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class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Possessive adjectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possessive_adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adpositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adpositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Adpositions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Adpositions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Adpositions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Adpositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbal_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbal_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Verbal system</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Verbal_system-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Verbal system subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Verbal_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Verb_classes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_classes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Verb classes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_classes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transitive_verbs_(Class_1_verbs)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transitive_verbs_(Class_1_verbs)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Transitive verbs (Class 1 verbs)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transitive_verbs_(Class_1_verbs)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intransitive_verbs_(Class_2_verbs)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intransitive_verbs_(Class_2_verbs)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Intransitive verbs (Class 2 verbs)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intransitive_verbs_(Class_2_verbs)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medial_verbs_(Class_3_verbs)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medial_verbs_(Class_3_verbs)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>Medial verbs (Class 3 verbs)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medial_verbs_(Class_3_verbs)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indirect_verbs_(Class_4_verbs)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indirect_verbs_(Class_4_verbs)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.4</span> <span>Indirect verbs (Class 4 verbs)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indirect_verbs_(Class_4_verbs)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stative_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stative_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.5</span> <span>Stative verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stative_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Irregular_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Irregular_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.6</span> <span>Irregular verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Irregular_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Screeves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Screeves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Screeves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Screeves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb_components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Verb components</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Preverb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preverb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1</span> <span>Preverb</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preverb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb_personality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_personality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.2</span> <span>Verb personality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_personality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Version_marker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Version_marker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.3</span> <span>Version marker</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Version_marker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb_root" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_root"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.4</span> <span>Verb root</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_root-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Passive_marker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Passive_marker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.5</span> <span>Passive marker</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Passive_marker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thematic_suffix" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thematic_suffix"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.6</span> <span>Thematic suffix</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thematic_suffix-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causative_marker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causative_marker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.7</span> <span>Causative marker</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Causative_marker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperfective_marker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperfective_marker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.8</span> <span>Imperfective marker</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperfective_marker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suffixal_nominal_marker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suffixal_nominal_marker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.9</span> <span>Suffixal nominal marker</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suffixal_nominal_marker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Auxiliary_verb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Auxiliary_verb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.10</span> <span>Auxiliary verb</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Auxiliary_verb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plural_marker" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plural_marker"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.11</span> <span>Plural marker</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plural_marker-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Auxiliary_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Auxiliary_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Auxiliary verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Auxiliary_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Syntax subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Word_order" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_order"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Word order</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_order-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Questions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Questions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Questions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Questions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Yes/No_questions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yes/No_questions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Yes/No questions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yes/No_questions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tag_questions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tag_questions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2</span> <span>Tag questions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tag_questions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interrogatives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interrogatives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.3</span> <span>Interrogatives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interrogatives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Negation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.4em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; padding-bottom:0.4em;"><a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a> <br /><span class="nobold">ქართველები</span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="border:none; padding:0.6em 0.4em;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Georgia.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg/90px-Flag_of_Georgia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg/135px-Flag_of_Georgia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg/180px-Flag_of_Georgia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">The <br /><b>Kartvelian</b> <br /><i>people</i></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0; border-top:1px solid #aaa;"> Nation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0.4em 0.6em; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0; border-top:1px solid #aaa;"> Ancient Kartvelian people</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0.4em 0.6em; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colchians" class="mw-redirect" title="Colchians">Colchians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Iberians" class="mw-redirect" title="Caucasian Iberians">Iberians</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0; border-top:1px solid #aaa;"> Subgroups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0.4em 0.6em; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjarians" title="Adjarians">Adjarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvals" title="Dvals">Dvals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imeretians" class="mw-redirect" title="Imeretians">Imeretians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guria#Gurians" title="Guria">Gurians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tushetians" title="Tushetians">Tushetians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakhetians" title="Kakhetians">Kakhetians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingiloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingiloy">Ingiloy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lechkhumi" title="Lechkhumi">Lechkhumians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelians" title="Mingrelians">Mingrelians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meskhetians" title="Meskhetians">Meskhetians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mtiuleti" title="Mtiuleti">Mtiuletians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khevi" title="Khevi">Mokheves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svans" title="Svans">Svans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racha" title="Racha">Rachians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pshavi#Population" title="Pshavi">Pshavians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartli" title="Kartli">Kartlians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khevsurians" title="Khevsurians">Khevsurians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javakhians" title="Javakhians">Javakhians</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0; border-top:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Georgia_(country)" title="Culture of Georgia (country)">Culture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0.4em 0.6em; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Georgia_(country)" title="Music of Georgia (country)">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Georgia">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sports in Georgia (country)">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_calligraphy" title="Georgian calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Georgia" title="Cinema of Georgia">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_cuisine" title="Georgian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_dance" title="Georgian dance">Dances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chokha" title="Chokha">Chokha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_calendar" title="Georgian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Georgia (country)">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0; border-top:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Languages</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0.4em 0.6em; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_scripts" title="Georgian scripts">Writing system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_dialects" title="Georgian dialects">Dialects</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Sign_Language" title="Georgian Sign Language">Sign language</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0; border-top:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Religion in Georgia (country)">Religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0.4em 0.6em; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Orthodox_Church" title="Georgian Orthodox Church">Georgian Orthodox Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Christianity in Georgia (country)">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Georgia" title="Catholic Church in Georgia">Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Islam in Georgia (country)">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in Georgia">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_George" title="Saint George">Saint George</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Nino" title="Saint Nino">Saint Nino</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0; border-top:1px solid #aaa;"> Symbols</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding:0 0.4em 0.6em; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/St_George%27s_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="St George's Cross">St George's Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grapevine_cross" title="Grapevine cross">Grapevine cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolnisi_cross" title="Bolnisi cross">Bolnisi cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borjgali" title="Borjgali">Borjgali</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:none; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">History of Georgia</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Georgians" title="Template:Georgians"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Georgians" title="Template talk:Georgians"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Georgians" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Georgians"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Georgian grammar</b> has many distinctive and extremely complex features, such as <a href="/wiki/Split_ergativity" title="Split ergativity">split ergativity</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Polypersonal_agreement" title="Polypersonal agreement">polypersonal</a> verb agreement system. </p><p>Georgian has <a href="/wiki/Georgian_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian alphabet">its own alphabet</a>. In this article, a transliteration with Latin letters will be used throughout. