Formamide</a> forms under a variety of conditions, corresponding to both <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">terrestrial environments</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstellar media">interstellar media</a>: e.g., on high-energy particle irradiation of binary mixtures of <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> (NH<sub>3</sub>) and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> (CO),<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or from the reaction between <a href="/wiki/Formic_acid" title="Formic acid">formic acid</a> (HCOOH) with NH<sub>3</sub>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that in hydrothermal pores formamide may accumulate in sufficiently high concentrations to enable synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Biogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogenic">biogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ab_initio" title="Ab initio">Ab initio</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">molecular dynamics</a> simulations suggest that <a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">formamide</a> could be a key <a href="/wiki/Reaction_intermediate" title="Reaction intermediate">intermediate</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Urey_experiment" title="Miller–Urey experiment">Miller–Urey experiment</a> as well.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The combinatorial power of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> is manifested in the composition of the molecular populations detected in circum- and <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_media" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstellar media">interstellar media</a> (see the Astrochemistry.net<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> web site). The number and the complexity of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>-containing molecules are significantly higher than those of <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic compounds">inorganic compounds</a>, presumably all over the universe. One of the most abundant C-containing three-atoms <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a> observed in space is <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanide" title="Hydrogen cyanide">hydrogen cyanide</a> (HCN).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chemistry of HCN has thus attracted attention in <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of life">origin of life</a> studies since the earliest times, and the laboratory synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">adenine</a> from HCN under presumptive <a href="/wiki/Prebiotic_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prebiotic (chemistry)">prebiotic</a> conditions was reported as early as 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The intrinsic limit of HCN stems from its high reactivity, which leads in turn, to instability and the difficulty associated with its concentration and accumulation in unreacted form.<sup id="cite_ref-saladinochembiodivers_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saladinochembiodivers-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The “Warm Little Pond” in which life is supposed to have started, as imagined by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and re-elaborated by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Oparin" title="Alexander Oparin">Alexander Oparin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had most likely to reach sufficiently high concentrations to start creating the next levels of complexity. Hence the necessity of a derivative of HCN that is sufficiently stable to survive for time periods extended enough to allow its concentration in the actual <a href="/wiki/Physico-chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Physico-chemical">physico-chemical</a> settings, but that is sufficiently <a href="/wiki/Reactivity_(chemistry)" title="Reactivity (chemistry)">reactive</a> to originate new compounds in prebiotically plausible environments.<sup id="cite_ref-saladinochembiodivers_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saladinochembiodivers-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ideally, this <a href="/wiki/Derivative" title="Derivative">derivative</a> should be able to undergo reactions in various directions, without prohibitively high <a href="/wiki/Energy_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy barrier">energy barriers</a>, thus allowing the production of different classes of potentially prebiotic <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compounds</a>. <a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">Formamide</a> fulfils all these requirements and, due to its significantly higher <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling point</a> (210 °C), enables chemical synthesis in a much broader temperature range than water.<sup id="cite_ref-chemsocrev_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemsocrev-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chemeurjrev_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemeurjrev-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prebiotic_chemistry">Prebiotic chemistry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formamide-based_prebiotic_chemistry&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prebiotic chemistry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Current living forms on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> are essentially composed of four types of molecular entities: (i) <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleic acids">nucleic acids</a>, (ii) <a href="/wiki/Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">proteins</a>, (iii) <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrates">carbohydrates</a>, and (iv) <a href="/wiki/Lipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipids">lipids</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleic acids">Nucleic acids</a> (<a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a>) embody and express the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_information" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic information">genetic information</a> and, together, constitute the <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> and the apparatus for its expression (the <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a>). <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a> form the structures, which harness and handle <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> from the environment for organizing <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> according to the instructions specified by the <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a>, aiming to its conservation and transmission. The ensemble of <a href="/wiki/Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">proteins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrates">carbohydrates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipids">lipids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleic acids">nucleic acids</a> constitute the <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>. Life is thus made of the interaction of <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, of the genotype with the <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>. Both are built around the <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> of the most common <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>), important although ancillary roles being played by <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulphur" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulphur">sulphur</a>, and by other elements. </p><p>Given the overwhelming variety of the chemically conceivable <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>, the fact that in <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">biological systems</a> we observe only a small subset of <a href="/wiki/Organic_molecule" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic molecule">organic molecules</a> has raised questions how and which different reaction pathways could have plausibly lead to the synthesis of pre-biological <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> on the primordial Earth. These are the main objectives of <b>prebiotic chemistry</b> research. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Precursor_of_biogenic_molecules">Precursor of biogenic molecules</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formamide-based_prebiotic_chemistry&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Precursor of biogenic molecules"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Figure1.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Figure 1. Relationship between formamide and other prebiotic feedstock molecules, such as HCN and ammonium formate.[1]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Figure1.tif/lossless-page1-330px-Figure1.tif.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Figure1.tif/lossless-page1-495px-Figure1.tif.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Figure1.tif/lossless-page1-660px-Figure1.tif.png 2x" data-file-width="2409" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>Figure 1. Relationship between <i><a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">formamide</a></i> and other prebiotic feedstock molecules, such as HCN and ammonium formate(NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>HCOO<sup>−</sup>).<sup id="cite_ref-chemsocrev_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemsocrev-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Figure 1 summarizes the basic chemistry of <a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">formamide</a> and its chemical connection with HCN and <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_formate" title="Ammonium formate">ammonium formate</a> (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>HCOO<sup>−</sup>), considering selected examples of preparative and degradative reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-chemsocrev_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemsocrev-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Purine" title="Purine">purine</a> from <a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">formamide</a> was first reported in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A series of studies building on this observation was started 20 years later: the synthesis of a large panel of prebiotically relevant <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compounds</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Purine" title="Purine">purine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">adenine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytosine" title="Cytosine">cytosine</a>, and 4(3H)pyrimidinone) in good yields was reported in 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-saladino2001_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saladino2001-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These products were obtained by heating <a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">formamide</a> in the presence of simple <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalysts</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> (CaCO<sub>3</sub>), <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> (SiO<sub>2</sub>), or <a href="/wiki/Alumina" class="mw-redirect" title="Alumina">alumina</a> (Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>). </p><p>In addition to <a href="/wiki/Nucleobase" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobase">nucleobases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugars</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-pnas_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Carboxylic_acid" title="Carboxylic acid">carboxylic acids</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-chemistry_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemistry-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">amino acids</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-chemistry_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemistry-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as heterogeneous compounds of various classes,<sup id="cite_ref-chemistry_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemistry-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (including <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbodiimide" title="Carbodiimide">carbodiimide</a>) were also synthesized. The <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalysts</a> studied include, in addition to those mentioned, <a href="/wiki/Titanium_oxide" title="Titanium oxide">titanium oxides</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clays</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">cosmic dust</a> analogues,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Phosphates" class="mw-redirect" title="Phosphates">phosphates</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-cbc2010_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cbc2010-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Iron_sulphide" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron sulphide">iron sulphide</a> <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a> minerals,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Borate_mineral" title="Borate mineral">borate minerals</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or numerous materials of meteoritic origin <sup id="cite_ref-pnas_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chemistry_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemistry-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> encompassing <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, stony-iron, <a href="/wiki/Chondrite" title="Chondrite">chondrites</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Achondrite" title="Achondrite">achondrites</a> <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorites</a>. </p><p>Various energy sources, including thermal energy,<sup id="cite_ref-saladino2001_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-saladino2001-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> UV-radiation,<sup id="cite_ref-cbc2010_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cbc2010-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> irradiation with high-energy (terawatt) laser pulses,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or slow <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a><sup id="cite_ref-pnas_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were tested. Mimics of different formamide-based prebiotic scenarios have been reconstructed and analyzed, including space-wise solar wind irradiation of meteorites,<sup id="cite_ref-pnas_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dynamic chemical gardens,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and meteorites in aqueous environments.