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphosyntactic_alignment">Morphosyntactic alignment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Morphosyntactic alignment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Georgian syntax and verb agreement are largely those of a <a href="/wiki/Nominative%E2%80%93accusative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative–accusative language">nominative–accusative language</a>. That is, the subject of an intransitive verb and the subject of a transitive verb are treated alike when it comes to word order within the sentence, and agreement marks in the verb complex. Nominative–accusative alignment is one of the two major morphosyntactic alignments, along with ergative-absolutive. </p><p>However, Georgian case morphology (that is, the declension of nouns using case marks) does not always coincide with verbal alignment. Georgian has often been said to exhibit <a href="/wiki/Split_ergativity" title="Split ergativity">split ergativity</a>; morphologically speaking, it is said that it mostly behaves like an <a href="/wiki/Ergative%E2%80%93absolutive_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergative–absolutive language">ergative–absolutive language</a> in the Series II ("aorist") <a href="/wiki/Screeve" title="Screeve">screeves</a>. That means that the subject of an intransitive verb will take the same case markings as the direct object of a transitive verb. However, this is not a fully accurate representation. </p><p>This is because Georgian has yet another level of split ergativity. In the aorist series, intransitive verbs behave differently. Second conjugation verbs behave as would normally be expected in an ergative language; the subject is declined in the least-marked case, the <i>nominative</i> case (terminologically equivalent in this instance to <i>absolutive</i> cases in other languages). Third conjugation verbs behave as if they belonged to an accusative system; the most-marked case (the <i>ergative</i>) marks the subject. The division between second and third conjugations is a convenient way to remember the difference, but in fact they both contain intransitive verbs, and as a whole the behaviour of these verbs follows an <a href="/wiki/Active%E2%80%93stative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Active–stative language">active alignment</a>. In an active language, intransitive verbs are subdivided into two classes. The division is usually based on semantic criteria regarding the nature of the subject and the verb; for example, if the subject identifies an agent (an active or intentional performer of the action of the verb), then it might be marked with one case (e.g. the ergative), while if the subject identifies an experiencer of the event or one who does not actively initiate it, then it might be marked with another case (e.g. the absolutive or nominative). What might be called the "most active" case, then, marks the subject of a transitive verb, while the "least active" or "most patientive" case is that used to mark a direct object. This is precisely what happens in Georgian, in the restricted environment of the second or third conjugation verbs in the aorist series. </p><p>In Georgian, the classification of verbs according to the agentive or patientive nature of their subject has to do with performing an action, regardless of whether the subject is in control or not. (There are some exceptions to this; weather verbs and verbs of emission of light and sound are usually zero-place predicates, and thus have no agent at all.) The division between classes is conventional and rigid; each verb receives the class that typically corresponds to it. Where the subject is typically an active performer, it is marked as ergative, even if in some specific instances the action might be outside the control of the subject. Therefore, Georgian active alignment is said to be of the "split-S" type.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Case_system">Case system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Case system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Georgian has seven <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">grammatical cases</a>: <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">ergative</a> (also known in the Kartvelological literature as the narrative (<i>motxrobiti</i>) case, due to the rather inaccurate suggestion of regular ergativity, and that this case generally only occurs in the aorist series, which usually moves the narrative forward), <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adverbial_case" title="Adverbial case">adverbial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">vocative</a>. </p><p>The nominative, ergative and dative are core cases, and due to the complex <a href="/wiki/Morphosyntactic_alignment" title="Morphosyntactic alignment">morphosyntactic alignment</a> of Georgian, each one has several different functions and also overlap with each other, in different contexts. They will be treated together with the verb system. </p><p>The non-core cases are genitive, instrumental, adverbial and vocative. </p> <ul><li>The genitive case is the equivalent of the preposition <i>of</i> or the possessive clitic -'<i>s</i> in English. In the phrase "the republic of Georgia", the word "Georgia" is in the genitive case: <i>Sakartvelo<b>s</b> resp'ublik'a</i>.</li> <li>The instrumental case corresponds to the preposition <i>with</i> in English, as in "he is cutting <i>with</i> a knife", where the word "knife" is in the instrumental case. It also occurs with the objects of certain postpositions.</li> <li>The adverbial case commonly marks adverbial phrases. It is also used in some other contexts, especially when using names of languages. For example, in the sentence "Can you translate this into Georgian?", <i>Georgian</i> is in the adverbial case.</li> <li>The vocative case is used when addressing someone. For example, a mother calls her child with <i>bat'ono?</i> (meaning "sir?").</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nouns">Nouns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declension</a> of a noun depends on whether the <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">root</a> of the noun ends with a vowel or a consonant. If the root of the noun ends with a vowel, the declension can be either truncating (roots ending with -<i>e</i> or -<i>a</i>) or non-truncating (roots ending with -<i>o</i> or -<i>u</i>). In the truncating declensions, the last vowel of the word stem is lost in the genitive and the instrumental cases. The table below lists the suffixes for each noun case, with an example next to it. </p> <table style="text-align: center" class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2">Consonant final </th> <th colspan="2">Vowel final (truncating) </th> <th colspan="2">Vowel final (non-truncating) </th></tr> <tr> <th>Suffix </th> <th>Example:<br /><i>k'ats-</i> ("man") </th> <th>Suffix </th> <th>Example:<br /><i>mama-</i> ("father") </th> <th>Suffix </th> <th>Example:<br /><i>Sakartvelo-</i> ("Georgia") </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>-<i>i</i></td> <td><i>k'ats-<b>i</b></i> </td> <td>-<i>∅</i></td> <td><i>mama</i> </td> <td>-<i>∅</i></td> <td><i>Sakartvelo</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ergative </th> <td>-<i>ma</i></td> <td><i>k'ats-<b>ma</b></i> </td> <td>-<i>m</i></td> <td><i>mama-<b>m</b></i> </td> <td>-<i>m</i></td> <td><i>Sakartvelo-<b>m</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>-<i>s</i></td> <td><i>k'ats-<b>s</b></i> </td> <td>-<i>s</i></td> <td><i>mama-<b>s</b></i> </td> <td>-<i>s</i></td> <td><i>Sakartvelo-<b>s</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>-<i>is</i></td> <td><i>k'ats-<b>is</b></i> </td> <td>-<i>is</i> <b>*</b></td> <td><i>mam-<b>is</b></i> </td> <td>-<i>s</i></td> <td><i>Sakartvelo-<b>s</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>-<i>it</i></td> <td><i>k'ats-<b>it</b></i> </td> <td>-<i>it</i> <b>*</b></td> <td><i>mam-<b>it</b></i> </td> <td>-<i>ti</i></td> <td><i>Sakartvelo-<b>ti</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Adverbial </th> <td>-<i>ad</i></td> <td><i>k'ats-<b>ad</b></i> </td> <td>-<i>d</i></td> <td><i>mama-<b>d</b></i> </td> <td>-<i>d</i></td> <td><i>Sakartvelo-<b>d</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>-<i>o</i></td> <td><i>k'ats-<b>o</b>!</i> </td> <td>-<i>∅</i></td> <td><i>mama!</i> </td> <td>-<i>∅</i></td> <td><i>Sakartvelo!</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>(* truncation of the last vowel occurs) </p><p><br /> In the case of a word that ends in an -o, the -o may disappear completely or reduce to a -v and the consonant case endings are used; with the exception of the vocative case, which it itself becomes a -v. An example of this is the word <i>teorbo</i> (music), which becomes <i>teorbo-v</i> in the vocative case. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pluralisation">Pluralisation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pluralisation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The plural number is marked with the suffix <i>-eb</i>, which appears after the root of the noun and before the case suffix. Some examples are: </p> <ul><li>The nominative case of <i>men</i> in Georgian is constructed as, <i>k'ats</i>+<i><b>eb</b></i>+<i>i</i>, while the ergative case would be, <i>k'ats</i>+<i><b>eb</b></i>+<i>ma</i>.</li> <li>The nominative case of <i>trees</i> in Georgian (<i>xe</i>, root ending with truncating vowel -<i>e</i>) is, <i>xe</i>+<i><b>eb</b></i>+<i>i</i>, while the dative case would be, <i>xe</i>+<i><b>eb</b></i>+<i>s</i>.</li> <li>The nominative case of <i>girls</i> in Georgian (<i>gogo</i>, root ending with non-truncating vowel -<i>o</i>) is, <i>gogo</i>+<i><b>eb</b></i>+<i>i</i>, while the instrumental case would be, <i>gogo</i>+<i><b>eb</b></i>+<i>it</i>.</li></ul> <p>The plural suffix is <i>not</i> used when the noun is preceded by a quantifier of some kind, such as a <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_number_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal number (linguistics)">cardinal number</a>. Therefore, for example, "five men" in Georgian is expressed as, "<i>xuti (5) k'atsi</i>", <b>not</b> "<i>xuti k'ats<b>eb</b>i</i>". Additionally, in certain formal contexts, Georgian uses Old Georgian case endings distinct from those of modern Georgian: <i>k'ats<b>ta</b> saloni</i> ("men's salon") lit. salon of men. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following table lists the declension of all six personal pronouns. </p> <table style="text-align: center" class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">  </th> <th>Nominative </th> <th>Ergative </th> <th>Dative </th> <th>Genitive </th> <th>Instrumental </th> <th>Adverbial </th> <th>Vocative </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5">Singular </th> <th colspan="2">First </th> <td colspan="3"><i>me</i></td> <td><i>chem(s)</i></td> <td><i>chemit</i></td> <td><i>chemad</i></td> <td><i>-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Second </th> <td colspan="3"><i>shen</i></td> <td><i>shen(s)</i></td> <td><i>shenit</i></td> <td><i>shenad</i></td> <td><i>she!</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Third </th> <th><i>proximal</i> </th> <td><i>es</i></td> <td><i>(a)man</i></td> <td><i>(a)mas</i></td> <td><i>(a)mis</i></td> <td><i>(a)mit</i></td> <td><i>(a)mad</i></td> <td><i>-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>medial</i> </th> <td><i>eg</i></td> <td><i>ma(ga)n</i></td> <td><i>ma(ga)s</i></td> <td><i>m(ag)is</i></td> <td><i>m(ag)it</i></td> <td><i>ma(ga)d</i></td> <td><i>-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>distal</i> </th> <td><i>is / igi</i></td> <td><i>(i)man</i></td> <td><i>(i)mas</i></td> <td><i>(i)mis</i></td> <td><i>(i)mit</i></td> <td><i>(i)mad</i></td> <td><i>-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5">Plural </th> <th colspan="2">First </th> <td colspan="3"><i>chven</i></td> <td><i>chven(s)</i></td> <td><i>chvenit</i></td> <td><i>chvenad</i></td> <td><i>-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Second </th> <td colspan="3"><i>tkven</i></td> <td><i>tkven(s)</i></td> <td><i>tkvenit</i></td> <td><i>tkvenad</i></td> <td><i>tkve!</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Third </th> <th><i>proximal</i> </th> <td><i>eseni</i></td> <td colspan="5"><i>(a)mat</i></td> <td><i>-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>medial</i> </th> <td><i>egeni</i></td> <td colspan="5"><i>ma(ga)t</i></td> <td><i>-</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th><i>distal</i> </th> <td><i>isini</i></td> <td colspan="5"><i>(i)mat</i></td> <td><i>-</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As can be seen from the table, all the cases of the third persons except the nominative case can be expressed in two different ways; with or without an "<i><b>i</b></i>" at the beginning of the pronoun. The extra letter "<i><b>i</b></i>" adds a <i>directional</i> meaning. The closest English equivalent could be the distinction between <i>his, her</i> and <i>that</i>. An example can be "<i><b>her</b> pencil</i>" versus "<i><b>that</b> (girl)'s pencil</i>." In English "<i>that</i>" can never behave as a personal pronoun, but in Georgian, the additional letter "<i><b>i</b></i>" makes that possible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Adjectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The declension of adjectives is different from that of nouns, but like that of nouns depends on whether the root of the adjective ends with a consonant or a vowel: a vowel-final-stem adjective is identical in all cases, while a consonant-final-stem adjective changes from case to case. (Put another way, one might say that vowel-final-stem adjectives do not actually decline for case.) The following table presents declensions of the adjectives <i>did-</i> ("big") and <i>ch'aghara-</i> ("grey-haired") with the noun <i>datv-</i> ("bear"). </p> <table style="text-align: center" class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>  </th> <th>Consonant final stem </th> <th>Example: <i>did-</i> </th> <th>Vowel final stem </th> <th>Example: <i>ch'aghara-</i> </th> <th>Noun example: <i>datv-</i> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative</td> <td><i>-i</i></td> <td><i>did-i</i></td> <td>-∅</td> <td><i>ch'aghara</i></td> <td><i>datv-i</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ergative</td> <td><i>-ma</i></td> <td><i>did-ma</i></td> <td>-∅</td> <td><i>ch'aghara</i></td> <td><i>datv-ma</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative</td> <td>-∅</td> <td><i>did</i></td> <td>-∅</td> <td><i>ch'aghara</i></td> <td><i>datv-s</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive</td> <td><i>-i</i></td> <td><i>did-i</i></td> <td>-∅</td> <td><i>ch'aghara</i></td> <td><i>datv-is</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Instrumental</td> <td><i>-i</i></td> <td><i>did-i</i></td> <td>-∅</td> <td><i>ch'aghara</i></td> <td><i>datv-it</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Adverbial</td> <td>-∅</td> <td><i>did</i></td> <td>-∅</td> <td><i>ch'aghara</i></td> <td><i>datv-ad</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vocative</td> <td>-<i>o</i></td> <td><i>did-o</i></td> <td>-∅</td> <td><i>ch'aghara</i></td> <td><i>datv-o</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>While often used as modifiers, adjectives can also have stand-alone substantive force in Georgian: one could say <i>mindoda lurji ts'igni</i> ("I would like the blue book") or just <i>mindoda lurji</i> ("I would like the blue one"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possessive_adjectives">Possessive adjectives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Possessive adjectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The possessive adjectives (equivalent to English <i>my</i>, <i>your</i>, etc.) are declined like other consonant-stem-final adjectives, except for a final <i>-s</i> in the dative, instrumental, and adverbial forms of the first- and second-person possessive adjectives. There are no second- and third-person vocative forms. </p> <table style="text-align: center" class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>  </th> <th>Nominative </th> <th>Ergative </th> <th>Dative </th> <th>Genitive </th> <th>Instrumental </th> <th>Adverbial </th> <th>Vocative </th></tr> <tr> <td>First-person singular</td> <td><i>chem-i</i></td> <td><i>chem-ma</i></td> <td><i>chem-s</i></td> <td><i>chem-i</i></td> <td><i>chem-i(s)</i></td> <td><i>chem-s</i></td> <td><i>chem-o</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Second-person singular</td> <td><i>shen-i</i></td> <td><i>shen-ma</i></td> <td><i>shen-s</i></td> <td><i>shen-i</i></td> <td><i>shen-i(s)</i></td> <td><i>shen-s</i></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Third-person singular</td> <td><i>amis-i</i> <p><i>magis-i</i> </p><p><i>(i)mis-i</i> </p> </td> <td><i>amis-(ma)</i> <p><i>magis-(ma)</i> </p><p><i>(i)mis-(ma)</i> </p> </td> <td><i>amis</i> <p><i>magis</i> </p><p><i>(i)mis</i> </p> </td> <td><i>amis-(i)</i> <p><i>magis-(i)</i> </p><p><i>(i)mis-(i)</i> </p> </td> <td><i>amis-(i)</i> <p><i>magis-(i)</i> </p><p><i>(i)mis-(i)</i> </p> </td> <td><i>amis</i> <p><i>magis</i> </p><p><i>(i)mis</i> </p> </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>First-person plural</td> <td><i>chven-i</i></td> <td><i>chven-ma</i></td> <td><i>chven-s</i></td> <td><i>chven-i</i></td> <td><i>chven-i(s)</i></td> <td><i>chven-s</i></td> <td><i>chven-o</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Second-person plural</td> <td><i>tkven-i</i></td> <td><i>tkven-ma</i></td> <td><i>tkven-s</i></td> <td><i>tkven-i</i></td> <td><i>tkven-i(s)</i></td> <td><i>tkven-s</i></td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Third-person plural</td> <td><i>amat-i</i> <p><i>magat-i</i> </p><p><i>(i)mat-i</i> </p> </td> <td><i>amat-(ma)</i> <p><i>magat-(ma)</i> </p><p><i>(i)mat-(ma)</i> </p> </td> <td><i>amat</i> <p><i>magat</i> </p><p><i>(i)mat</i> </p> </td> <td><i>amat-i</i> <p><i>magat-i</i> </p><p><i>(i)mat-i</i> </p> </td> <td><i>amat-(i)</i> <p><i>magat-(i)</i> </p><p><i>(i)mat-(i)</i> </p> </td> <td><i>amat</i> <p><i>magat</i> </p><p><i>(i)mat</i> </p> </td> <td>– </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adpositions">Adpositions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Adpositions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Georgian by and large has <a href="/wiki/Postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Postposition">postpositions</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">prepositions</a>. Most of these are <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">cliticized</a> to the ends of nouns. They might be written separately or together with the noun. Prepositions do exist, but they are very few in number, and tend to be <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calques</a> from Russian that entered the language during the Soviet period. </p><p>Each postposition governs (requires) a specific case of the noun, akin to the usage of prepositions in <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> or <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>. Only one postposition governs the nominative case (<i>-vit</i> "like"), and there are no postpositions that govern the ergative or the vocative cases. Here are some examples of postpositions: </p> <table align="center" style="text-align: center; margin-top: 3ex; margin-bottom: 2ex" class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Postposition</th> <th>English meaning</th> <th>Case </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>-vit</i> <sup>1</sup> </td> <td>like </td> <td>nominative </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-ze</i> </td> <td>on </td> <td rowspan="6">dative </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-tan</i> </td> <td>at, near </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-tan ertad</i> </td> <td>together with </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-shi</i> <sup>2</sup> </td> <td>in, to </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>shoris</i> </td> <td>among </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>shua</i> </td> <td>between </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-dan</i> <sup>3</sup> </td> <td>from (a place) </td> <td>instrumental </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-gan</i> </td> <td>from (a person, a thing) </td> <td rowspan="10">genitive </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>gamo</i> </td> <td>because of </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>garda</i> </td> <td>except </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>gareshe</i> </td> <td>without </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-tvis</i> </td> <td>for </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>mier</i> </td> <td>by </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>magivrad</i> </td> <td>instead of </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>miuxedavad</i> </td> <td>in spite of </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>shesaxeb</i> </td> <td>about, concerning </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-ts'in</i> </td> <td>before, in front of </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>-mde</i> <sup>4</sup> </td> <td>up to, as far as </td> <td>adverbial </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><sup>1</sup> The postposition <i>-vit</i> could also take the dative case in its elongated form (with an insertion of <i>-a-</i> in between the case suffix and the postposition). </p><p><sup>2</sup> In the usage of postposition <i>-shi</i> the dative case suffix <i>-s</i> is dropped. </p><p><sup>3</sup> In the usage of postposition <i>-dan</i> the instrumental case suffix <i>-t</i> is dropped. </p><p><sup>4</sup> In the usage of postposition <i>-mde</i> the adverbial case suffix <i>-d</i> is dropped. </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples">Examples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Georgian nominal has a series of morpheme slots that must be filled in a specific order: </p> <dl><dd><i>noun root + plural suffix + case suffix (+ postposition)</i></dd></dl> <table style="text-align: center; margin-top: 3ex; margin-bottom: 2ex" class="wikitable"> <caption><i>Some nouns with all morpheme slots filled</i> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>noun root (meaning) </th> <th>plural suffix </th> <th>case suffix (case) </th> <th>postposition </th> <th>full word </th> <th>English meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>megobar-</i> (friend)</td> <td><i>-eb</i></td> <td><i>-is</i> (genitive)</td> <td><i>-tvis</i></td> <td><i>megobrebistvis</i></td> <td>for friends </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>deda-</i> (mother)</td> <td>–</td> <td><i>-s</i> (dative)</td> <td><i>-tan ertad</i></td> <td><i>dedastan ertad</i></td> <td>(together) with mother </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>mshobl-</i> (parent)</td> <td><i>-eb</i></td> <td><i>-is</i> (genitive)</td> <td><i>gareshe</i></td> <td><i>mshoblebis gareshe</i></td> <td>without parents </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>shen-</i> (you)</td> <td>–</td> <td>-<i>s</i> (genitive)</td> <td><i>gamo</i></td> <td><i>shens gamo</i></td> <td>because of you </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>bavshv-</i> (child)</td> <td>–</td> <td>-<i>i</i> (nominative)</td> <td><i>-vit</i></td> <td><i>bavshvivit</i></td> <td>like (a) child </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>bavshv-</i> (child)</td> <td><i>-eb</i></td> <td>-<i>s<b>a</b></i> (dative)</td> <td><i>-vit</i></td> <td><i>bavshvebisavit</i></td> <td>like children </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Sakartvelo-</i> (Georgia)</td> <td>–</td> <td>-<i>s</i> (dative)</td> <td><i>-shi</i> (drops case suffix)</td> <td><i>Sakartveloshi</i></td> <td>to Georgia, in Georgia </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>xval-</i> (tomorrow)</td> <td>–</td> <td>-<i>ad</i> (adverbial)</td> <td><i>-mde</i> (drops <i>d</i>)</td> <td><i>xvalamde</i></td> <td>up to (until) tomorrow </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Verbal_system">Verbal system</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Verbal system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Georgian_verb_paradigm" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian verb paradigm">Georgian verb paradigm</a></div> <p>The Georgian verbal system is extremely complex, especially when compared to those of most Indo-European languages. Rather than using the terms "tense", "aspect", "mood", etc. separately, linguists prefer to use the term "<a href="/wiki/Screeve" title="Screeve">screeve</a>" to distinguish between different time frames and moods of the verbal system. A screeve is a set of six verb forms inflected for person and number. </p><p>Verbs are traditionally divided into four classes: <a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">transitive verbs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">intransitive verbs</a>, verbs with no transitive counterparts (medial verbs) and indirect verbs. There are numerous <a href="/wiki/Irregular_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Irregular verb">irregular verbs</a> in Georgian, but they all belong to one of these classes. Each class uses different strategies to build the verb complex, with irregular verbs employing somewhat different formations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_classes">Verb classes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Verb classes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transitive_verbs_(Class_1_verbs)"><span id="Transitive_verbs_.28Class_1_verbs.29"></span>Transitive verbs (Class 1 verbs)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Transitive verbs (Class 1 verbs)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Class 1 verbs generally have a subject and a direct object. Some examples are "eat", "kill" and "receive". This class also includes <a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">causatives</a> (the equivalent of "make someone do something") and the causative verbal form of adjectives (for example, "make someone deaf"). </p><p>There are a few verbs in Class 3 that behave like transitive verbs of Class 1 in terms of their conjugations, such as <i>sneeze</i> and <i>cough</i> (see below). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intransitive_verbs_(Class_2_verbs)"><span id="Intransitive_verbs_.28Class_2_verbs.29"></span>Intransitive verbs (Class 2 verbs)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Intransitive verbs (Class 2 verbs)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Intransitive verbs only have a subject and no direct object (though a few govern an indirect object marked simply with the dative case). Most verbs in this class have a subject that does not perform or control the action of the verb (for example, "die", "happen"). The passive voice of Class 1 transitive verbs belong in this class too, for example "be eaten", "be killed" and "be received". In addition, the verbal form of adjectives also have their intransitive counterparts: the intransitive verb for the adjective "deaf" is "to become deaf". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medial_verbs_(Class_3_verbs)"><span id="Medial_verbs_.28Class_3_verbs.29"></span>Medial verbs (Class 3 verbs)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Medial verbs (Class 3 verbs)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verbs in Class 3 are usually intransitive verbs, but unlike Class 2 verbs, they mark their subject using the ergative case. Most verbs of motion (such as "swim" and "roll") and verbs about weather (such as "rain" and "snow") belong to this class. Although these verbs are described as not having transitive counterparts (such as "cry"), some of them still have direct objects, such as "learn" and "study". Verbs that are derived from <a href="/wiki/Loan_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Loan words">loan words</a> also belong to this class. </p><p>The intransitive verbs in Classes 2 and 3, when taken together, seem to be conjugated differently based on a form of <i>active alignment</i> (see the section on <a href="#Morphosyntactic_alignment">morphosyntactic alignment</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indirect_verbs_(Class_4_verbs)"><span id="Indirect_verbs_.28Class_4_verbs.29"></span>Indirect verbs (Class 4 verbs)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Indirect verbs (Class 4 verbs)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verbs that convey the meaning of emotion and prolonged state belong to this class. The verbs "want" and "can" also belong to this class. Other common examples of Class 4 verbs are "sleep", "miss", "envy" and "believe". These verbs typically mark the subject with the dative and the object with the nominative. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stative_verbs">Stative verbs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Stative verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stative verbs do not constitute a class <i>per se</i>, but rather refer to a state, and their conjugations are very similar to those of indirect verbs. For example, when one says, "the picture is hanging on the wall", the equivalent of "hang" is a stative verb.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Irregular_verbs">Irregular verbs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Irregular verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are numerous irregular verbs in Georgian; most of them employ the conjugation system of Class 2 intransitive verbs. Irregular verbs use different <a href="/wiki/Stem_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem (linguistics)">stems</a> in different screeves, and their conjugations deviate from the conjugations of regular intransitive verbs. Some irregular verbs are: "be", "come", "say", "tell" and "give". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Screeves">Screeves</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Screeves"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are three series of <i><a href="/wiki/Screeve" title="Screeve">screeves</a></i> in Georgian: first, second and third series. The first series has two subseries, which are called the present and the future subseries. The second series is also called the <a href="/wiki/Aorist" title="Aorist">aorist</a> series, and the third series is called the <a href="/wiki/Perfective" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfective">perfective</a> series. There are a total of eleven screeves. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Series<br />No. </th> <th>Series/<br />Subseries </th> <th>Indicative </th> <th>Past </th> <th>Subjunctive </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">I </th> <th>Present </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Present_indicative" class="mw-redirect" title="Present indicative">Present indicative</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Imperfect" title="Imperfect">Imperfect</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Present_subjunctive" class="mw-redirect" title="Present subjunctive">Present subjunctive</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Future </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Future" title="Future">Future</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">Conditional</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Future_subjunctive" class="mw-redirect" title="Future subjunctive">Future subjunctive</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>II</th> <th>Aorist </th> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aorist" title="Aorist">Aorist</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Optative_mood" title="Optative mood">Optative</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>III</th> <th>Perfective </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Present_perfect" title="Present perfect">Present perfect</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pluperfect" title="Pluperfect">Pluperfect</a></td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Perfect_subjunctive&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Perfect subjunctive (page does not exist)">Perfect subjunctive</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>present indicative</b> is used to express an event at the time of speaking ("S/he is <i>verb</i>ing"). It is also used to indicate an event that happens habitually ("S/he <i>verb</i>s"). </p><p>The <b>imperfect</b> screeve is used to express an incomplete or continuous action in the past ("S/he was <i>verb</i>ing"). It is also used to indicate a habitual past action (i.e. "S/he (regularly/often/sometimes) <i>verb</i>ed", "S/he would <i>verb</i>", "S/he <i>used to verb</i>"). </p><p>The <b>present subjunctive</b> screeve is used to express an unlikely event in the present and is usually used as a relative clause ("That s/he <i>be verb</i>ing"). </p><p>The <b>future</b> screeve is used to express an event that will take place in the future ("S/he <i>will verb</i>"). </p><p>The <b>conditional</b> screeve is used together with <i>if</i> ("S/he <i>would verb</i> or "S/he <i>would have verb</i>ed"). </p><p>The <b>future subjunctive</b> screeve is used to express an unlikely event in the future and is usually used as a <a href="/wiki/Dependent_clause" title="Dependent clause">dependent clause</a>. </p><p>The <b>aorist</b> screeve is used to indicate an action that took place in the past ("S/he <i>verb</i>ed"). It is also used in imperatives (<i>Verb</i>!). </p><p>The <b>optative</b> screeve has many uses: </p> <ul><li>In negative imperatives ("Do not <i>verb</i>!").</li> <li>In obligations ("S/he must <i>verb</i>").</li> <li>In hypothetical conditions ("If s/he <i>verb</i>ed (optative), X would happen (conditional)").</li> <li>In exhortations ("Let's <i>verb</i>").</li></ul> <p>The <b>present perfect</b> screeve is used to indicate an action, which the speaker did not witness ("S/he has <i>verb</i>ed"). </p><p>The <b>pluperfect</b> screeve is used to indicate an action which happened before another event ("S/he had <i>verb</i>ed"). </p><p>The <b>perfect subjunctive</b> screeve is mostly for wishes ("May s/he <i>verb</i>!"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_components">Verb components</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Verb components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Georgian is an <a href="/wiki/Agglutinating_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Agglutinating language">agglutinating language</a>. Agglutination means that affixes each express a single meaning, and they usually do not merge with each other or affect each other phonologically. Each verb screeve is formed by adding a number of prefixes and suffixes to the verb stem. Certain affix categories are limited to certain screeves. In a given screeve, not all possible markers are obligatory. The components of a Georgian verb form occur in the following order:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table style="margin-top: 2ex" class="wikitable"> <caption>Georgian verb template </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Preverb" title="Preverb">preverb</a> </th> <th>prefixal person marker </th> <th>version marker </th> <th>VERB ROOT </th> <th>passive marker </th> <th>{thematic suffix} </th> <th>causative marker </th> <th>imperfective marker </th> <th>Mood/row marker </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliary verb</a> </th> <th>suffixal person marker </th> <th>plural marker </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Preverb">Preverb</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Preverb"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Preverbs can add either directionality or an arbitrary meaning to the verb. To this extent they resemble the derivational prefixes of Slavic verbs. For example, while <i><b>mi</b>-vdivar</i> means "I am going", <i><b>mo</b>-vdivar</i> means "I am coming". Preverbs appear in the future, past and perfective screeves; they are generally absent in the present screeves. Preverbs indicating direction and orientation:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Georgian </th> <th>Romanization </th> <th>Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td>მი- </td> <td>mi- </td> <td>away from the speaker/addressee </td></tr> <tr> <td>მო- </td> <td>mo- </td> <td>towards the speaker/addressee </td></tr> <tr> <td>მიმო- </td> <td>mimo- </td> <td>back and forward </td></tr> <tr> <td>ა- / ამო- </td> <td>a- / amo- </td> <td>upwards </td></tr> <tr> <td>ჩა- / ჩამო- </td> <td>ča- / čamo- </td> <td>downwards; sometimes also inwards </td></tr> <tr> <td>შე- / შემო- </td> <td>še- / šemo- </td> <td>inwards; შემო-: also by accident and around something/somebody </td></tr> <tr> <td>გა- / გამო- </td> <td>ga- / gamo- </td> <td>outwards </td></tr> <tr> <td>წა- / წამო- </td> <td>c̣a- / c̣amo- </td> <td>away from something/somebody </td></tr> <tr> <td>გადა- / გადმო- </td> <td>gada- / gadmo- </td> <td>overcoming, across </td></tr> <tr> <td>და- / (დამო-) </td> <td>da- / (damo-) </td> <td><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/habitual#English:_grammar" class="extiw" title="wikt:habitual">habitual</a> or downwards; დამო- is a relict in modern Georgian </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verb_personality">Verb personality</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Verb personality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One, two or three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">grammatical persons</a> can be indicated in the Georgian verb. The performer of an action is called the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> or the agent, and affected persons are patients or objects (indirect or direct). The category of number (singular or plural) is also indicated. </p><p>To indicate subjects and objects the special markers are used, which are listed in the following tables. </p> <table style="text-align: center" class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">  </th> <th colspan="2"><i>Subject markers</i> </th></tr> <tr> <th><b>Singular</b> </th> <th><b>Plural</b> </th></tr> <tr> <th><b>S1</b> </th> <td>v- </td> <td>v-...