<sup id="cite_ref-scirep_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scirep-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that the stepwise decrease of the temperature of the prebiotic environment could induce a sequence of strongly <a href="/wiki/Non-equilibrium" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-equilibrium">non-equilibrium</a> chemical events that led to the emergence of more and more complex species from formamide on the early Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-chemeurjrev_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemeurjrev-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For each studied combination of <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalyst</a>/energy source/environment, <a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">formamide</a> condensed into a variety of different prebiotically relevant compounds, each combination giving rise to a specific set of relatively complex molecules, usually encompassing several <a href="/wiki/Nucleobases" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobases">nucleobases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">amino acids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carboxylic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboxylic acids">carboxylic acids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-chemsocrev_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemsocrev-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The highest level of complexity was attained for the <a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">formamide</a>/<a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorite</a> system,<sup id="cite_ref-chemistry_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemistry-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a> <a href="/wiki/Irradiation" title="Irradiation">irradiation</a> as the energy source, where the <a href="/wiki/One-pot_synthesis" title="One-pot synthesis">one-pot synthesis</a> of four <a href="/wiki/Nucleoside" title="Nucleoside">nucleosides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Uridine" title="Uridine">uridine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytidine" title="Cytidine">cytidine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adenosine" title="Adenosine">adenosine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thymidine" title="Thymidine">thymidine</a>) was observed.<sup id="cite_ref-pnas_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So far, no other one-carbon atom compound has shown the versatility of products that can be formed from <a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">formamide</a> under plausible prebiotic conditions in a one-pot chemistry (see Figure 2).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br /> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikifig.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Figure 2. Main prebiotic building blocks that can be synthesized from formamide under plausible prebiotic conditions.[1]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Wikifig.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Wikifig.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="356" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Wikifig.tif/lossy-page1-660px-Wikifig.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Wikifig.tif/lossy-page1-880px-Wikifig.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3904" data-file-height="3158" /></a><figcaption>Figure 2. Main prebiotic building blocks that can be synthesized from <i><a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">formamide</a></i> under plausible prebiotic conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-chemsocrev_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chemsocrev-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup>,</sup><sup id="cite_ref-pnas_26-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pnas-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In addition to its dual function of <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(chemistry)" title="Substrate (chemistry)">substrate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvent</a> in <a href="/wiki/One-pot" class="mw-redirect" title="One-pot">one-pot</a> syntheses affording prebiotic compounds as complex as <a href="/wiki/Nucleosides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleosides">nucleosides</a> and long <a href="/wiki/Aliphatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aliphatic">aliphatic</a> chains,<sup id="cite_ref-scirep_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scirep-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it has been observed that <a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">formamide</a> plays a role in the generation of <a href="/wiki/Molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecules">molecules</a> which are closer to the biological domain. In the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a> source (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Phosphate_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Phosphate minerals">phosphate minerals</a>), <a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">formamide</a> promotes the <a href="/wiki/Phosphorylation" title="Phosphorylation">phosphorylation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nucleosides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleosides">nucleosides</a>, leading to the formation of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleotides">nucleotides</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and strongly stimulates the non-<a href="/wiki/Enzymatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzymatic">enzymatic</a> <a href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</a> of 3’,5’ <a href="/wiki/Cyclic_nucleotides" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclic nucleotides">cyclic nucleotides</a>, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Abiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Abiotic">abiotic</a> synthesis of <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> <a href="/wiki/Oligomers" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligomers">oligomers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the reason why <a href="/wiki/Formamide" title="Formamide">formamide</a> is considered a plausible medium for prebiotic <a href="/wiki/Phosphorylation" title="Phosphorylation">phosphorylation</a> reactions also in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E2%80%9Cdiscontinuous_synthesis%E2%80%9D_scenario&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="“discontinuous synthesis” scenario (page does not exist)">“discontinuous synthesis” scenario</a> of the origin of life.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As well as phosphorylation, formamide has been shown to be a competent medium for the production of amino acid derivatives from their simple aldehyde and nitrile precursors, demonstrating that water is not the only solvent that this process can occur in. <sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most notably, formamide provides a medium for the prebiotic synthesis of cysteine derivatives, not considered previously considered plausible in strictly aqueous prebiotic environments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Formamide-based_prebiotic_chemistry&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-chemsocrev-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-chemsocrev_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chemsocrev_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chemsocrev_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chemsocrev_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chemsocrev_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chemsocrev_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chemsocrev_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-chemsocrev_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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