-t </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>S2</b> </th> <td>h-/s-/∅- </td> <td>h-/s-/∅-...-t </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>S3</b> </th> <td>∅-...-s/-a/-o </td> <td>∅-...-en (-nen)/-an/-n/-es </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">  </th> <th colspan="2"><i>Object markers</i> </th></tr> <tr> <th><b>Singular</b> </th> <th><b>Plural</b> </th></tr> <tr> <th><b>O1</b> </th> <td>m- </td> <td>gv- </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>O2</b> </th> <td>g- </td> <td>g-...-t </td></tr> <tr> <th><b>O3</b> </th> <td>h-/s-/∅- </td> <td>h-/s-/∅...-t </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>S2</b> and <b>O3</b> marker <i>h-</i> evolved from earlier <i>x-,</i> which was first attested in the 5th century. </p><p>The <i>h</i> variant appears for the first time in the Tsqisi (წყისი) inscription (616–619 y.y.) and from the second half of the 8th century it becomes predominant. From the 9th century the <i>h → s</i> transformation is documented before the dental stops (<i>d, ṭ, t</i>) and affricates (<i>ʒ, ċ, c, ǯ, č', č</i>). </p><p>In Modern Georgian before vowels the <i>h-</i> marker vanishes. </p><p>In general, in Modern Georgian the S2 and O3 <i>h-/s-</i> prefixes have a tendency to fade away. </p><p>The oldest <b>S2</b> <i>x-</i> is preserved with three verbal stems: </p> <ul><li><i>ar</i> "to be" → <i>xar</i> "you are"</li> <li><i>ved/vid</i> "to come/go" → <i>mo-x-ved-i</i> "you came", mo-x-vid-odi "you would come"</li> <li><i>val</i> "to come/go" → <i>mo-x-val</i> "you will come"</li></ul> <p>Here is presented subject markers' usage example: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>verb root -<i>ts'er</i>, 'to write' </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>1st person </th> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>v</b>-ts'er</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>v</b>-ts'er</p><p style="clear: left;">I am writing</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>v</b>-ts'er-<b>t</b></p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>v</b>-ts'er-<b>t</b></p><p style="clear: left;">We are writing</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd person </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ts'er</p></div><p style="display: none;">ts'er</p><p style="clear: left;">You (sing) are writing</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ts'er-<b>t</b></p></div><p style="display: none;">ts'er-<b>t</b></p><p style="clear: left;">You (plu) are writing</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd person </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ts'er-<b>s</b></p></div><p style="display: none;">ts'er-<b>s</b></p><p style="clear: left;">S/he is writing</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ts'er-<b>en</b></p></div><p style="display: none;">ts'er-<b>en</b></p><p style="clear: left;">They are writing</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the case of <i>v-ts'er-<b>t</b></i>, <i>ts'er-<b>t</b></i>, and <i>ts'er-<b>en</b></i>, the -<i><b>t</b></i> and -<i><b>en</b></i> are the subject plurality markers. </p><p>Here is presented object markers' usage example" </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>verb root <i>nd</i>- 'to want': </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>1st person </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>m</b>-i-nd-a</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>m</b>-i-nd-a</p><p style="clear: left;">I want</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>gv</b>-i-nd-a</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>gv</b>-i-nd-a</p><p style="clear: left;">We want</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd person </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>g</b>-i-nd-a</p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>g</b>-i-nd-a</p><p style="clear: left;">You (sing) want</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><b>g</b>-i-nd-a-<b>t</b></p></div><p style="display: none;"><b>g</b>-i-nd-a-<b>t</b></p><p style="clear: left;">You (plu) want</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd person </th> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">u-nd-a</p></div><p style="display: none;">u-nd-a</p><p style="clear: left;">S/he wants</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">u-nd-a-<b>t</b></p></div><p style="display: none;">u-nd-a-<b>t</b></p><p style="clear: left;">They want</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the case of <i>g-i-nd-a-<b>t</b></i> and <i>u-nd-a-<b>t</b></i>, the -<i><b>t</b></i> is the plural marker. </p><p>Georgian's <a href="/wiki/Polypersonalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Polypersonalism">polypersonalism</a> allows the involvement of as many as three action participants to be expressed unambiguously within a single word. For example, while it takes at least four words to say "I wrote them it" in English ("I" being the subject, "it" being the direct object, "them" being the indirect object), in Georgian this can be said in one word: <i>davuts'ere</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Version_marker">Version marker</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Version marker"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Right after the nominal marker can come a "version" marker. Phonologically, version markers consist of any one of the vowels except for /o/. Version markers are semantically diverse. They can add either an unpredictable lexical meaning to the verb, or a functional meaning including causativity, passive voice, subjective version, objective version and locative version. For example, while <i>v-ts'er</i> means "I write it", <i>v-<b>u</b>-ts'er</i> means "I write it to him/her" (objective version), <i>v-<b>a</b>-ts'er</i> means "I write it on him/her" (locative version), and <i>v-<b>i</b>-ts'er</i> means "I write it (for myself)" (subjective version).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verb_root">Verb root</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Verb root"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The length of the verb root typically ranges from one to seven phonemes, with the longest root consisting of 15. Some consist of consonants only. The common root of the verbs meaning 'open', 'receive', 'take', and 'take a picture' is <i>-<b>gh</b>-</i>. "Lexical derivation" (or "word formation") is accomplished through the use of preverbs, version markers, and thematic suffixes. Some derivations of <i>-gh-</i> are seen in the sentences <i><b>mi</b>-v-<b>i</b>-gh-<b>e</b> ts'erili</i>, 'I received the letter' and <i><b>ga-a-</b>gh-eb k'ars</i>, 'you will open the door' (derivational affixes are bolded). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Passive_marker">Passive marker</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Passive marker"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Georgian, two morphological means of converting a transitive verb to an intransitive verb (or to passive voice) are to add -<i>d</i>- to the end of the verb root or to add the version marker -<i>i</i>- (see the discussion of version markers elsewhere in this article). Respective examples: <i>ga-a-ts'itl-e</i>, 'you made him blush' ( -<i>ts'itl</i>- is the root of <i>ts'iteli</i>, 'red') > <i>ga-ts'itl-<b>d</b>-i</i>, 'you blushed'; class 2 verb <i>da-v-bad-eb</i>, 'I will give birth to him/her', > <i>da-v-<b>i</b>-bad-eb-i</i>, 'I will be born' (the -<i>i</i>- at the end of the verb is the suffixal nominal marker obligatory with intransitive verbs (see below)). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Thematic_suffix">Thematic suffix</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Thematic suffix"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The language has eight kinds of thematic suffixes (also sometimes known as <b>present-future stem formants</b> or <b>PFSF</b>). The suffixes are <i>-eb-, -ev-</i>, <i>-av-</i>, <i>-am-</i>, <i>-i-</i>, <i>-ob-</i>, <i>-op-</i>, and <i>-∅-.</i> When the suffixal passive marker is absent, one of these suffixes can be placed right after the root of the verb. With these suffixes the verbs gain arbitrary meanings. Thematic suffixes are present in the present and future screeves, but are absent in the past and mostly absent in the perfective screeves. For example, the root of the verb "build" is -<i>shen</i>-. In order to say "I am building", we have to add the thematic suffix -<i>eb</i>- to the end of the root: <i>v-a-shen-<b>eb</b></i> (<i>v</i>- meaning that the doer is the first person (<i>v</i>- set nominal marker), <i>a</i> is the versioner, <i>shen</i> is the root, and <i>eb</i> is the thematic suffix). To say "he/she is building", we simply add the suffixal nominal marker -<i>s</i> after the thematic suffix: <i>a-shen-eb-<b>s</b></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Causative_marker">Causative marker</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Causative marker"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In English, causativity is predominantly expressed syntactically, by the phrase, 'make someone <i>verb'</i>, whereas in Georgian it is expressed morphologically. The causative marker obligatorily cooccurs with the version marker <i>-a-</i>. There is no single causative marker in Georgian. To ditransitivize an already transitive verb, one uses <i>in-eb</i> or rarely <i>ev</i>: <b>ch'am</b>, 'you eat' > <i><b>a</b>-ch'<b>∅</b>m-<b>ev</b></i>, 'you make him eat / You are feeding him', with the syncope of the root. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Imperfective_marker">Imperfective marker</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Imperfective marker"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This marker (-<i>d</i>- for class 1 verbs, <i>-od</i>- for class 2 verbs) are used to build the imperfective, present and future subjunctive and conditional screeves: <i>v-a-shen-eb</i>, 'I am building' > <i>v-a-shen-eb-<b>d</b>-i</i>, 'I was building" (the additional -<i>i</i>- at the end of the verb is the suffixal nominal marker); <i>v-ts'er</i>, 'I am writing' > <i>v-ts'er-<b>d</b>-i</i>, 'I was writing' (as the verb "write" does not have a thematic suffix, the imperfective marker is added right after the verb root). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Suffixal_nominal_marker">Suffixal nominal marker</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Suffixal nominal marker"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The transitive verbs (which employ the <i>v</i>- set) use the suffixal nominal marker -<i>s</i>- (as in <i>a-shen-eb-<b>s</b></i>, <i>ts'er-<b>s</b></i>) for the third person singular in present and future screeves. Intransitive verbs, the past and perfective screeves of the transitive and medial verbs, and indirect verbs, employ sets of vowels: in the indicative, <i>i</i> (strong) or <i>e</i> (weak) for the first/second person, <i>o</i> or <i>a</i> for the third person; in the subjunctive, the suffixal nominal marker is the same for all persons, generally <i>e</i> or <i>o</i> or, less frequently, <i>a</i>.  The aorist intransitive form <i>avashene</i>, 'I built', has the structure, <i><b>a</b>-v-a-shen-<b>∅</b>-<b>e</b></i>, characterized by preverb <i>-a-</i> and weak suffixal nominal marker <i>-e-</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Auxiliary_verb">Auxiliary verb</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Auxiliary verb"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The auxiliary verb is only used in the present indicative and perfective screeves of indirect verbs and in the perfective screeve of transitive verbs when the direct object is first or second person(s) (these are situations, where the <i>m</i>- set is used for the subject of the verb, and, therefore, <i>v</i>- set is used to indicate the direct object). The auxiliary verb is the same verb as <i>to be</i> in present screeve. The verb <i>to be</i> for the singular persons are: <i>Me <b>var</b></i> ("<i>I <b>am</b></i>"), <i>Shen <b>xar</b></i> ("<i>You <b>are</b></i>") and <i>Is <b>aris/ars</b> (as an auxiliary verb shortened version <b>a</b> is used)</i> ("he/she/it <b>is</b>"). For example, <i>miq'var<b>s</b></i> means "I love him/her" (the <i><b>s</b></i> at the end of the verb indicating that it is the third person whom the speaker loves). In order to say "I love you", the <i><b>s</b></i> at the end has to be replaced with <i><b>xar</b></i> (as, now, the direct object is the second person): <i>miq'var-<b>xar</b></i> ("I love you"), <i>mq'varebi-<b>a</b></i> ("I have loved him/her"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plural_marker">Plural marker</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Plural marker"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Depending on which set of nominal markers is employed, the appropriate plural suffix is added. It can refer to either subject or object. An example of referring to objects would be <i>miq'var-xar-<b>t</b></i> ("I love you (plural)") and miq'var-a-<b>n</b>' ("I love them"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Auxiliary_verbs">Auxiliary verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Auxiliary verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to the possible auxiliary verb in the verb complex, there are also separate ones. Just as in English, Georgian language has the auxiliary verbs, such as <i>want</i>, <i>must (have to)</i> and <i>can</i>. </p> <ul><li>The verb <i>ndoma</i> ("to want") is conjugated just like any other class 4 verbs. In order to say, "to want <i>to do something</i>", one can use either the infinitive form of the verb (<i>masdari</i>) or the optative screeve.</li> <li>The verb <i>unda</i> ("must") is not conjugated. However, just like the verb <i>want</i>, it uses the optative screeve in "must <i>do something</i>." In order to say "had to," one, again, uses the same word <i>unda</i>, but with the pluperfect screeve.</li> <li>The verb <i>shedzleba</i> ("can") is a class 4 verb, and thus conjugated accordingly. Just like the verb <i>want</i>, it uses either the optative screeve or the infinitive form of the verb. In order to say "will be able to" and "could," the future and the aorist screeves are used respectively. The negation of "can" in Georgian is established with a special negation particle <i><b>ver</b></i> which, when used, contains the meaning "cannot," and, thus, the verb <i>shedzleba</i> is not used with it (see the negation section of Syntax for more details).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word_order">Word order</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Word order"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Word order in Georgian is not very strict. One common sentence structure features the sequence <i>subject – indirect object – direct object – verb</i>. For example, the sentence "I am writing a letter to my mother" can be expressed as follows (the glosses use the abbreviations NOM = nominative case, DAT = dative case, PRES = present screeve): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ka-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">Me</p><p style="margin: 0px;">I‍-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="nominative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NOM</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ka-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">dedas</p><p style="margin: 0px;">my mother-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ka-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ts'erils</p><p style="margin: 0px;">letter-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="dative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">DAT</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="ka-Latn" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">vts'er.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">write-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="present tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PRES</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">Me dedas ts'erils vts'er.</p><p style="display: none;">I‍-NOM {my mother-DAT} letter-DAT write-PRES</p><p class="mw-empty-elt"></p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>This sentence could also occur with the constituent order <i>subject – verb – direct object – indirect object</i>. Since the verb encodes information about all these arguments, any of them can always be dropped (see <a href="/wiki/Pro-drop_language" title="Pro-drop language">pro-drop</a>, <a href="/wiki/Null_subject_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Null subject language">null subject</a>). It is not uncommon for pronoun arguments to be dropped. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Questions">Questions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Questions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Yes/No_questions"><span id="Yes.2FNo_questions"></span>Yes/No questions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Yes/No questions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The only way in which an utterance is marked as a <a href="/wiki/Yes%E2%80%93no_question" title="Yes–no question">yes–no question</a> is by altering the intonation of a statement sentence: the pitch rises towards the end of the sentence. For example: </p> <dl><dd><i>Chemtan ertad moxval</i>, 'you will come with me'</dd> <dd><i>Chemtan ertad moxval?</i>, 'will you come with me?'</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tag_questions">Tag questions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Tag questions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Those <a href="/wiki/Tag_question" title="Tag question">tag questions</a> which expect an affirmative answer may employ the particle <i>xom</i> in second position within the sentence. Comparing statement, yes/no question, and tag question expecting an affirmative answer: </p> <dl><dd><i>Dghes k'argi amindia</i>, 'The weather is good today'</dd> <dd><i>Dghes k'argi amindia?</i>, 'is the weather good today?'</dd> <dd><i>Dghes xom k'argi amindia?</i>, 'the weather is good today, isn't it?'</dd></dl> <p>These sentences contain an <i>-a</i> suffixed to the word <i>amindi</i> 'weather'. It is a reduced form of the verb <i>aris</i>, 'is'. The tag question in Georgian does not include any of the three recognized negative particles (see subsection, "Negation"); the particle <i>xom</i> by itself conveys the meaning. However, if the answer expected is negative, then a negative particle and the full form <i>aris</i> are added right after <i>xom</i>: </p> <dl><dd><i>Dghes xom <b>ar aris</b> k'argi amindi?</i>, 'the weather is <b>not</b> good today, <b>is it</b>?'</dd></dl> <p>There is a particle, <i>tu</i>, which can be used to make a question more polite. The particle <i>tu</i> has many meanings in Georgian; in this context it cannot be exactly translated to English. Compare: </p> <dl><dd><i>Chai ginda?</i>, 'do you want some tea?'</dd> <dd><i>Chai tu ginda?</i>, 'would you like some tea?'</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interrogatives">Interrogatives</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Interrogatives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Interrogative adjectives and interrogative pronouns are declined differently. An example of an interrogative adjective in English is <i>which</i>, as in "<i>which</i> city do you like the most?", while an example of an interrogative pronoun <i>which</i> is in the sentence "<i>which</i> (one) will you take?". </p><p>Interrogative pronouns in questions have a strict word order: they appear immediately pre-verbally.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example: </p> <dl><dd><i><b>sad</b> ts'avida nino?</i></dd> <dd><b>where</b> went Nino</dd> <dd>'Where did Nino go?'</dd></dl> <p>Some interrogative pronouns in Georgian are: </p> <table style="margin: 3ex" class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Georgian</th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>ra</i></td> <td>what? </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>vin</i></td> <td>who? </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ramdeni</i></td> <td>how much (many) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>romeli</i></td> <td>which </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>rogor</i></td> <td>how </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>rat'om</i></td> <td>why </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ristvis</i></td> <td>what for </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>sad</i></td> <td>where </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>rodis</i></td> <td>when </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negation">Negation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Negation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are three kinds of negation particles in Georgian: <i>ar</i>, 'not', <i>ver</i>, 'cannot', and <i>nu</i>, 'do not!. <i>Ar</i> is the chief one. <i>Ver</i> is only used to indicate that the grammatical subject of the sentence is not able to carry out an action. <i>Nu</i> is only used when giving negative commands. Examples: </p> <dl><dd><i>Tsasvla <b>ar</b> minda</i>, 'I do not want to go'</dd> <dd><i><b>Ver</b> movedi</i>, 'I could not come'</dd> <dd><i><b>Nu</b> nerviulob!</i>, 'don't worry!'</dd></dl> <p>These three particles can be modified with the suffix <i>-ghar</i>, to create particles meaning 'no longer, no more': </p> <dl><dd><i>ar</i>, 'not' → <i>aghar</i>, 'no longer, not anymore'</dd> <dd><i>ver</i>, 'cannot' → <i>veghar</i>, 'can no longer, cannot anymore'</dd> <dd><i>nu</i>, 'do not' → <i>nughar</i>, 'do no longer, do not anymore'</dd></dl> <p>Examples of the use of these derived negative words: </p> <dl><dd><i>Pexburts <b>aghar</b> vtamashob</i>, 'I do not play football anymore'</dd> <dd><i><b>Veghar</b> vch'am</i>, 'I cannot eat anymore'</dd> <dd><i><b>Nughar</b> iparav!</i>, 'do not steal anymore!'</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_verb_paradigm" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian verb paradigm">Georgian verb paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polypersonal_agreement" title="Polypersonal agreement">Polypersonal agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">Agglutinative language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active%E2%80%93stative_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Active–stative language">Active–stative language</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHarris1985" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Alice C. 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Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Georgian+morphosyntax.+A+grammatico-categorial+hierarchy-based+analysis+with+special+reference+to+indirect+verbs+and+passives+of+state&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Cherchi&rft.aufirst=Marcello&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorgian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakharoblidze2018" class="citation journal cs1">Makharoblidze, Tamar (2018-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/opli-2018-0009/html">"On Georgian Preverbs"</a>. <i>Open Linguistics</i>. <b>4</b> (1): 163–183. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fopli-2018-0009">10.1515/opli-2018-0009</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2300-9969">2300-9969</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Open+Linguistics&rft.atitle=On+Georgian+Preverbs&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=163-183&rft.date=2018-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fopli-2018-0009&rft.issn=2300-9969&rft.aulast=Makharoblidze&rft.aufirst=Tamar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2Fopli-2018-0009%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorgian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoeder2002" class="citation book cs1">Boeder, Winfried (2002). "Syntax and morphology of polysynthesis in the Georgian verb". In Evans, Nicholas; Sasse, Hans-Jürgen (eds.). <i>Problems of polysynthesis</i>. Berlin: Academic. pp. 87–111.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Syntax+and+morphology+of+polysynthesis+in+the+Georgian+verb&rft.btitle=Problems+of+polysynthesis&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=87-111&rft.pub=Academic&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Boeder&rft.aufirst=Winfried&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorgian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoeder1968" class="citation journal cs1">Boeder, Winfried (1968). "Über die Versionen des georgischen Verbs". <i>Folia Linguistica</i>. <b>2</b> (1–2): 82–151. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fflin.1968.2.1-2.82">10.1515/flin.1968.2.1-2.82</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144756280">144756280</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Folia+Linguistica&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+Versionen+des+georgischen+Verbs&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=82-151&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fflin.1968.2.1-2.82&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144756280%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Boeder&rft.aufirst=Winfried&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorgian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1981" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Alice C. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7173193"><i>Georgian syntax : a study in relational grammar</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-23584-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-23584-7"><bdi>0-521-23584-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7173193">7173193</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georgian+syntax+%3A+a+study+in+relational+grammar&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7173193&rft.isbn=0-521-23584-7&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Alice+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F7173193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorgian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li>Aronson, Howard I. 1990. <i>Georgian : a reading grammar</i>. Corrected edition. Columbus, Ohio: Slavica Publishers.</li> <li>Harris, Alice C. & Smeets, Rieks (eds.) 1996. <i>The languages of the Caucasus : indigenous languages and their speakers</i>. Edinburgh University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewitt1995" class="citation book cs1">Hewitt, B. G. (1995). <i>Georgian: a structural reference grammar</i>. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georgian%3A+a+structural+reference+grammar&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Hewitt&rft.aufirst=B.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorgian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHewitt1996" class="citation book cs1">Hewitt, B. G. (1996). <i>Georgian: a Learner's Grammar</i>. London: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georgian%3A+a+Learner%27s+Grammar&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Hewitt&rft.aufirst=B.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorgian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiziria2009" class="citation book cs1">Kiziria, Dodona (2009). <i>Beginner's Georgian with 2 Audio CDs</i>. New York: Hippocrene. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7818-1230-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7818-1230-6"><bdi>978-0-7818-1230-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beginner%27s+Georgian+with+2+Audio+CDs&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Hippocrene&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7818-1230-6&rft.aulast=Kiziria&rft.aufirst=Dodona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorgian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraveishvili1972" class="citation book cs1">Kraveishvili, M. & Nakhutsrishvili, G. (1972). <i>Teach Yourself Georgian for English Speaking Georgians</i>. Tbilisi: The Georgian Society for Cultural Relations with Compatriots Abroad.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teach+Yourself+Georgian+for+English+Speaking+Georgians&rft.place=Tbilisi&rft.pub=The+Georgian+Society+for+Cultural+Relations+with+Compatriots+Abroad&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Kraveishvili&rft.aufirst=M.+%26+Nakhutsrishvili%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorgian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li>Kurtsikidze, Shorena. 2006. <i>Essentials of Georgian Grammar With Conjugation Tables of 250 Most Commonly Used Verbs</i>. Lincom Europa.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kita_Tschenk%C3%A9li" class="mw-redirect" title="Kita Tschenkéli">Tschenkéli, Kita</a>. 1958. <i>Einführung in die georgische Sprache</i>. 2 vols. Zürich: Amirani Verlag.</li> <li>Tschenkéli, Kita. 1965–1974. <i>Georgisch-Deutsch Wörterbuch</i>, 3 vols. Zürich: Amirani Verlag.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogt1971" class="citation book cs1">Vogt, Hans (1971). <i>Grammaire de la langue géorgienne</i>. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammaire+de+la+langue+g%C3%A9orgienne&rft.place=Oslo&rft.pub=Universitetsforlaget&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Vogt&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeorgian+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georgian_grammar&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lingua.ge/verbs-all/">Georgian Verb Conjugator</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seelrc.org:8080/grammar/pdf/stand_alone_georgian.pdf">Reference grammar of Georgian</a>, written by Howard Aronson (SEELRC, Duke University)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20150215152746/http://www.richw.org/armazi/georgian/">Online Georgian Grammar by P. J. Hillery</a> (mirror copy)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Georgian_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Georgian_language" title="Template:Georgian language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Georgian_language" title="Template talk:Georgian language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Georgian_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Georgian language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Georgian_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Grammar</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Georgian grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screeve" title="Screeve">Screeve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_conjugation" title="Georgian conjugation">Verb paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laz_grammar" title="Laz grammar">Laz grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelian_grammar" title="Mingrelian grammar">Mingrelian grammar</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98_XVII_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98_XVII_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94.jpg/160px-%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%AE%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98_XVII_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" 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/></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_scripts" title="Georgian scripts">Scripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Braille" title="Georgian Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_calligraphy" title="Georgian calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_keyboard" title="Georgian keyboard">Keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_numerals" title="Georgian numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Georgian" title="Romanization of Georgian">Romanization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Encoding</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Unicode <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_(Unicode_block)" title="Georgian (Unicode block)">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Supplement" title="Georgian Supplement">Georgian Supplement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Extended" title="Georgian Extended">Georgian Extended</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mac_OS_Georgian" title="Mac OS Georgian">Mac OS Georgian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Genealogy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Kartvelian_language" title="Proto-Kartvelian language">Proto-Kartvelian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Georgian%E2%80%93Zan_language" title="Proto-Georgian–Zan language">Proto-Georgian–Zan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svan_language" title="Svan language">Svan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karto-Zan_languages" title="Karto-Zan languages">Karto-Zan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zan_languages" title="Zan languages">Zan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laz_language" title="Laz language">Laz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelian_language" title="Mingrelian language">Mingrelian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Georgian" title="Old Georgian">Old Georgian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_dialects" title="Georgian dialects">Georgian dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjaran_dialect" title="Adjaran dialect">Adjaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Letters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ani_(letter)" title="Ani (letter)">Ani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bani_(letter)" title="Bani (letter)">Bani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gani_(letter)" title="Gani (letter)">Gani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doni_(letter)" title="Doni (letter)">Doni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eni_(letter)" title="Eni (letter)">Eni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vini_(letter)" title="Vini (letter)">Vini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeni_(letter)" title="Zeni (letter)">Zeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_(Georgian_letter)" title="He (Georgian letter)">He</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tani_(letter)" title="Tani (letter)">Tani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ini_(Georgian_letter)" title="Ini (Georgian letter)">Ini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27ani" title="K'ani">K'ani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasi_(letter)" title="Lasi (letter)">Lasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mani_(letter)" title="Mani (letter)">Mani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nari_(letter)" title="Nari (letter)">Nari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ie_(letter)" title="Ie (letter)">Ie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oni_(letter)" title="Oni (letter)">Oni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%27ari" title="P'ari">P'ari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhani" title="Zhani">Zhani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rae_(letter)" title="Rae (letter)">Rae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sani_(letter)" title="Sani (letter)">Sani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%27ari" title="T'ari">T'ari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vie_(letter)" title="Vie (letter)">Vie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uni_(letter)" title="Uni (letter)">Uni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pari_(letter)" title="Pari (letter)">Pari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kani_(letter)" title="Kani (letter)">Kani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghani_(letter)" title="Ghani (letter)">Ghani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q%27ari" title="Q'ari">Q'ari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shini" title="Shini">Shini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chini_(letter)" title="Chini (letter)">Chini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsani" title="Tsani">Tsani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzili" title="Dzili">Dzili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ts%27ili" title="Ts'ili">Ts'ili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%27ari" title="Ch'ari">Ch'ari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khani_(letter)" title="Khani (letter)">Khani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khari_(letter)" title="Khari (letter)">Khari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jani_(letter)" title="Jani (letter)">Jani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hae_(letter)" title="Hae (letter)">Hae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoe_(letter)" title="Hoe (letter)">Hoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fi_(letter)" title="Fi (letter)">Fi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Wikipedia" title="Georgian Wikipedia">Georgian Wikipedia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Grammars_of_the_world&#039;s_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_grammars" title="Template:Language grammars"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_grammars" title="Template talk:Language grammars"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_grammars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language grammars"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Grammars_of_the_world&#039;s_languages" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">Grammars</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_languages" title="Lists of languages">world's languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_phonologies" title="Template:Language phonologies">Phonologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_orthographies" title="Template:Language orthographies">Orthographies</a></li> <li><b>Grammars</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_adjectives" title="Template:Language adjectives">Adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_determiners" title="Template:Language determiners">Determiners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_nouns" title="Template:Language nouns">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_prepositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Language prepositions">Prepositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_pronouns" title="Template:Language pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_verbs" title="Template:Language verbs">Verbs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_grammar" title="Afrikaans grammar">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_grammar" title="Danish grammar">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_grammar" title="Dutch grammar">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English_grammar" title="Old English grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_grammar" title="Faroese grammar">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_grammar" title="German grammar">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_grammar" title="Icelandic grammar">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language#Grammar" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_morphology" title="Old Norse morphology">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_grammar" title="Colognian grammar">Ripuarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_grammar" title="Swedish grammar">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_grammar" title="West Frisian grammar">West Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_grammar" title="Yiddish grammar">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_grammar" title="Breton grammar">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_grammar" title="Cornish grammar">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_grammar" title="Irish grammar">Irish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish_grammar" title="Old Irish grammar">Old</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_grammar" title="Manx grammar">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_grammar" title="Scottish Gaelic grammar">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_grammar" title="Welsh grammar">Welsh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colloquial_Welsh_morphology" title="Colloquial Welsh morphology">colloquial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literary_Welsh_morphology" title="Literary Welsh morphology">literary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_grammar" title="Catalan grammar">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalmatian_grammar" title="Dalmatian grammar">Dalmatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_grammar" title="French grammar">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanian_grammar" title="Istro-Romanian grammar">Istro-Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_grammar" title="Italian grammar">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_grammar" title="Latin grammar">Latin</a></li> <li>Lombard <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Lombard_grammar" title="Eastern Lombard grammar">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Lombard_grammar" title="Western Lombard grammar">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_grammar" title="Portuguese grammar">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_grammar" title="Romanian grammar">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_grammar" title="Spanish grammar">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_grammar" title="Venetian grammar">Venetian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_grammar" title="Latvian grammar">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_grammar" title="Lithuanian grammar">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_grammar" title="Belarusian grammar">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_grammar" title="Bulgarian grammar">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_language#Grammar" title="Czech language">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_grammar" title="Macedonian grammar">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic_grammar" title="Old Church Slavonic grammar">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_grammar" title="Polish grammar">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_grammar" title="Russian grammar">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_grammar" title="Silesian grammar">Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_grammar" title="Serbo-Croatian grammar">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_language#Morphology" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_grammar" title="Slovene grammar">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovincian_grammar" title="Slovincian grammar">Slovincian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_grammar" title="Ukrainian grammar">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_grammar" title="Kurdish grammar">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_grammar" title="Pashto grammar">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_grammar" title="Persian grammar">Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_grammar" title="Tajik grammar">Tajik</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_grammar" title="Bengali grammar">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhojpuri_grammar" title="Bhojpuri grammar">Bhojpuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_grammar" title="Gujarati grammar">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_grammar" title="Hindustani grammar">Hindustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maithili_grammar" title="Maithili grammar">Maithili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_grammar" title="Marathi grammar">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepali_grammar" title="Nepali grammar">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_grammar" title="Odia grammar">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_grammar" title="Punjabi grammar">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_grammar" title="Sanskrit grammar">Sanskrit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit_grammar" title="Vedic Sanskrit grammar">Vedic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language#Grammar" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Greek_grammar" title="Modern Greek grammar">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_grammar" title="Ancient Greek grammar">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek_grammar" title="Koine Greek grammar">Koine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_grammar" title="Hittite grammar">Hittite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_grammar" title="Estonian grammar">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_grammar" title="Finnish grammar">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_grammar" title="Hungarian grammar">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingrian_grammar" title="Ingrian grammar">Ingrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komi_grammar" title="Komi grammar">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_grammar" title="Livonian grammar">Livonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_grammar" title="Udmurt grammar">Udmurt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Me%C3%A4nkieli_grammar" title="Meänkieli grammar">Meänkieli</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_language#Grammar" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_grammar" title="Turkish grammar">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_grammar" title="Turkmen grammar">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_grammar" title="Uyghur grammar">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language#Grammar" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_language#Grammar" title="Yakut language">Yakut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_language#Grammar" title="Abkhaz language">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_grammar" title="Adyghe grammar">Adyghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_grammar" title="Basque grammar">Basque</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabardian_grammar" title="Kabardian grammar">Kabardian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laz_grammar" title="Laz grammar">Laz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mingrelian_grammar" title="Mingrelian grammar">Mingrelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubykh_grammar" title="Ubykh grammar">Ubykh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Atlas_Tamazight_grammar" title="Central Atlas Tamazight grammar">Central Atlas Tamazight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_grammar" title="Modern Hebrew grammar">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hebrew_grammar" title="History of Hebrew grammar">Historical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabyle_grammar" title="Kabyle grammar">Kabyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_grammar" title="Levantine Arabic grammar">Levantine Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_grammar" title="Somali grammar">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_grammar" title="Tigrinya grammar">Tigrinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_grammar" title="Ugaritic grammar">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_language#Morphology" title="Fula language">Fula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pular_grammar" title="Pular grammar">Pular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otjiherero_grammar" title="Otjiherero grammar">Herero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesotho_grammar" title="Sesotho grammar">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swahili_grammar" title="Swahili grammar">Swahili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_grammar" title="Zulu grammar">Zulu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_grammar" title="Kannada grammar">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_grammar" title="Malayalam grammar">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_grammar" title="Tamil grammar">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_grammar" title="Telugu grammar">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_grammar" title="Japanese grammar">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Japanese_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Japanese grammar">Classical Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_language#Grammar" title="Okinawan language">Okinawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D_grammar" title="Hachijō grammar">Hachijō</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_grammar" title="Burmese grammar">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_grammar" title="Cantonese grammar">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese_grammar" title="Classical Chinese grammar">Classical Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_grammar" title="Dzongkha grammar">Dzongkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokborok_grammar" title="Kokborok grammar">Kokborok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_grammar" title="Chinese grammar">Mandarin Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizo_grammar" title="Mizo grammar">Mizo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Tibetan_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Standard Tibetan grammar">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_grammar" title="Khmer grammar">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_grammar" title="Vietnamese grammar">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Has_Hlai_grammar" title="Has Hlai grammar">Has Hlai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_grammar" title="Lao grammar">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_language#Grammar" title="Thai language">Thai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_grammar" title="Evenki grammar">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_grammar" title="Korean grammar">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language#Grammar" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cebuano_grammar" title="Cebuano grammar">Cebuano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_grammar" title="Hawaiian grammar">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilocano_grammar" title="Ilocano grammar">Ilocano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_grammar" title="Malay grammar">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_grammar" title="Tagalog grammar">Tagalog</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_grammar" title="Massachusett grammar">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munsee_grammar" title="Munsee grammar">Munsee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_grammar" title="Ojibwe grammar">Ojibwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl#Morphology_and_syntax" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Nahuatl_grammar" title="Classical Nahuatl grammar">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nawat_grammar" title="Nawat grammar">Nawat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language#Grammar" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_grammar" title="Inuit grammar">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miskito_grammar" title="Miskito grammar">Miskito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_grammar" title="Navajo grammar">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otomi_grammar" title="Otomi grammar">Otomi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language_grammar" title="American Sign Language grammar">American</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Artistic_language" title="Artistic language">artistic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Klingon_grammar" title="Klingon grammar">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%CA%BCvi_grammar" title="Naʼvi grammar">Naʼvi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quenya_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Quenya grammar">Quenya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_auxiliary_language" title="International auxiliary language">auxiliary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_grammar" title="Esperanto grammar">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingua_grammar" title="Interlingua grammar">Interlingua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlingue_grammar" title="Interlingue grammar">Interlingue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingua_Franca_Nova_grammar" title="Lingua Franca Nova grammar">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Constructed_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructed languages">constructed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lojban_grammar" title="Lojban grammar">Lojban</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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